from collections import defaultdict
from itertools import chain
import json
import ijson
import argparse
from collections import Counter
import random
from argparse import Namespace
from tqdm.notebook import tqdm
import torch
from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split
from transformers import GPT2Tokenizer
import sys
sys.path.insert(0,'..')
from utils import *
eli5_path = "/ssd003/projects/aieng/conversational_ai/data/Eli5"
wow_path = "/ssd003/projects/aieng/conversational_ai/data/Wizard_of_Wikipedia/"
tokenizer_path = "/ssd003/projects/aieng/conversational_ai/shirley_checkpoints/marco_dialogptmedium/"
with open(wow_path + "/wizard_of_wikipedia.json") as f:
wow_data = json.load(f)
wow_data = json.loads(wow_data)
eli5_cat[0].keys()
dict_keys(['id', 'input', 'answers_list', 'passages', 'title', 'selftext', 'category', 'subreddit', 'answers', 'title_urls', 'selftext_urls'])
cat_idx = 10
e = eli5_cat[cat_idx]
e['id']
'9535js'
e['input']
'why does throwing an extremely light object, for example a golf ball, strain the arm as opposed to a baseball that is relative in mass?'
e['answers_list']
["The same reason you should never dry fire a bow (shooting a bow without an arrow in place). If there is no arrow to transfer the energy of the pulled bowstring, all of that energy will go into the bow itself and can damage or shatter the bow.\n\nYour arm functions the same way as a bow: transfering energy into the ball (arrow). A lighter or smaller ball doesn't require as much energy to launch. If you perform your normal throw on the lighter ball, the excess energy not transferred to the ball will travel back through your arm and can strain it especially if you don't do a full follow-through to help release the energy."]
e['passages']
[{'wikipedia_id': '53002210',
'title': 'Bouncing ball',
'section': 'Section::::Forces during flight and effect on motion.:Gravity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 276,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Further refinements to the motion of the ball can be made by taking into account air resistance (and related effects such as drag and wind), the Magnus effect, and buoyancy. Because lighter balls accelerate more readily, their motion tends to be affected more by such forces.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24890169',
'title': 'Composite baseball bat',
'section': 'Section::::Advantages.:Swing weight.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 448,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The swing weight of a baseball bat deals with how heavy the bat "feels" when swinging. The swing weight is measured around a certain pivot point along the bat. Once a pivot point is determined (usually 6 inches for baseball bats) the bats balance point, total weight and the amount of time it takes for the bat to swing from side to side like a pendulum are used to determine its \'swing weight\', or as some refer to it, its mass moment of inertia.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41730913',
'title': 'Hitting mechanics',
'section': 'Section::::Hitting analysis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 901,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Hitters have a wide variation of swings, but in the end staying balanced and having stable posture is the most important aspect of hitting a baseball. If the hitter becomes unbalanced throughout the swing the chance of making solid contact with the baseball is very slim. Once balanced throughout the swing, bat speed comes into the next most important aspect of the baseball swing. The faster the bat speed, the faster the ball will come off the bat. Furthermore, researchers have long established that home run hits are dependant on swing speed. Most notably, one can logically assume that a faster swing will result in the ball traveling farther. A 3-6% increase in bat speed can significantly affect the distance a ball travels after contact in competition (7). In terms of simple physics and mathematics, the conservation of momentum (E1) and a kinematic equation (E2) also reinforces this idea.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24890169',
'title': 'Composite baseball bat',
'section': 'Section::::Advantages.:Vibration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 576,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Ball players often experience a "sting" in their hands caused by vibrations when the ball does not come in contact with the sweet spot of the bat. The frequency of these vibrations throughout the bat is related to the bending stiffness. Daniel A. Russell of Kettering University has shown that standard aluminum bats have a high bending stiffness that produces vibrational frequencies in the range where most hands are sensitive; therefore, causing more sting. He also has shown that composite materials can lower this bending stiffness without compromising other advantages.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '524402',
'title': 'Elston Howard',
'section': 'Section::::Legacy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 30,
'end_character': 527,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Howard is credited with inventing the batting "doughnut", a circular lead weight with a rubber shell used by batters in the on-deck circle by placing it around a bat to make it feel heavier, so that it will feel lighter at the plate and easier to swing. Its widespread use caused the discontinuation of the practice of hitters swinging multiple bats at the same time while waiting to hit. Howard helped two New Jersey entrepreneurs, Frank Hamilton and Vince Salvucci, to market the bat weight and lent his name to the product.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '144553',
'title': 'Projectile',
'section': 'Section::::Sport projectiles.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 335,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In projectile motion the most important force applied to the ‘projectile’ is the propelling force, in this case the propelling forces are the muscles that act upon the ball to make it move, and the stronger the force applied, the more propelling force, which means the projectile (the ball) will travel farther. See pitching, bowling.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1090018',
'title': "Newton's cradle",
'section': 'Section::::Physics explanation.:Heat and friction losses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 30,
'end_character': 743,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'This discussion has neglected energy losses from heat generated in the balls from non-perfect elasticity, friction in the strings, friction from air resistance, and sound generated from the clank of the vibrating balls. The energy losses are the reason the balls eventually come to a stop, but they are not the primary or initial cause of the action to become more disorderly, away from the ideal action of only one ball moving at any instant. The increase in the non-ideal action is caused by collisions that involve more than two balls at a time, effectively making the struck ball appear heavier. The size of the steel balls is limited because the collisions may exceed the elastic limit of the steel, deforming it and causing heat losses.\n',
'is_selected': 1}]
e['title']
'Why does throwing an extremely light object, for example a golf ball, strain the arm as opposed to a baseball that is relative in mass?'
e['category']
'Biology'
e['subreddit']
'explainlikeimfive'
e['answers']
["The same reason you should never dry fire a bow (shooting a bow without an arrow in place). If there is no arrow to transfer the energy of the pulled bowstring, all of that energy will go into the bow itself and can damage or shatter the bow.\n\nYour arm functions the same way as a bow: transfering energy into the ball (arrow). A lighter or smaller ball doesn't require as much energy to launch. If you perform your normal throw on the lighter ball, the excess energy not transferred to the ball will travel back through your arm and can strain it especially if you don't do a full follow-through to help release the energy."]
e['passages'][0]['text']
'Further refinements to the motion of the ball can be made by taking into account air resistance (and related effects such as drag and wind), the Magnus effect, and buoyancy. Because lighter balls accelerate more readily, their motion tends to be affected more by such forces.\n'
# Renaming some of keys
# Checking available categories
# MsMarco naming conventions
c = Counter()
cat_data = eli5_cat
for i in cat_data:
i['query_id'] = i.pop('id')
i['query'] = i.pop('input')
i['answers'] = i.pop('answers_list')
i['query_type'] = i['category']
i['wellFormedAnswers'] = []
for j in i['passages']:
j['passage_text'] = j.pop('text')
j.update({'is_selected':1})
c.update([i['category']])
print("Available categories:")
c
Available categories:
Counter({'Biology': 7829,
'Chemistry': 1662,
'Technology': 3751,
'Economics': 1644,
'Other': 4951,
'Physics': 2496,
'Mathematics': 431,
'Psychology': 79})
# Drop the 'Other' category from the list
cat_data = [i for i in cat_data if i['category'] != 'Other']
# sample record
cat_data
[{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '25294051',
'title': 'Franz Rautek',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 749,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Bring the victim into a sitting position, making sure that both legs are free. Approach him from behind, putting both your arms under his armpits. Both your hands then grab one of the lower arms of the victim with all fingers and the thumbs being placed on top of that lower arm and parallel to each other (so called monkey grip, ). This avoids injury to the ribs of the victim by the thumb of the rescuer. The victims arm should now be horizontal and pressed across his chest. Gently lifting the upper body of the victim by the grabbed arm and supporting him with your thigh, you can now drag him backwards. The victim contacts the ground with buttocks and legs, which are not "soft parts". If a second rescuer is available, he can carry the legs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11005224',
'title': 'Penetrating trauma',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 659,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Penetrating trauma is an injury that occurs when an object pierces the skin and enters a tissue of the body, creating an open wound. In blunt, or non-penetrating trauma, there may be an impact, but the skin is not necessarily broken. The penetrating object may remain in the tissues, come back out the way it entered, or pass through the tissues and exit from another area. An injury in which an object enters the body or a structure and passes all the way through is called a perforating injury, while "penetrating trauma" implies that the object does not pass through. Perforating trauma is associated with an entrance wound and an often larger exit wound.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '515534',
'title': 'Injury',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 246,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Injury, also known as physical trauma, is damage to the body caused by external force. This may be caused by accidents, falls, hits, weapons, and other causes. Major trauma is injury that has the potential to cause prolonged disability or death.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13877484',
'title': 'Conflict archaeology',
'section': 'Section::::A Case Study: The Bare Bones; body parts and conflict behavior.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 610,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Essentially our bodies act as physical manifestations of past conflicts. The physical effects that violence inflicts upon our bodies are allowed for the characterization of the surrounding conflict which was participated in. Our bodies tell us the human interaction enacted and the course of the conflict, whether one side was dominated in regards to another, based on physical evidence. As Callow states, "Permanent wounds such as scars or missing body parts convey messages about the success or failure of casing wounds to one another...and the military success of the individual who carries out such acts."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41121722',
'title': 'Spinal interneuron',
'section': 'Section::::Function.:Excitatory interneurons.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 1415,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'An important reflex initiated by cutaneous receptors and pain receptors is the flexor reflex. This reflex mechanism allows for quick withdrawal of the body parts, in this case a limb, from the harmful stimulus. The signal travels to the spinal cord and a response is initiated even before it travels up to the brain centers for a conscious decision to be made. The reflex circuit involves the activation of the Group III afferents of pain receptors due to a stimulus affecting the foot. These afferents enter the spinal cord and travel up to the lumbar region, where they synapse an excitatory interneuron. This interneuron excites the alpha motor neuron that causes contraction of the thigh flexor muscle. Also, Group III afferent travels up to L2 vertebra, where they branch onto another excitatory interneuron. This interneuron excites the alpha motor neurons, which then excite the hip flexor muscle. This synchronized communication allows for the removal of the whole leg from the painful stimulus. This is an example of the spinal cord circuitry coordinating movement at several joints simultaneously. In addition, during flexor reflex, when the knee joints and hip joints are flexed, the antagonist extensor muscles must be inhibited. This inhibitory effect is achieved when Group III afferents synapse inhibitory interneurons that in turn synapse the alpha motor neurons innervating the antagonists muscle.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44788205',
'title': 'Basic airway management',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Abdominal thrusts.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
'end_character': 272,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "A person may also perform abdominal thrusts on himself by using a fixed object such as a railing or the back of a chair to apply pressure where a rescuer's hands would normally do so. As with other forms of the procedure, it is possible that internal injuries may result.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10972528',
'title': 'Incident (Scientology)',
'section': 'Section::::"A History of Man" Incidents.:Bodies in pawn.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 386,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'They can apparently cause major problems for people undergoing medical operations, as "pain, an anaesthetic or a serious accident cause him to change to the other area with a shocking impact on the other body. The other body quite commonly dies or is deranged by the sudden impact". This gives the patient a repressed feeling of having died and leaves him "very, very badly disturbed".\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'We do we instinctively grab a part of our body after it is hurt?',
'selftext': 'I just tweaked my wrist and my immediate reaction was to grasp it. I have no idea if grabbing it actually does anything, but it seems to be a natural reaction for most people when a body part hurts. Why is that?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['A) instinct. To protect it from further damage (if the damaging agent is ongoing) or to prevent bleeding and such.\n\nB) pain. Our brain knows that pressure sensation blocks pain sensation from experience. So we reflexively grab the injury site because it alleviates the pain.\n\nEdit: English and clarity',
'So you have 2 different types of pressure sensors in your skin, superficial or closer to the surface and deep. Pressure sensors report back to the brain faster than pain sensors do so you can "jam the signal" ish by applying pressure. Say you put your hand on a hot burner, the spine has limited commands it can give to the body in case the brain can\'t give commands (see stroke victims) or to protect the body from further damage. This means that the pain signal follows tracks of nerve impulses to the spine where a quick response is sent back while a detailed report of the pain is sent to the sensory part of the brain for further analysis. The brain follows up the damage report by checking sensation, applying pressure or grabbing the area. Typically you also visually check it as well to see how the skin in the area is doing.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'elzx1n',
'query': 'we do we instinctively grab a part of our body after it is hurt?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '33065713',
'title': 'Lactylate',
'section': 'Section::::Functionality.:Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 283,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Due to differences in physical properties, oil does not readily mix with water. Many food and non-food systems require stabilization of mixtures of oil and water in order to prevent phase separation. Therefore, additives are used to provide stability. Lactylates are such additives.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1483634',
'title': 'Nutmeg oil',
'section': 'Section::::General uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 601,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The essential oil is obtained by the steam distillation of ground nutmeg and is used heavily in the perfumery and pharmaceutical industries. The nutmeg essential oil is used as a natural food flavouring in baked goods, syrups, beverages (e.g. Coca-Cola), sweets etc. It replaces ground nutmeg as it leaves no particles in the food. The essential oil is also used in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries for instance in tooth paste and as a major ingredient in some cough syrups. In traditional medicine nutmeg and nutmeg oil were used for illnesses related to the nervous and digestive systems.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1826695',
'title': 'Coolant',
'section': 'Section::::Liquids.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 425,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Oils are often used for applications where water is unsuitable. With higher boiling points than water, oils can be raised to considerably higher temperatures (above 100 degrees Celsius) without introducing high pressures within the container or loop system in question. Many oils have uses encompassing heat transfer, lubrication, pressure transfer (hydraulic fluids), sometimes even fuel, or several such functions at once.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52863',
'title': 'Seasoning',
'section': 'Section::::Oil infusion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 248,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Infused oils are also used for seasoning. There are two methods for doing an infusion—hot and cold. Olive oil makes a good infusion base for some herbs, but tends to go rancid more quickly than other oils. Infused oils should be kept refrigerated.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48782628',
'title': 'Total base number',
'section': 'Section::::Oil Additives.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 253,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'An oil formulation consists of the base or stock oil and oil additives. Most oil formulations contain basic additives and detergents, designed to react with and neutralise acids, preventing damage to engine parts, including corrosion of metal surfaces.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25974209',
'title': 'Brinjevec',
'section': 'Section::::Medicinal use.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 350,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Essential oil is a side product of distilling "brinjevec". As mentioned, it was used to ease menstrual pain, stomach ache or cure digestion problems of children by anointing it around navel and lower abdomen. This oil was sold in the past to local pharmacies mostly in Trieste (Italy) and it is still very expensive (€160 or more per liter in 2010).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12915400',
'title': 'Polyolester',
'section': 'Section::::Use.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 463,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "The use of this type of oil is in the process of being phased-in by manufacturers who use compressors in their products. The need to replace the old oils has arisen due to environmental restrictions causing incompatibility of the old oils with the new refrigerants. POE oils are very good solvents and easily dissolve most of the residual mineral oils that they may be replacing. So even though small amounts of the old oil may remain, it won't clog the system. \n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Since oil & water don't mix, how are essential oil soaks helpful?",
'selftext': "Doesn't the oil just sit on the surface, like it looks, reaching the intended body parts only in the small area that intersects with the top of the water? Or does it slowly mix with the water?",
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['As far as I know there is no scientific proof that essential oils work anyway, but yes your skin can only absorb so much.',
"Essential oils are worthless for everything but smelling good anyway, so adding water certainly doesn't improve anything"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8oarq7',
'query': "since oil & water don't mix, how are essential oil soaks helpful?",
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '38930',
'title': 'Jupiter',
'section': 'Section::::Physical characteristics.:Composition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 416,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "The atmospheric proportions of hydrogen and helium are close to the theoretical composition of the primordial solar nebula. Neon in the upper atmosphere only consists of 20 parts per million by mass, which is about a tenth as abundant as in the Sun. Helium is also depleted to about 80% of the Sun's helium composition. This depletion is a result of precipitation of these elements into the interior of the planet. \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13256',
'title': 'Helium',
'section': 'Section::::Characteristics.:Isotopes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 50,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 50,
'end_character': 612,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "There are nine known isotopes of helium, but only helium-3 and helium-4 are stable. In the Earth's atmosphere, one atom is for every million that are . Unlike most elements, helium's isotopic abundance varies greatly by origin, due to the different formation processes. The most common isotope, helium-4, is produced on Earth by alpha decay of heavier radioactive elements; the alpha particles that emerge are fully ionized helium-4 nuclei. Helium-4 is an unusually stable nucleus because its nucleons are arranged into complete shells. It was also formed in enormous quantities during Big Bang nucleosynthesis.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14380',
'title': 'Helium-3',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 491,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Helium-3 occurs as a primordial nuclide, escaping from the Earth's crust into the atmosphere and into outer space over millions of years. Helium-3 is also thought to be a natural nucleogenic and cosmogenic nuclide, one produced when lithium is bombarded by natural neutrons, which can be released by spontaneous fission and by nuclear reactions with cosmic rays. Some of the helium-3 found in the terrestrial atmosphere is also a relic of atmospheric and underwater nuclear weapons testing.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13255',
'title': 'Hydrogen',
'section': 'Section::::Cosmic prevalence and distribution.:States.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 68,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 68,
'end_character': 580,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Under ordinary conditions on Earth, elemental hydrogen exists as the diatomic gas, H. However, hydrogen gas is very rare in the Earth's atmosphere (1 ppm by volume) because of its light weight, which enables it to escape from Earth's gravity more easily than heavier gases. However, hydrogen is the third most abundant element on the Earth's surface, mostly in the form of chemical compounds such as hydrocarbons and water. Hydrogen gas is produced by some bacteria and algae and is a natural component of flatus, as is methane, itself a hydrogen source of increasing importance.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1012996',
'title': 'Helium-4',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 487,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Alpha decay of heavy elements in the Earth\'s crust is the source of most naturally occurring helium-4 on Earth, produced after the planet cooled and solidified. While it is also produced by nuclear fusion in stars, most helium-4 in the Sun and in the universe is thought to have been produced by the Big Bang, and is referred to as "primordial helium". However, primordial helium-4 is largely absent from the Earth, having escaped during the high-temperature phase of Earth\'s formation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25783324',
'title': 'Helium planet',
'section': 'Section::::Characteristics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 562,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Helium planets are expected to be distinguishable from regular hydrogen-dominated planets by strong evidence of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Due to hydrogen-depletion, the expected methane in the atmosphere cannot form because there is no hydrogen for the carbon to combine with, and hence carbon combines with oxygen instead, forming CO and CO. Due to the atmospheric composition, helium planets are expected to be white or grey in appearance. Such a signature can be found in Gliese 436 b, which has a predominance of carbon monoxide.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '86350',
'title': 'Period (periodic table)',
'section': 'Section::::Periods.:Period 1.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 498,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "BULLET::::- Helium (He) exists only as a gas except in extreme conditions. It is the second-lightest element and is the second-most abundant in the universe. Most helium was formed during the Big Bang, but new helium is created through nuclear fusion of hydrogen in stars. On Earth, helium is relatively rare, only occurring as a byproduct of the natural decay of some radioactive elements. Such 'radiogenic' helium is trapped within natural gas in concentrations of up to seven percent by volume.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is Hydrogen so common on Earth and Helium quite rare?',
'selftext': 'They are the two lightest elements and one atomic number apart.',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Hydrogen is highly reactive, it bonds to oxygen, forming water. Water is quite dense, even as a vapor, and is therefore quite durable in the atmosphere.\n\nHelium is a noble gas and nearly perfectly inert. Being unbound to any heavier elements, it quickly rises to the top of the atmosphere and is lost to space by various mechanisms. \n\nHydrogen is lost over time, but only slowly.',
'A partial answer:\nMolecular hydrogen is both reactive and escapes easily. Helium, although not reactive, escapes more easily due to its low mass. Additionally, the only source of helium is radioactive do decay. \nHTH'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'ca8tzl',
'query': 'why is hydrogen so common on earth and helium quite rare?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '53002210',
'title': 'Bouncing ball',
'section': 'Section::::Forces during flight and effect on motion.:Gravity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': 'Further refinements to the motion of the ball can be made by taking into account air resistance (and related effects such as drag and wind), the Magnus effect, and buoyancy. Because lighter balls accelerate more readily, their motion tends to be affected more by such forces.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24890169',
'title': 'Composite baseball bat',
'section': 'Section::::Advantages.:Swing weight.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 448,
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'passage_text': 'The swing weight of a baseball bat deals with how heavy the bat "feels" when swinging. The swing weight is measured around a certain pivot point along the bat. Once a pivot point is determined (usually 6 inches for baseball bats) the bats balance point, total weight and the amount of time it takes for the bat to swing from side to side like a pendulum are used to determine its \'swing weight\', or as some refer to it, its mass moment of inertia.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41730913',
'title': 'Hitting mechanics',
'section': 'Section::::Hitting analysis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 901,
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'passage_text': 'Hitters have a wide variation of swings, but in the end staying balanced and having stable posture is the most important aspect of hitting a baseball. If the hitter becomes unbalanced throughout the swing the chance of making solid contact with the baseball is very slim. Once balanced throughout the swing, bat speed comes into the next most important aspect of the baseball swing. The faster the bat speed, the faster the ball will come off the bat. Furthermore, researchers have long established that home run hits are dependant on swing speed. Most notably, one can logically assume that a faster swing will result in the ball traveling farther. A 3-6% increase in bat speed can significantly affect the distance a ball travels after contact in competition (7). In terms of simple physics and mathematics, the conservation of momentum (E1) and a kinematic equation (E2) also reinforces this idea.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24890169',
'title': 'Composite baseball bat',
'section': 'Section::::Advantages.:Vibration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 576,
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'passage_text': 'Ball players often experience a "sting" in their hands caused by vibrations when the ball does not come in contact with the sweet spot of the bat. The frequency of these vibrations throughout the bat is related to the bending stiffness. Daniel A. Russell of Kettering University has shown that standard aluminum bats have a high bending stiffness that produces vibrational frequencies in the range where most hands are sensitive; therefore, causing more sting. He also has shown that composite materials can lower this bending stiffness without compromising other advantages.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '524402',
'title': 'Elston Howard',
'section': 'Section::::Legacy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 30,
'end_character': 527,
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'passage_text': 'Howard is credited with inventing the batting "doughnut", a circular lead weight with a rubber shell used by batters in the on-deck circle by placing it around a bat to make it feel heavier, so that it will feel lighter at the plate and easier to swing. Its widespread use caused the discontinuation of the practice of hitters swinging multiple bats at the same time while waiting to hit. Howard helped two New Jersey entrepreneurs, Frank Hamilton and Vince Salvucci, to market the bat weight and lent his name to the product.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '144553',
'title': 'Projectile',
'section': 'Section::::Sport projectiles.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 335,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In projectile motion the most important force applied to the ‘projectile’ is the propelling force, in this case the propelling forces are the muscles that act upon the ball to make it move, and the stronger the force applied, the more propelling force, which means the projectile (the ball) will travel farther. See pitching, bowling.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1090018',
'title': "Newton's cradle",
'section': 'Section::::Physics explanation.:Heat and friction losses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 30,
'end_character': 743,
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'passage_text': 'This discussion has neglected energy losses from heat generated in the balls from non-perfect elasticity, friction in the strings, friction from air resistance, and sound generated from the clank of the vibrating balls. The energy losses are the reason the balls eventually come to a stop, but they are not the primary or initial cause of the action to become more disorderly, away from the ideal action of only one ball moving at any instant. The increase in the non-ideal action is caused by collisions that involve more than two balls at a time, effectively making the struck ball appear heavier. The size of the steel balls is limited because the collisions may exceed the elastic limit of the steel, deforming it and causing heat losses.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does throwing an extremely light object, for example a golf ball, strain the arm as opposed to a baseball that is relative in mass?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The same reason you should never dry fire a bow (shooting a bow without an arrow in place). If there is no arrow to transfer the energy of the pulled bowstring, all of that energy will go into the bow itself and can damage or shatter the bow.\n\nYour arm functions the same way as a bow: transfering energy into the ball (arrow). A lighter or smaller ball doesn't require as much energy to launch. If you perform your normal throw on the lighter ball, the excess energy not transferred to the ball will travel back through your arm and can strain it especially if you don't do a full follow-through to help release the energy."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9535js',
'query': 'why does throwing an extremely light object, for example a golf ball, strain the arm as opposed to a baseball that is relative in mass?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '30674676',
'title': 'Camfecting',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 592,
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'passage_text': 'Camfecting, in the field of computer security, is the process of attempting to hack into a person\'s webcam and activate it without the webcam owner\'s permission. The remotely activated webcam can be used to watch anything within the webcam\'s field of vision, sometimes including the webcam owner themselves. Camfecting is most often carried out by infecting the victim\'s computer with a virus that can provide the hacker access to their webcam. This attack is specifically targeted at the victim\'s webcam, and hence the name "camfecting", a portmanteau of the words "camera" and "infecting".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '92171',
'title': 'Webcam',
'section': 'Section::::Privacy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 65,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 65,
'end_character': 570,
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'passage_text': 'The fraudulent process of attempting to hack into a person\'s webcam and activate it without the webcam owner\'s permission has been called camfecting. The remotely activated webcam can be used to watch anything within the webcam\'s field of vision, sometimes the webcam owner itself. Camfecting is most often carried out by infecting the victim\'s computer with a virus that can provide the hacker access to the victim\'s webcam. This attack is specifically targeted at the victim\'s webcam, and hence the name "camfecting", a portmanteau of the words "cam" and "infecting".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30674676',
'title': 'Camfecting',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 559,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Typically, a webcam hacker or a camfecter sends his victim an innocent-looking application which has a hidden Trojan software through which the camfecter can control the victim's webcam. The camfecter virus installs itself silently when the victim runs the original application. Once installed, the camfecter can turn on the webcam and capture pictures/videos. The camfecter software works just like the original webcam software present in the victim computer, the only difference being that the camfecter controls the software instead of the webcam's owner.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4442888',
'title': 'Softcam',
'section': 'Section::::Risks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 549,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Typically, a webcam hacker or a camfecter sends his victim an innocent-looking application which has a Trojan horse software through which the camfecter can control the victim's webcam. The camfecter virus installs itself silently when the victim runs the original application. Once installed, the camfecter can turn on the webcam and capture pictures/videos. The camfecter software works just like the original webcam software present in the computer, the only difference being that the camfecter controls the software instead of the webcam owner.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1163729',
'title': 'ROM hacking',
'section': 'Section::::Methods.:Data editing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 504,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A core component of many hacks (especially of role-playing video games) is editing data such as character, item, and enemy properties. This is usually done either "by hand" (with a hex editor) if the location and structure of the data is known, or with a game-specific editor that has this functionality. Through this, a hacker can alter how weapons work, how strong enemies are or how they act, etc. This can be done to make the game easier or harder, or to create new scenarios for the player to face.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4442888',
'title': 'Softcam',
'section': 'Section::::Risks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 416,
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'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Remotely activated webcams can be used to watch anything within the webcam's field of vision, sometimes including the webcam owner themselves. Camfecting is most often carried out by infecting the victim's computer with a virus that can provide the hacker access to the webcam. This attack is specifically targeted at the victim's webcam, and hence the name camfecting, a portmanteau of the words cam and infecting.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34826296',
'title': 'Doxing',
'section': 'Section::::Common techniques.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 317,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "A hacker may obtain an individual's dox without making the information public. A hacker may look for this information in order to extort or coerce a known or unknown target. Also, a hacker may harvest a victim's information in order to break into their Internet accounts, or to take over their social media accounts.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do hackers hack a web cam?',
'selftext': "And is it possible for them to record without the indicator light turning on? EDIT: specifically a laptop's built-in webcam - if that makes a difference...",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Generally speaking, they don't. The public Webcam feeds you can find online are usually there because of shit security settings on peoples' networks and computers.\n\nIf someone had the skills to rewrite or modify the webcam driver file, it would be pretty easy to change the settings to not turn on the light.",
' > How do hackers hack a web cam?\n\nBugs. A lot of software is insecure. Not all. A standalone webcamera is an "Internet of Things" device. Oh god, there are so many poorly secured IoT devices. \n\n > And is it possible for them to record without the indicator light turning on?\n\nDepends. If the light is hardwired to the power of the camera, no. But other devices, like [logitech cameras](_URL_1_) or [macbooks](_URL_0_) don\'t even need the firmware flashed. So, that\'s a solid yes. \n\n > specifically a laptop\'s built-in webcam - if that makes a difference...\n\nAs a device that\'s part of a real laptop, with a real OS, then it\'s probably more secure. But on the flip side, OS\'s do a lot more stuff which are more vectors for an attack. \n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5uk349',
'query': 'how do hackers hack a web cam?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1803851',
'title': 'Financial contagion',
'section': 'Section::::Causes and consequences.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': '"Fundamental causes of contagion include macroeconomic shocks that have repercussions on an international scale and local shocks transmitted through trade links, competitive devaluations, and financial links." It can lead to some co-movements in capital flows and asset prices.Common shocks can be similar to the effects of financial links. "A financial crisis in one country can lead to direct financial effects, including reductions in trade credits, foreign direct investment, and other capital flows abroad." Financial links come from financial globalization since countries try to be more economically integrated with global financial markets. Allen and Gale (2000), and Lagunoff and Schreft (2001) analyze financial contagion as a result of linkages among financial intermediaries. The former provide a general equilibrium model to explain a small liquidity preference shock in one region can spread by contagion throughout the economy and the possibility of contagion depends strongly on the completeness of the structure of interregional claims. The latter proposed a dynamic stochastic game-theoretic model of financial fragility, through which they explain interrelated portfolios and payment commitments forge financial linkages among agents and thus make two related types of the financial crisis can occur in response.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1803851',
'title': 'Financial contagion',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 488,
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'passage_text': 'Financial contagion refers to "the spread of market disturbances mostly on the downside from one country to the other, a process observed through co-movements in exchange rates, stock prices, sovereign spreads, and capital flows". Financial contagion can be a potential risk for countries who are trying to integrate their financial system with international financial markets and institutions. It helps explain an economic crisis extending across neighboring countries, or even regions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1803851',
'title': 'Financial contagion',
'section': 'Section::::Causes and consequences.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 1025,
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'passage_text': 'Another branch of contagion is a financial crisis, which is also referred to irrational phenomena. A financial crisis as a branch of contagion is formed when "a co-movement occurs, even when there are no global shocks and interdependence and fundamentals are not factors." It is caused by any of the four agents\' behaviors who influence financial globalization. Some examples that can cause contagion are increased risk aversion, lack of confidence, and financial fears. Under the correlated information channel, price changes in one market are perceived as having implications for the values of assets in other markets, causing their prices to change as well (King and Wadhwani (1990)). Also, Calvo (2004) argues for correlated liquidity shock channel meaning that when some market participants need to liquidate and withdraw some of their assets to obtain cash, perhaps after experiencing an unexpected loss in another country and need to restore capital adequacy ratios. This behavior will effectively transmit the shock.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22806639',
'title': 'John R. Talbott',
'section': 'Section::::Career.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 254,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': '"Contagion: The Financial Epidemic That Is Sweeping the Global Economy ... and How to Protect Yourself from It" (Wiley, 2008), dissects the possibility of a global recession and the ways in which individuals can protect themselves and their investments.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '582932',
'title': 'Inefficiency',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 406,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Resource-market inefficiency - refers to barriers that prevent full adjustment of resource markets, so that resources are either unused or misused. For example, structural unemployment results from barriers of mobility in labor markets which prevent workers from moving to places and occupations where there are job vacancies. Thus, unemployed workers can co-exist with unfilled job vacancies.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1803851',
'title': 'Financial contagion',
'section': 'Section::::Causes and consequences.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 456,
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'passage_text': "Financial contagion can create financial volatility and can seriously damage the economy and financial systems of countries. There are several branches of classifications that explain the mechanism of financial contagion, which are spillover effects and financial crisis that are caused by the influence of the four agents' behavior. The four agents that influence financial globalization are governments, financial institutions, investors, and borrowers.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1803851',
'title': 'Financial contagion',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 528,
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'passage_text': 'The term financial contagion has created controversy throughout the past years. Some argue that strong linkages between countries are not necessarily financial contagion, and that financial contagion should be defined as an increase in cross-market linkages after a shock to one country, which is very hard to figure out by both theoretical model and empirical work. Also, some scholars argue that there is actually no contagion at all, just a high level of market co-movement in all periods, which is market "interdependence".\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is Economic Contagion?',
'selftext': 'Don\'t want to bring any recent news, but I hear about this phrase called "Economic Contagion". Could somebody please explain to me what this means and why does it have to do with a global economic crisis?',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Without bringing current events into it:\n\nAn "economic contagion" or "financial contagion" is the idea that effects in the economy - particularly bad ones - have a way of spreading from one market to another.\n\nA "market" can be an industry - for instance, if the housing industry sees fewer people buying houses, then in turn the banking industry is impacted when fewer people take out loans, which in turn impacts other businesses who rely on the banks\' strength.\n\nA "market" can also be a country - if a country\'s production takes a major hit, then its trade partners will be affected, any places relying on tourism or other cashflow from the country will be affected, etc.\n\nThe idea of an economic contagion is an attempt to explain real-world events. The word "contagion" is kind of controversial because these effects don\'t really have much in common with an infectious disease in any way; they are simply an effect of financial interdependence.',
'Most business and currency is based on confidence and belief. \n\nBelief that things will largely be worth tomorrow, what they are today.\n\nConfidence that the systems and structures that are useful and effective today, will remain so for the indefinite future.\n\nWith these ideas, you can plan on a micro-level how to allocate your time and money. On a macro-level, economies do the same thing.\n\nProblems arise when you lose confidence and belief. Should you plant your fields? Can you sell your produce in six months? Should you build a new expansion? Where should you put your money? Stocks? Guns? Gold?\n\nNothing has actually happened, but you are starting to consider or make choices that don’t follow the usual pattern. I see you doing that and I get spooked and change my behaviour. Now you and I are both acting unusually and spending or saving money in ways that spook our suppliers and customers... Things start spiraling, even though again, nothing has changed except you got a little panic-y.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'fs4px3',
'query': 'what is economic contagion?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '305854',
'title': 'Text messaging',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 1251,
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'passage_text': 'As of 2017, text messages are used by youth and adults for personal, family, business and social purposes. Governmental and non-governmental organizations use text messaging for communication between colleagues. In the 2010s, the sending of short informal messages has become an accepted part of many cultures, as happened earlier with emailing. This makes texting a quick and easy way to communicate with friends, family and colleagues, including in contexts where a call would be impolite or inappropriate (e.g., calling very late at night or when one knows the other person is busy with family or work activities). Like e-mail and voicemail, and unlike calls (in which the caller hopes to speak directly with the recipient), texting does not require the caller and recipient to both be free at the same moment; this permits communication even between busy individuals. Text messages can also be used to interact with automated systems, for example, to order products or services from e-commerce websites, or to participate in online contests. Advertisers and service providers use direct text marketing to send messages to mobile users about promotions, payment due dates, and other notifications instead of using postal mail, email, or voicemail.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '305854',
'title': 'Text messaging',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 1259,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Text messaging is most often used between private mobile phone users, as a substitute for voice calls in situations where voice communication is impossible or undesirable (e.g., during a school class or a work meeting). Texting is also used to communicate very brief messages, such as informing someone that you will be late or reminding a friend or colleague about a meeting. As with e-mail, informality and brevity have become an accepted part of text messaging. Some text messages such as SMS can also be used for the remote controlling of home appliances. It is widely used in domotics systems. Some amateurs have also built own systems to control (some of) their appliances via SMS. Other methods such as group messaging, which was patented in 2012 by the GM of Andrew Ferry, Devin Peterson, Justin Cowart, Ian Ainsworth, Patrick Messinger, Jacob Delk, Jack Grande, Austin Hughes, Brendan Blake, and Brooks Brasher are used to involve more than two people into a text messaging conversation. A Flash SMS is a type of text message that appears directly on the main screen without user interaction and is not automatically stored in the inbox. It can be useful in cases such as an emergency (e.g., fire alarm) or confidentiality (e.g., one-time password).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5426470',
'title': 'SMS gateway',
'section': 'Section::::Email clients.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
'end_character': 411,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Text messages can be sent from a personal computer to mobile devices via an SMS gateway or Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) gateway, using most popular email client programs, such as Outlook, Thunderbird, and so on. The messages must be sent in ASCII "text-only" mode. If they are sent in HTML mode, or using non-ASCII characters, they will most likely appear as nonsense on the recipient\'s mobile telephone.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1566175',
'title': 'Google Talk',
'section': 'Section::::Features.:Offline messaging.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 363,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'On November 1, 2006, Google introduced offline messaging to Google Talk. This allows users to send messages to their contacts, even if they are not signed in. They will receive the messages when they next go online even if the user who has sent it is offline. This only works between Gmail-accounts though, not between Google Talk servers and other XMPP servers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11401427',
'title': 'Concatenated SMS',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 698,
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'passage_text': 'In the cellular phone industry, mobile phones and their networks sometimes support concatenated short message service (or concatenated SMS) to overcome the limitation on the number of characters that can be sent in a single SMS text message transmission (which is usually 160). Using this method, long messages are split into smaller messages by the sending device and recombined at the receiving end. Each message is then billed separately. When the feature works properly, it is nearly transparent to the user, appearing as a single long text message. Previously, due to incompatibilities between providers and lack of support in some phone models, there was not widespread use of this feature. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28207',
'title': 'SMS',
'section': 'Section::::Technical details.:Interconnectivity with other networks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 57,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 57,
'end_character': 268,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "On some carriers nonsubscribers can send messages to a subscriber's phone using an Email-to-SMS gateway. Additionally, many carriers, including AT&T Mobility, T-Mobile USA, Sprint, and Verizon Wireless, offer the ability to do this through their respective web sites.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5648093',
'title': 'Audience response',
'section': 'Section::::Use in educational settings.:Cell phone.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 80,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 80,
'end_character': 690,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "The familiarity and widespread use of cell phones and text messaging has now given rise to systems that collect SMS responses and display them through a web page. These solutions don't require specialized voting hardware, but they do require telecom hardware (such as a mobile phone) and software, along with a web server, and therefore tend to be operated by dedicated vendors selling usage. They are typically favored by traveling speaking professionals and large conference halls that don't want to distribute, rent, or purchase proprietary ARS hardware. Computing devices with web browsers can also use these serviceLLs through SMS gateways, if a separate web interface isn't provided.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why don’t all phone services send texts over the internet (like apple’s iMessage does)?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The short answer is that they don't because they didn't originally.\n\n*Short Message Service*-messages, as they are called in the GSM standard among other more recent standards, is a technical feature offered in the communication protocol used to communicate to and from the phones.\n\nInternet traffic relies on one or several other technical substandards that are also offered in the communication protocols.\n\nFrom the phone operators point of view, a SMS is awesome. Because they have full control.\n\nThe problem, if you wish, is that since they have full control, they also have pretty pricey business models. Or had, at least.\n\niMessage, WhatsApp, Line, Facebook Messenger, Google Hangouts, Signal, Telegram and all the others are internet services that happen to be linked to your phone number. SMS is a phone network service that is offered to your phone number. It doesn't necessarily have anything to do with the internet.\n\nThe idea is pretty much that if the phone plan has a pretty decent cost for data (and often there is a monthly allowance of sorts in the data plan...) it's cheaper to use the data plan for your messages than to pay for each individual message that you send out.\n\nBut. Smartphones too must follow the phone network communication standard. They *must* be able to receive SMS. Which means that they all can. No matter if your grandma has a brand new iPhone 11 (or whatever the newest one is?) or if she runs around with a Motorola from 1996, the terminal has SMS reception capabilities. And probably sending capabilities too.\n\nIt's also a pretty dumb thing if you compare an iPhone and an Android phone; Google has their text messaging app. Apple has theirs. They don't work well together. If you want to communicate with others, you have to first agree on which app to use for your communications.\n\nWith SMS, you don't. You just have to know the phone number, and that's it. Which is why your phone falls back on SMS every time it tries to communicate with someone who is not on iMessage. Because SMS always works. If you typed in the correct number, the message will be received."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'e7ptdq',
'query': 'why don’t all phone services send texts over the internet (like apple’s imessage does)?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2467826',
'title': 'Urushiol-induced contact dermatitis',
'section': 'Section::::Treatments.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 563,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Showers or compresses using hot (but not scalding) water can relieve itching for up to several hours, though this "also taxes the skin\'s integrity, opening pores and generally making it more vulnerable", and is only useful for secondary treatment (not for cleaning urushiol from the skin, which should be done with cold water). People who have had a prior systemic reaction may be able to prevent subsequent exposure from turning systemic by avoiding heat and excitation of the circulatory system and applying moderate cold to any infected skin with biting pain.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3816564',
'title': 'Sitz bath',
'section': 'Section::::Preparation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 372,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Warm baths are recommended for reducing the itching, pain and discomfort associated with conditions such as hemorrhoids and genital problems. An ordinary bathtub can be filled with of hot water (about ), and sat in for 15–20 minutes or until the water cools down. Alternatively, a large basin can be used, and there are specially built devices that fit into toilet bowls.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2134539',
'title': 'Aquagenic pruritus',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 494,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Since the cause of the condition cannot be fully avoided in all cases, treatment is usually focused on topical itch management. This can be effected by the application of antipruritic lotions or creams, using phototherapy, or the application of hot or cold packs to the skin after water contact. Paradoxically, hot baths or showers help many patients, possibly because heat causes mast cells in the skin to release their supply of histamine and to remain depleted for up to 24 hours afterward.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2006316',
'title': 'Dermatographic urticaria',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 374,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Refraining from taking hot baths or showers may help if the condition is generalized (i.e. all over), as well as possibly for localized cases (i.e. in a specific area). If taking hot showers helps, it may be a condition called shower eczema. If it affects mainly the head, it may be psoriasis. In rare cases, allergy tests may uncover substances the patient is allergic to.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18068944',
'title': "Ma'in Hot Springs",
'section': 'Section::::Medical Tourism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 567,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Tourists frequent the hot springs, seeking treatment for chronic physical ailments such as skin and circulatory diseases, and bone, joint, back and muscular pains. The water in the springs contains elements with healing properties, including sodium, calcium, chloride, radon, hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide. The hot water treatment is also useful in cases of chronic rheumatism, muscle spasm, back pain, blood vessels, varicose veins, skin diseases, and overall body activation of nervous and psychological exhaustion, endocrine secretion and chronic sinusitis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3409503',
'title': 'Cave Bath',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 308,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The thermal water (temperature: 30°C/86°F) is reputed to reduce joint pain, and since it has a lower salt content than most thermal waters (around 1000\xa0mg/liter), people can bathe in it for much longer, practically an unlimited amount of time. The Cave Bath can be visited all year long, except for January.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40393797',
'title': 'Kanpu masatsu',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 552,
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'passage_text': 'Kanpu masatsu (乾布摩擦, literally "dry towel friction") is a Japanese custom where one rubs a dry towel along the body to create warmth and friction, particularly in cold weather, to promote good health or ward off disease. Although it physically resembles a vigorous sponge bath, kanpu masatsu is not a form of bathing as its goal is to warm the skin by friction and not to cleanse or wipe the body. Kanpu masatsu is often practiced in a group environment, particularly among children in schools where it is sometimes part of a morning exercise routine.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does it feel good to soak in a hot tub or a hot bath when we are sore?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The heat relaxes your muscles. When you're sore your muscles are cramped, stiff and or sensitive. The heat counteracts those symptoms. Often you don't even realize that some of your muscles are cramped until you take a bath. \n\nI found this really nice article about it; [_URL_0_](_URL_0_) "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6x4s09',
'query': 'why does it feel good to soak in a hot tub or a hot bath when we are sore?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '26969289',
'title': 'Annona crassiflora',
'section': 'Section::::Description.:Fruits.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 438,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The fruiting begins in November, maturing between February and April, where living in Minas Gerais, where it is popularly associated with the Lent season. When the fruit is ripe it falls to the ground under the protection of the crown, exuding a strong and distinctive smell. These are the best quality fruits for the consumer, because if harvested directly from the tree, the fruit will not mature, producing an inferior quality flavor.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '208092',
'title': 'Food pyramid (nutrition)',
'section': 'Section::::USDA food pyramid.:History.:Fruits.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 597,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'These include apples, oranges, grapes, bananas, etc. Fruits are low in calories and fat and are a source of natural sugars, fiber and vitamins. Processing fruit when canning or making into juices may add sugars and remove nutrients. The fruit food group is sometimes combined with the vegetable food group. Note that a massive number of different plant species produce seed pods which are considered fruits in botany, and there are a number of botanical fruits which are conventionally not considered fruits in cuisine because they lack the characteristic sweet taste, e.g., tomatoes or avocados.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '166017',
'title': 'Avocado',
'section': 'Section::::Botany.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 338,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The species is variable because of selection pressure by humans to produce larger, fleshier fruits with a thinner exocarp. The avocado fruit is a climacteric, single-seeded berry, due to the imperceptible endocarp covering the seed, rather than a drupe. The pear-shaped fruit is long, weighs between , and has a large central seed, long.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '948976',
'title': 'Lithuanian cuisine',
'section': 'Section::::Fruit.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 37,
'end_character': 747,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Apples, plums, and pears, which grow well in Lithuania, are the most commonly used fruit. Because they cannot tolerate frost, tropical fruit such as citrus, bananas and pineapples must be imported, and hence were used less often in the past; however, these fruits are now becoming more typical and are widely consumed. During the autumn harvest, fruit is often simmered and spiced to create fruit stews (kompots). Gooseberries ("agrastai") and currants ("serbentai") are widely cultivated; they are sweetened, made into jams and baked goods, and provide a piquant touch to desserts. Small local producers make fine fruit wines from raspberries, and especially blackcurrants; apple icewine is also produced. Apple cheese is very popular in autumn.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '72844',
'title': 'Atacama Region',
'section': 'Section::::Economy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 315,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Over recent decades, fresh fruit also emerged as regional export item, when the Copiapó and Huasco valleys joined Chile’s fruit-growing boom. They enjoy a comparative advantage because, thanks to the sunny climate, fruit ripens earlier than in the rest of the country and reaches northern hemisphere markets first.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '361993',
'title': 'Ripening',
'section': 'Section::::Ripening agents.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 230,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'They allow many fruits to be picked prior to full ripening, which is useful, since ripened fruits do not ship well. For example, bananas are picked when green and artificially ripened after shipment by being gassed with ethylene.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52136',
'title': 'Citrus',
'section': 'Section::::Description.:Fruit.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 427,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Citrus fruits are notable for their fragrance, partly due to flavonoids and limonoids (which in turn are terpenes) contained in the rind, and most are juice-laden. The juice contains a high quantity of citric acid giving them their characteristic sharp flavour. The genus is commercially important as many species are cultivated for their fruit, which is eaten fresh, pressed for juice, or preserved in marmalades and pickles.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why do fruits taste so much better when in season',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Because the phrase "in season" is used by humans to describe the time of year when we most prefer the taste of different fruits.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'b4wnyh',
'query': 'why do fruits taste so much better when in season',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '5985207',
'title': 'Expansion of the universe',
'section': 'Section::::Understanding the expansion of the universe.:Topology of expanding space.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 44,
'end_character': 257,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Even if the overall spatial extent is infinite and thus the universe cannot get any "larger", we still say that space is expanding because, locally, the characteristic distance between objects is increasing. As an infinite space grows, it remains infinite.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5382',
'title': 'Inflation (cosmology)',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 631,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Based on a huge amount of experimental observation and theoretical work, it is now believed that the reason for the observation is that "space itself is expanding", and that it expanded very rapidly within the first fraction of a second after the Big Bang. This kind of expansion is known as a ""metric"" expansion. In the terminology of mathematics and physics, a "metric" is a measure of distance that satisfies a specific list of properties, and the term implies that "the sense of distance within the universe is itself changing", although at this time it is far too small an effect to see on less than an intergalactic scale.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5985207',
'title': 'Expansion of the universe',
'section': 'Section::::Cosmic inflation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 443,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Based on large quantities of experimental observation and theoretical work, the scientific consensus is that "space itself is expanding", and that it expanded very rapidly within the first fraction of a second after the Big Bang. This kind of expansion is known as "metric expansion". In mathematics and physics, a "metric" means a measure of distance, and the term implies that "the sense of distance within the universe is itself changing".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5985207',
'title': 'Expansion of the universe',
'section': 'Section::::Understanding the expansion of the universe.:Effects of expansion on small scales.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 48,
'end_character': 559,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "The expansion of space is sometimes described as a force which acts to push objects apart. Though this is an accurate description of the effect of the cosmological constant, it is not an accurate picture of the phenomenon of expansion in general. For much of the universe's history the expansion has been due mainly to inertia. The matter in the very early universe was flying apart for unknown reasons (most likely as a result of cosmic inflation) and has simply continued to do so, though at an ever-decreasing rate due to the attractive effect of gravity.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4116',
'title': 'Big Bang',
'section': 'Section::::Features of the model.:Expansion of space.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
'end_character': 563,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The Big Bang is not an explosion of matter moving outward to fill an empty universe. Instead, space itself expands with time everywhere and increases the physical distance between two comoving points. In other words, the Big Bang is not an explosion "in space", but rather an expansion "of space". Because the FLRW metric assumes a uniform distribution of mass and energy, it applies to our universe only on large scales—local concentrations of matter such as our galaxy are gravitationally bound and as such do not experience the large-scale expansion of space.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5382',
'title': 'Inflation (cosmology)',
'section': 'Section::::Motivations.:Flatness problem.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
'end_character': 691,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Therefore, regardless of the shape of the universe the contribution of spatial curvature to the expansion of the Universe could not be much greater than the contribution of matter. But as the Universe expands, the curvature redshifts away more slowly than matter and radiation. Extrapolated into the past, this presents a fine-tuning problem because the contribution of curvature to the Universe must be exponentially small (sixteen orders of magnitude less than the density of radiation at Big Bang nucleosynthesis, for example). This problem is exacerbated by recent observations of the cosmic microwave background that have demonstrated that the Universe is flat to within a few percent.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5382',
'title': 'Inflation (cosmology)',
'section': 'Section::::Theory.:Few inhomogeneities remain.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 938,
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'passage_text': 'Because the accelerating expansion of space stretches out any initial variations in density or temperature to very large length scales, an essential feature of inflation is that it smooths out inhomogeneities, anisotropies and reduces the curvature of space. This pushes the Universe into a very simple state in which it is completely dominated by the inflaton field and the only significant inhomogeneities are tiny quantum fluctuations. Inflation also dilutes exotic heavy particles, such as the magnetic monopoles predicted by many extensions to the Standard Model of particle physics. If the Universe was only hot enough to form such particles "before" a period of inflation, they would not be observed in nature, as they would be so rare that it is quite likely that there are none in the observable universe. Together, these effects are called the inflationary "no-hair theorem" by analogy with the no hair theorem for black holes.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If space is constantly expanding, are we expanding too due to all of the empty space there is in atoms?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Short answer: no.\n\nLong answer: Yes, empty space inside of us is expanding. However, its expanding so slowly that all the forces that normally keep us together are able to counteract that expansion, meaning everything stays together at the same distance',
"Nope.\n\n*Space* is expanding, but the atoms themselves are not. Think of it like this: if the space between an atom's nucleus and its electrons gets bigger, the electrons just move closer.\n\nOn the small scale, things like gravity keep us held together even as space expands around us. ",
"Yes, but at the scale of the subatomic, this expansion is miniscule and more than overcome by the subatomic forces. You can think of the expansion of space as cumulative. It is practically non existent over atomic scales, but increases at an ever-increasing rate as distance increases. It basically doubles as distance doubles so think of it like counting by 2's. 2,4,8,16,32..... At first the numbers are increasing slowly but after awhile start making huge leaps. Likewise, when looking at distant galaxies, there's been a lot of doubling of distance, so to speak, between us and them, and therefore the expansion of space becomes much more noticeable."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'aastni',
'query': 'if space is constantly expanding, are we expanding too due to all of the empty space there is in atoms?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '7043655',
'title': 'Puzzle Pirates',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 573,
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'passage_text': 'Puzzle Pirates is a massively multiplayer online game developed by Three Rings Design, a company acquired by Sega Sammy Holdings in 2011. The player takes the role of a pirate, adventuring on the high seas and pillaging money ("pieces of eight") from roaming enemy ships (human or computer-controlled). The mechanics of "Puzzle Pirates" are driven by puzzles. For example, to effectively sail a ship, players must play puzzle games representing work at the sails for speed, pumping bilge water to remove it from the ship, and carpentry to fix any damage the ship may take.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1431983',
'title': 'Pirates Constructible Strategy Game',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 602,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "An innovative feature of Pirates is the 'constructible' element of the game; each game piece (except for terrain) is created by popping out the small polystyrene pieces from placeholder cards and assembling them. As the ship, fort or sea monster is damaged by enemies during the course of game play, pieces of it are removed to record how much damage it has sustained, giving the game piece itself the appearance of slowly being destroyed. The elements removed from the piece - for example, a ship's masts - can no longer be used in the game unless another game element allows it to be replaced later.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7043655',
'title': 'Puzzle Pirates',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 579,
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'passage_text': '"Puzzle Pirates" is open-ended and community-driven. Over time, pirates can join a crew, progress in rank within that crew, buy and run sailing vessels and shoppes, and perhaps even become captain of a crew, royalty within a flag (an alliance of crews), or governor of an island. Islands are governed and shoppes are managed exclusively by players. From time to time, players are also called upon to help expand the game, whether it be new puzzles (developed on Game Gardens), island objects to be used on new oceans (servers), or artwork used for a variety of purposes in-game.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4323323',
'title': 'Pirates versus Ninjas',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 526,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Pirates vs. Ninjas is a comedic Internet and gaming meme regarding a theoretical conflict between archetypal Western pirates and Japanese ninjas, generally including arbitrary "debate" over which side would win in a fight. The meme is sometimes referred to as PvN and has a long history on the Internet. Humorist Jake Kalish writes (in the pro-ninja column) that the reason for the popularity of the meme is that "pirates and ninjas are both cool, but kind of opposite, see, because one is loud and the other ... never mind."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '641817',
'title': "Sid Meier's Pirates!",
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 651,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'One of the most innovative features of "Pirates!" is the introduction of a dynamic playing field. In "Pirates!" many of the most important factors which affect player decisions are randomized at the beginning of the game and continue to shift during gameplay. This not only creates a new experience each time the game is played, but also requires the player to remain flexible, and be ready to exploit possibilities when they occur. Changes happen whenever time passes and they are unrelated to player actions. In fact, in this game in the series, random events do not have any graphical representation, and the player can do nothing to prevent them.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5481172',
'title': 'Pop-up Pirate',
'section': 'Section::::Rules.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 433,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The pirate is placed into a spring-loaded barrel and rotated to randomize the unlucky slot. Players must take it in turns to insert plastic swords into slots in the side of the barrel. If a player inserts the sword into a specific slot (which changes randomly every time the game is played), the pirate is launched out of the barrel and the player is eliminated. The last player remaining after all others have been eliminated wins.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1431983',
'title': 'Pirates Constructible Strategy Game',
'section': 'Section::::Configurations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 283,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'On October 25, 2006, WizKids released "", a non-collectible board game version of the Pirates game that uses gameplay elements and game pieces from the constructible strategy game, but is designed to be simplified, self-contained and sold in the board game section of retail stores.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do pirates crack game?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It depends on the game, or rather what type of DRM (anti-piracy software) the game is using. \n\nIn the old days, all you had to do to crack a game was figure out how CD keys were created for it and then make you own the same way. \n\nLater on, companies started connecting their singleplayer offline games to online servers, so you had to figure out what the game and servers said to each other and copy it. ',
"They generally use a debugger to step through the computer instructions until they get to a logic point where the game decides whether it's running legitimately or not. Then they switch the instruction.\n\nGames with DRM have the added step that the DRM also has to be neutralized, which generally means finding that same type of logic step in the DRM and changing it.\n\nBeyond that, the actual method depends on what method was used to try and prevent piracy. It's a never-ending cat and mouse game.",
'There isn\'t really a single answer to this, because there isn\'t a single way to copy protect a game.\n\nAt a high level, all "copy protections" are is a specific set of code that looks for / does a specific thing. If the thing that it looks for isn\'t there or the action is tries to take doesn\'t work, the code won\'t allow the software to function. The pirates will then write a patch that disables or changes that specific line of code to do something else, so that it either doesn\'t check or always passes the check, thus allowing the software to continue to run.\n\nNow, actually writing that patch is often easier said than done, but that is the basic idea.',
'A few years ago this was really easy. Basically, whenever the game started there was a short check in the code whether the CD was inserted. The check (in pseudo code) looks like this: "if CD is not inserted: stop program". As a pirate you\'d try to find out where exactly in the code this part is located (for example using a debugger) and then you replace the "if not" code with an "if". A simple analogy would be to see a mathematical term "a - b = 3" and adding a horizontal line in the minus to make it a plus. This changes the term completely without adding any additional symbols. This means that the game now exits when a CD is inserted instead of when it\'s out.\n\nNowadays it\'s a bit more complicated, as companies started adding additional checks, sometimes even checking whether the application has been tempered with. In the end it\'s just a lot of "if" checks, so you basically only have to find all of them and change them.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8rcz38',
'query': 'how do pirates crack game?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '16733435',
'title': 'Salt marsh dieback',
'section': 'Section::::Waterlogging hypothesis.:Reduced aerobic respiration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'As aerobic respiration decreases, the plants become oxygen deficient, since the roots are unable to produce enough oxygen in the reduced soil conditions. Decreased oxygen uptake can also decrease plant productivity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17964574',
'title': 'List of ecoregions in North America (CEC)',
'section': 'Section::::Tropical Wet Forests.:Effects of climate change.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 461,
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'end_paragraph_id': 461,
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'passage_text': "Over the last 100 years the Earth's temperature has increased 0.6 degrees Celsius and it is predicted to increase an additional 3.5 degrees over the next century. Tropical wet forests account for only 6% of earth's land surface yet are responsible for 40% of earth’s oxygen production. Any type of change to this system can prove to have significant detrimental effects in terms of global oxygen availability. In addition, due to the sensitivity and fragile interactions between organisms and the atmosphere, ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration rates, will experience even larger adverse effects.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '216362',
'title': 'Biosphere 2',
'section': 'Section::::Group dynamics: psychology, conflict, and cooperation.:Challenges.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
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'end_paragraph_id': 34,
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'passage_text': "Many suspected the drop in oxygen was due to microbes in the soil. The soils were selected to have enough carbon to provide for the plants of the ecosystems to grow from infancy to maturity, a plant mass increase of perhaps . The release rate of that soil carbon as carbon dioxide by respiration of soil microbes was an unknown that the Biosphere\xa02 experiment was designed to reveal. Subsequent research showed that Biosphere 2's farm soils had reached a more stable ratio of carbon and nitrogen, lowering the rate of release, by 1998.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1524053',
'title': 'Nicolas Théodore de Saussure',
'section': 'Section::::Career.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'In "Recherches chimiques sur la Végétation", Saussure showed that the increase in the mass of a plant as it grows could not be due only to the uptake of CO, but was also a result of the incorporation of water into plant dry matter. In addition, Saussure demonstrated that plants obtain their carbon from the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, not through uptake from humus in the soil, as his immediate predecessors in photosynthesis research had generally believed. He also showed that plants require mineral nutrients, which they take up from the soil, and nitrogen, although he did not trace the source of plant nitrogen definitively to the soil. Saussure\'s finding that the source of plant minerals was the soil disproved the widely held view that mineral substances in plants arose from vague "transmutations" within the plant. His work enabled completion of the basic, overall chemical equation of photosynthesis, according to which carbon dioxide and water, in the presence of light, are converted by a green plant into fixed carbon (such as glucose, food for the plant), with gaseous oxygen released as a byproduct. Based on his accomplishments in plant chemistry and physiology, Saussure is considered the last of the major early pioneers of photosynthesis research, completing the work begun by his predecessors, including Jan van Helmont, Joseph Priestley, Jan Ingen-Housz, and Jean Senebier.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8103',
'title': 'Deforestation',
'section': 'Section::::Environmental effects.:Atmospheric.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': "Rainforests are widely believed by laymen to contribute a significant amount of the world's oxygen, although it is now accepted by scientists that rainforests contribute little net oxygen to the atmosphere and deforestation has only a minor effect on atmospheric oxygen levels. However, the incineration and burning of forest plants to clear land releases large amounts of CO, which contributes to global warming. Scientists also state that tropical deforestation releases 1.5 billion tons of carbon each year into the atmosphere.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4128748',
'title': 'Oxygen-18',
'section': 'Section::::Plant physiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 488,
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'passage_text': "In the study of plants' photorespiration, the labeling of atmosphere by oxygen-18 allows us to measure the oxygen uptake by the photorespiration pathway. Labeling by gives the unidirectional flux of uptake, while there is a net photosynthetic evolution. It was demonstrated that, under preindustrial atmosphere, most plants reabsorb, by photorespiration, half of the oxygen produced by photosynthesis. Then, the yield of photosynthesis was halved by the presence of oxygen in atmosphere.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29957884',
'title': 'Carboniferous rainforest collapse',
'section': 'Section::::Biotic recovery and evolutionary consequences.:Invertebrates.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'The depletion of plant life contributed to declining concentrations of oxygen in the atmosphere. High oxygen levels had made the enormous arthropods of the time possible. Due to the decreasing oxygen, these sizes could no longer be accommodated, and thus between this and the loss of habitat, the giant arthropods were wiped out in this event, most notably the giant dragonflies (Meganeura) and millipedes (Arthropleura)..\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "What would happen to us/nature if we planted enough oxygen producing plants to increase the oxygen content of Earth's atmosphere by 1%? 5%? 10%?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Higher oxygen content would do two things I can think of off the top of my head.\n\nInsects size is constrained mainly by oxygen content because of how their breathing systems work. If you increased the oxygen content of the Earth, bugs would get bigger. Like, doubling their normal size.\n\nSecond, fire burns more intensely and easily with higher oxygen content. Globally, forest fires would be more common and more destructive, which would balance out the extra oxygen by releasing more CO2.\n\nBut a big problem with generating that extra oxygen in the first place would be the giant amounts of resources needed to ramp up tree planting or algae growth. Those efforts would almost certainly need industries which would pollute so much that it would be difficult to reach even 1%.',
"The atmosphere is 4,200,000,000 km^3, that's 4,200,000,000,000,000 m^3 or 147,000,000,000,000,000 ft^3. It's 21% oxygen, so let's round to 10,000,000,000,000 m^3 to raise it 1%. That's a lot. We mostly make oxygen gas by pulling it out of the air. You could split some water, but you'd have a huge amount of super dangerous hydrogen just looking for an excuse to burn and pull oxygen out of the air. It would take a ginormous amount of plants/algae to pull that out of the available CO2 -- **But Wait** -- the atmosphere is only 0.04% CO2. You could only get 1/25^th of the oxygen you want if your converted **ALL** the CO2."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '8g2oua',
'query': "what would happen to us/nature if we planted enough oxygen producing plants to increase the oxygen content of earth's atmosphere by 1%? 5%? 10%?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '30297',
'title': 'Tax',
'section': 'Section::::In developing countries.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 177,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 177,
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'passage_text': 'Some low-income countries have relatively high tax-to- GDP ratios due to resource tax revenues (e.g. Angola) or relatively efficient tax administration (e.g. Kenya, Brazil) whereas some middle-income countries have lower tax-to-GDP ratios (e.g. Malaysia) which reflect a more tax-friendly policy choice.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19261',
'title': 'Monaco',
'section': 'Section::::Economy.:Taxes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 79,
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'passage_text': 'Monaco has never levied income tax on individuals, and foreigners are thus able to use it as a "tax haven" from their own country\'s taxes, because as an independent country, Monaco is not obligated to pay taxes to other countries. The absence of a personal income tax in the principality has attracted to it a considerable number of wealthy "tax refugee" residents from European countries who derive the majority of their income from activity outside Monaco; celebrities such as Formula One drivers attract most of the attention, but the vast majority of them are lesser-known business people. However, due to a bilateral treaty with France, French citizens are still required to pay applicable income and wealth taxes to the French state even if they are resident in Monaco, and the principality also actively discourages the registration of foreign corporations, charging a 33 per cent corporation tax on profits unless it can be shown that at least three-quarters of the turnover has been generated within its borders. Unlike classic tax havens, it does not offer offshore financial services.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '296328',
'title': 'Sales tax',
'section': 'Section::::Types.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': "Most countries in the world have sales taxes or value-added taxes at all or several of the national, state, county, or city government levels. Countries in Western Europe, especially in Scandinavia, have some of the world's highest valued-added taxes. Norway, Denmark and Sweden have higher VATs at 25%, Hungary has the highest at 27% although reduced rates are used in some cases, as for groceries, art, books and newspapers.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27318',
'title': 'Singapore',
'section': 'Section::::Economy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 76,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 76,
'end_character': 517,
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'passage_text': "Singapore has the world's highest percentage of millionaires, with one out of every six households having at least one million US dollars in disposable wealth. This excludes property, businesses, and luxury goods, which if included would increase the number of millionaires, especially as property in Singapore is among the world's most expensive. Singapore does not have a minimum wage, believing that it would lower its competitiveness. It also has one of the highest income inequalities among developed countries.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19112',
'title': 'Economy of Malaysia',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Malaysian citizens lead a much more affluent lifestyle compared to their peers in upper-middle income countries like Mexico, Turkey, and Brazil. This is due to a low national income tax, low cost of local food, transport fuel, household essentials, a fully subsidized single payer public-healthcare and comprehensive social welfare benefit with direct cash transfer. With an income per capita of 28,681 PPP Dollars (2017 World Bank) or 10,620 nominal US Dollars, Malaysia is the third wealthiest nation in Southeast Asia after the smaller city-states of Singapore and Brunei. Malaysia has a newly industrialised market economy, which is relatively open and state-oriented. The Malaysian economy is highly robust and diversified with the export value of high-tech products in 2015 standing at US$57.258 billion, the second highest after Singapore in ASEAN. Malaysia exports the second largest volume and value of palm oil products globally after Indonesia.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19266',
'title': 'Economy of Monaco',
'section': 'Section::::Modern times.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Low taxes have drawn many foreign companies to Monaco and account for around 75% of the $5.748 billion annual GDP income in (2011). Similarly, tourism accounts for close to 15% of the annual revenue, as the Principality of Monaco also has been a major center for tourism ever since the famed Monte Carlo Casino, which was established in 1856. The casino is alluded to in the ABBA song "Money, Money, Money".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30297',
'title': 'Tax',
'section': 'Section::::In developing countries.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 175,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 175,
'end_character': 582,
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'passage_text': 'In high-income countries, the highest tax-to-GDP ratio is in Denmark at 47% and the lowest is in Kuwait at 0.8%, reflecting low taxes from strong oil revenues. Long-term average performance of tax revenue as a share of GDP in low-income countries has been largely stagnant, although most have shown some improvement in more recent years. On average, resource-rich countries have made the most progress, rising from 10% in the mid-1990s to around 17% in 2008. Non resource rich countries made some progress, with average tax revenues increasing from 10% to 15% over the same period.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do states like Monaco and Singapore make so much money and have low taxes?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Singaporean here. We are rich because we have low corporate taxes. When it comes to high-skilled, high-salaried industries like banking, petroleum and medicine, the operating costs (skilled labour, input materials, energy costs) are the same worldwide. Even though land is expensive here, over the Long run of a company’s life it represents a minor cost at best.\n\nSo companies trying to max out their profits go for low-tax counties like Singapore, to retain as much of the profit margin as possible. It helps that Singapore is extremely business friendly, English-educated and politically stable. Many companies from neighbouring regions such as Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, China like to set up operations in Singapore, while international companies from the EU/USA/Australia/Middle East set up regional hubs in Singapore to coordinate their operations in Southeast Asia /Asia as a whole.\n\nEventually, the government gets the money back through individual income taxes, GST taxes (VAT or sales taxes), some smaller amounts through vehicle ownership taxes, property taxes etc. They aggressively invest the tax revenue and the returns provide even more revenue. Since we don’t have social welfare (unemployment benefits, universal healthcare, etc) the government doesn’t need to spend much and accumulates a budget surplus most years. This is again reinvested and provides more income in the future.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9ev3rd',
'query': 'how do states like monaco and singapore make so much money and have low taxes?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '47488',
'title': 'Barometer',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:MEMS Barometers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
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'passage_text': "A barometer can also be found in smartphones such as the Samsung Galaxy Nexus, Samsung Galaxy S3-S6, Motorola Xoom, Apple iPhone 6 smartphones, and Timex Expedition WS4 smartwatch, based on MEMS and piezoresistive pressure-sensing technologies. Inclusion of barometers on smartphones was originally intended to provide a faster GPS lock. However, third party researchers were unable to confirm additional GPS accuracy or lock speed due to barometric readings. The researchers suggest that the inclusion of barometers in smartphones may provide a solution for determining a user's elevation, but also suggest that several pitfalls must first be overcome.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47488',
'title': 'Barometer',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'A barometer is a scientific instrument that is used to measure air pressure in a certain environment. Pressure tendency can forecast short term changes in the weather. Many measurements of air pressure are used within surface weather analysis to help find surface troughs, pressure systems and frontal boundaries.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39901907',
'title': "EurObserv'ER",
'section': 'Section::::Publications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': 'The barometers do not only provide reliable figures on the markets but also analysis and description of the facts and trends in each RES sector. They publish comparable data by using collection and calculation methodologies that are the same for all the countries of EU.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47488',
'title': 'Barometer',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Aneroid barometers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
'end_character': 959,
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'passage_text': 'An aneroid barometer is an instrument used for measuring pressure as a method that does not involve liquid. Invented in 1844 by French scientist Lucien Vidi, the aneroid barometer uses a small, flexible metal box called an aneroid cell (capsule), which is made from an alloy of beryllium and copper. The evacuated capsule (or usually several capsules, stacked to add up their movements) is prevented from collapsing by a strong spring. Small changes in external air pressure cause the cell to expand or contract. This expansion and contraction drives mechanical levers such that the tiny movements of the capsule are amplified and displayed on the face of the aneroid barometer. Many models include a manually set needle which is used to mark the current measurement so a change can be seen. This type of barometer is common in homes and in recreational boats. It is also used in meteorology, mostly in barographs and as a pressure instrument in radiosondes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14417117',
'title': 'Microbarometer',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Microbarometers are sensitive barometers that can measure air pressure with high precision. Microbarometers typically have a resolution of microbars (μbar) or pascals (Pa), while ordinary barometers can only resolve in hectopascals (hPa) or millibars (mbar). Recording microbarometers, or microbarographs, distributed around the world are planned to be used to monitor compliance with the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (upon entry into force) by detecting the infrasound signature of a nuclear explosion, which can propagate for very long distances. By analyzing the data received at several of these monitoring stations, the location and yield of the explosion can be determined.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3281057',
'title': 'Thermodynamic instruments',
'section': 'Section::::Thermodynamic meters.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Barometer - a device which measures pressure. An ideal gas barometer may be constructed by mechanically connecting an ideal gas to the system being measured, while thermally insulating it. The volume will then measure pressure, by the ideal gas equation "P=NkT/V"\xa0.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47488',
'title': 'Barometer',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Barometers and pressure altimeters (the most basic and common type of altimeter) are essentially the same instrument, but used for different purposes. An altimeter is intended to be used at different levels matching the corresponding atmospheric pressure to the altitude, while a barometer is kept at the same level and measures subtle pressure changes caused by weather and elements of weather.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'what information can I get from a barometer and how can it be useful for me?',
'selftext': 'My phone has a barometer and it allows me to check pressure of surrounding air. My current air pressure is 1014 hPa. What does this mean and can I use this information for anything?',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Barometers can be used to predict the weather or estimate your altitude. If you put your phone in a bag and submerge it underwater, you can use a bit of math to measure its depth.\n\nMost useful stuff the barometer can do, apps already do.',
'Air pressure decreases as elevation increases. Air pressure increases as it becomes more saturated with moisture/cools down.\n\nSo, if you monitor the change in pressure, you can tell the elevation change if the weather stays the same, or predict weather changes if you don’t change elevation.\n\nAnd as your phone also contains a GPS which can pinpoint your elevation outside, you can easily track weather systems based on the air pressure — of course, your weather app can do that too.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'fc7lne',
'query': 'what information can i get from a barometer and how can it be useful for me?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '11603215',
'title': 'Geological history of Earth',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "The geological history of Earth follows the major events in Earth's past based on the geological time scale, a system of chronological measurement based on the study of the planet's rock layers (stratigraphy). Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago by accretion from the solar nebula, a disk-shaped mass of dust and gas left over from the formation of the Sun, which also created the rest of the Solar System.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21830',
'title': 'Nature',
'section': 'Section::::Earth.:Historical perspective.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': 'Earth is estimated to have formed 4.54\xa0billion years ago from the solar nebula, along with the Sun and other planets. The moon formed roughly 20\xa0million years later. Initially molten, the outer layer of the Earth cooled, resulting in the solid crust. Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing water vapor, most or all of which came from ice delivered by comets, produced the oceans and other water sources. The highly energetic chemistry is believed to have produced a self-replicating molecule around 4\xa0billion years ago.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26780222',
'title': 'Earth analog',
'section': 'Section::::Attributes and criteria.:Terrestrial.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
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'passage_text': "Many of Earth's surface materials and landforms are formed as a result of interaction with water (such as clay and sedimentary rocks) or as a byproduct of life (such as limestone or coal), interaction with the atmosphere, volcanically or artificially. A true Earth analog therefore might need to have formed through similar processes, having possessed an atmosphere, volcanic interactions with the surface, past or present liquid water and life forms.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1114005',
'title': 'Geology of the Capitol Reef area',
'section': 'Section::::Primary deposition of sediments.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 620,
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'passage_text': 'Some important concepts: A "formation" is a formally named and defined geologic unit with unique characteristics. Those characteristics were created during a largely unbroken period of time and result from the specific depositional environment that the formation was laid down in. A "member" is a minor unit in a formation and a "bed" is a distinct subunit of a member. "Groups" are sets of formations that are related in significant ways such as, for example, all being deposited during a dry period that lasted millions of years or as the result of an ocean periodically flooding the same area over millions of years.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '670655',
'title': 'Kolob',
'section': 'Section::::Doctrine and exegesis.:Mormon exegesis and speculation.:Birthplace for the Earth.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "The idea that the Earth was formed elsewhere and then migrated to orbit around the Sun differs from the scientific explanation of the Earth's formation. According to scientific consensus, the Earth formed in orbit around the Sun about 4.5 billion years ago by accretion from a protoplanetary disk, and has remained near its original orbit until the present.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21989082',
'title': 'West African Craton',
'section': 'Section::::Wanderings.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
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'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 512,
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'passage_text': 'The Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago. As it cooled, the lithosphere, consisting of the crust and the rigid uppermost part of the mantle, solidified. The lithosphere rides on the asthenosphere, which is also solid but can flow like a liquid on geological time scales. The lithosphere is broken up into tectonic plates, which slowly move in relation to one another at speeds of 50–100\xa0mm annually, colliding, combining into continents, splitting and drifting apart to form new continental configurations.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '145700',
'title': 'Crust (geology)',
'section': "Section::::Earth's crust.:Formation and evolution.\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
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'end_paragraph_id': 31,
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'passage_text': "Earth formed approximately 4.6 billion years ago from a disk of dust and gas orbiting the newly formed Sun. It formed via accretion, where planetesimals and other smaller rocky bodies collided and stuck, gradually growing into a planet. This process generated an enormous amount of heat, which caused early Earth to melt completely. As planetary accretion slowed, Earth began to cool, forming its first crust, called a primary or primordial crust. This crust was likely repeatedly destroyed by large impacts, then reformed from the magma ocean left by the impact. None of Earth's primary crust has survived to today; all was destroyed by erosion, impacts, and plate tectonics over the past several billion years. \n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do we define when the Earth formed?',
'selftext': "Since I'm assuming it formed over a massive timescale how do we define when it stopped being a clump of rock?",
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': [' > how do we define when it stopped being a clump of rock?\n\nBut it still is a big clump of rock. That\'s not mutually exclusive with being categorized as a planet, and the actual definition of a planet is rather arbitrary. Pluto is a good example, as it was classified as a planet initially, but the International Astronomical Union updated its definition of a planet in a way that disqualified Pluto, reclassifying it as a dwarf planet instead.\n\nUsing the IAU\'s definition of a planet, the Earth became one once it met the following criteria:\n\n_URL_0_ in orbit around the Sun, \n2.has sufficient mass to assume hydrostatic equilibrium (a nearly round shape), and \n3.has "cleared the neighborhood" around its orbit.\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '87cw4b',
'query': 'how do we define when the earth formed?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '35152005',
'title': 'Hardgainer',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Difficulty building muscle is often associated with the ectomorph body somatotype, however other common reasons also include a lack of proper nutrition, suitable physical activity level or not allowing enough recovery time for the stressed muscles to regain their previous state and then grow bigger (overtraining).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1240348',
'title': 'Strength training',
'section': 'Section::::Technique.:Intensity, volume, and frequency.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 51,
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'passage_text': 'These variables are important because they are all mutually conflicting, as the muscle only has so much strength and endurance, and takes time to recover due to microtrauma. Increasing one by any significant amount necessitates the decrease of the other two, e.g. increasing weight means a reduction of reps, and will require more recovery time and therefore fewer workouts per week. Trying to push too much intensity, volume and frequency will result in overtraining, and eventually lead to injury and other health issues such as chronic soreness and general lethargy, illness or even acute trauma such as avulsion fractures. A high-medium-low formula can be used to avoid overtraining, with either intensity, volume, or frequency being high, one of the others being medium, and the other being low. One example of this training strategy can be found in the following chart:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19723734',
'title': 'Muscle',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical significance.:Hypertrophy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 68,
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'end_paragraph_id': 68,
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'passage_text': 'Independent of strength and performance measures, muscles can be induced to grow larger by a number of factors, including hormone signaling, developmental factors, strength training, and disease. Contrary to popular belief, the number of muscle fibres cannot be increased through exercise. Instead, muscles grow larger through a combination of muscle cell growth as new protein filaments are added along with additional mass provided by undifferentiated satellite cells alongside the existing muscle cells.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37841887',
'title': 'Elastic mechanisms in animals',
'section': 'Section::::Elastic mechanisms for power attenuation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
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'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 601,
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'passage_text': 'Similarly, tendons are unable to entirely insulate muscles from dynamic extension. Tendons affect muscles when muscles lengthen, which affects peak forces experienced due to energy absorbing actions in the muscle tendon unit. Active lengthening of muscle fibers results in both an accumulation and loss of energy. Even though energy is briefly stored in stretched elastic elements are also released, there is an overall net gain. This shows that muscle fibers are effective in both power production and for energy consumption utilized by the body or individual body segments with muscle-tendon units.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '571549',
'title': 'Myocyte',
'section': 'Section::::Development.:Muscle fiber growth.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
'end_character': 462,
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'passage_text': 'Muscle fibers grow when exercised and shrink when not in use. This is due to the fact that exercise stimulates the increase in myofibrils which increase the overall size of muscle cells. Well exercised muscles can not only add more size but can also develop more mitochondria, myoglobin, glycogen and a higher density of capillaries. However muscle cells cannot divide to produce new cells, and as a result we have fewer muscle cells as an adult than a newborn.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18447032',
'title': 'Muscle contracture',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Muscle contractures can occur for many reasons, such as paralysis, muscular atrophy, and forms of muscular dystrophy. Fundamentally, the muscle and its tendons shorten, resulting in reduced flexibility.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29806193',
'title': 'Motor unit plasticity',
'section': 'Section::::Structural Changes of the Motor Unit.:Effector Muscle Size.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': 'Muscle fibers have the ability to drastically increase in size as a result of all types of training. Muscle size is not directly related to muscle strength (force output) as would most likely be assumed. Endurance training can increase the size of low force-producing slow twitch muscle by as much as resistance training can increase the size of high force-producing fast twitch muscle. These situations have the ability to result in two muscles of equal size, but the slow twitch muscle produces only a small fraction of the maximum contractile strength produced by the fast twitch muscle.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does muscle stop growing stronger at some point?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It takes a constant caloric energy feed to support every gram of muscle. You're evolved to face the danger of imminent starvation at any time. \n\nSo the muscles grow in proportion to the exercise they get. Which is proportional to your daily activity. They generally stop growing when they are the size that daily activity does not damage them.\n\nYour body doesn't want them to be much stronger than you need. Look up about the loss of strength people in 0g or being bedridden for even a handful of days experience.\n\nEven with manual labor or purposeful exercise, they will respond by growing if you have proper nutrition. There is an upper maximum limit to their growth even in this case (which weight lifters strive to push).",
'Your body tries to adapt in ways that helps its survival. Sure having a super strong bicep might help you in some survival instance but what people might not know is your tendons are basically set at a max strength. So if your muscles get too strong they will rip tendons off of bone. This is the main reason for limits on muscle strength growth.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '9139io',
'query': 'why does muscle stop growing stronger at some point?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '21789178',
'title': 'River mouth',
'section': 'Section::::Water motion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'The water from a river can enter the receiving body in a variety of different ways. The motion of a river is influenced by the relative density of the river compared to the receiving water, the rotation of the earth, and any ambient motion in the receiving water, such as tides or seiches.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4400374',
'title': 'Surface runoff',
'section': 'Section::::Generation.:Subsurface return flow.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 361,
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'passage_text': 'As it flows, the amount of runoff may be reduced in a number of possible ways: a small portion of it may evapotranspire; water may become temporarily stored in microtopographic depressions; and a portion of it may infiltrate as it flows overland. Any remaining surface water eventually flows into a receiving water body such as a river, lake, estuary or ocean.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2835186',
'title': 'Osmotic concentration',
'section': 'Section::::Osmolarity vs. tonicity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 330,
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'passage_text': 'Penetrating solutes can diffuse through the cell membrane, causing momentary changes in cell volume as the solutes "pull" water molecules with them. Non-penetrating solutes cannot cross the cell membrane; therefore, the movement of water across the cell membrane (i.e., osmosis) must occur for the solutions to reach equilibrium.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18600440',
'title': 'Osmosis',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 509,
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'passage_text': 'When a cell is submerged in water, the water molecules pass through the cell membrane from an area of low solute concentration to high solute concentration. For example, if the cell is submerged in saltwater, water molecules move out of the cell. If a cell is submerged in freshwater, water molecules move into the cell. When the membrane has a volume of pure water on both sides, water molecules pass in and out in each direction at exactly the same rate. There is no net flow of water through the membrane.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1183122',
'title': 'Water potential',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Water potential integrates a variety of different potential drivers of water movement, which may operate in the same or different directions. Within complex biological systems, many potential factors may be operating simultaneously. For example, the addition of solutes lowers the potential (negative vector), while an increase in pressure increases the potential (positive vector). If flow is not restricted, water will move from an area of higher water potential to an area that is lower potential. A common example is water with a dissolved salt, such as sea water or the fluid in a living cell. These solutions have negative water potential, relative to the pure water reference. With no restriction on flow, water will move from the locus of greater potential (pure water) to the locus of lesser (the solution); flow proceeds until the difference in potential is equalized or balanced by another water potential factor, such as pressure or elevation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34808530',
'title': 'Intravoxel incoherent motion',
'section': 'Section::::Model.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 202,
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'passage_text': 'If blood water flows without changing direction (either because flow is slow or measurement time is short) while capillary segments are randomly and isotropically oriented (model 2), formula_3 becomes:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46812080',
'title': 'Carbon nanotubes for water transport',
'section': 'Section::::Surface Chemistry of CNT Water Transport.:Nanoconfined Water.:Diameter and Ion Exclusivity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'The water “wires” increase the water flux, since their ordering reduces the amount molecules can run into each other due to Brownian motion. These chains “densely fill” CNTs less than 1\xa0nm wide and up to 0.1\xa0mm long, forming a system that can mediate proton transfer. While they are highly ordered, the small number of molecules forming a chain prevents the decrease in entropy from being prohibitive, and it costs too much energy to insert a dipole-orientation defect. In these systems, many ions are simply too big to fit through the CNT membrane because their hydration shell’s diameter exceeds that of the CNT. Some ions can be drawn through by charging the membrane.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does water go through your system so quickly?',
'selftext': "I'm making an attempt to be healthier and have been drinking a lot of water recently. Typically I'd have a glass or two of water a day, and the rest of my sustenance was coffee or pop. For some reason, now that I'm drinking much more water, I'm urinating more often. What is it about water that makes you urinate more? Or is it the other way around, where there's something about coffee and pop that makes you retain it longer and urinate less?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Coffee makes you urinate more. But you did take in less water all around(foods drinks etc) do you did not urinate much. Your body takes in enough water and secrates the useless amount via urination and other thinks. Try getting the same amount of water 2L only water and 1.8Lwater 200cc coffee you will urinate more with coffee one. You most likely did not take in enough watery substance when you had coffees and pops',
'Your body only uses what it needs and gets rid of the excess. When it notices it has a whole bunch of water it doesn’t require it sends it straight through you. The reason this is good for you is toxins get diluted more and are flushed out faster. The downside is many of your essential vitamins and minerals will also be flushed out quickly. That’s why it’s important to eat nutritious food daily and not just once in a while.\n\nIn regards to your second question. You can get dehydrated easily if you only drink coffee and pop. Coffee and pop are what’s known as a diuretic. This means it causes more water to be excreted by your cells. This will initially cause frequent peeing but will quickly dehydrate you, at which point you’ll pee much less frequently.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'f98yar',
'query': 'why does water go through your system so quickly?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1246810',
'title': 'Humidifier',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': "A humidifier is a device, primarily an electrical appliance that increases humidity (moisture) in a single room or an entire building. In the home, point-of-use humidifiers are commonly used to humidify a single room, while whole-house or furnace humidifiers, which connect to a home's HVAC system, provide humidity to the entire house. Medical ventilators often include humidifiers for increased patient comfort. Large humidifiers are used in commercial, institutional, or industrial contexts, often as part of a larger HVAC system.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1246810',
'title': 'Humidifier',
'section': 'Section::::Industrial humidifiers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'Industrial humidifiers are used when a specific humidity level must be maintained to prevent static electricity buildup, preserve material properties, and ensure a comfortable and healthy environment for workers or residents.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1246810',
'title': 'Humidifier',
'section': 'Section::::Portable humidifiers.:Natural humidifiers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 790,
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'passage_text': 'One type of evaporative humidifier makes use of just a reservoir and wick. Sometimes called a "natural humidifier", these are usually non-commercial devices that can be assembled at little or no cost. One version of a natural humidifier uses a stainless steel bowl, partially filled with water, covered by a towel. A waterproof weight is used to sink the towel in the center of the bowl. There is no need for a fan, because the water spreads through the towel by capillary action and the towel surface area is large enough to provide for rapid evaporation. The stainless steel bowl is much easier to clean than typical humidifier water tanks. This, in combination with daily or every other day replacement of the towel and periodic laundering, can control the problem of mold and bacteria.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1246810',
'title': 'Humidifier',
'section': 'Section::::Portable humidifiers.:Impeller humidifiers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 277,
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'passage_text': 'An impeller humidifier (cool mist humidifier) uses a rotating disc to fling water at a diffuser, which breaks the water into fine droplets that float into the air. The water supply must be kept scrupulously clean, or there is a risk of spreading bacteria or mold into the air.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38323',
'title': 'Cigar',
'section': 'Section::::Humidors.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 110,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 110,
'end_character': 476,
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'passage_text': 'Most humidors come with a plastic or metal case with a sponge that works as the humidifier, although most recent versions are of polymer acryl. The latter are filled only with distilled water; the former may use a solution of propylene glycol and distilled water. Humidifiers, and the cigars within them, may become contaminated with bacteria if they are kept too moist. New technologies employing plastic beads or gels which stabilize humidity are becoming widely available.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38257191',
'title': 'Surgical humidification',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Surgical humidification is the conditioning of insufflation gas with water vapour (humidity) and heat during surgery. Surgical humidification is used to reduce the risk of tissue drying and evaporative cooling.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '308756',
'title': 'Humidor',
'section': 'Section::::Maintenance.:Humidity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
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'passage_text': 'Electronic humidifiers are also available, although usually reserved for very large humidors. A sensor measures the outside humidity and then activates a ventilator, which blows air over a humid sponge or water tank into the humidor. Once the preset humidity level has been reached the ventilator stops. This way electronic humidifiers can maintain a much more stable humidity level than passive humidifiers. Also they typically will activate an alarm to notify when the moisture supply needs refilling, to prevent humidity drops. The accuracy of electronic humidifiers depends primarily on the integrated type of sensor; the capacitive type are preferred.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does humidifier work?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['So unlike boiling water where you have to heat the water to make it vaporize, humidifiers work differently. \n\nWhat happens is there is an item inside the humidifier called a wick. The wick is almost like a sponge the just soaks up water. When you turn the humidifier on it sucks in air and blows it through the wick. Small warm particles of water are grabbed by the moving error and are sent through the air. '],
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'query_id': '98if90',
'query': 'how does humidifier work?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '143689',
'title': 'Vacuum flask',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': "A vacuum flask (also known as a Dewar flask, Dewar bottle or thermos) is an insulating storage vessel that greatly lengthens the time over which its contents remain hotter or cooler than the flask's surroundings. Invented by Sir James Dewar in 1892, the vacuum flask consists of two flasks, placed one within the other and joined at the neck. The gap between the two flasks is partially evacuated of air, creating a near-vacuum which significantly reduces heat transfer by conduction or convection.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '143689',
'title': 'Vacuum flask',
'section': 'Section::::Research and industry.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'In laboratories and industry, vacuum flasks are often used to hold liquefied gases (often LN2) for flash freezing, sample preparation and other processes where maintaining an extreme low temperature is desired. Larger vacuum flasks store liquids that become gaseous at well below ambient temperature, such as oxygen and nitrogen; in this case the leakage of heat into the extremely cold interior of the bottle results in a slow boiling-off of the liquid so that a narrow unstoppered opening, or a stoppered opening protected by a pressure relief valve, is necessary to prevent pressure from building up and eventually shattering the flask. The insulation of the vacuum flask results in a very slow "boil" and thus the contents remain liquid for long periods without refrigeration equipment.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '143689',
'title': 'Vacuum flask',
'section': 'Section::::Design.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': "The vacuum flask consists of two vessels, one placed within the other and joined at the neck. The gap between the two vessels is partially evacuated of air, creating a partial-vacuum which reduces heat conduction or convection. Heat transfer by thermal radiation may be minimized by silvering flask surfaces facing the gap but can become problematic if the flask's contents or surroundings are very hot; hence vacuum flasks usually hold contents below the boiling point of water. Most heat transfer occurs through the neck and opening of the flask, where there is no vacuum. Vacuum flasks are usually made of metal, borosilicate glass, foam or plastic and have their opening stoppered with cork or polyethylene plastic. Vacuum flasks are often used as insulated shipping containers.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15806863',
'title': 'Koozie',
'section': 'Section::::Use.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
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'passage_text': 'Insulated beverage containers, or KOOZIE branded products, are used to insulate a chilled beverage from warming by warm air or sunlight. Using an insulated beverage container, or KOOZIE branded product, can reduce the rate a drink warms in the sun by up to 50%.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3682802',
'title': 'Vespel',
'section': 'Section::::Characteristics and applications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'Unlike most plastics, it does not produce significant outgassing even at high temperatures, which makes it useful for lightweight heat shields and crucible support. It also performs well in vacuum applications, down to extremely low cryogenic temperatures. However, Vespel tends to absorb a small amount of water, resulting in longer pump time while placed in a vacuum.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48553837',
'title': 'Vacuum cooling',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Vacuum cooling is a rapid cooling technique for any porous product which has free water and works on the principle of evaporative cooling. Vacuum cooling is generally used for cooling food products having a high water content and large porosities, due to its efficacy in losing water from both within and outside the products. This is the most widely used technique for rapid cooling of food product which has been proven to be one of the most efficient and economical method of cooling and storage of vegetables, fruits, flowers & more. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7367038',
'title': 'Vacuum packing',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Vacuum packing reduces atmospheric oxygen, limiting the growth of aerobic bacteria or fungi, and preventing the evaporation of volatile components. It is also commonly used to store dry foods over a long period of time, such as cereals, nuts, cured meats, cheese, smoked fish, coffee, and potato chips (crisps). On a more short term basis, vacuum packing can also be used to store fresh foods, such as vegetables, meats, and liquids, because it inhibits bacterial growth.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do vacuum insulated containers insulate cold beverages longer than hot beverages?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['They don\'t. It\'s a difference in your perception of what constitutes "hot" and "cold", and the way thermal transfer works. \n \nRoom temperature is ~70F; a hot beverage might be ~170F. A 100F difference. A cold beverage isn\'t going to be any colder than ~32F, about a 40F difference. \n \nSo you need to heat your beverage up a lot for you to think of it as truly hot...much more so than making a beverage cold. \n \nThen there\'s heat transfer. Heat transfer happens the fastest when the temperature difference is the greatest. So your "hot" beverage initially loses heat faster than your "cold" beverage gains it. \n \nSo there are two factors working against the hot beverage. It cools faster due to the greater temperature difference, and you don\'t think of it as "hot" when it cools down just a bit. \n \nIf you were to take 2 beverages and cool one 20 degrees below room temperature and heat another 20 degrees above room temperature, you\'d find that they both approach room temp at the same rate.\n \nEDIT: Note that to do this correctly, I should have represented all temperatures in Kelvin. The conclusions are still correct, but the numbers are not quite right as I wrote it. \n ',
"In general, heat tries to equalize, and the larger the difference between two temperatures, the faster it happens.\n\nThink of it like this, a thermos full of coffee is 70° and the outside world is 15°.\n\nA thermos full of milkshake is about 5° and the outside world is still 15°\n\nSo there's a larger temperature gradient between the coffee and the Earth, than between the milkshake and the Earth. So the coffee cools quicker than the milk warms.",
'I could totally be wrong but if it’s vacuum insulated you can’t have any convective heat transfer (since there needs to be a fluid medium like air/water). All of the heat transfer would be through radiation and conduction. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '858prz',
'query': 'why do vacuum insulated containers insulate cold beverages longer than hot beverages?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3330370',
'title': 'Vapor barrier',
'section': 'Section::::Building construction.:Usage.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A vapor barrier on the warm side of the envelope must be combined with a venting path on the cold side of the insulation. This is because no vapor barrier is perfect, and because water may get into the structure, typically from rain. In general, the better the vapor barrier and the drier the conditions, the less venting is required.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6900318',
'title': 'Building insulation',
'section': 'Section::::Materials.:Conductive and convective insulators.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Bulk insulators block conductive heat transfer and convective flow either into or out of a building. The denser a material is, the better it will conduct heat. Because air has such low density, air is a very poor conductor and therefore makes a good insulator. Insulation to resist conductive heat transfer uses air spaces between fibers, inside foam or plastic bubbles and in building cavities like the attic. This is beneficial in an actively cooled or heated building, but can be a liability in a passively cooled building; adequate provisions for cooling by ventilation or radiation are needed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47526',
'title': 'Convection',
'section': 'Section::::Examples and applications of convection.:Weather.\n',
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'passage_text': "Warm air has a lower density than cool air, so warm air rises within cooler air, similar to hot air balloons. Clouds form as relatively warmer air carrying moisture rises within cooler air. As the moist air rises, it cools, causing some of the water vapor in the rising packet of air to condense. When the moisture condenses, it releases energy known as latent heat of condensation which allows the rising packet of air to cool less than its surrounding air, continuing the cloud's ascension. If enough instability is present in the atmosphere, this process will continue long enough for cumulonimbus clouds to form, which support lightning and thunder. Generally, thunderstorms require three conditions to form: moisture, an unstable airmass, and a lifting force (heat).\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '226498',
'title': 'Convection cell',
'section': "Section::::Within the Earth's troposphere.:Thunderstorms.\n",
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'passage_text': "Warm air has a lower density than cool air, so warm air rises within cooler air, similar to hot air balloons. Clouds form as relatively warmer air carrying moisture rises within cooler air. As the moist air rises, it cools, causing some of the water vapor in the rising packet of air to condense. When the moisture condenses, it releases energy known as the latent heat of vaporisation, which allows the rising packet of air to cool less than its surrounding air, continuing the cloud's ascension. If enough instability is present in the atmosphere, this process will continue long enough for cumulonimbus clouds to form, which support lightning and thunder. Generally, thunderstorms require three conditions to form: moisture, an unstable air mass, and a lifting force (heat).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11963992',
'title': 'Atmospheric convection',
'section': 'Section::::Initiation.:Thunderstorms.\n',
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'passage_text': "Warm air has a lower density than cool air, so warm air rises within cooler air, similar to hot air balloons. Clouds form as relatively warmer air carrying moisture rises within cooler air. As the moist air rises, it cools causing some of the water vapor in the rising packet of air to condense. When the moisture condenses, it releases energy known as latent heat of vaporization which allows the rising packet of air to cool less than its surrounding air, continuing the cloud's ascension. If enough instability is present in the atmosphere, this process will continue long enough for cumulonimbus clouds to form, which support lightning and thunder. Generally, thunderstorms require three conditions to form: moisture, an unstable airmass, and a lifting force (heat).\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '253849',
'title': 'R-value (insulation)',
'section': 'Section::::Primary role.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The primary role of such insulation is to make the thermal conductivity of the insulation that of trapped, stagnant air. However this cannot be realized fully because the glass wool or foam needed to prevent convection increases the heat conduction compared to that of still air. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '224336',
'title': 'Cloud base',
'section': 'Section::::Weather and climate relevance.\n',
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'passage_text': "Clouds greatly affect the transfer of radiation in the atmosphere. In the thermal spectral domain, water is a strong absorber (and thus emitter, according to Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation); hence clouds exchange thermal radiation between their bases and the underlying planetary surface (land or ocean) by absorbing and re-emitting this infrared radiation at the prevailing temperature – the lower the cloud base, the warmer the cloud particles and the higher the rate of emission. For a synthetic discussion of the impact of clouds (and in particular the role of cloud bases) on climate systems, see the IPCC Third Assessment Report, in particular chapter 7.2.\n",
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'title': 'If air is a better insulator than water, why do clouds trap heat?',
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'category': 'Physics',
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'answers': ["Heat is transferred in three ways\n\n1. Radiation - This is IR and other energy which is emitted from something warm\n\n2. Conduction - This is energy transferred between two objects that are physically touching\n\n3. Convection - This is the movement of energy through currents like hot air rising and cold air sinking or running a fan to even out the temperature\n\nWhen you talk about air being a better insulator than water you're talking about conduction of heat. Water is significantly denser so particles bump into each other and pass energy around much quicker than in air. We generally design insulation to have little air pockets so there isn't enough air to have significant heat transfer from convection.\n\nClouds trap heat by blocking radiation transfer. The warm Earth emits IR which on a clear day will continue out into space, but on an overcast day will bounce off the clouds and come back to Earth or be absorbed and warm the cloud. Since there is no mass to conduct heat to in space, the only way for the Earth to get rid of energy is to radiate it out into space so blocking that path results in the Earth staying warm."],
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '23251810',
'title': 'Musti-yuddha',
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'passage_text': 'Aspiring boxers undergo years of apprenticeship, toughening their fists against stone and other hard surfaces, until they are able to break coconuts and rocks with their bare hands. Any part of the body may be targeted, except the groin, but the prime targets are the head and chest. Techniques incorporate punches, kicks, elbows, knees and grabs. Boxers wear no form of protection and fight bare-fisted. Matches may be one-on-one, one against a group, or group against group. Victory can be attained by knockout, ringout or submission.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23130107',
'title': 'Makera Assada',
'section': 'Section::::Occupations.:Blacksmithing in Makera Assada.:Process of blacksmthing in Assada.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Punching may be done to create a decorative pattern, or to make a hole, for example, in preparation for making a hammer head, a smith would punch a hole in a heavy bar or rod for the hammer handle. Punching is not limited to depressions and holes. It also includes cutting, slitting and drifting; these are done with a chisel.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8106538',
'title': 'Real World/Road Rules Challenge: The Inferno',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Brick by Brick: The players must transfer their bricks one at a time from one pile to the next, while walking across a plank. Players are disqualified if they drop a brick, break one, or fall off the plank. Whoever has transferred the most bricks at the end of three and a half hours wins.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '145092',
'title': 'Blacksmith',
'section': 'Section::::Smithing process.:Punching.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Punching may be done to create a decorative pattern, or to make a hole. For example, in preparation for making a hammerhead, a smith would punch a hole in a heavy bar or rod for the hammer handle. Punching is not limited to depressions and holes. It also includes cutting, slitting, and drifting—all done with a chisel.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '574095',
'title': 'Strike (attack)',
'section': 'Section::::Risks.\n',
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'passage_text': "The human hand is made up of many small bones which may be damaged by heavy impact. If a hard part of the opponent's body or other hard object is inadvertently struck, the metacarpals may splay on impact and break. Boxers tape their hands so as to hold the metacarpals together and keep them from splaying. One can toughen one's bones by striking objects to induce osteoclasts (cells which remove bone) and osteoblasts (which form bone) to remodel the bone over the struck area increasing the density of bone at the striking surface. For more information on bone remodeling, see Wolff's law.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47184306',
'title': 'Indonesian martial arts',
'section': 'Section::::Systems.:Tinju.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The word "tinju" means fist-fighting and usually refers to western boxing. In Flores a form of boxing exists which involves four people. As two boxers fight, each is steered by a partner holding their waistband from behind. Attacks may be delivered with the open hand, closed fist, backhand, elbow, or a combination of these. Only the hands, arms and shoulders may be used. Kicks and throws are not permitted. The history of tinju is unknown but it is most common in Bajawa and most likely originated there. In earlier times, each boxer would hold a smooth round stone in one hand and wrap the hand in cloth. Matches are full-contact and victory is determined on points.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '1054825',
'title': 'Punching bag',
'section': 'Section::::Construction.:Types of bag.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A boxer normally hits the speed bag from the front with his or her fists, but it is also possible to use fists and elbows to hit the bag from all around it, including the front, back and sides. In this method the user may perform many diverse punching combinations that create improvised rhythmic accents.\n',
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'title': 'How do martial artists break huge stacks of bricks without their hand passing through every brick?',
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'answers': ['Dominos. The force is transfered from the top brick down by the breaking bricks themselves.',
'The first thing you need to know is that is is all a trick. They aren\'t breaking "bricks", they are breaking low quality, high sand content paving stones arranged in a specific way to give maximum leverage. Breaking a whole lot of these bricks does take some skill and practice, but just about anyone can break bricks after a few minutes of practice and instruction if they can overcome their fear of hurting themselves.\n\nAs for breaking those big stacks, they are simply knocking one brick into the next like dominos. As I said, it takes skill and practice to do these sorts of stunts. They are just like a skilled magician, they are doing something hard, but not as impossible as they make it out to be.',
"So tldr as /kouhoutek said it's a trick. It consists of a moderate amount of power, some speed and a lot of careful selection and setup of materials.\n\nLonger version is that these blocks or bricks concrete with no reinforcement usually around 8inches by 16 inches in size with a thickness of around 1 inch. Usually they will stack (more on that in a min) a bunch of these, chop, punch or kick through them and then look super satisfied because they just proved their dedication by performing an incredible feat of human strength? right? wrong!\n\nFor starters lets look at their strike. If we turn to the exciting world of material science we can discover that when a non reinforced slab of concrete of around an inch in size is subjected to bending stresses (what happens when you hit it in the middle) it has extremely low strength. For a point of reference given the 8x16x1 measurements I would estimate around 130lbs of force required to break this block. Consider that is likely less than the individuals weight and heavy weight boxers can hit for over 1000lbs of force (often well over 3 times their weight) while striking horizontally (much harder to get weight behind strikes than vertically) it really isn't impressive, in fact the hardest part of this would be convincing the person striking of this fact so they hit it with full force without worrying about injury.\n\nNow i know what your thinking, well ok so one block isn't impressive but what about those dudes who do like 20? Again this is a glorified parlor trick. Note that they never break a single big 20 inch thick slab, instead they opt for 20x1inch slabs, why? well again we can turn to science, specifically how force is transferred between objects. When breaking objects in this domino style manner it actually only takes marginally more force to break subsequent blocks, to boost this a lot of people will add marbles or other separators between the slabs to make this force transfer even more efficient.\n\nThese stunts look impressive but they largely aren't, there is no mysticism or super secret sauce developed over 1000 years in some ghetto ass monastery that makes this stuff possible its a basic understanding of materials and the confidence to hit it as hard as you can. The rest of it is physical strength and weight you can put behind the blow. The training element is being able to put your full force behind the strike without worrying about injury (that can be a lot easier said than done and some people do train for a considerable amount of time before being confident enough to do it).",
'One of the main factors in the bricks breaking is that there is a space in between each individual brick in the stack.This helps the force of the strike go through each brick in the stack more smoothly',
'Energy passes through the upper bricks to the lower ones and breaks them. Bricks are pretty brittle.',
"Ever seen Newtons Cradle? the swinging ball thingy. the ones in the middle don't move, the ones on the end do. all the force from the first is transferred to the last.",
"We were running a TKD demo with a bunch of 6th+ Dan belts doing a sequence of brick breaks. Most of them were vertical breaks, but none of them were with hands. After everyone did their thing, I ran in to help clean up. They used 3 inch cinder pavers and pencils. The thing I couldn't get was that not only were most of the bricks broken, but the pencils were destroyed too. The bottom group of them were smooshed. Any pencil in the first 5 rows was either split down the middle or in a diagonal.\n\nMy best guess was that the bricks were falling over and causing the damage",
'Concrete by itself can resist compression but is shit under tension.\n\nWhenever you try to bend (read apply a force) a material. Lets say apply a force downwards on a material, the top will be in compression. The middle neutral, and the bottom will be stretched (tension). This is where concrete will start cracking.\n\nAlso. The bricks are stacked to have gaps between each layer. The cleaved pieces will hit the next block under it and so on. A martial artists generally only needs to be able to break one block.\n\nTake my word with a grain of salt because ive never been taught to do shows because the only martial arts ive spent time with are silat, jiujitsu, and a bit of mma. Apparently they dont put block-breaking shows in their syllabus',
'2nd degree black belt here. I have broken 5-6 bricks at a time for tournaments, belt exams, etc.\n\nIt is something of a novelty but it does take skill and practice. There is some research out there indicating that martial artists and boxers have higher bone density due to repeated striking in practice sessions, which causes micro-fractures in bones that heal over time, leading to stronger bones. I’ve also always used a handwrap (similar to what boxers wear under the glove) to stabilize the wrist.\n\nHowever, the technique is also important. I have a video of myself breaking 5 bricks. When slowed down, you can see a few things right away that help:\n\n1. Momentum - my vertical jump above the stack is pretty high. So there is a gravity assist.\n2. Torque - up until the moment of strike, someone standing off to the left could read the back of my shirt. That twisting motion creates additional force.\n3. The strike itself - we are taught to aim beyond the target. Mentally I’m aiming for the last brick.\n\nThe video doesn’t show the mental part obviously. The first time I broke a single brick it was easily one of the most stressful things I’d done. Hesitation can lead to novices pulling back / not doing the stuff I mentioned above, and failing (potentially causing injury).\n\nAt the end of the day it is flashy and cool. I don’t think you could pick a random person off the street and have them do it without injuring themselves. ',
"At a kid's birthday party, they got to break boards. The best was the one broken before the kid even touched it. The guy in charge was bending the boards and breaking them with his hands.",
"Wow finally something on Reddit I can answer about. I taught Tae Kwon Do for about 8 years so I'm far from a master but still pretty knowledgeable. As many other people have stated it is due to the martial artist transferring the energy of the strike through each board. This is why many times you will see them use spacers in between boards or cinder blocks, as it makes it much easier for them to break the first board and start the chain reaction.",
'They put tiny "bracers" in between each brick or board which greatly reduces the structural integrity of the bricks/blocks/boards.\n\nIt\'s equal parts Martial Arts and Magic Show.',
'A little late to the party but I\'m a world champion competition breaker (I can edit in proof later if anyone cares, I\'m on mobile right now) and this is something I consider myself an expert on.\n\nThe main thing that allows us to break through concrete and wood stacks is energy (or chi/ki) projection, when I hit the top block on a stack I am trying to project my energy into the block on the bottom of the stack, breaking all of them. Think of it as a shockwave of force.\n\nThere are a few other factors that help with this. Something that was mentioned above and is very relevant is bone density, although I have always known it as body conditioning. What this is, is strengthening one\'s bones by hitting them repeatedly (not enough to cause serious harm) on a hard surface. This creates microfractures in the bone which will allow it to heal thicker and stronger. It also helps build a pain tolerance which is helpful if you miss the concrete and break yourself instead. For me personally, I put a piece of paper or a shirt or something on top of a slab of concrete (so I don\'t scrape my hand on the surface) and hit it at like 60% power for 5-10 minutes. I repeat this for each strike I am training to use. I also drink a shitload of milk, though I don\'t actually know if this helps. \n\nAnother aspect is precision. When you are training for competition breaking, especially divisions such as power breaking where you only get one strike, it is extremely important to use the most efficient striking method possible. This means not only hitting your stack in the exact center (not an easy feat to do when you are trying to hit something full blast) but also making contact with the blocks at the exact apex of your strike, for most people this is when the force of their strike passes over their center of balance. I could get much more in depth on this specifically if people want. \n\nSpeed vs power is also a factor, you have to know your body type. Someone with a lot of bulk behind their strikes might find they generate more power if they jump before a hit, while someone like me who is more lean might focus more on rooting oneself in the ground and generating force through speed. \n\nLastly, and this is something that can\'t exactly be quantified by scientific means, there is the overall energy or ki/chi generated by the breaker before competing. What I mean by this is that most breakers tend to work themselves into a heightened mental state when they are competing. It is difficult to describe, it\'s like an adrenaline rush combined with flow. When I break I kind of see the world in tunnel vision, the world around me becomes muted and I really only focus on my strikes and my stacks. When a breaker reaches this state it is very obvious, there have been many times where I could feel someone\'s energy before a break, like how one feels static electricity. For me personally I reach this state through meditation and breathing exercises, just ones designed to work me up instead of calm me down. Other breakers try to get "ki\'ed up" as many call it by hitting pads (and sometimes people) or listening to music .\n\n\nI have a lot more to say on this and would be glad to answer any questions anybody has. Might not respond right away as I will be training until late tonight.\n\n\nEDIT: Here is some proof! _URL_0_\n_URL_1_\n\nThe video is a clip from the ESPN highlight reel of my routine. The actual thing had a lot more breaks in it with more materials than the ones shown (Including me kicking through a baseball bat) but the video is only available on Facebook and I don\'t know how to get it off of there since I wasn\'t the one who recorded the footage. If anyone wants to see more videos of competitive breaking I can link a bunch of myself and my fellow martial artists. \n '],
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '21525',
'title': 'Nutrition',
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'passage_text': 'Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates range from simple monosaccharides (glucose, fructose and galactose) to complex polysaccharides (starch). Fats are triglycerides, made of assorted fatty acid monomers bound to a glycerol backbone. Some fatty acids, but not all, are essential in the diet: they cannot be synthesized in the body. Protein molecules contain nitrogen atoms in addition to carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. The fundamental components of protein are nitrogen-containing amino acids, some of which are essential in the sense that humans cannot make them internally. Some of the amino acids are convertible (with the expenditure of energy) to glucose and can be used for energy production, just as ordinary glucose, in a process known as gluconeogenesis. By breaking down existing protein, the carbon skeleton of the various amino acids can be metabolized to intermediates in cellular respiration; the remaining ammonia is discarded primarily as urea in urine.\n',
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'title': 'Human nutrition',
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'passage_text': 'Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates range from simple monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose) to complex polysaccharides (starch). Fats are triglycerides, made of assorted fatty acid monomers bound to a glycerol backbone. Some fatty acids, but not all, are essential in the diet: they cannot be synthesized in the body. Protein molecules contain nitrogen atoms in addition to carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. The fundamental components of protein are nitrogen-containing amino acids, some of which are essential in the sense that humans cannot make them internally. Some of the amino acids are convertible (with the expenditure of energy) to glucose and can be used for energy production just as ordinary glucose. By breaking down existing protein, some glucose can be produced internally; the remaining amino acids are discarded, primarily as urea in urine. This occurs naturally when atrophy takes place, or during periods of starvation.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '18761393',
'title': 'Animal nutrition',
'section': 'Section::::Constituents of diet.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates range from simple monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose) to complex polysaccharides (starch). Fats are triglycerides, made of assorted fatty acid monomers bound to glycerol backbone. Some fatty acids, but not all, are essential in the diet: they cannot be synthesized in the body. Protein molecules contain nitrogen atoms in addition to carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. The fundamental components of protein are nitrogen-containing amino acids. Essential amino acids cannot be made by the animal. Some of the amino acids are convertible (with the expenditure of energy) to glucose and can be used for energy production just as ordinary glucose. By breaking down existing protein, some glucose can be produced internally; the remaining amino acids are discarded, primarily as urea in urine. This occurs normally only during prolonged starvation.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '6531493',
'title': 'Protein (nutrient)',
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'passage_text': 'Proteins are essential nutrients for the human body. They are one of the building blocks of body tissue and can also serve as a fuel source. As a fuel, proteins provide as much energy density as carbohydrates: 4 kcal (17 kJ) per gram; in contrast, lipids provide 9 kcal (37 kJ) per gram. The most important aspect and defining characteristic of protein from a nutritional standpoint is its amino acid composition.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '5978246',
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'passage_text': "A complete protein or whole protein is a food source of protein that contains an adequate proportion of each of the nine essential amino acids necessary in the human diet. Examples of single-source complete proteins are red meat, poultry, fish, eggs, milk, cheese, yogurt, soybeans and quinoa. The concept does not include whether or not the food source is high in total protein, or any other information about that food's nutritious value.\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '562788',
'title': 'Basal metabolic rate',
'section': 'Section::::Biochemistry.:Proteins.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Proteins are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen arranged in a variety of ways to form a large combination of amino acids. Unlike fat the body has no storage deposits of protein. All of it is contained in the body as important parts of tissues, blood hormones, and enzymes. The structural components of the body that contain these amino acids are continually undergoing a process of breakdown and replacement. The respiratory quotient for protein metabolism can be demonstrated by the chemical equation for oxidation of albumin:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18761393',
'title': 'Animal nutrition',
'section': 'Section::::Constituents of diet.:Protein.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Proteins are the basis of many animal body structures (e.g. muscles, skin, and hair). They also form the enzymes which control chemical reactions throughout the body. Each molecule is composed of amino acids which are characterized by the inclusion of nitrogen and sometimes sulfur. The body requires amino acids to produce new proteins (protein retention) and to replace damaged proteins (maintenance). As there is no protein or amino acid storage provision, amino acids must be present in the diet. Excess amino acids are discarded, typically in the urine. For all animals, some amino acids are "essential" (an animal cannot produce them internally) and some are "non-essential" (the animal can produce them from other nitrogen-containing compounds). A diet that contains adequate amounts of amino acids (especially those that are essential) is particularly important in some situations: during early development and maturation, pregnancy, lactation, or injury (a burn, for instance). \n',
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'title': 'Carbs, protein, fats - in which order are these used by the body and why?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Glucose is our staple energy source. If the body needs energy, glucose is broken down producing ATP and releasing CO2 and H20. If the body does not need energy, the glucose is built in to chains for easy storage in liver. These chain molecules are called glycogen. They are easily accessed and broken down to glucose whenever blood sugar levels decrease to provide the body with energy,\n\nDuring starvation, when there is no energy provided by food, the body has to break down it's 3 main energy stores - liver glycogen, body fat and muscle. Your body begins by breaking down the liver glycogen. Next is body fat and and if desperate - muscles. In terms of weight and total calorific content this comes to, for an exemplar 70kg male; about 0.2kg liver glycogen = ~800kcal, about 15kg triacylglycarides (TAGs = major component of body fat)= ~135,000kcal and 6kg muscle = ~24,000kcal. \n\nAs you can see, body fat is the major energy store of the body. Fat cells exist partly to be used as an energy store. However, the body will break down glycogen first always as its simpler and more direct. Breaking down body fat (TAGs) for use as energy requires two more complex processes; 1) beta-oxidation of fatty acids to the natural precursor for a specific stage in the same natural metabolic pathway as glucose, and 2) gluconeogenesis, producing glucose from glycerol ( a non-carb source!). \n\nMuscles are the last to be broken down, for obvious reasons - we need them. Muscle breakdown doesn't only affect things like leg and arm muscles, but also things like cardiac and diaphragm muscle, so it is really a last attempt for the body to survive by breaking these down. This would probably be around a couple weeks in to starvation and death would soon follow."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9y4tqp',
'query': 'carbs, protein, fats - in which order are these used by the body and why?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '12873937',
'title': 'Bleach',
'section': 'Section::::Disinfection.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 60,
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'passage_text': 'A 1-in-5 dilution of household bleach with water (1 part bleach to 4 parts water) is effective against many bacteria and some viruses, and is often the disinfectant of choice in cleaning surfaces in hospitals (primarily in the United States). Even "scientific-grade", commercially produced disinfection solutions such as Virocidin-X usually have sodium hypochlorite as their sole active ingredient, though they also contain surfactants (to prevent beading) and fragrances (to conceal the bleach smell).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2524286',
'title': 'Percent active chlorine',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Liquid bleaches for domestic use fall in 3 categories: for pool-treatment (10% hypochlorite solutions, without surfactants and detergents) for laundry and general purpose cleaning, at 3–5% active chlorine (which are usually recommended to be diluted substantially before use), and in pre-mixed specialty formulations targeted at particular cleaning, bleaching or disinfecting applications. Commercial chlorine bleaches range from under 10% active chlorine to over 40%. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1365',
'title': 'Ammonia',
'section': 'Section::::Safety precautions.:Household use.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 118,
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'end_paragraph_id': 118,
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'passage_text': 'Solutions of ammonia (5–10% by weight) are used as household cleaners, particularly for glass. These solutions are irritating to the eyes and mucous membranes (respiratory and digestive tracts), and to a lesser extent the skin. Caution should be used that the chemical is never mixed into any liquid containing bleach, as a toxic gas may result. Mixing with chlorine-containing products or strong oxidants, such as household bleach, can lead to hazardous compounds such as chloramines.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '478185',
'title': 'Disinfectant',
'section': 'Section::::Home disinfectants.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 88,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 88,
'end_character': 615,
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'passage_text': 'The benefits of chlorine bleach include its inexpensive and fast acting nature. However it is harmful to mucous membranes and skin upon contact, has a strong odour; is not effective against "Giardia lamblia" and "Cryptosporidium"; and combination with other cleaning products such as ammonia and vinegar can generate noxious gases like chlorine. The best practice is not to add anything to household bleach except water. As with most disinfectants, the area requiring disinfection should be cleaned before the application of the chlorine bleach, as the presence of organic materials may inactivate chlorine bleach.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18626487',
'title': 'Biomedical waste',
'section': 'Section::::Management.:Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 311,
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'passage_text': "For liquids and small quantities, a 1–10% solution of bleach can be used to disinfect biomedical waste. Solutions of sodium hydroxide and other chemical disinfectants may also be used, depending on the waste's characteristics. Other treatment methods include heat, alkaline digesters and the use of microwaves.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5301306',
'title': 'Portable water purification',
'section': 'Section::::Techniques.:Chemical disinfection with halogens.:Halazone tablets.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 774,
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'passage_text': 'Chlorine bleach tablets give a more stable platform for disinfecting the water than liquid bleach (sodium hypochlorite) as the liquid version tends to degrade with age and give unregulated results unless assays are carried outnot practical on the spot. Still, despite chlorine-based halazone tablets falling from favor for portable water purification, chlorine-based bleach may nonetheless safely be used for short-term emergency water disinfection. Two drops of unscented 5% bleach can be added per liter or quart of clear water, then allowed to stand covered for 30 to 60 minutes. After this treatment, the water may be left open to reduce the chlorine smell and taste. Guidelines are available online for effective emergency use of bleach to render unsafe water potable.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37201518',
'title': 'Plastic pollution',
'section': 'Section::::Effects of plastic on land.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 251,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Chlorinated plastic can release harmful chemicals into the surrounding soil, which can then seep into groundwater or other surrounding water sources and also the ecosystem of the world. This can cause serious harm to the species that drink the water.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What happens to all the bleach and washing liquids and chemicals we use. Is any of it filtered out or degrades once it goes down the drain or are we simply polluting the seas?',
'selftext': 'I see a lot of warning labels saying harmful to fish etc on the labels, is the hope that it just gets diluted enough to cause no effect? Because it must be a colossal amount of chemicals we flush away from cleaning toilets and dishes to shampoos and soaps.',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The quick answer is that we're polluting the seas. And the land. And the air.\n\nBut yeah, it gets diluted. Usually to the point of not being harmful, at least not in the short run.",
"I didn't mean to sound snide. Treatment plants handle the chemicals and human waste that are flushed and poured down drains . A big problem are the flushable wipes and feminine products that treatment plants are not well equipped to handle.",
"Most of the harmful stuff is removed at a [wastewater treatment](_URL_0_) plant. Things like bleach and soap are fairly reactive, so they get filtered out pretty easily. Some other things (like motor oil or plastics) are more resilient, so they survive through treatment, though. Don't pour motor oil down the drain.\n\nEdit: Cunningham's Law strikes again.",
"Every major city and factory has a Wastewater treatment plant they collect the wasted water from you home through pipes. \nAfter they collect the wasted water, there start complex filtration process that clear the water to specific conditions, that are regulated by the government. This water is not good for drinking but is ok for the plants, animals and most important for microorganisms. After natural circles of water in the nature it's comes to us like drinkable water again. ",
'Microbeads, made of plastic, are apparently difficult to filter out and don’t break down. They are used in facial soaps and scrubs.\n\nAlso, apparently some pharmaceuticals don’t break down, and can cause problems.\n\nBleach, soap, washing powder all break down quickly.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9idjun',
'query': 'what happens to all the bleach and washing liquids and chemicals we use. is any of it filtered out or degrades once it goes down the drain or are we simply polluting the seas?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '33644895',
'title': 'Evolution of nervous systems',
'section': 'Section::::Homeobox (HOX) Genes in Invertebrates.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 319,
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'passage_text': 'After the formation of the regionally specified anterior-posterior axis, genes must be turned "on" to form unique structures in specific regions. This is orchestrated via the homeobox (Hox) transcription factor signaling pathway. First identified in Drosophila by Edward Lewis who won a Nobel Prize for the discovery. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21921749',
'title': 'Ridge (biology)',
'section': 'Section::::Origins.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 43,
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'passage_text': 'How did evolutionary non-related genes come in close proximity in the first place? Either there is a force that brings functionally related genes near to each other, or the genes came near by change. Singer et al. proposed that genes came in close proximity by random recombination of genome segments. When functionally related genes came in close proximity to each other, this proximity was conserved. They determined all possible recombination sites between genes of human and mouse. After that, they compared the clustering of the mouse and human genome and looked if recombination had occurred at the potentially recombination sites. It turned out that recombination between genes of the same cluster was very rare. So, as soon as a functional cluster is formed recombination is suppressed by the cell. On sex chromosomes, the amount of clusters is very low in both human and mouse. The authors reasoned this was due to the low rate of chromosomal rearrangements of sex chromosomes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21921749',
'title': 'Ridge (biology)',
'section': 'Section::::Origins.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 46,
'end_character': 315,
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'passage_text': 'It is possible that genes came in close proximity by change. Other models have been proposed but none of them can explain all observed phenomena. It’s clear that as soon as clusters are formed they are conserved by natural selection. However, a precise model of how genes came in close proximity is still lacking. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2925212',
'title': 'Hox gene',
'section': 'Section::::Colinearity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 45,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'In some organisms, especially vertebrates, the various Hox genes are situated very close to one another on the chromosome in groups or clusters. The order of the genes on the chromosome is the same as the expression of the genes in the developing embryo, with the first gene being expressed in the anterior end of the developing organism. The reason for this colinearity is not yet completely understood, but could be related to the activation of Hox genes in a temporal sequence by gradual unpacking of chromatin along a gene cluster. The diagram above shows the relationship between the genes and protein expression in flies.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '149544',
'title': 'Molecular phylogenetics',
'section': 'Section::::Limitations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 226,
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'passage_text': 'The recent discovery of extensive horizontal gene transfer among organisms provides a significant complication to molecular systematics, indicating that different genes within the same organism can have different phylogenies.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '579390',
'title': 'Gene prediction',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 595,
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'passage_text': 'In its earliest days, "gene finding" was based on painstaking experimentation on living cells and organisms. Statistical analysis of the rates of homologous recombination of several different genes could determine their order on a certain chromosome, and information from many such experiments could be combined to create a genetic map specifying the rough location of known genes relative to each other. Today, with comprehensive genome sequence and powerful computational resources at the disposal of the research community, gene finding has been redefined as a largely computational problem.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29467449',
'title': 'Protein function prediction',
'section': 'Section::::Function prediction methods.:Genomic context-based methods.:Co-location/co-expression.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
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'passage_text': 'In prokaryotes, clusters of genes that are physically close together in the genome often conserve together through evolution, and tend to encode proteins that interact or are part of the same operon. Thus, "chromosomal proximity" also called the gene neighbour method can be used to predict functional similarity between proteins, at least in prokaryotes. Chromosomal proximity has also been seen to apply for some pathways in selected eukaryotic genomes, including "Homo sapiens", and with further development gene neighbor methods may be valuable for studying protein interactions in eukaryotes.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Finding and moving specific genes between organisms',
'selftext': 'How do scientists know which gene is which and how can it be moved into another organisms DNA?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Biology PhD student here. In the interest in ELI5ness and not writing a wall of text no one wants to read, I\'ll write an overview and let you ask if you want to me elaborate more on how any particular part actually works.\n\n**Finding the gene:**\n\nYou sequence the genome of the organism (or part of it), at which point you can use known DNA sequence patterns to predict where the beginning and end of each gene is. As for identifying which gene does what so you know which gene you are interested in, there are loads of ways and a lot of research is basically just this process - I can elaborate on this if you want.\n\n**Moving the gene:**\n\nThere is a technology called the [polymerase chain reaction](_URL_0_) (PCR) that can replicate a single specific gene in a whole mess of DNA a trillion times, so that the entire sample is effectively just that one gene. So you either extract the DNA from the organism with the gene or, more commonly, extract its RNA (essentially its "genes in use") and use an enzyme to turn it into DNA, then use PCR on the sample to copy your gene of interest a trillion times. Now you have obtained your gene.\n\nThe next step is to put your gene in a plasmid vector, which is a little circle of DNA that has been specially designed for this purpose (plasmids occur naturally in bacteria, but we have extensively modified them to serve our purposes). You use enzymes called restriction enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences to cut open the vector and cut off the ends of your gene (in the PCR reaction, you can add restriction enzyme snip sites to the gene copies you make). A useful property of restriction enzymes is that the cuts they make stick back together, so if you cut the vector and cut the ends off your gene in the same test tube and then add an enzyme to heal the cuts, at a certain rate your gene will end up stuck in the vector, since its cuts matched those in the vector. Now you have your gene in a vector. We call this process "cloning" a gene, confusing all non-scientists who think of cloning as making identical animals.\n\nNow you want to put the gene into a different organism. If all you want is for the gene to be working inside the new cells, and you don\'t care about actually editing their genome, you can just put the vector with your gene inside them and you\'re done.\n\nIf you want to integrate the gene into the genome of another organism, it\'s more complicated. A disclaimer here is that I\'ve never personally done this, so I am less familiar with it than the earlier techniques. But basically if this is your end goal, you design your vector to have long stretches of DNA on either side of where you put the gene in that match long stretches of DNA in the genome of the organism you are putting the gene in. If you do this, once you put the vector inside the new cells, at a low rate their genome will "recombine" with the matching parts of the vector, exchanging their DNA for the vector DNA and moving your gene into them. This recombination is a natural process that occurs with long stretches of matching DNA in all living things.\n\nA final note: you may notice that all the "putting the gene in the organism" stuff I described only really works for single cells. If you want to put the gene in the genome of a multicellular organism, you do what I described to a fertilized egg or very early embryo that will grow into the organism. If you want to modify lots of cells in a fully-grown multicellular organism, you usually use a virus. You put the vector inside the virus, and when the virus infects the organism\'s cells, it delivers the vector. This is pretty hard and most researchers just stick to single cells when moving genes around.\n\n*****\nOh look, it turned out to be a wall of text anyways! In any case, if there is anything you are confused about or any part of the process you want explained in more detail, please ask! I\'d be happy to elaborate. This stuff is super important and forms the basis of a lot of modern biological research.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '698ohr',
'query': 'finding and moving specific genes between organisms',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1352971',
'title': 'Scroll wheel',
'section': 'Section::::Other applications.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In many applications (e.g., web browsers), holding down the control key while rolling the scroll wheel causes the text size to increase or decrease, or an image in an image-editing or map-viewing program to zoom in or out, if such a feature is available.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2754537',
'title': 'Tableless web design',
'section': 'Section::::Advantages.:Maintainability.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 30,
'end_character': 695,
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'passage_text': 'Also, because the layout information may be stored externally to the HTML, it may be quite easy to add new content in a tableless design, whether modifying an existing page or adding a new page. By contrast, without such a design, the layout for each page may require a more time-consuming manual changing of each instance or use of global find-and-replace utilities. However site owners often want particular pages to be different from others on the site either for a short period or long term. This will often necessitate a separate style sheet to be developed for that page. The page (or template) content usually can remain unaltered however, which is not the case in a tables-based design.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39594074',
'title': 'Adaptive web design',
'section': 'Section::::Technology advances leading to necessity.:History, adaptation and evolution.:Responsive web design vs. adaptive web design.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'Standard Adaptive layout (screen-dependent multi-page) can also use viewport responsive scaling of the page in conjunction (as in responsive web design), but new responsive web design strategies and technology have all but made the need for separate multi-screen pages obsolete except where the site wishes to target users of non-smart internet-capable mobile devices and obsolete smartphones which do not respond to new responsive design scripts. As previously stated, things like Django\'s "views" concept and some aspects of AJAX blur the lines, as they serve different versions of pages, for many reasons, but some can be for fluidity on different devices, however, pages are generated dynamically, not statically (though one could argue that the "views" are static templates to be filled with content. In the end, it is all up to the developer how he or she feels is the most appropriate way to target the devices their content will be viewed on in the most fluid, clean and integrated way. There is certainly more than one way to skin the cat of dynamic web development.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3139745',
'title': 'Marquee element',
'section': 'Section::::Usability problems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 464,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Because marquee text moves, links within it are more difficult to click than those in static text, depending on the speed and length of the scrolling. Users only get one chance every time it scrolls past. Also, scrolling text too fast can make it unreadable to some people, particularly those with visual impairments. This can easily frustrate users. To combat this, most client-side scripting allows marquees to be programmed to stop when the mouse is over them.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '996933',
'title': 'Style sheet (web development)',
'section': 'Section::::Benefits.:Customization.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 327,
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'passage_text': "If a page's layout information is stored externally, a user can decide to disable the layout information entirely, leaving the site's bare content still in a readable form. Site authors may also offer multiple style sheets, which can be used to completely change the appearance of the site without altering any of its content.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '288311',
'title': 'Web application',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 381,
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'passage_text': 'In the early days of the Web, each individual web page was delivered to the client as a static document, but the sequence of pages could still provide an interactive experience, as user input was returned through web form elements embedded in the page markup. However, "every" significant change to the web page required a round trip back to the server to refresh the entire page.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '566699',
'title': 'BBC News Online',
'section': 'Section::::Features.:Mobile and text only versions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 278,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'As of 23 March 2015, separate mobile and text only versions have been removed, and replaced with a "responsive web design", allowing the presentation of content to adjust automatically for a wide variety of screen sizes, from desktop computer to smartphones and tablet devices.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do web pages viewed on mobile devices keep changing layout as they load, and then change again just as you try to tap a link after it seems like they were finished loading?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Main reason is asymetric loading of elements and bad programming. \nIn detail: The main goal of a mobile page is to load as fast as possible. \n\nThere are certain methods to achieve this. The two most important (for your question) are: \n1) Load visible stuff first: \nThe first things that will be loaded are things you see when you open the web page. Everything "below the fold" (below the point where you need to scroll to see it) will be loaded at a later point. \n2) Load bigger elements later: \nBigger elements, such as images, will be loaded last. So your initial page is loaded fast, and the rest comes at a later point. \nNow to your problem with the layout changes: \nPoor programming causes this. Normally you would place blank placeholders for big elements like images. For example: If you, as a programmer, know, that there is an image that is 500x500 pixel, you will reserve this 500x500 spot with a blank white space. So when the image loads (after the initial loading of the page) you can fill this blank space with the image, without destroying the layout. \nOR you could use two different image qualities. Like one really low quality (and low filesize) one that loads when you open the page (in case the image is in your "initial load view") and when this initial load is over, you use your "normal" bigger size image to replace the old one. \nReally sorry, for a non native speaker its kinda hard to explain this :( I hope you get my point. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5nigf4',
'query': 'why do web pages viewed on mobile devices keep changing layout as they load, and then change again just as you try to tap a link after it seems like they were finished loading?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '9637',
'title': 'Euler–Maclaurin formula',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "The formula was discovered independently by Leonhard Euler and Colin Maclaurin around 1735. Euler needed it to compute slowly converging infinite series while Maclaurin used it to calculate integrals. It was later generalized to Darboux's formula.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48396',
'title': 'Mathematical analysis',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'Mathematical analysis formally developed in the 17th century during the Scientific Revolution, but many of its ideas can be traced back to earlier mathematicians. Early results in analysis were implicitly present in the early days of ancient Greek mathematics. For instance, an infinite geometric sum is implicit in Zeno\'s paradox of the dichotomy. Later, Greek mathematicians such as Eudoxus and Archimedes made more explicit, but informal, use of the concepts of limits and convergence when they used the method of exhaustion to compute the area and volume of regions and solids. The explicit use of infinitesimals appears in Archimedes\' "The Method of Mechanical Theorems", a work rediscovered in the 20th century. In Asia, the Chinese mathematician Liu Hui used the method of exhaustion in the 3rd century AD to find the area of a circle. Zu Chongzhi established a method that would later be called Cavalieri\'s principle to find the volume of a sphere in the 5th century. The Indian mathematician Bhāskara II gave examples of the derivative and used what is now known as Rolle\'s theorem in the 12th century.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27060913',
'title': "Bhaskara I's sine approximation formula",
'section': 'Section::::Derivation of the formula.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': 'Bhaskara I had not indicated any method by which he arrived at his formula. Historians have speculated on various possibilities. No definitive answers have as yet been obtained. Beyond its historical importance of being a prime example of the mathematical achievements of ancient Indian astronomers, the formula is of significance from a modern perspective also. Mathematicians have attempted to derive the rule using modern concepts and tools. Around half a dozen methods have been suggested, each based on a separate set of premises. Most of these derivations use only elementary concepts.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18881',
'title': 'Mathematical induction',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'In 370 BC, Plato\'s Parmenides may have contained an early example of an implicit inductive proof. The earliest implicit traces of mathematical induction may be found in Euclid\'s proof that the number of primes is infinite and in Bhaskara\'s "cyclic method". An opposite iterated technique, counting "down" rather than up, is found in the Sorites paradox, where it was argued that if 1,000,000 grains of sand formed a heap, and removing one grain from a heap left it a heap, then a single grain of sand (or even no grains) forms a heap.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '256363',
'title': 'Experimental mathematics',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 517,
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'passage_text': 'Mathematicians have always practised experimental mathematics. Existing records of early mathematics, such as Babylonian mathematics, typically consist of lists of numerical examples illustrating algebraic identities. However, modern mathematics, beginning in the 17th century, developed a tradition of publishing results in a final, formal and abstract presentation. The numerical examples that may have led a mathematician to originally formulate a general theorem were not published, and were generally forgotten.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4964',
'title': 'Bernoulli number',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Early history.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 497,
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'passage_text': "Methods to calculate the sum of the first positive integers, the sum of the squares and of the cubes of the first positive integers were known, but there were no real 'formulas', only descriptions given entirely in words. Among the great mathematicians of antiquity to consider this problem were Pythagoras (c. 572–497\xa0BCE, Greece), Archimedes (287–212\xa0BCE, Italy), Aryabhata (b. 476, India), Abu Bakr al-Karaji (d. 1019, Persia) and Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham (965–1039, Iraq).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2202',
'title': 'Analytic geometry',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Ancient Greece.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 224,
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'passage_text': 'The Greek mathematician Menaechmus solved problems and proved theorems by using a method that had a strong resemblance to the use of coordinates and it has sometimes been maintained that he had introduced analytic geometry.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How did the original mathematicians prove their formulas and theories, and to who?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Mathematics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['To their own community of academics. But how far back are we talking? Ancient greece? Renaissance? Isaac Newton era?',
'Originally, they wouldn\'t. Or at least they would rely on intuition, self-evidence, or consensus. And even then it was really only pertinent or interesting to themselves, or perhaps the local government who could exploit their mathematical and scientific reasoning.\n\nOne of the first attempts to rigorously "prove" mathematical concepts was Euclid in his *Elements.* And his overall strategy remains pretty solid even today. Basically you start with some fundamental truths and definitions; things that are overwhelming self-evident, cannot be broken down and derived from other truths, and are necessary to make the whole system work.\n\nFrom that, you rigorously, in a step-wise manner, start proving more complex things. Every step has to reference either a) one of your fundamental truths (axioms); or b) one of the other complex truths you\'ve already proven.\n\nFor example, his first "proofs" is the construction of an equilateral triangle using only a straightedge and a compass (and then proving why it is an equilateral triangle, based upon previously established definitions). He then uses the construction of an equilateral triangle to show that you can "copy" lines of a given length from one place to another (given a point). And so forth.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '9j1v8d',
'query': 'how did the original mathematicians prove their formulas and theories, and to who?',
'query_type': 'Mathematics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '13664996',
'title': 'Matutinal',
'section': 'Section::::Adaptive Relevance.:Matutinal Mating.:Reduced Competition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'Some animals engage in matutinal searching flights to find mates early in the morning. It is thought that this is adaptive because it increases the chance of finding mates, and reduces competition for mates (i.e., by flying directly to a potential mate before it has a chance to find other mates). This is supported by the mating behaviour of certain socially monogamous birds. For example, female superb fairywrens ("Malurus cyaneus)", are a monogamous bird that perform extra-pair copulations during matutinal hours. One explanation for the prevalence of extra-pair copulation is that it enhances the gene pool of the species\' offspring. This activity is most often seen matutinally because they: (1) can avoid being followed by their monogamous partner in the dimly-lit early morning, (2) males are more likely to be present in their territory during these hours, and (3) males are more likely to have a higher quantity of sperm in the early morning. These points may apply to how matutinal mating is adaptive in other species.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7971785',
'title': 'Mate choice',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Mate choice is one of the primary mechanisms under which evolution can occur. It is characterized by a “selective response by animals to particular stimuli” which can be observed as behavior. In other words, before an animal engages with a potential mate, they first evaluate various aspects of that mate which are indicative of quality—such as the resources or phenotypes they have—and evaluate whether or not those particular trait(s) are somehow beneficial to them. The evaluation will then incur a response of some sort.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1318175',
'title': 'Signalling theory',
'section': 'Section::::Sexual selection.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'When animals choose mates, traits such as signalling are subject to evolutionary pressure. For example, the male gray tree frog, "Hyla versicolor", produces a call to attract females. Once a female chooses a mate, this selects for a specific style of male calling, thus propagating a specific signalling ability. The signal can be the call itself, the intensity of a call, its variation style, its repetition rate, and so on. Various hypotheses seek to explain why females would select for one call over the other. The sensory exploitation hypothesis proposes that pre-existing preferences in female receivers can drive the evolution of signal innovation in male senders, in a similar way to the hidden preference hypothesis which proposes that successful calls are better able to match some \'hidden preference\' in the female. Signallers have sometimes evolved multiple sexual ornaments, and receivers have sometimes evolved multiple trait preferences.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '57342942',
'title': 'Evolutionary approaches to schizophrenia',
'section': 'Section::::Sexual Selection & Sex Differences in Schizophrenia.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
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'passage_text': "Sexual selection concerns the mating choices of humans and other animals. These choices are based upon the principles of Charles’ Darwin's theory of Natural Selection, in which traits that increase likelihood of survival are chosen for, and organisms that are deemed most fit are sexually selected for. Traits that function as fitness indicators are those revealing potential benefits rooted in genetic qualities. When choosing mates, animals go for those with better fitness indicators to ensure better benefits for them and their offspring. These indicators can be morphological traits as well as behavioral traits. A peacock's tail and a nightingale's courtship songs are examples of the two traits. Sexual-selection studies have shown that male height, muscularity, and facial structure, and female breasts and buttocks are important indicators. Previously, Crow and Randall partially integrated the idea of sexual selection in their models to explain schizophrenia.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40196691',
'title': 'Time-Place learning',
'section': 'Section::::Insects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The first evidence for time-place learning in animals came from studies in the 1930s on honeybees, which could be trained to visit two different feeders, one in the morning and the other in the afternoon. Subsequent work in the 1980s showed that only a few individuals in the colony were able to learn that task, and did so with more precision for the morning than for the afternoon feeding. Honeybees can also be trained to recognize one visual pattern to obtain food in the morning, and another pattern to get food in the afternoon; when presented with both patterns simultaneously, the same bees choose the "morning" pattern in the morning and the "afternoon" pattern in the afternoon.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58645929',
'title': 'Human reproductive ecology',
'section': 'Section::::Key topics in reproductive ecology.:Mate choice.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 53,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 53,
'end_character': 612,
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'passage_text': 'Culture heavily influences mate choice, but there are evolutionary concepts that underpin research into mate choice. Honest signals are characteristics of an individual that are assumed to be true indicators of health and fecundity. Honest signals guide sexual selection, the process by which certain traits are picked by the potential mate and then proliferate throughout a species. Human cultures vary on what is considered to be a desirable honest signal. Emphasis on wealth, aesthetics, religious affiliation, and lineage, to name a few examples, are all used in different cultures as ways to choose a mate.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52462',
'title': 'Observational learning',
'section': 'Section::::Other human and animal behavior experiments.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 57,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'When an animal is given a task to complete, they are almost always more successful after observing another animal doing the same task before them. Experiments have been conducted on several different species with the same effect: animals can learn behaviors from peers. However, there is a need to distinguish the propagation of behavior and the stability of behavior. Research has shown that social learning can spread a behavior, but there are more factors regarding how a behavior carries across generations of an animal culture.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why animals naturally know how and when to mate, where as we are educated or we learn about it from external sources?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
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'answers': ["We do know. It's just that our society has rules that deviate from natural instincts. That's what you get taught.",
"We don't really get taught about the mechanics of sex in our education/external source learning. But it's not a very difficult concept to figure out once you're ready for the moment.\n\nAnimals don't have to worry about things like consent, unwanted pregnancies causing a financial burden, or the long upbringing of a child due to the way they birth their young (more or less fully formed and able to do many things independently). We add a lot of that on from the complex social structure we have.\n\nOther animals with complex mating structures do have to learn what is and isn't acceptable about sex through group pressures (ex; a young male lion getting attacked by the male of the pride for trying to mate with one of that male's mates), and it isn't conclusively proven, as far as I know, that animals don't learn how mating works through seeing it happen to the adults in their herd.",
"Well, for one thing, animals do it out in the open for all of the other animals to see. Humans don't do that.",
"Animals know how and when to mate due to instinct-driven impulses in their brains that are triggered by pheromones released in estrus, or when the female indicates through hormonal and physical changes that she is ready to mate.\n\nHumans have pheromones as well but the human sense of smell isn't as strong as that of most other animals and thus hormonal changes are usually the easier way to tell when (regardless of financial or mental stability) it's time to mate."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'a7e6g2',
'query': 'why animals naturally know how and when to mate, where as we are educated or we learn about it from external sources?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '12460',
'title': 'Green',
'section': 'Section::::In science.:Color vision and colorimetry.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 370,
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'passage_text': 'Human eyes have color receptors known as cone cells, of which there are three types. In some cases, one is missing or faulty, which can cause color blindness, including the common inability to distinguish red and yellow from green, known as deuteranopia or redgreen color blindness. Green is restful to the eye. Studies show that a green environment can reduce fatigue.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27110987',
'title': 'Gene therapy of the human retina',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism.:Examples and animal models.:Retinitis pigmentosa.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 42,
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'passage_text': 'Retinitis pigmentosa is an inherited disease which leads to progressive night blindness and loss of peripheral vision as a result of photoreceptor cell death. Most people who suffer from RP are born with rod cells that are either dead or dysfunctional, so they are effectively blind at nighttime, since these are the cells responsible for vision in low levels of light. What follows often is the death of cone cells, responsible for color vision and acuity, at light levels present during the day. Loss of cones leads to full blindness as early as five years old, but may not onset until many years later. There have been multiple hypotheses about how the lack of rod cells can lead to the death of cone cells. Pinpointing a mechanism for RP is difficult because there are more than 39 genetic loci and genes correlated with this disease. In an effort to find the cause of RP, there have been different gene therapy techniques applied to address each of the hypotheses.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19097368',
'title': 'On Vision and Colours',
'section': 'Section::::Content.:Chapter 2—On Colors.:§ 9.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'When the entire activity of the eye is completely qualitatively partitioned, the color and its spectrum (afterimage) appear with maximum energy as being vivid, bright, dazzling, and brilliant. If the division is not total, however, part of the retina can remain undivided. A union of the quantitative intensive division with the qualitative division of the retina occurs. If the remainder is active, then the color and its spectrum are lost as they fade into white. If the remainder is inactive, then the color and its spectrum are lost as they darken into black. If the remainder is only partially inactive, then the color loses its energy by mixing with gray.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13292',
'title': 'Hypoxia (medical)',
'section': 'Section::::Generalized hypoxia.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 492,
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'passage_text': "Because hemoglobin is a darker red when it is not bound to oxygen (deoxyhemoglobin), as opposed to the rich red color that it has when bound to oxygen (oxyhemoglobin), when seen through the skin it has an increased tendency to reflect blue light back to the eye. In cases where the oxygen is displaced by another molecule, such as carbon monoxide, the skin may appear 'cherry red' instead of cyanotic. Hypoxia can cause premature birth, and injure the liver, among other deleterious effects.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6053730',
'title': 'Cyanopsia',
'section': 'Section::::Cyanopsia after cataract removal.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 337,
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'passage_text': "The eye's lens is normally tinted yellow. This reduces the intensity of blue light reaching the retina. When the lens is removed because of cataract, it is usually replaced by an artificial intraocular lens; these artificial lenses are clear, allowing more intense blue light than usual to fall on the retina, leading to the phenomenon.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1894873',
'title': 'Eye movement',
'section': 'Section::::Physiology.:Saccades.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 39,
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'passage_text': 'The eyes are never completely at rest. They make fast random jittering movements even when we are fixated on one point. The reason for this random movement is related to the photoreceptors and the ganglion cells. It appears that a constant visual stimulus can make the photoreceptors or the ganglion cells become unresponsive; on the other hand a changing stimulus will not. Therefore, the random eye movement constantly changes the stimuli that fall on the photoreceptors and the ganglion cells, making the image more clear.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '646563',
'title': 'Briard',
'section': 'Section::::Description.:Study on blindness using Briards.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Progressive retinal atrophy (PRA) is a disease that causes nerve cells at the back of the eye to degenerate. The condition usually begins in older pets and can lead to blindness. PRA represents a group of inherited eye diseases characterized by abnormal development or premature degeneration of the retina. Two types of photoreceptors occur in the retina, light-sensitive rods and cones. They are responsible for detecting light and converting it into an electrical signal that travels to the brain. When the photoreceptor cells deteriorate, vision is lost because the animal has no way to generate an image from the light reaching the retina. Puppies are usually blind before one year of age.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why our vision appears to be "green" after closing the eyes for some time?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Your eyes when closed still allow some light which is coming through your eyelids. This gives it a reddish hue. When eyes are exposed to this color this much then they adjust which results in lack of red when you open your eyes.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'db9jq9',
'query': 'why our vision appears to be "green" after closing the eyes for some time?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '233897',
'title': 'Bloodless surgery',
'section': 'Section::::Principles.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 699,
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'passage_text': 'In surgery, control of bleeding is achieved with the use of laser or sonic scalpels, minimally invasive surgical techniques, electrosurgery and electrocautery, low central venous pressure anesthesia (for select cases), or suture ligation of vessels. Other methods include the use of blood substitutes, which at present do not carry oxygen but expand the volume of the blood to prevent shock. Blood substitutes which do carry oxygen, such as PolyHeme, are also under development. Many doctors view acute normovolemic hemodilution, a form of storage of a patient\'s own blood, as a pillar of "bloodless surgery" but the technique is not an option for patients who refuse autologous blood transfusions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45599',
'title': 'Surgery',
'section': 'Section::::Description of surgical procedure.:Post-operative care.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 52,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 52,
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'passage_text': 'It is not uncommon for surgical drains (see Drain (surgery)) to be required to remove blood or fluid from the surgical wound during recovery. Mostly these drains stay in until the volume tapers off, then they are removed. These drains can become clogged, leading to abscess.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2538686',
'title': 'Autolysis (biology)',
'section': 'Section::::Use.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'In the healing of wounds, autolytic debridement can be a helpful process, where the body breaks down and liquifies dead tissue so that it can be washed or carried away. Modern wound dressings that help keep the wound moist can assist in this process.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '301110',
'title': 'Fluid replacement',
'section': 'Section::::Intravenous.:Fluid types used.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': 'Blood products, non-blood products and combinations are used in fluid replacement, including colloid and crystalloid solutions. Colloids are increasingly used but they are more expensive than crystalloids. A systematic review found no evidence that resuscitation with colloids, instead of crystalloids, reduces the risk of death in patients with trauma, burns or following surgery.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2536716',
'title': 'Dental extraction',
'section': 'Section::::Post-extraction bleeding.:Type of bleeding.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 53,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 53,
'end_character': 237,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'This type of bleeding occurs during/immediately after extraction, because true haemostasis has not been achieved. It is usually controlled by conventional techniques, such as applying pressure packs or haemostatic agents onto the wound.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33901832',
'title': 'Vitreous hemorrhage',
'section': 'Section::::Treatments.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 38,
'end_character': 360,
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'passage_text': 'Even after treatment, it can take months for the body to clear all of the blood from the vitreous. In cases of vitreous hemorrhage due to detached retina, long-standing vitreous hemorrhage with a duration of more than 2–3 months, or cases associated with rubeosis iridis or glaucoma, a vitrectomy may be necessary to remove the standing blood in the vitreous.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21227815',
'title': 'Blood management',
'section': 'Section::::Methods.:Surgical PBM.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'During surgery, techniques are utilized to reduce or eliminate exposure to allogeneic blood. For example, electrocautery, which is a technique utilized for surgical dissection, removal of soft tissue and sealing blood vessels, can be applied to a variety of procedures. During surgical procedures that are expected to have significant blood loss, blood that is lost during surgery can be collected, filtered, washed and given back to the patient. This procedure is known as "Intraoperative Blood Salvage." Pharmacologic agents, for example tranexamic acid, can also be utilized to minimize blood loss. Another technique, acute normovolemic hemodilution" involves the collection of a selected calculated volume of autologous blood in collection bags prior to the start of surgery with the simultaneous replacement of an equal volume of asanguinous fluid. Since the patient\'s blood is now diluted, blood lost during the surgical procedure, i.e. by hemorrhage, contains smaller amounts of red blood cells. The collected autologous blood product, which contains red blood cells, platelets and coagulation factors, is reinfused at the end of the surgery. When all of these therapies are combined, blood loss is greatly reduced which correspondingly reduces or averts the potential for allogeneic blood transfusion. \n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why can’t a patient’s blood be reused in cases of internal bleeding?',
'selftext': 'Let’s assume someone has internal bleeding - maybe a ruptured spleen or some such. Could the internal blood that’s escaping be collected, and then used to “top up” the patient’s blood supply when the cause of the bleed is corrected?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Yes. It's called a cell saver. The blood is suctioned out of the surgical field; washed, filtered, and centrifuged; then transfused back to the patient. It takes some time to set up, but it can save you using a few units of blood. ",
"Yes, cell-saver can be used. It isn't a direct exchange though. You lose clotting factors after washing the blood. It also damages some red blood cells in the process. You end up transfusing blood back in that isn't as efficient as when it came to the machine. Not a huge deal, but it starts to be a problem if you really run into trouble. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'a2dblj',
'query': 'why can’t a patient’s blood be reused in cases of internal bleeding?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2855906',
'title': 'Nine-volt battery',
'section': 'Section::::Testing and charging.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Most battery voltage testers and chargers that can also test nine-volt need another snap clip to hold the battery, while cylindrical batteries often share a holder that may be adjustable in size. Because of the proximity of the positive and negative terminals at the top of the battery and relatively low current of most common batteries, one informal method of testing voltage is to place the two terminals across a tongue. A strong tingle would indicate a battery with a strong charge, the absence, a discharged battery. While there have been stories circulating of unfortunate outcomes, the process is rarely dangerous under normal circumstances, though it may be unpleasant.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2206984',
'title': 'Lithium battery',
'section': 'Section::::Safety issues and regulation.:Health issues on ingestion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
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'end_paragraph_id': 33,
'end_character': 1963,
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'passage_text': 'The primary mechanism of injury with button battery ingestions is the generation of hydroxide ions, which cause severe chemical burns, at the anode. This is an electrochemical effect of the intact battery, and does not require the casing to be breached or the contents released. Complications include oesophageal strictures, tracheo-oesophageal fistulas, vocal cord paralysis, aorto-oesophageal fistulas, and death. The majority of ingestions are not witnessed; presentations are non-specific; battery voltage has increased; the 20 to 25\xa0mm button battery size are more likely to become lodged at the cricopharyngeal junction; and severe tissue damage can occur within 2 hours. The 3\xa0V, 20\xa0mm CR2032 lithium battery has been implicated in many of the complications from button battery ingestions by children of less than 4 years of age. While the only cure for an esophageal impaction is endoscopic removal, a 2018 study out of Children\'s Hospital of Philadelphia by Rachel R. Anfang and colleagues found that early and frequent ingestion of honey or sucralfate suspension prior to the battery\'s removal can reduce the injury severity to a significant degree. As a result, US-based National Capital Poison Center (Poison Control) recommends the use of honey and sucralfate after known or suspected ingestions to reduce the risk and severity of injury to esophagus, and consequently its nearby structures. Button batteries can also cause significant necrotic injury when stuck in the nose or ears. Prevention efforts in the US by the National Button Battery Task force in cooperation with industry leaders have led to changes in packaging and battery compartment design in electronic devices to reduce a child\'s access to these batteries. However, there still is a lack of awareness across the general population and medical community to its dangers. Central Manchester University Hospital Trust warns that "a lot of doctors are unaware that this can cause harm".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '201495',
'title': 'Lead–acid battery',
'section': 'Section::::Corrosion problems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 103,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 103,
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'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'If the battery is over-filled with water and electrolyte, thermal expansion can force some of the liquid out of the battery vents onto the top of the battery. This solution can then react with the lead and other metals in the battery connector and cause corrosion.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '54427200',
'title': 'Body contact (electricity)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 232,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'There is a risk of electric shock when touching the parts of the system under voltage by the body joint. As a countermeasure, so-called protective conductors and residual current circuit breakers are used in electrical engineering.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39113',
'title': 'Tesla coil',
'section': 'Section::::Health hazards.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 93,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 93,
'end_character': 414,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'If the arcs from the high voltage terminal strike the bare skin, they can cause deep-seated burns called "RF burns". This is often avoided by allowing the arcs to strike a piece of metal held in the hand, or a thimble on a finger, instead. The current passes from the metal into the person\'s hand through a wide enough surface area to avoid causing burns. Often no sensation is felt, or just a warmth or tingling.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '225268',
'title': 'Electric eel',
'section': 'Section::::Physiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 427,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In the electric eel, some 5,000 to 6,000 stacked electroplaques can make a shock up to 600 volts and up to 1 ampere of current. This level of current is reportedly enough to produce a brief and painful numbing shock likened to a stun gun discharge, which due to the voltage can be felt for some distance from the fish; this is a common risk for aquarium caretakers and biologists attempting to handle or examine electric eels.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15707298',
'title': 'Battery holder',
'section': 'Section::::Design considerations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 325,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Battery contacts are the most important part of the design and require serious consideration. Since batteries are nickel-plated, it is recommended the contacts be nickel-plated to prevent galvanic corrosion between dissimilar metals. Battery contacts may be fixed contacts, flexible contacts, or some combination of the two.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do AA and AAA batteries not shock us when touching opposite ends with wet fingers, but licking a 9 volt battery does?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['First of all, your saliva is much more conductive than your skin.\n\nSecondly, 9 volts is times stronger than 1.5 volts.',
'The technical answer:\nYour skin poses a much higer resistance than your saliva, which Is in fact slightly conductive.\nIf the resistance is higer than the flux in a given system then the current shall not pass.',
"Think of electricity like water. Water has pressure and volume (how much water is coming it at one time. The bigger the pipe or hose, the more volume). Volts is electrical pressure.\n\nAA and AAA batteries are 1.5 volts. 9 volt batteries are, unsurprisingly, 9 volts. So they have a lot more pressure. \n\nLike water, electricity doesn't flow thru all things easily. You fingers have more resistance to the flow than your tongue AND the electricity has to flow further, which is harder.\n\nSo the 9 volt is like shooting a garden hose thru tissue paper and the AA is like trying to shoot a squirt gun thru the box the tissue came in."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'bqdt20',
'query': 'why do aa and aaa batteries not shock us when touching opposite ends with wet fingers, but licking a 9 volt battery does?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2826492',
'title': 'RNA editing',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 460,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "RNA editing is a molecular process through which some cells can make discrete changes to specific nucleotide sequences within an RNA molecule after it has been generated by RNA polymerase. RNA editing may include the insertion, deletion, and base substitution of nucleotides within the RNA molecule. RNA editing is relatively rare, with common forms of RNA processing (e.g. splicing, 5'-capping, and 3'-polyadenylation) are not usually considered as editing. \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20232',
'title': 'Messenger RNA',
'section': 'Section::::Synthesis, processing and function.:Eukaryotic pre-mRNA processing.:Editing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 287,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In some instances, an mRNA will be edited, changing the nucleotide composition of that mRNA. An example in humans is the apolipoprotein B mRNA, which is edited in some tissues, but not others. The editing creates an early stop codon, which, upon translation, produces a shorter protein.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41602531',
'title': 'Horizon Discovery',
'section': 'Section::::Gene Editing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 431,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Gene editing is the process by which specific changes are made to the sequence of a gene within the context of a host cell. By editing the code of a patient-derived cell to introduce or repair a genetic change believed to drive disease, a patient’s disease can be reproduced in a laboratory setting, letting researchers ask important biological questions of potential drugs or cell therapies earlier in the drug discovery process.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6732090',
'title': 'Artificial transcription factor',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 473,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "They are generally composed of a DNA-binding domain (specific to a certain sequence) coupled to a modulatory domain (which acts upon other transcription factors) in order to alter the expression of a particular gene. It is also possible to downregulate expression of a gene by targeting the 5' untranslated region with a DNA-binding domain that lacks a regulatory domain; this will reduce transcription simply by blocking RNA polymerase progression along the DNA template.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2826492',
'title': 'RNA editing',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 508,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'RNA editing has been observed in some tRNA, rRNA, mRNA, or miRNA molecules of eukaryotes and their viruses, archaea, and prokaryotes. RNA editing occurs in the cell nucleus and cytosol, as well as within mitochondria and plastids. In vertebrates, editing is rare and usually consists of a small number of changes to the sequence of the affected molecules. In other organisms, extensive editing ("pan-editing") can occur; in some cases the majority of nucleotides in an mRNA sequence may result from editing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25777451',
'title': 'Chloroplast DNA',
'section': 'Section::::Gene content and protein synthesis.:RNA editing in plastids.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 37,
'end_character': 537,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'RNA editing is the insertion, deletion, and substitution of nucleotides in a mRNA transcript prior to translation to protein. The highly oxidative environment inside chloroplasts increases the rate of mutation so post-transcription repairs are needed to conserve functional sequences. The chloroplast editosome substitutes C - U and U - C at very specific locations on the transcript. This can change the codon for an amino acid or restore a non-functional pseudogene by adding an AUG start codon or removing a premature UAA stop codon.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2826492',
'title': 'RNA editing',
'section': 'Section::::Origin and evolution of RNA editing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 663,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Thus, RNA editing evolved more than once. Several adaptive rationales for editing have been suggested. Editing is often described as a mechanism of correction or repair to compensate for defects in gene sequences. However, in the case of gRNA-mediated editing, this explanation does not seem possible because if a defect happens first, there is no way to generate an error-free gRNA-encoding region, which presumably arises by duplication of the original gene region. This thinking leads to an evolutionary proposal called "constructive neutral evolution" in which the order of steps is reversed, with the gratuitous capacity for editing preceding the "defect". \n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How can we edit DNA if it’s so small!?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['We use really small tools!\n\n & #x200B;\n\nKeep in mind that eventhough DNA is very small, it is absolutely necessary for an organism to have a full access to it and to manipulate it with critical accuracy. A single mistake, and the whole cell can become cancerous! (it usually commits suicide before that happens, it\'s called apoptosis). To do so, cells have specialized "tools" (tool=protein) that can unzip/dupicate/fix DNA with an amazing precision.\n\nMost of these "tools" don\'t really EDIT your genome, since it remains untouched during the lifetime of most cells. But some organisms developped tools that can actually cut, add or delete bits of your DNA (most common examples: transposons which are basically parasitic genes, retroviruses/retrovirii/whatever you want to call them...). By using these tools in a clever way, we can edit the DNA of any living organism in any way we want.\n\nThere are limitations, but they keep being pushed back as we discover new tools. Have you heard of CRISPR-Cas9?',
'In vivo (life) or in vitro (lab setting) because there are different tools for each? In vivo, like how others pointed out, we can use a bacteria\'s "immune system" (CRISPR-Cas9) to do it. In vitro we boil the DNA, cool it down, introduce an error via an error-prone, heat-resistant copying protein (e.g. TAQ polymerase) or RNA primer with an error, copy it, then cool it down. There are other methods as well but the these are either the most common or most talked about.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'bbt3wj',
'query': 'how can we edit dna if it’s so small!?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '5067584',
'title': 'Parasomnia',
'section': 'Section::::Rapid eye movement (REM)-related parasomnias.:Sleep-Related Painful Erections.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 45,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 45,
'end_character': 430,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Painful erections appear only during the sleep. This condition is present during the REM sleep. Sexual activity doesn’t produce any pain. There isn’t any lesion or physical damage but an hypertonia of the pelvic floor could be one cause. It affects men of all ages but especially from the middle-age. Some pharmacologic treatment as propranolol, clozapine, clonazepam, baclofen and various antidepressants, seems to be effective.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8351343',
'title': 'Calcific tendinitis',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 223,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Pain is often aggravated by elevation of the arm above shoulder level or by lying on the shoulder. Pain may awaken the patient from sleep. Other complaints may be stiffness, snapping, catching, or weakness of the shoulder.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '240832',
'title': 'Restless legs syndrome',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 574,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Restless legs syndrome (RLS) is generally a long term disorder that causes a strong urge to move one's legs. There is often an unpleasant feeling in the legs that improves somewhat with moving them. This is often described as aching, tingling, or crawling in nature. Occasionally the arms may also be affected. The feelings generally happen when at rest and therefore can make it hard to sleep. Due to the disturbance in sleep, people with RLS may have daytime sleepiness, low energy, irritability, and a depressed mood. Additionally, many have limb twitching during sleep.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45301716',
'title': 'Anterior cutaneous nerve entrapment syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 231,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Pain is typically related to tensing the abdominal wall muscles, so any type of movement is prone to aggravate pain. Lying quietly can be the least painful position. Most patients report that they cannot sleep on the painful side.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18597893',
'title': 'Sleep deprivation',
'section': 'Section::::Physiological effects.:Other effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 54,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 54,
'end_character': 340,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In addition, as a result of continuous muscular activity without proper rest time, effects such as cramping are much more frequent in sleep-deprived individuals. Extreme cases of sleep deprivation have been reported to be associated with hernias, muscle fascia tears, and other such problems commonly associated with physical overexertion.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13391732',
'title': 'Levator ani syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 565,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Symptoms include a dull ache to the left 2\xa0inches above the anus or higher in the rectum and a feeling of constant rectal pressure or burning. The pain may last for 30 minutes or longer, and is usually described as chronic or intermittent with prolonged periods, in contrast to the brief pain of the related disorder proctalgia fugax. Pain may be worse when sitting than when standing or lying. Precipitating factors include extended sitting, defecation, stress, sexual intercourse, childbirth, and surgery. Palpation of the levator ani muscle may find tenderness.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '395477',
'title': 'Exercise physiology',
'section': 'Section::::Exercise-induced muscle pain.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 72,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 72,
'end_character': 321,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Physical exercise may cause pain both as an immediate effect that may result from stimulation of free nerve endings by low pH, as well as a delayed onset muscle soreness. The delayed soreness is fundamentally the result of ruptures within the muscle, although apparently not involving the rupture of whole muscle fibers.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'When we sleep on our arms or legs in a weird way, why does the resulting muscle ache only seem to go away after we sleep again?',
'selftext': 'I think most people have at some point "slept on their arm weirdly," resulting in a muscle ache after waking up. I\'ve noticed this ache seems to last a long time, even a whole day with no change, but feels fine after sleeping again. Is there something going on here specifically related to sleep? Or do we just happen to be sleeping when our bodies finally recover?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['I’m not an expert, but my understanding is that sleep helps the body heal from a lot of different things, including this.\n\nThe 5-year-old version is that while asleep, your body can put all of its focus on maintenance instead of giving you energy to do stuff. This includes healing wounds and injuries. It would make sense that damage from muscle tension after sleeping on them funny would also be easier to heal while the body is fully focused on healing.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'dfig0i',
'query': 'when we sleep on our arms or legs in a weird way, why does the resulting muscle ache only seem to go away after we sleep again?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '54650904',
'title': 'Infant food safety',
'section': 'Section::::Infant Formula.:Safe infant formula preparation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 39,
'end_character': 393,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'If soap and water are not available, use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer with at least 60% alcohol (check the product label to be sure). Hand sanitizer with at least 60% alcohol is effective in killing Cronobacter germs. But use soap and water as soon as possible afterward because hand sanitizer does not kill all types of germs and may not work as well if hands are visibly greasy or dirty.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '428502',
'title': 'Hand washing',
'section': 'Section::::Substances used.:Hand antiseptics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 37,
'end_character': 251,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Hand sanitizers are most effective against bacteria and less effective against some viruses. Alcohol-based hand sanitizers are almost entirely ineffective against norovirus or Norwalk type viruses, the most common cause of contagious gastroenteritis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '428502',
'title': 'Hand washing',
'section': 'Section::::Substances used.:Hand antiseptics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 41,
'end_character': 292,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Despite their effectiveness, non-water agents do not cleanse the hands of organic material, but simply disinfect them. It is for this reason that hand sanitizers are not as effective as soap and water at preventing the spread of many pathogens, since the pathogens still remain on the hands.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '147020',
'title': 'Hygiene',
'section': 'Section::::Home and everyday hygiene.:Disinfectants and antibacterials in home hygiene.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 70,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 70,
'end_character': 288,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The term sanitizer has been used to define substances that both clean and disinfect. More recently this term has been applied to alcohol-based products that disinfect the hands (alcohol hand sanitizers). Alcohol hand sanitizers however are not considered to be effective on soiled hands.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3829190',
'title': 'Hand sanitizer',
'section': 'Section::::Safety.:Skin.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 303,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Research shows that alcohol hand sanitizers do not pose any risk by eliminating beneficial microorganisms that are naturally present on the skin. The body quickly replenishes the beneficial microbes on the hands, often moving them in from just up the arms where there are fewer harmful microorganisms. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3829190',
'title': 'Hand sanitizer',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 650,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Hand sanitizer is a liquid generally used to decrease infectious agents on the hands. Formulations of the alcohol-based type are preferable to hand washing with soap and water in most situations in the healthcare setting. It is generally more effective at killing microorganisms and better tolerated than soap and water. Hand washing should still be carried out if contamination can be seen or following the use of the toilet. The general use of non-alcohol based versions has no recommendations. Outside the health care setting evidence to support the use of hand sanitizer over hand washing is poor. They are available as liquids, gels, and foams.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3829190',
'title': 'Hand sanitizer',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Not indicated.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 710,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'There are certain situations during which hand washing with water and soap are preferred over hand sanitizer, these include: eliminating bacterial spores of "Clostridioides difficile", parasites such as "Cryptosporidium", and certain viruses like norovirus depending on the concentration of alcohol in the sanitizer (95% alcohol was seen to be most effective in eliminating most viruses). In addition, if hands are contaminated with fluids or other visible contaminates, hand washing is preferred as well as when after using the toilet and if discomfort develops from the residue of alcohol sanitizer use. Furthermore, CDC recommends hand sanitizers are not effective in removing chemicals such as pesticides.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Hand sanitizer kills the germs, but the germs still remains on our hands. So its not clean right?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["yeah hand sanitizer is a good stop gap if you're in a place you can't wash and just wanna disinfect, but you cant just use hand sanitizer and never wash your hands :(",
'Yes, not clean. But also the dirt is not as dangerous anymore, just "stuff that shouldn\'t really be on your hand".',
"It's good enough for most everyday purposes, because the germ corpses can't infect you since they're dead. \n\nAdvanced situations like surgeons have to scrub with soap and water to remove the dead germs, as if they get inside a body where they're not expected the body might fight them anyways",
'What is your definition of "clean"? If dead bacteria are unclean, when why aren\'t dead skin cells?',
'Sanitizing is different than cleaning. Sanitizing (hand sanitizer, Lysol spray) kills the germs/pathogens; cleaning (soap and water) removes dirt. Ideally, you do both (Lysol wipes). Hand sanitizer is best used if there is no physical dirt on your hands. Otherwise, wash them in the sink. ',
"Being too clean is also disadvantageous.. No matter how much you disinfect your skin, germs will attach to it no matter what.. So it's better to have dead germs attached to it so there is no place for the alive one to attach to to your body. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'ary092',
'query': 'hand sanitizer kills the germs, but the germs still remains on our hands. so its not clean right?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '5791242',
'title': 'Uniform Certified Public Accountant Examination',
'section': 'Section::::Exam content.:Testing method.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 42,
'end_character': 360,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'During the examination, candidates may take a break after completing a "testlet" (either a set of multiple choice questions or a simulation). Once a testlet is completed, however, the candidate is not allowed to return to it, so it is not possible to use the "break time" to improve one\'s score by looking up answers. The clock continues to run during breaks.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25381',
'title': 'Recreation',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 372,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': '“It’s time to take a break.” This is one of the most pleasant and most popular phrases to a child’s ear. It means that you can now start laughing, playing and joking around with your friends without the fear of being punished for disrupting studies. During break time, some play games while holding conversations with their friends. This is called leisure and recreation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55684',
'title': 'Time-out (parenting)',
'section': 'Section::::Application.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 441,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Time out is a type two punishment procedure and is used commonly in schools, colleges, offices, clinics and homes. To implement time out, a caregiver removes the child from a reinforcing activity for a short period of time, usually 5 to 15 minutes, in order to discourage inappropriate behavior and teach the child that engaging in problem behavior will result in decreased access to reinforcing items and events in the child's environment.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33058364',
'title': 'Britney & Kevin: Chaotic (EP)',
'section': 'Section::::Background and recording.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 513,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "I think I should rephrase myself from my previous letters when I was talking about taking a 'break'. What I meant was I am taking a break from being told what to do. ... It's cool when you look at someone and don't know whether they are at work or play since it's all the same to them. The things I've been doing for work lately have been so much fun, because it's not like work to me anymore. I've been even more 'hands on' in my management and the business side of things, and I feel more in control than ever.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4132613',
'title': 'Blackout (Britney Spears album)',
'section': 'Section::::Background and development.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 513,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "I think I should rephrase myself from my previous letters when I was talking about taking a 'break'. What I meant was I am taking a break from being told what to do. ... It's cool when you look at someone and don't know whether they are at work or play since it's all the same to them. The things I've been doing for work lately have been so much fun, because it's not like work to me anymore. I've been even more 'hands on' in my management and the business side of things, and I feel more in control than ever.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16598952',
'title': 'Bad habit',
'section': 'Section::::Cure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 343,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'There are many techniques for removing bad habits once they have become established. One good one is to go for between 21 and 28 days try as hard as possible not to give in to the habit then rewarding yourself at the end of it. Then try to go a week, if the habit remains repeat the process, this method is proven to have a high success rate.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31869202',
'title': 'Jacob Jensen',
'section': 'Section::::Working Method.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 254,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "“If I look at it longer, I automatically compensate. ‘Oh, it’s not too high,’ and ‘It’s not so bad.’ There are only those 6–7 seconds; then I make some notes as to what's wrong. Finished. After breakfast, I make the changes. That's the only way I know.”\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is it that you can try something for hours and hours, take a break/be done for the day and somehow do it your first time upon retrying?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Your subconscious continues the learning process while you do other stuff or sleep. Also your body and mind are now well rested and it makes it easier to do stuff.',
'I just heard a really great interview with sleep expert Matthew Walker. He had a theory about this. The ELI5 version is basically that your brain "practices" what you learned while you sleep, which makes you better at whatever it is you are trying to do. This is one of the reasons why it\'s important to get at least seven hours of sleep a night.\n\nIf you want to hear more, check out the Joe Rogan Experience episode #1109. That\'s the interview I\'m referring to.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8jdtfj',
'query': 'why is it that you can try something for hours and hours, take a break/be done for the day and somehow do it your first time upon retrying?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '52190758',
'title': 'Environment of Saudi Arabia',
'section': 'Section::::Environmental action.:Renewable energy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 645,
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'passage_text': 'As opposed to overall energy reduction, the government organization Saudi Aramco wishes to create a solar energy sector. Saudi Arabia has a goal to create 41 GW of renewable energy plants, which would place the country as a leading solar energy exporter. Currently, the country is at 17 MW of solar energy and as a ways to go before reaching the goal. Hydroelectric and water based powers are also being discussed as alternatives to carbon emitting energies. Recently, and particularly in 2019, Saudi Arabia signed a number of agreements to implement mega wind projects as part of its plan to incorporate 5 gigawatt of wind power into its grid.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27273',
'title': 'Economy of Saudi Arabia',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 416,
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'passage_text': "In 2016 the Saudi Government launched its Saudi Vision 2030 to reduce the country's dependency on oil and diversify its economic resources. Saudi Arabia has the largest economy in the Arab world. In the first quarter of 2019, Saudi Arabia's budget has accomplished its first surplus since 2014. This surplus that is accounted for $10.40 billion has been achieved due to the increase of the oil and non-oil revenues.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36258148',
'title': 'Solar power in Saudi Arabia',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 750,
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'passage_text': 'Solar power in Saudi Arabia has become more important to the country as oil prices have risen. In 2011, over 50% of electricity was produced by burning oil. The Saudi agency in charge of developing the nations renewable energy sector, Ka-care, announced in May 2012 that the nation would install 41 gigawatts (GW) of solar capacity by 2032. It is projected to be composed of 25\xa0GW of solar thermal, and 16\xa0GW of photovoltaics. At the time of this announcement, Saudi Arabia had only 0.003 gigawatts of installed solar energy capacity. A total of 24\xa0GW of renewable energy was expected by 2020, and 54\xa0GW by 2032. 1,100\xa0megawatts (MW) of photovoltaics and 900 megawatts of concentrated solar thermal (CSP) was expected to be completed by early 2013. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52190758',
'title': 'Environment of Saudi Arabia',
'section': 'Section::::Environmental action.:Renewable energy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 943,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Concerns of inefficiency and expense are holding Saudi Arabia back from converting to renewable energy. Long term costs for environmentally friendly practices are low. However, developers often ignore environmental restrictions during oil expansion. It is possible for Saudi Arabia to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and encourage renewable energy use. Preoccupation on energy security strengthen the movement towards renewable energies. The current wealth from oil abundance and pressure from international organizations could encourage the energy sector to move towards sustainable policy. Natural resources are finite. The transition from voluntary sustainability to mandatory environmental regulation can push Saudi Arabia towards environmentally friendly practices. In the framework of Saudi Vision 2030, Saudi Arabia is opt to increase its renewable energy supply by 30%. This is planned to be achieved by partnering Shanghai Electric. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27273',
'title': 'Economy of Saudi Arabia',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Diversification and the development plans.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
'end_character': 396,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Saudi Arabia first began to diversify its economy to reduce dependency on oil in the 1970s as part of its first five-year development plan. Basic petrochemical industries using petroleum byproducts as feedstock were developed. The fishing villages of al-Jubail on the Persian Gulf and Yanbu on the Red Sea were developed. However, their effect on Saudi Arabia's economic fortunes has been small.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52190758',
'title': 'Environment of Saudi Arabia',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 1132,
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'passage_text': 'The desert-covered Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is the geographically largest country in the Middle East. Moreover, it accounts for 65% of the overall population of the GCC countries and 42% of its GDP. Saudi Arabia does not have a strong history in environmentalism. Thus, as the number of population increases and the industrial activity grows, environmental issues pose a real challenge to the country. Lack of environmental policy can be linked to an enormous reliance on oil. Due to intense fossil fuel usage, Saudi Arabia has generated a number of environmental issues. Urbanization and high standards of living contribute to ground, water, and air pollution. Agriculture and overconsumption of natural resources cause deforestation and desertification. Likewise, Saudi Arabia’s oil industry subsidizes energy use and magnifies carbon dioxide emissions. These environmental issues cause a variety of health problems including asthma and cancer. Some environmental action is taking place such as the construction of a renewable energy industry. Policies and programs are also being developed to ensure environmental sustainability.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52190758',
'title': 'Environment of Saudi Arabia',
'section': 'Section::::Environmental challenges.:Pollution.:Oil pollution.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 526,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'An abundance of oil resources promotes wasteful energy practices throughout Saudi Arabia. The government encourages energy use through subsidies. Currently, these subsidies are higher than any other regime at a total of 43 billon US dollars a year. Inexpensive energy supports excessive energy use, contributing to high rates of domestic oil consumption. The hot, arid climate of the Middle East causes widespread use of air conditioning for climate control. Power consumption and carbon dioxide emissions increase each year.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is Saudi Arabia not diversifying their economy to include solar or wind power?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Oil is so cheap there that solar and wind aren't affordable in comparison.",
'But they are:\n\n[Source 1](_URL_2_)\n\n[Source 2](_URL_1_)\n\n[Source 3](_URL_0_)',
"Solar and wind are strictly local power sources. There isn't any feasible way to transport wind or solar energy to Saudi Arabia's main oil customers (US, Western Europe, China) and the countries immediately bordering SA do not have energy needs on the same level."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6f90mp',
'query': 'why is saudi arabia not diversifying their economy to include solar or wind power?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '5355',
'title': 'Cooking',
'section': 'Section::::Health and safety.:Food safety.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 661,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Cooking can prevent many foodborne illnesses that would otherwise occur if the food is eaten raw. When heat is used in the preparation of food, it can kill or inactivate harmful organisms, such as bacteria and viruses, as well as various parasites such as tapeworms and "Toxoplasma gondii". Food poisoning and other illness from uncooked or poorly prepared food may be caused by bacteria such as of "Escherichia coli", "Salmonella typhimurium" and "Campylobacter", viruses such as noroviruses, and protozoa such as "Entamoeba histolytica". Bacteria, viruses and parasites may be introduced through salad, meat that is uncooked or done rare, and unboiled water.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42114',
'title': 'Salmonella',
'section': 'Section::::Detection, culture, and growth conditions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 262,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The bacteria are not destroyed by freezing, but UV light and heat accelerate their destruction. They perish after being heated to for 90 min, or to for 12 min. To protect against "Salmonella" infection, heating food to an internal temperature of is recommended.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '531611',
'title': 'Foodborne illness',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Bacteria.:Preventing bacterial food poisoning.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 47,
'end_character': 267,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'At home, prevention mainly consists of good food safety practices. Many forms of bacterial poisoning can be prevented by cooking it sufficiently, and either eating it quickly or refrigerating it effectively. Many toxins, however, are not destroyed by heat treatment.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60797872',
'title': 'Japan Airlines food poisoning incident',
'section': 'Section::::Investigation.:Spread of pathogens.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 348,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'According to microbiologists, it can take as few as 100 staphylococci to cause food poisoning. In-flight catering logistics provided ideal conditions for the bacteria to grow and release toxins, which induce severe nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and abdominal cramps. Being heat-resistant, the toxins were not destroyed when the omelettes were heated.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35490713',
'title': 'Physical factors affecting microbial life',
'section': 'Section::::High temperatures.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 883,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Extreme temperatures destroy viruses and vegetative cells that are active and metabolising. Organic molecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipid and nucleic acids, as well as cell walls and membranes, all of which play important roles in cell metabolism, are damaged by excessive heat. Food for human consumption is routinely heated by baking, boiling and frying to temperatures which destroy most pathogens. Thermal processes often cause undesirable changes in the texture, appearance and nutritional value of foods. Autoclaves generate steam at higher than boiling point and are used to sterilise laboratory glassware, surgical instruments, and, in a growing industry, medical waste. A danger inherent in using high temperatures to destroy microbes, is their incomplete destruction through inadequate procedures with a consequent risk of producing pathogens resistant to heat.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35490713',
'title': 'Physical factors affecting microbial life',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 236,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Microbes can be damaged or killed by elements of their physical environment such as temperature, radiation, or exposure to chemicals; these effects can be exploited in efforts to control pathogens, often for the purpose of food safety.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5301306',
'title': 'Portable water purification',
'section': 'Section::::Techniques.:Heat (boiling).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 367,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Heat kills disease-causing micro-organisms, with higher temperatures and/or duration required for some pathogens. Sterilization of water (killing all living contaminants) is not necessary to make water safe to drink; one only needs to render enteric (intestinal) pathogens harmless. Boiling does not remove most pollutants and does not leave any residual protection.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does food poisoning happens if heat is supposed to kill bacteria/parasites?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['the bacteria can produce toxins which are not destroyed by heat from what I read earlier (I think my friend also mentioned this awhile back).',
'1) Food poisoning is often caused by the toxins bacteria produce as waste. Heat does not destroy these toxins, so if they have already reached a level that is dangerous to humans cooking does not do any good to prevent illness. \n\n2) Contamination can occur after cooking has ended.',
'Bacteria, much like humans, will eat and poop. It’s the bacterial poop that causes most of the problems associated with food poisoning and not the bacteria themselves. And while you can kill the bacteria and the parasites by boiling or baking them, if they were in your food long enough for their poop to build up, the food becomes toxic.',
"1) Not all bacteria die in cooking (also depends on cooking type e.g. If it's pressure cooked or not) and they survive as a spore such as clostridium perfringens and bacillis cereus.\n\n2) some bacteria produce heat stable toxins that cause food poisoning regardless if the bacteria themselves are dead after. Such as staph aureus.\n\n3) some bacteria survive due to insufficient cooking such as salmonella and Vibrio parahaemolyticus.\n\n4) some contaminations happen after cooking. Such as when you cut the raw meat with a knife then use it to cut the cooked meat without proper washing or when kebab shops keep the shaved off meat in a dish for hours and hours out in the open getting splashed by contaminants.\n\nThat's all I can think of now, but I'm sure there are other mechanisms (also I only talked about bacteria here)"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'dlkfzj',
'query': 'why does food poisoning happens if heat is supposed to kill bacteria/parasites?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '221221',
'title': 'Stomach rumble',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 742,
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'passage_text': 'A stomach rumble, also known as a bowel sound, peristaltic sound or bubble gut, is a rumbling, growling or gurgling noise produced by movement of the contents of the gastro-intestinal tract as they are propelled through the small intestine by a series of muscle contractions called peristalsis. A trained healthcare provider can listen to these intestinal noises with a stethoscope, but they may be audible enough to be heard with the naked ear and are known as stomach rumble or borborygmus (pronounced ; plural borborygmi) as the fluid and gas moves forward in the intestines (in the vicinity of but not actually within the stomach). The lack of bowel sounds is indicative of ileus, intestinal obstruction, or some other serious pathology.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '221221',
'title': 'Stomach rumble',
'section': 'Section::::Other causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 493,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "BULLET::::- Louder rumbles may occur when one is hungry. Around two hours after the stomach has been emptied, it sends signals to the brain, which tells the digestive muscles to restart peristalsis in a wave called the migrating motor complex. Food left behind after the first cycle is swept up, and the vibrations of the empty stomach cause hunger. Appetite plays a big role in this situation. Peristalsis recurs about every hour, and one's appetite may cause 10- to 20-minute food cravings.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1355944',
'title': 'Mr Creosote',
'section': 'Section::::Synopsis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 525,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'He finishes the feast, and several other courses, vomiting profusely all over himself, his table, and the restaurant\'s staff throughout his meal, causing other diners to lose their appetite, and in some cases, throw up as well. Finally, after being persuaded by the smooth maître d\' to eat a single "wafer-thin mint", his stomach begins to rapidly expand until it explodes: covering the restaurant and diners with viscera and partially digested food—even starting a "vomit-wave" among the other diners, who leave in disgust.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18600477',
'title': 'Hiccup',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Evolutionary causes.:Clearance of air from stomach.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 30,
'end_character': 318,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The hypothesis suggests that the air bubble in the stomach stimulates the sensory limb of the reflex at receptors in the stomach, esophagus and along the diaphragm. This triggers the hiccup, which creates suction in the chest, pulling air from the stomach up and out through the mouth, effectively burping the animal.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45609',
'title': 'Cheetah',
'section': 'Section::::Ecology and behaviour.:Home ranges and territories.:Vocalisations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 47,
'end_character': 242,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Growling: Often accompanied by hissing and spitting, the cheetah growls to show its annoyance, or when faced with danger. A study showed that growls consist of numerous short pulses with a combined duration of up to five seconds.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39747',
'title': 'Stomach',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 369,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In humans and many other animals, the stomach is located between the oesophagus and the small intestine. It secretes digestive enzymes and gastric acid to aid in food digestion. The pyloric sphincter controls the passage of partially digested food (chyme) from the stomach into the duodenum where peristalsis takes over to move this through the rest of the intestines.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3416',
'title': 'Bryozoa',
'section': 'Section::::Physiology.:Feeding and excretion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 72,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 72,
'end_character': 388,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In some species the first part of the stomach forms a muscular gizzard lined with chitinous teeth that crush armored prey such as diatoms. Wave-like peristaltic contractions move the food through the stomach for digestion. The final section of the stomach is lined with cilia (minute hairs) that compress undigested solids, which then pass through the intestine and out through the anus.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'stomach growls',
'selftext': 'Why do our stomachs growl so loud when we are hungry? Like today it sounded like a thunderstorm in my belly. What is causing the growling and why is it so loud',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["when your guts are 'more empty' what they are filled with, instead of a semi-solid mass (food), is gas and liquid. This gurgles more noisily when your intestines engage in peristalsis, a coordinated movement of the muscles that line them, in order to stir up and progress their contents.",
'Did you know there is a word for your tummy rumbles? A single one is called a borborygmus, and borborygmi in the plural form. \n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5pedo1',
'query': 'stomach growls',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '9575098',
'title': 'Virgin TV',
'section': 'Section::::Availability.:Non-cabled areas.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 390,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'For customers in non-cabled areas, Virgin Media offered a branded set-top box for the Freeview digital terrestrial television service, called "Free TV", until December 2009 when it was discontinued. The set-top box was free to any customer taking the Bundle One subscription package or for an addition fee to other customers, up to five additional set-top boxes were available per account.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9258009',
'title': 'Digital media player',
'section': 'Section::::Use.:Use for illegal streaming.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 76,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 76,
'end_character': 1373,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': '"Fully-loaded" set-top boxes have been subject to legal controversies, especially noting that their user experiences made them accessible to end-users who may not always realize that they are actually streaming pirated content. In the United Kingdom, the Federation Against Copyright Theft (FACT) has taken court actions on behalf of rightsholders against those who market digital media players pre-loaded with access to copyrighted content. In January 2017, an individual seller plead not guilty to charges of marketing and distributing devices that circumvent technological protection measures. In March 2017, the High Court of Justice ruled that BT Group, Sky plc, TalkTalk, and Virgin Media must block servers that had been used on such set-top boxes to illegally stream Premier League football games. Later in the month, Amazon UK banned the sale of "certain media players" that had been pre-loaded with software to illegally stream copyrighted content. On 26 April 2017, the European Court of Justice ruled that the distribution of set-top boxes with access to unauthorized streams of copyrighted works violated the exclusive rights to communicate them to the public. In September 2017, a British seller of such boxes pled guilty to violations of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act for selling devices that can circumvent effective technical protection measures.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '77904',
'title': 'Television receive-only',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 448,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Originally, all channels could be received in the clear (ITC) and free of charge. In October 1984, the U.S. Congress passed the Cable Communications Act of 1984, which gave those using dishes the right to see signals for free unless they were scrambled, and required those who did scramble to make their signals available for a fee. Since cable channels could prevent reception by big dishes, other companies had an incentive to offer competition.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '842479',
'title': 'Prestel',
'section': 'Section::::Public take-up.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 74,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 74,
'end_character': 532,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The original idea was to persuade consumers to buy a modified television set with an inbuilt modem and a keypad remote control in order to access the service, but no more than a handful of models were ever marketed and they were prohibitively expensive. Eventually set-top boxes were made available, and some organisations made these available as part of their subscription, for example branded Tandata terminals were provided by the Nottingham Building Society for its customers, who could make financial transactions via Prestel.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '348300',
'title': 'Digital video recorder',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Hard-disk-based digital video recorders.:Digital video recorders tied to a video service.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 613,
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'passage_text': 'In the United States, the FCC has ruled that starting on July 1, 2007, consumers will be able to purchase a set-top box from a third-party company, rather than being forced to purchase or rent the set-top box from their cable company. This ruling only applies to "navigation devices," otherwise known as a cable television set-top box, and not to the security functions that control the user\'s access to the content of the cable operator. The overall net effect on digital video recorders and related technology is unlikely to be substantial as standalone DVRs are currently readily available on the open market.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4842106',
'title': 'ONTV (pay TV)',
'section': 'Section::::Basic service fees.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 767,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "After going through a name change, ON Subscription Television's broadcast signal was secured with a relatively simple analog scrambling method over the UHF spectrum; therefore, it was a popular target for those who chose to pirate the signal. In most U.S. markets where an over-the-air subscription television service operated, viewers could purchase descrambler kits from various specialty retailers or through mail order services advertised in magazines. The increased availability of cable television, coupled with the relative ease of obtaining descramblers contributed to a significant loss of revenue for the service. Station operators in Chicago estimated that there were two thefts of service through piracy for every one of their 90,000 subscribers in 1984.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29580',
'title': 'Set-top box',
'section': 'Section::::TV signal sources.:Closed captioning box.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 568,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Set-top boxes were also made to enable closed captioning on older sets in North America, before this became a mandated inclusion in new TV sets. Some have also been produced to mute the audio (or replace it with noise) when profanity is detected in the captioning, where the offensive word is also blocked. Some also include a V-chip that allows only programs of some television content ratings. A function that limits children's time watching TV or playing video games may also be built in, though some of these work on main electricity rather than the video signal.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How did "cheater boxes" (cable descramblers) allow you to watch premium TV channels for free?',
'selftext': "I had a few friends who had one back in the 90's that allowed you to get HBO and pay-per-view without actually paying for it. I always wondered how they work.",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Way back when, television was an analog signal. More accurately, it was a *series* of analog signals that your 100%-analog color television could use to produce a picture. You have three signals for color (your TV only looked at one if it was black-and-white) and a "timing" signal that indicated when it should start drawing a new line. The "vertical hold" was a sometimes-manual synchronization to that signal.\n\n"Scrambling" was really just that. Some of the signals were inverted, some of them were switched. But, fundamentally, you couldn\'t *add* in junk or actually do significant *math* to obscure the signal, because televisions simply didn\'t have the ability to un-do that and produce a working picture for your paying consumer. Likewise, before relatively powerful integrated electronics became available, it wasn\'t economically feasible to give a customer a powerful computerized set-top box just to watch some television.\n\nSo your "encryption" was a scheme with only a few variables. Throw off the synchronization here, swap a color field here, and it would make the picture "off" enough to be unwatchable. But, likewise, once someone figured out your mechanism, they just had to create a relatively simply "decoder" to bring that signal back.\n\nTLDR: Analog encryption wasn\'t terribly complicated, but it was analog, so it required *hardware* as opposed to something digital, which might be more complex, but also could be done with a wider variety of hardware. Nowadays, everything is digital (because computing power, even for high-definition video, is so cheap) so analog encryption/decryption isn\'t a thing.',
'On the scrabmblers in the town I used to live in. Pin 4 of the chip would be 0 Volts on unsxrambled channel and 5 Volts on scrambled channels. So pulling the chip from the socket and bending pin 4 straight would let you watch anything you wanted.',
'I built a couple of those for friends and family. The vertical sync signal was missing, so this box would create its own. You then had to fine-tune it manually to get a stable picture on your TV.\n\nLater, with the DirecTV systems, people hacked the plug-in cards that came with the box. The programming hardware was technically illegal in the US, but was about $80USD from a Canadian company. A friend was part of a "dark web" hacker group, and every time DirecTV changed the codes, they would be hacked within hours. Reprogram your card and you had everything. One thing you had to remember was that your box couldn\'t be connected to the telephone line, else DirecTV could "call" your box to see what it was doing. That\'s how they did remote fixes and upgrades back then. DirecTV finally came out with a new box and card system that couldn\'t be reprogrammed with the previous gear, so that was the end of that.',
'Everyone is talking about "way back when" and "did" but I have a cheater box rn? I have all of bell broadcasting for free...',
'Boxes had EPROM chips. Cable companies sent EVERY SUBSCRIBER every channel that was available. Open box, dremel cut the epoxy chip that came with the box. Install $0.89 chip that you could buy hundreds of....',
"For the digital age, things work somewhat differently. \n\nThe encryption itself usually isn't broken but some other part of the hardware might have a flaw that lets you access the key data, be it a season interface, an firmware dump or just insecure key distribution. Once you get ahold of a valid key, you can rather easily emulate most common cryptography systems (in the end it's just some protocol plus AES) either in hardware or nowadays more commonly in software. Nagravision2 had such a major flaw that any key change would lock out pirate decryption for a few hours tops. Most paytv networks will weigh the suspected amount of pirate decryption against the tremendous costs of implementing a newer encryption system (usually that requires at least a smartcard change, tough luck if they went cardless and now have to exchange all the boxes). As long as the illegal decryption process is complex enough to deterr the average teenager, requires expensive hardware or at least some sort of fancy setup, they'll let people get away with it. \n\nMore recently, cardsharing has been the typical way to go. Essentially, there's one valid and paid subscription in a cardreader connected to some sort of server (cable boxes, RasPis, full blown x86 servers, even internet routers like ddWRT boxes have been successfully used) and they handle the requests from the clients that connect via internet. Depending on the card in question, a dozen individual viewers is fairly easy to handle, using two or three cards can even result in as many viewers as your internet connection can handle (and that's a lot since only a few kbytes are sent and received every couple seconds). \n\nRecently though, providers have been switching to systems that pair the card with a particular box or have gone cardless alltogether - really annoying for people who simply want to use better hardware than the usually crappy provider boxes and do nothing illegal otherwise. ",
'Rockwell Collins in Cedar Rapids Iowa had a big controversy wenden management discovered a clandestine line in the plant where cheater boxes were being made. An actual line, with people assigned to it, making professional cheater boxes by the 10s of thousands. Selling them in the 80s fit like 30-40 dollars. ',
'Well, imagine tuning a radio...an old school radio with knobs. You either go up and down that AM or FM band and when you hit the sweet spot, the music is clear.\n\nNow try that using 3 different knobs, all on different frequencies and dial into that sweet spot. That\'s how they were able to mask the true signal before there were true methods of encryption. Once that "sweet spot" was figured out, it was just getting that info out to the public which wasn\'t as easy as it is today. It was more of a "mouth to ear" distribution system to keep it on the DL. But it\'s not dissimilar to modern techniques.',
'The best were the K band satellite hacks. Modded boxes for the 8’ dishes that enabled thousands of channels on dozens of satellites.\n\nIt was like the selection available on the internet in the 1990s. Hundreds of channels of anything. The most fun we’re the news feeds - the remote camera feeds from the news stations. Watching the “Off broadcast” shenanigans of the feild reporter were fantastic. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '788bda',
'query': 'how did "cheater boxes" (cable descramblers) allow you to watch premium tv channels for free?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '56504697',
'title': 'OnePlus 6',
'section': 'Section::::Specifications.:Hardware.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'The phone has been specified to be dust, splash, and water resistant, however, it has not been certified with an IP Code and OnePlus suggests against submerging the device. Water damage is not covered by the warranty.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '53855893',
'title': 'Electric shock drowning',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Electric shock drownings are most commonly caused by improper electrical connections on boats and docks. By law, all connections near water are required to have working ground fault circuit interruption technology, GFCI. These devices break the electrical circuit if any stray current fails to return to the source connection. If GFCI devices are missing or faulty, it is possible for current to leak into the water. If a system is leaking current into the water, appliances will likely function as normal without any indication of a problem. Correctly functioning GFCI and ELCI devices will instantaneously detect the problem and disconnect the power source. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '890485',
'title': 'Boating',
'section': 'Section::::Safety.:Drowning.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 64,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 64,
'end_character': 870,
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'passage_text': 'Another potential cause for drowning is the presence of stray electrical power from a boat leaking into the water. This is known as electric shock drowning. Metal surfaces of a boat leaking power into the water can create zones of high-energy potential. Stray current entering salt water is less of a problem than the same situation in fresh water. Salt water is a good conductor and it carries current away to ground quickly. Fresh water is a poor conductor and when alternating current forms an electrical potential near a boat, the current can paralyze a swimmer. Stray electric current has caused many drownings, but post-mortem examinations will not link this problem to the death. The problem can be reduced by prohibiting swimming near boats connected to shore power and ensuring marinas comply with National Fire Protection Association Standard 303 for marinas.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1853642',
'title': 'Water damage',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Water damage describes a large number of possible losses caused by water intruding where it will enable attack of a material or system by destructive processes such as rotting of wood, growth, rusting of steel, de-laminating of materials such as plywood, and many others.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '331039',
'title': 'Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge',
'section': 'Section::::Controversies.:Seawall integrity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 53,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 53,
'end_character': 462,
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'passage_text': 'Subsequent aerial footage posted online showed a section of the dolosse breakwater completely underwater. Civil engineer So Yiu-kwan told Hong Kong media on 12 April 2018 that the water level, at the time the photos were taken, was about 1.74 mPD (metres above Principal Datum), but the maximum water level could reach 2.7 mPD. He said the dolosse would offer no wave protection if entirely submerged, and further alleged that they had been installed backwards.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '54024172',
'title': 'Telephone (sternwheeler)',
'section': 'Section::::Collisions and accidents.:January 1892 sinking.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 93,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 93,
'end_character': 310,
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'passage_text': 'Water flooded in, and "Telephone" sank so that only the bow was visible above the water’s surface. The steamer appeared to be a total loss, but remained hanging on the breakwater for about a week, which was enough time to raise the vessel. Once "Telephone" was raised, the damage appeared to be not so severe.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3849909',
'title': 'Freediving blackout',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanisms.:Shallow water blackout.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 347,
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'passage_text': 'Significantly, victims drown quietly underwater without alerting anyone to the fact that there is a problem and are typically found on the bottom as shown in the staged image at the right. Survivors of shallow water blackout are typically puzzled as to why they blacked out. Pool lifesavers are trained to scan the bottom for the situation shown.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why water completely damages a cell phone when submerged.',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Electronic circuits are designed to only allow electricity to pass through certain parts at certain times. That\'s how your phone works.\n\nIt\'s a set of boolean functions (1 or 0/true or false). Electricity passes through chip, and it makes a decision such as "and/or". If it\'s \'and\', it sends the signal one way, and if it\'s \'or\', it sends it another way. After it does that, this step is repeated through other logic gates that have other functions that aren\'t and/or (not/or or any of the many other variants).\n\nOnce you submerge it into water, it doesn\'t follow this designed \'trail\', and the phone short-circuits. Because water is conductive, the electrical signals go wherever they can, and electronics can\'t handle that.\n\nTo make something of a comparison; It\'s the same reason you get in a line when you\'re shopping. Imagine if all the customers just threw all their items onto the counter at the same time and talked over each other. The cashier wouldn\'t know what to do. That\'s what the submersion is.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5ql0z0',
'query': 'why water completely damages a cell phone when submerged.',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '48782005',
'title': 'Astrophysical fluid dynamics',
'section': 'Section::::Basic concepts.:Concepts of Fluid Dynamics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 409,
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'passage_text': "These interesting objects are born from once-large stars that grew to four to eight times the size of our own sun before exploding in catastrophic supernovae. After such an explosion blows a star's outer layers into space, the core remains—but it no longer produces nuclear fusion. With no outward pressure from fusion to counterbalance gravity's inward pull, the star condenses and collapses in upon itself.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4650',
'title': 'Black hole',
'section': 'Section::::Formation and evolution.:Gravitational collapse.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 62,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 62,
'end_character': 521,
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'passage_text': "The collapse may be stopped by the degeneracy pressure of the star's constituents, allowing the condensation of matter into an exotic denser state. The result is one of the various types of compact star. Which type forms depends on the mass of the remnant of the original star left after the outer layers have been blown away. Such explosions and pulsations lead to planetary nebula. This mass can be substantially less than the original star. Remnants exceeding are produced by stars that were over before the collapse.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '177174',
'title': 'Orion Nebula',
'section': 'Section::::Evolution.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 48,
'end_character': 565,
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'passage_text': 'Some of these collapsing stars can be particularly massive, and can emit large quantities of ionizing ultraviolet radiation. An example of this is seen with the Trapezium cluster. Over time the ultraviolet light from the massive stars at the center of the nebula will push away the surrounding gas and dust in a process called photo evaporation. This process is responsible for creating the interior cavity of the nebula, allowing the stars at the core to be viewed from Earth. The largest of these stars have short life spans and will evolve to become supernovae.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11009033',
'title': 'Type II supernova',
'section': 'Section::::Hypernovae.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
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'passage_text': 'Stars with initial masses between about 25 and 90 times the sun develop cores large enough that after a supernova explosion, some material will fall back onto the neutron star core and create a black hole. In many cases this reduces the luminosity of the supernova, and above the star collapses directly into a black hole without a supernova explosion. However, if the progenitor is spinning quickly enough, the infalling material generates relativistic jets that emit more energy than the original explosion. They may also be seen directly if beamed towards us, giving the impression of an even more luminous object. In some cases these can produce gamma-ray bursts, although not all gamma-ray bursts are from supernovae.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1996903',
'title': 'Cassiopeia A',
'section': 'Section::::Expansion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 533,
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'passage_text': 'Observations of the exploded star through the Hubble telescope have shown that, despite the original belief that the remnants were expanding in a uniform manner, there are high velocity outlying eject knots moving with transverse velocities of 5,500−14,500\xa0km/s with the highest speeds occurring in two nearly opposing jets. When the view of the expanding star uses colors to differentiate materials of different chemical compositions, it shows that similar materials often remain gathered together in the remnants of the explosion.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20510749',
'title': 'Partial impact theory',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': "The temporary star expands after the impact displaying an intense increase in light, after all molecular reactions have taken place the light is replaced by a hollow shell of gas or possibly a planetary nebula, and eventually dissipates into space. Bickerton explains this bright temporary star by saying that it doesn't disappear due to cooling, but that it was too hot to hold together.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1683536',
'title': 'Superbubble',
'section': 'Section::::Formation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 685,
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'passage_text': 'When stars die, supernova explosions, similarly, drive blast waves that can reach even larger sizes, with expansion velocities up to several hundred km\xa0s. Stars in OB associations are not gravitationally bound, but they drift apart at small speeds (of around 20\xa0km\xa0s), and they exhaust their fuel rapidly (after a few millions of years). As a result, most of their supernova explosions occur within the cavity formed by the stellar wind bubbles. These explosions never form a visible supernova remnant, but instead expend their energy in the hot interior as sound waves. Both stellar winds and stellar explosions thus power the expansion of the superbubble in the interstellar medium.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How come when stars explode, they gush their matter out in 2 dimensions?',
'selftext': 'How come when you see pictures of recently exploded stars, they always explode away in 2 dimensions instead of everything going everywhere? Found a good picture from another subreddit. URL_0',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["That's three dimensions, but two directions; the magnetic poles of the star. The magnetic fields involved create those jets. ",
"Doesn't that image [look familiar](_URL_0_)?\n\nThe spectral matter is chasing the magnetic field. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5so5dr',
'query': 'how come when stars explode, they gush their matter out in 2 dimensions?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '4884643',
'title': 'Hand wrap',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Hand and wrist wraps are used to compress (and keep compressed when hitting) the bones and tissues in the hand. The claim is that such compression allows boxers to hit with greater force than if they did not use them. Boxers claim they feel less pain when hitting so their opponent may feel more pain. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4243',
'title': 'Boxing',
'section': 'Section::::Rules.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'In general, boxers are prohibited from hitting below the belt, holding, tripping, pushing, biting, or spitting. The boxer\'s shorts are raised so the opponent is not allowed to hit to the groin area with intent to cause pain or injury. Failure to abide by the former may result in a foul. They also are prohibited from kicking, head-butting, or hitting with any part of the arm other than the knuckles of a closed fist (including hitting with the elbow, shoulder or forearm, as well as with open gloves, the wrist, the inside, back or side of the hand). They are prohibited as well from hitting the back, back of the head or neck (called a "rabbit-punch") or the kidneys. They are prohibited from holding the ropes for support when punching, holding an opponent while punching, or ducking below the belt of their opponent (dropping below the waist of your opponent, no matter the distance between).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6822383',
'title': 'Boxing styles and technique',
'section': 'Section::::Equipment and safety.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
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'passage_text': 'Boxing techniques utilize very forceful strikes with the hand. There are many bones in the hand, and striking surfaces without proper technique can cause serious hand injuries. Today, most trainers do not allow boxers to train and spar without hand/wrist wraps and gloves. Handwraps are used to secure the bones in the hand, and the gloves are used to protect the hands from blunt injury, allowing boxers to throw punches with more force than if they did not utilize them.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3907084',
'title': 'Boxing glove',
'section': 'Section::::Safety.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "The impact of gloves on the injuries caused during a fight is a controversial issue. Hitting to the head was less common in the bare-knuckle era because of the risk of hurting the boxer's hand. Gloves reduce the number of cuts caused, but British Medical Association research has stated that gloves do not reduce brain injuries and may even increase them, because the main cause of injury is acceleration and deceleration of the head, and fighters wearing gloves are able to punch harder to the head. Gloves may reduce the amount of eye injuries, especially if they are thumbless, but retinal tears and detached retinas still occur to boxers wearing modern gloves.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1649200',
'title': "Boxer's fracture",
'section': 'Section::::Prevention.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Boxers and other combat athletes routinely use hand wraps and boxing gloves to help stabilize the hand, greatly reducing pain and risk of injury during impact. Proper punching form is the most important factor to prevent this type of fracture.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39292719',
'title': 'Fist',
'section': 'Section::::Boxing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'Improper formation of the fist whilst punching or striking an object can cause bruising and broken small bones in the hand known as "Boxer\'s fracture." Boxer\'s Fracture occurs when metacarpals or small bones in the hand break on the side of the pinky and ring finger. The name derives from the fact that such injuries are most common in boxers and practitioners of other fighting arts.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1460084',
'title': 'ROH Pure Championship',
'section': 'Section::::Pure wrestling rules.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 396,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::2. There are no closed-fist punches to the face allowed in a Pure match, only open-handed slaps or chops to the face are allowed. Punches to other parts of the body (save for low blows) are permitted. The first use of a closed fist would get a warning, and the second would cause the wrestler to be penalized a rope break. If he is already out of rope breaks, he would be disqualified.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How in boxing a person can get cut when punched by someone wearing gloves?',
'selftext': 'Basically, how is the blunt force from the punch able to cut someone? The gloves aren’t sharp right?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["While I can't speak for every fighter, there's some boxers/mma fighters with scar tissue and thats why they open up and bleed easily.",
"The gloves aren't sharp but the way it happen is from friction of the glove sliding across the skin & dragging it tight against the skull before tearing it under the force of the punch",
'Friction.\n\nEven with gloves on, often times glancing blows still carry enough force to cause enough glove-to-skin friction to split the skin open. This is why you see boxers and fighters put Vaseline on their cheeks and eyebrows.',
'Its more of a tear than a cut. But you see some fighters when they get petroleum jelly put on their face before a fight. Its to help keep the gloves from sticking to their skin. As it wears off. Then gloves can stick to the skin and cause it to rip/tear. \n\nMost common spots are also where skin is close to the bone. So cheek bones and eye sockets.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'e7uu5c',
'query': 'how in boxing a person can get cut when punched by someone wearing gloves?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '370432',
'title': 'Economic inequality',
'section': 'Section::::Various proposed causes of economic inequality.:Wealth concentration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 51,
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'end_paragraph_id': 51,
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'passage_text': 'Wealth concentration is the process by which, under certain conditions, newly created wealth concentrates in the possession of already-wealthy individuals or entities. Accordingly, those who already hold wealth have the means to invest in new sources of creating wealth or to otherwise leverage the accumulation of wealth, thus are the beneficiaries of the new wealth. Over time, wealth concentration can significantly contribute to the persistence of inequality within society. Thomas Piketty in his book "Capital in the Twenty-First Century" argues that the fundamental force for divergence is the usually greater return of capital (r) than economic growth (g), and that larger fortunes generate higher returns.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '735201',
'title': 'Trickle-down economics',
'section': 'Section::::Criticisms.\n',
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'end_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': 'A 2015 paper by researchers for the International Monetary Fund argues that there is no trickle-down effect as the rich get richer: [I]f the income share of the top 20 percent (the rich) increases, then GDP growth actually declines over the medium term, suggesting that the benefits do not trickle down. In contrast, an increase in the income share of the bottom 20 percent (the poor) is associated with higher GDP growth.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '192617',
'title': 'Wealth',
'section': 'Section::::Economic analysis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
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'passage_text': "In macroeconomic theory the 'wealth effect' may refer to the increase in aggregate consumption from an increase in national wealth. One feature of its effect on economic behavior is the wealth elasticity of demand, which is the percentage change in the amount of consumption goods demanded for each one-percent change in wealth.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4244281',
'title': 'Life-cycle hypothesis',
'section': 'Section::::Implications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'Since wealth does not change proportionately with income from individual to individual or from year to year, we should get the result that high income leads to a low average propensity to consume while looking at the data across persons or over short periods of time. However, generally over a long period of time, wealth and income increase together, which leads to a constant ratio "" and thus a constant average propensity to consume. To further analyse the implications of the life-cycle model, we start by considering the case of a "stationary economy" in which population and productivity are constant through time. Then, we relax these assumptions one by one.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '192617',
'title': 'Wealth',
'section': 'Section::::Amount of wealth in the world.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
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'passage_text': "The wealth of households amounts to US$280 trillion (2017). According to the eighth edition of the Global Wealth Report, in the year to mid-2017, total global wealth rose at a rate of 6.4%, the fastest pace since 2012 and reached US$280 trillion, a gain of US$16.7 trillion. This reflected widespread gains in equity markets matched by similar rises in non-financial assets, which moved above the pre-crisis year 2007's level for the first time this year. Wealth growth also outpaced population growth, so that global mean wealth per adult grew by 4.9% and reached a new record high of US$56,540 per adult. Tim Harford has asserted that a small child has greater wealth than the 2 billion poorest people in the world combined, since a small child has no debt.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34104355',
'title': 'Subjective well-being',
'section': 'Section::::Factors affecting SWB.:Wealth.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
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'passage_text': 'Research indicates that wealth is related to many positive outcomes in life. Such outcomes include: improved health and mental health, greater longevity, lower rates of infant mortality, experience fewer stressful life events, and less frequently the victims of violent crimes However, research suggests that wealth has a smaller impact on SWB than people generally think, even though higher incomes do correlate substantially with life satisfaction reports.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1103799',
'title': 'Distribution of wealth',
'section': 'Section::::Wealth concentration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'Wealth concentration is a process by which created wealth, under some conditions, can become concentrated by individuals or entities. Those who hold wealth have the means to invest in newly created sources and structures of wealth, or to otherwise leverage the accumulation of wealth, and are thus the beneficiaries of even greater wealth.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does overall wealth actually increase?',
'selftext': 'Isn’t there only so much “money” in the world? How is greater wealth actually generated beyond just a redistribution of currently existing wealth?',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['New money is created every day. A lot driven by fractional reserve banking. You deposit $1,000 in the bank, and the bank then loans out a multiple of that, creating money in the process. ',
'When we convert raw materials into other resources, the value increases.\n\nRaw steel and rocks isn’t that useful, but build a building and you can house people/do commercial activities. Wood isn’t useful, but you can print knowledge on paper and books are more valuable than raw wood.\n\nThis concept extends to ideas, not just physical materials. A new technology like self-driving cars increases the value of the economy. A new app that allows you to easily order food delivery also adds value.\n\nAs Long as economic activity exists, humans are constantly transforming resources, and value will increase.',
'There’s not only so much money. As value is added to a society they can make more “money” and everything is okay. In fact if societies don’t increase the amount of money in circulation at any time as the value of goods within their society increases then the money becomes more expensive and it becomes harder for the economy to work properly because there isn’t enough money to allow everyone that needs it access to it and that inhibits growth and trading of goods and services. \nThe opposite is also true, if you make to much money then each unit of money becomes worth less and that leads to inflation above what is beneficial. People lose faith that a dollar (for example) will buy the same amount of goods and services tomorrow that it does today. This also impacts the functioning of the economy. \n\nRemember money is really just something we believe has value in it. Shiny metal or paper or whatever, in reality there no to little actual value to it other than what people say it does. Money is just an easier way of doing bartering. Instead of a farmer with milk having to find someone that wants milk and that has what he wants we trade for little pieces of something or electronic digits so we can more efficiently work in the economy. ',
"To understand wealth creation, I feel its better to eliminate currency and look at a barter system. \n\nI'm a farmer that handles chickens and you handle plants. My chickens need your plants to eat. You and your big family need the eggs from my chickens to eat. \n\nYou want to be able to buy more eggs. You work longer hours to plant more plants to be able to sell more to me so I can feed more to my chickens. My better fed chickens produce more eggs and you can buy more of them because I bought more plants from you. My farm now produces more eggs and yours produces more plants. We've increased our production, and therefore the size of our economy.\n\nWealth creation comes in when you deal with products that store value. Obviously, chickens eggs spoil and plants die. However, suppose you take a surplus of plants you made and sell it to another guy who in return for those plants, builds you a house. Now you have a house. That is wealth. The people in our little town know that it takes an X amount of plants, or X amount of chicken eggs to build a house. That house is part of your wealth now. You can sell it if you want in the future at a market price.\n\nObviously, I have no idea how farming actually works, but you get the gist of it. ",
"In simple terms, the pie (total human economic value) increases as we exploit more of Earth's resources, and do so more efficiently. As the pie grows, so does each slice.\n\nSay you and four friends have $100 between you. One friend might have $50 while the rest of you have $12.50 each. You all really like rocks. You all have a certain number of rocks between you, and trade them back and forth. Obviously, the richer friend has more leverage to accumulate more rocks.\n\nBut the number of rocks isn't static. You decide to go dig up more rocks and bring them back to your friends. Obviously, with these new resources, you'll grow wealthier, but you friends will too. The supply in rocks has increased, debasing the value of each rock and increasing the purchasing power of each dollar. You are all now wealthier despite there being no change in the money supply. Overall wealth increases when the purchasing power of the currency grows.\n\nEconomics is not zero-sum, at least from a human perspective. Technically nature is losing value, but nature is a stingy bitch and doesn't put her resources to use. Printing money actually debases the currency. It can potentially sap wealth.",
'Raw resources turned into goods, combined with a constant printing of money to maintain a certain value of the currency. ',
'Money is just a tool used to keep track of value. The money is constantly being recycled. Just because Bill gates has billions of dollars doesn’t mean he has billions of dollars sitting in the bank, that billion dollars is all theoretical and made up of assets and investments. Even if it was all in the bank, the bank uses this money to loan to other people and other banky activities. ',
"None of these are very useful explanations to a 5 year old...so let me try.\n\nWe're in a class of 20 people and we all really like purple marbles. They're all identical, but as stupid 5 year olds we can't get enough purple marbles. We'll do anything for them.\n\nJake has all the marbles. His parents bought out the store, and he now has ~100 marbles. And he won't give them to anyone. The wealth of the entire economy is 100 marbles.\n\nThe teacher starts randomly gives the kids a toy to keep each day. Some suck (the creepy old stuffed animal) where other's are awesome (Buzz Lightyear with extending wings). Everyone wants Buzz, and his companion toy, Woody. \n\nTeacher gives Jake a creepy stuffed animal, and gives Susie and Billy the Buzz and Woody toys. Jake's really into Toy Story, so he gives 15 marbles to Susie for Buzz and 10 to Billy for Woody.\n\nEveryone wants Buzz and Woody. Now that this transaction has happened, Jake knows that any other kid would happily give him 20 marbles for Buzz or 15 for Woody.\n\nThe total wealth in this economy is no longer 100 marbles, but since the toy story transaction there are still 100 physical marbles in the economy, and two assets (Buzz and Woody) worth a grand total of 35 Marbles, for a total economy the size of 135 marbles. Your marble-based economy just grew by 35%. Even though the number of physical marbles stayed the same. \n\nThere is currently only about $1t of physical US dollars but the US economy is about $20t/yr. So that's like the total value of all the toys being 2,000 marbles while still only having 100 physical marbles.\n\nMarbles are pretty gate, so people start doing all sorts of stuff to do them. Samuel can make a pretty awesome clay figurines that people will buy for 5 marbles; Susie will let you come to her house and watch her 3D TV for 3 marbles, Billy is really neat and will be your friend for 1 marbles/day\n\n\n--How Banks Create Money--\nMartha is a hell of a business girl, and starts a marble bank. Because the class is only 20 people, let's say she's the only bank (so I can talk about her like she's the whole banking industry).\n\nMarbles are great to play with, and look at (they are purple, after all), but it's hard to save 25 marbles up when they're so easy to lose, will roll out of your cubby, might get stolen by that one kid, etc. So, while it might be useful to carry 1-5 marbles on you, it's probably a good idea to give them to Martha for safekeeping.\n\nMartha is in an interesting spot. She now has 60 marbles in her care. What to do with them?\n\nThe Friend for money business is good, and Billy has amassed a fortune: 20 marbles and a number of toys worth a total of another 40 marbles. No toy is quite like his first, though, and Billy desperately wants to buy Buzz Lightyear back from Jake. Its traded hands a few times, and most recently sold for 40 marbles.\n\nBilly could sell half his toys and buy Buzz back, but that might take a while and the rumor is that Susie has 40 physical marbles today and is thinking of buying it.\n\nMartha offers to make Billy a loan, based on the fact that he has 3 people who give him a marble every day for friendship. She'll lend him 20 marbles, and he'll give her all his marble income for the next 10 school days (30 marbles in all). If he is business goes poorly, Martha has the right to seize 30 marbles worth of his toys, which are being put up as collateral. She could then sell those to the highest bidder to recover her losses.\n\nBilly happily accepts, Buzz is his.\n\nBut physical marbles don't really change hands. All 20 of Billy's saved marbles are being held by Martha, and the 40 marbles given to Jake don't come in a bag: but via a bank transfer where Martha deducts 40 marbles from Billy's account and credits them to Jake's.\n\nIn other words, the Bank of Martha just created 20 marbles of value by lending it. BoM could potentially lend far more virtual marbles than exist on Martha's cubby.\n\nAgain, there are about $1t of physical us dollars in the world. If you added them all up, the amount of USD in all accounts is about $10t. So Martha could potentially totally have accounts totalling 1,000 marbles.\n\nThe more that people buy and sell things, the greater the velocity of money and the more that more people get to use it. Wealth, in that sense, is created when you either find ways to sell things for more money, or increase the total number of things worth buying.\n\nHope this doesn't get too buried ;)"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '9q36fx',
'query': 'how does overall wealth actually increase?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '464447',
'title': 'Animal communication',
'section': 'Section::::Other aspects.:Human behaviour.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 69,
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'passage_text': "Humans also often seek to mimic animals' communicative signals in order to interact with them. For example, cats have a mild affiliative response of slowly closing their eyes; humans often mimic this signal towards a pet cat to establish a tolerant relationship. Stroking, petting and rubbing pet animals are all actions that probably work through their natural patterns of interspecific communication.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12790823',
'title': 'Alfaxalone',
'section': 'Section::::Side effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'When no premedications are used, alfaxalone causes animals (especially cats) to be agitated when recovering. Dogs and cats will paddle in the air, vocalize excessively, may remain rigid or twitch, and have exaggerated reactions to external stimuli such as light and noise. For this reason, it is recommended that animals recovering from anesthesia by alfaxalone stay in a quiet, dark area.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28912839',
'title': 'Sophia "Chat" Sanduval',
'section': 'Section::::Powers and abilities.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'end_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': 'Animals sense that Chat can understand them and become very friendly around her. Even when an animal is normally aggressive, Chat can gain that animal\'s loyalty (she once got a criminal\'s bulldog to turn on his owner by telling him his master was "bad"). Chat often uses this power to calm down nervous and wounded animals at animal rescue centers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1857260',
'title': 'Devocalization',
'section': 'Section::::Less invasive interventions.:Accommodation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': "Because dogs often bark excessively due to stress, boredom, or frustration, changing aspects of an animal's environment to make them more content is a suitable way to quiet them down, rather than forcibly silencing a distressed animal. Spending more time with an animal, such as playing, walking, and other bonding activities, will keep them occupied and make them feel more at ease. If the animal is stressed, it is best to remove the object that is causing them discomfort.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5976304',
'title': 'Calmness',
'section': 'Section::::Childhood origins.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Parental soothing (by rocking, holding etc) in infancy lays the foundations of the capacity to self-calm. Thereafter transitional objects can help maintain calmness, while pets as self-objects also promote soothing and calm.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38973977',
'title': 'Comfort behaviour in animals',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Comfort behaviours are performed from an early age and change little during development. Several comfort behaviours are associated with the beginning of a rest period (e.g. grooming), whereas others are associated with the end of a rest period (e.g. stretching), possibly to prepare the body for escape or hunting. Others, (e.g. dust bathing) will be performed only when the appropriate internal and external stimuli are present (see also sham dustbathing). Animals generally perform comfort behaviours only when they are not engaged in essential activities (e.g. feeding, drinking, hunting, escape); these behaviours are therefore sometimes categorised as "luxury activities". However, animals can be highly motivated to perform some comfort behaviours (e.g. dust bathing in hens), and conditions that thwart these behaviours (e.g. battery cages) are considered to have a negative influence on animal welfare.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '455907',
'title': 'Astraphobia',
'section': 'Section::::Dogs and cats.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 294,
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'passage_text': 'Generally if any animal is anxious during a thunderstorm or any similar, practically harmless event (e.g. fireworks display), it is advised to simply continue behaving normally, instead of attempting to comfort animals. Showing fearlessness is, arguably, the best method to "cure" the anxiety.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does stroking animals relax/calm us down?',
'selftext': 'I heard or read somewhere once that stroking a soft animal can reduce blood pressure and lower heart rate.',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['i covered this topic in a class in university way back in the caveman days they would sit around the fire with their half wild dogs stroking their fur elicited the guard guard guard instinct in the animal thats the theory anyways so basically the theory is we were able to relax knowing we were protected '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '5u3vu4',
'query': 'why does stroking animals relax/calm us down?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '261803',
'title': 'Medical ventilator',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'A medical ventilator (or simply ventilator in context) is a machine designed to provide mechanical ventilation by moving breathable air into and out of the lungs, to deliver breaths to a patient who is physically unable to breathe, or breathing insufficiently.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '279711',
'title': 'Mechanical ventilation',
'section': 'Section::::Types of ventilators.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
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'passage_text': 'Ventilators come in many different styles and method of giving a breath to sustain life. There are manual ventilators such as bag valve masks and anesthesia bags that require the users to hold the ventilator to the face or to an artificial airway and maintain breaths with their hands. Mechanical ventilators are ventilators not requiring operator effort and are typically computer-controlled or pneumatic-controlled.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '279711',
'title': 'Mechanical ventilation',
'section': 'Section::::Risk.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'Mechanical ventilation is often a life-saving intervention, but carries potential complications including pneumothorax, airway injury, alveolar damage, ventilator-associated pneumonia, and ventilator-associated tracheobronchitis. Other complications include diaphragm atrophy, decreased cardiac output, and oxygen toxicity. One of the primary complications that presents in patients mechanically ventilated is acute lung injury (ALI)/acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). ALI/ARDS are recognized as significant contributors to patient morbidity and mortality.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38687102',
'title': 'Mechanical power',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': "While in many cases mechanical ventilation is a life-saving or life-preserving intervention, it also has the potential to cause harm to the patient via ventilator-associated lung injury. A number of stresses may be induced by the ventilator on the patient's lung. These include barotrauma caused by pressure, volutrauma caused by distension of the lungs, rheotrauma caused by fast-flowing delivery of gases and atelectotrauma resulting from repeated collapse and re-opening of the lung.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '57169',
'title': 'Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Ventilating or ventilation (the "V" in HVAC) is the process of exchanging or replacing air in any space to provide high indoor air quality which involves temperature control, oxygen replenishment, and removal of moisture, odors, smoke, heat, dust, airborne bacteria, carbon dioxide, and other gases. Ventilation removes unpleasant smells and excessive moisture, introduces outside air, keeps interior building air circulating, and prevents stagnation of the interior air.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16996257',
'title': 'Pulmonary contusion',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Ventilation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'People with signs of inadequate respiration or oxygenation may need to be intubated and mechanically ventilated. Mechanical ventilation aims to reduce pulmonary edema and increase oxygenation. Ventilation can reopen collapsed alveoli, but it is harmful for them to be repeatedly opened, and positive pressure ventilation can also damage the lung by overinflating it. Intubation is normally reserved for when respiratory problems occur, but most significant contusions do require intubation, and it may be done early in anticipation of this need. People with pulmonary contusion who are especially likely to need ventilation include those with prior severe lung disease or kidney problems; the elderly; those with a lowered level of consciousness; those with low blood oxygen or high carbon dioxide levels; and those who will undergo operations with anesthesia. Larger contusions have been correlated with a need for ventilation for longer periods of time.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '974284',
'title': 'Duchenne muscular dystrophy',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Respiration assistance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 43,
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'passage_text': 'Modern "volume ventilators/respirators," which deliver an adjustable volume (amount) of air to the person with each breath, are valuable in the treatment of people with muscular dystrophy-related respiratory problems. The ventilator may require an invasive endotracheal or tracheotomy tube through which air is directly delivered, but for some people, noninvasive delivery through a face mask or mouthpiece is sufficient. Positive airway pressure machines, particularly bilevel ones, are sometimes used in this latter way. The respiratory equipment may easily fit on a ventilator tray on the bottom or back of a power wheelchair with an external battery for portability.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Through what mechanism is a ventilator an effective treatment for respiratory illness?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The patient can still take extra breaths when the body is signaling it needs more oxygen, but a ventilator takes away the work of breathing (the energy required to move the diaphragm again and again). A patients diaphragm may not be able to keep up with inspiratory demands with the rest of the body needing energy for other things, such as fighting off the virus. I don’t remember exactly how much breathing is in terms of energy usage, but a ventilator (if set to the right deepness, pressure, and frequency of breaths) takes away that work so your body can put it to other uses.',
'A ventilator has several modes to work on. Some people are so incredibly sick they have no ability to use their diaphragm to aid in breathing, it’s not that it functionally doesn’t work they just can’t. So the ventilator has modes where it does everything for them. Other modes allow the patient to breathe on their own in conjunction with the ventilator, and every time they breathe on their own the ventilator will assist with smaller amounts of pressure to make it easier. \n\nThere are several components to what the settings mean, but I’m not sure I can explain them in 5 year old terms, but if you’re interested and have questions I can certainly try! \n\nSome ventilators are also fancy and you can insert a probe down their esophagus and it can actually sense when the nerve is triggering your diaphragm to contract, and will help with the breathing that way too. Don’t ask me how, we don’t use them in my unit, but my husband has experience with them, I literally thought he was making it up when he was explaining it to me, lol.',
'There are a few modes to work with in a ventilator. We sometimes use a ventilator even when the diaphragm is working. We look for impending signs of respiratory collapse. If the body has high needs for oxygen, the diaphragm may get tired by working tirelessly and eventually stop working. So we step in with a ventilator before that happens. Also, there are a few conditions in which when a person breathes out, his lungs remove most of the air and the next inhalation takes a lot of struggle (normally some air stays inside even when we exhale fully so that small alveoli in lungs stay inflated). Consider the example of a balloon. It takes comparatively higher pressure to START blowing in air in a non-inflated balloon but once it has some air in it, it gets easier to fill more air in it. The same happens with lungs. Hence, one mode of ventilator keeps giving a background pressure even after exhalation to keep those alveoli open'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'fnzp2i',
'query': 'through what mechanism is a ventilator an effective treatment for respiratory illness?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3116287',
'title': 'Waterproof fabric',
'section': 'Section::::Definition and specifications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'Waterproof/breathable fabrics resist liquid water passing through, but allow water vapour to pass through. Their ability to block out rain and snow while allowing vapour from sweat to evaporate leads to their use in rainwear, waterproof outdoor sports clothing, tents, and other applications.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '235363',
'title': 'Tent',
'section': 'Section::::General considerations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
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'passage_text': 'Tent fabric may be made of many materials including cotton (canvas), nylon, felt and polyester. Cotton absorbs water, so it can become very heavy when wet, but the associated swelling tends to block any minute holes so that wet cotton is more waterproof than dry cotton. Cotton tents were often treated with paraffin to enhance water resistance. Nylon and polyester are much lighter than cotton and do not absorb much water; with suitable coatings they can be very waterproof, but they tend to deteriorate over time due to a slow chemical breakdown caused by ultraviolet light. The most common treatments to make fabric waterproof are silicone impregnation or polyurethane coating. Since stitching makes tiny holes in a fabric seams are often sealed or taped to block these holes and maintain waterproofness, though in practice a carefully sewn seam can be waterproof.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2099543',
'title': 'Waterproofing',
'section': 'Section::::In clothing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
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'passage_text': 'Some garments, and tents, are designed to give greater or lesser protection against rain. For urban use raincoats and jackets are used; for outdoor activities in rough weather there is a range of hiking apparel. Typical descriptions are "showerproof", "water resistant", and "waterproof". These terms are not precisely defined. A showerproof garment will usually be treated with a water-resisting coating, but is not rated to resist a specific hydrostatic head. This is suitable for protection against light rain, but after a short time water will penetrate. A water-resistant garment is similar, perhaps slightly more resistant to water but also not rated to resist a specific hydrostatic head. A garment described as waterproof will have a water-repellent coating, with the seams also taped to prevent water ingress there. Better waterproof garments have a membrane lining designed to keep water out but allow trapped moisture to escape ("breathability")—a "totally" waterproof garment would retain body sweat and become clammy. Waterproof garments specify their hydrostatic rating, ranging from 1,500 for light rain, to 20,000 for heavy rain.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16761344',
'title': 'External wall insulation',
'section': 'Section::::Dampness.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
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'passage_text': "The application of External Wall Insulation can help to deal with rain penetration problems through solid walls by blocking wind-driven rain. However, it can also make the problem worse if poor detailing (e.g. around eaves) allows water to pass behind the external wall insulation where it can become trapped. A high standard of design and installation should therefore be insisted upon. The dangers of not adequately designing and specifying these systems is dealt with in a research paper written by Joe Malone and published in the CIOB's Construction, Research and Innovation Journal (Volume 4, Issue 4, Dec 2013 The Risky Business of Covering Up)\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7676521',
'title': 'Hiking equipment',
'section': 'Section::::Apparel.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 38,
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'passage_text': 'Basic outdoor clothing materials are goose down, wool, polyester, and polyolefin, which provide similar degrees of insulation when dry. Wool and polyesters perform reasonably well for most weather conditions and provide some insulation while wet. Cotton/linen wicks moisture, good for hot/humid weather. Cotton, linen and down lose insulation when wet unless they are treated to be water-resistant.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21779320',
'title': 'Rainscreen',
'section': 'Section::::The rainscreen system.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': 'In a rainscreen the air gap allows the circulation of air on the moisture barrier. (These may or may not serve as a vapour barrier, which can be installed on the interior or exterior side of the insulation depending on the climate). This helps direct water away from the main exterior wall which in many climates is insulated. Keeping the insulation dry helps prevent problems such as mold formation and water leakage. The vapour-permeable air/weather barrier prevents water molecules from entering the insulated cavity but allows the passage of vapour, thus reducing the trapping of moisture within the main wall assembly.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8208783',
'title': 'Weatherstripping',
'section': 'Section::::Weatherstripping in buildings.:Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'Weatherstripping around openings – especially doors and windows – is used in buildings to keep out weather, increase interior comfort, lower utility bills, and reduce noise. Builder weatherstripping can be made from felt; vinyl, rubber, or poly foam; EPDM cellular rubber and vinyl tubing; and metals such as brass and aluminum.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do waterproof materials (tents and shower curtains) let water through when something touches it?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["They're not really waterproof, is the simple answer. They're mostly waterproof, and rely on angles to shed and wick the water away faster than it would drip out the other side. \n\nThis means you can make a relatively light and inexpensive material that still allows for airflow. \n\nAs to why your finger makes it come through, it's basically surface tension. When there's nothing touching the inside, the water sticks together and drains down, but when you touch it, the water can stick together and flow onto your finger. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'af9c6i',
'query': 'why do waterproof materials (tents and shower curtains) let water through when something touches it?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '4110735',
'title': 'NASA Orbital Debris Program Office',
'section': 'Section::::Measurements.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Measurements of near-Earth orbital debris are accomplished by conducting ground-based and space-based observations of the orbital debris environment. Data is acquired using ground-based radars and optical telescopes , space-based telescopes, and analysis of spacecraft surfaces returned from space. Some important data sources have been the U.S. Space Surveillance Network, the Haystack X-Band Radar, and returned surfaces from the Solar Max, Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF), and the Space Shuttle spacecraft. The data provide validation of the environment models and identify the presence of new sources.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '266344',
'title': 'Space debris',
'section': 'Section::::Tracking and measurement.:Tracking from the ground.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 74,
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'end_paragraph_id': 74,
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'passage_text': 'Radar and optical detectors such as lidar are the main tools for tracking space debris. Although objects under have reduced orbital stability, debris as small as 1\xa0cm can be tracked, however determining orbits to allow re-acquisition is difficult. Most debris remain unobserved. The NASA Orbital Debris Observatory tracked space debris with a liquid mirror transit telescope. FM Radio waves can detect debris, after reflecting off them onto a receiver. Optical tracking may be a useful early-warning system on spacecraft.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9015137',
'title': '2007 Chinese anti-satellite missile test',
'section': 'Section::::Aftermath.:Space debris tracking.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
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'passage_text': 'As of April 2019, 3,000 of the 10,000 pieces of space debris routinely tracked by the US Military as a threat to the International Space Station were known to have originated from the 2007 satellite shoot down.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '526864',
'title': 'STS-63',
'section': 'Section::::Mission highlights.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'end_character': 486,
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'passage_text': 'On flight day two, the crew deployed the Orbital Debris Radar Calibration System-II (ODERACS-II) to help characterize orbital debris environment for objects smaller than 10 centimeters (about four inches) in diameter. Complement of six target objects of known dimensions and with limited orbital lifespans released into orbit and tracked by ground-based radars, allowing precise calibration of radars so they can more accurately track smaller pieces of space debris in low Earth orbit.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2026812',
'title': 'EISCAT',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': "The system was also tested for space debris tracking and the radars were proven to be capable of statistical observations of Low-Earth orbit (LEO) debris (altitudes of 500 to 1500\xa0km) down to 2\xa0cm in size. Since these measurements are insufficient to determine complete orbits, the radar has only limited space surveillance value. Because the space debris tracking change is only a dedicated back-end computer system, the primary EISCAT observations are not compromised. As a result of that, the EISCAT radars allow continuous monitoring of the LEO debris in a beam park mode, functioning as a space surveillance system part of the European Space Agency's Space Situational Awareness Programme (SSA).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '266344',
'title': 'Space debris',
'section': 'Section::::Tracking and measurement.:Measurement in space.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 77,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 77,
'end_character': 426,
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'passage_text': 'Returned space hardware is a valuable source of information on the directional distribution and composition of the (sub-millimetre) debris flux. The LDEF satellite deployed by mission STS-41-C "Challenger" and retrieved by STS-32 "Columbia" spent 68 months in orbit to gather debris data. The EURECA satellite, deployed by STS-46 "Atlantis" in 1992 and retrieved by STS-57 "Endeavour" in 1993, was also used for debris study.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2680305',
'title': 'Sample-return mission',
'section': 'Section::::Sample-return missions.:New missions after a 20-year hiatus.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 443,
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'passage_text': 'The Earth-Orbital Debris Collection (ODC) experiment was deployed on the Mir space station for 18 months during 1996–97 and used aerogel to capture particles from low Earth orbit, consisting of interplanetary dust and man-made particles. Far from being "the last sample-return mission... in... twenty years", ODC was a portable version of an LDEF collector, decreasing collection time significantly, and effective area by orders of magnitude.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How is space debris tracked?',
'selftext': 'How can so many tiny pieces of debris going all over the place be tracked and managed? Do other satellites do the tracking, or is it a land based system?',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['There is a radiolab pod cast about this topic....pretty much all debris is clasified by size and tracked individually by an agency sort of like NASA. They ping alerts to crews who might encounter the larger peices so they can avoid it but they said there is pretty much no way to keep track of the really small bits as there is soo much of it.\n\nAlso mentionioned is that if too much builds up due to a major incident then we are pretty much fucked.',
'The [US Space Surveillance Network](_URL_0_) includes both ground-based sensors and satellites that do the tracking.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'caobuz',
'query': 'how is space debris tracked?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '52901510',
'title': 'Founder CEO',
'section': 'Section::::Founder CEO succession.:Occurrence.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
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'passage_text': 'In the three years subsequent to the firm being founded, Wasserman concluded 50% of founder CEOs step down. The following year, another 10% step down and by the time the firm has an initial public offering less than 25% of founders still hold the CEO position. This being said, the decision to step down is not always voluntary, four out of five founder CEOs are forced to relinquish their role as CEO by investors.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52901510',
'title': 'Founder CEO',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "Founder CEO succession can occur through both voluntary and involuntary means. Noam Wasserman found in majority of founder CEO successions, the founder is forced to step down by investors. Founder CEOs who successfully execute product development or enter into negotiations with potential outside investors for additional capital have a higher likelihood of being replaced than those who are not as successful with product development and/or do not to raise additional capital. Indicated by several scholars, like Wasserman, as the CEO becomes successful in product development the needs of the firm expand and a mismatch between the current skills of the founder CEO and the new skills needed for the firm's success going forward is likely to occur, increasing the probability of succession. Founder CEOs are generally succeeded by someone from outside the firm. Founder CEO comebacks have occurred when the founder CEO was replaced and later returned to their role as CEO.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2154438',
'title': "White Man's Burden (film)",
'section': 'Section::::Plot.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 277,
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'passage_text': 'The chastened CEO visits Pinnock\'s grieving widow and offers her the money that Louis lost when he was fired. She refuses it, and when Thomas awkwardly asks if she wants more, she bluntly says "How much would ever be enough?" and closes the door in his face as the movie ends.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1071523',
'title': 'Martha Stewart Living Omnimedia',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 439,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'She served as president, chairwoman and CEO of the company until being forced to resign as a result of the ImClone insider trading case. As part of an agreement with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), she was banned from serving in any role that would allow her to prepare, audit or disclose financial results of a public company until August 2011. In effect, this banned her from serving as an officer of her own company.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45555525',
'title': 'Yana Peel',
'section': 'Section::::Career.:Serpentine Galleries.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 228,
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'passage_text': 'She stepped down as CEO in June 2019 as a consequence of the attention paid to her co-ownership of NSO Group, an Israeli cyberweapons company whose software has allegedly been used by authoritarian regimes to spy on dissidents.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18219207',
'title': 'John Philp Thompson Sr.',
'section': 'Section::::Career.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 252,
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'passage_text': '"CEOs are the world\'s unelected leaders. We are given positions of power that are conducive to leaders of a small country. Therefore, we are responsible to make all our decisions with people in mind and not just with the numbers they represent to us."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '846874',
'title': 'Ferrero SpA',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'On 30 March 2017, it was announced that Lapo Civiletti will be the first non-family CEO in the history of the company and will take up the role from 1 September, while Giovanni Ferrero will become the executive chairman focusing on long-term strategy.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How can a founder of a company, like Papa John, be forced to step down from CEO',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The board of directors vote him out. They might do so under pressure from prominent shareholders. Ultimately, though, the board of directors determine the executive structure of the company (including voting in new board members). He's still the chairman of the board, but that doesn't mean he runs the board, so he can be voted out.",
'Public companies like Papa johns are beholden to their stockholders; often there are a board of people who own a majority of the stocks who have more power than the CEO; if they dont like what the CEO is doing they can replace him',
"just because he's the founder doesn't mean he owns majority share of the company. when he sold shares of the company to investors for money, he sold majority share away. \n\nbill gates only owns 4% of microsoft.\n\nmark zuckerberg only owns 28% of facebook.\n\njeff bezoes only owns 17% of amazon. \n\nwhoever has majority shares get majority power influence over the board. that's how you share a company with thousands of owners. \n\n",
'Papa John\'s is a publicly traded company. This means that individuals can buy portions of the company called "shares" and the company can use that money to invest and grow. John Schnatter kept 25% of the company for himself when they went public, but the other 75% was sold in order to grow the brand. \n\nThe shareholders are represented by a board of directors. Schnatter has a lot of power, but if they all agreed he shouldn\'t be CEO then they can make him. They can choose a new CEO. What they *can\'t* do is take away his 25% of the company.\n\nSo he still owns 25% of the company. He still will make millions and millions of dollars from Papa John\'s. He just doesn\'t actually *run* the company any more.',
'It\'s a great question, and it touches on a lot of public confusion over what "CEO" means, versus Chairman, versus Founder, President, etc. The best way to explain it is to walk you through the differences in how small and large companies are owned and managed.\n\nLet\'s say you own a corner store with your spouse. Ownership and decision-making rests entirely with you two, right? If you ever disagree on how money should be spent, or how the company should be run, you can probably talk things out, so no formal mechanism for that stuff is necessary.\n\nBut take a slightly larger company. Like say... a Silicon Valley startup just past its infancy. It needs $10M to grow, and the Founder doesn\'t have that cash on hand. So they go and look for investors willing to pony up the money.\n\nWell, investors don\'t know this Founder personally. They\'re not going to turn over, say... $2M to some random person and let them do whatever with it forever, even if they tentatively like what they\'ve done so far. They want to make sure that money is spent wisely. But the Founder isn\'t going to turn over control of their business, either. So what do they do?\n\nThey vote on it! Typically, they will form a council, called a Board of Directors. Each investor, along with the Founder, gets a seat on the Board roughly equal to how much money they put in. And then the Board votes on all major decisions the company makes.\n\nExcept it\'s not practical to have the Board vote on *every* decision. (Imagine if the Board had to get together and vote on every hire and fire in a 500-person company!) So the Board votes to appoint someone -- the Founder to start -- to make all the day-to-day decisions, with the caveat that they could vote again to fire that person if they don\'t like what they\'re doing. That is the CEO. *The CEO works for the Board, not the other way around,* even if the CEO also has a vote on that same Board. This is the biggest important distinction between a CEO and say... just a President.\n\nThings are a little more complicated in a huge, public company, with millions of shareholders, but the principle is the same. The shareholders vote in groups to nominate a Board of Directors, and then again, the Board votes to nominate the CEO. If the CEO does something that enough shareholders dislike (like, say... pops off in public about kneeling NFL players and tanks the stock price) they can lean on the Board. If enough Board members flip, they can vote to fire the CEO.\n\nBut there is another, important title: In very large companies with large, unwieldy Boards with billions of public shares, the Board will typically nominate its *own* leader, called a Chairman, to manage the Board itself. Ideally, for separation of powers purposes, you want this to be a different person from the CEO, but very powerful and successful CEOs (like Disney\'s Bob Iger) can often convince the Board to also name them Chairman too.\n\nIt\'s now *very* difficult to fire the CEO, because as Chairman, the CEO manages the voting schedule and agenda of the very council that could conceivably ever vote to fire them. You can still do it, but it takes a *huge* majority of the Board to overrule the Chairman, and usually by that point the Chairman and CEO realizes they are so screwed that they will negotiate a resignation before it actually comes to a vote.\n\nThis is what happened in Papa John\'s case. But as part of his resignation negotiation as CEO, he got to keep Chairman. The Board then voted to make his former second in command the new CEO. So you can argue that Papa John really isn\'t giving up a huge amount of control.\n\nThe politics of these Board seats, CEO, Chairman, Founder, and shareholders can get *extremely* complicated and very dramatic -- just as complicated as any national government, with its dueling separation of powers, factions, voters, parties, etc. [Entire books have been written](_URL_0_) about some of the more famous and dramatic wars for control of major companies, if you\'re interested in knowing more.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7lebz5',
'query': 'how can a founder of a company, like papa john, be forced to step down from ceo',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '19828134',
'title': 'Plant',
'section': 'Section::::Ecology.:Distribution.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 78,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 78,
'end_character': 268,
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'passage_text': "Plants are often the dominant physical and structural component of habitats where they occur. Many of the Earth's biomes are named for the type of vegetation because plants are the dominant organisms in those biomes, such as grasslands, taiga and tropical rainforest.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22346936',
'title': 'Plant genetics',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Plants, like all known organisms, use DNA to pass on their traits. Animal genetics often focuses on parentage and lineage, but this can sometimes be difficult in plant genetics due to the fact that plants can, unlike most animals, be self-fertile. Speciation can be easier in many plants due to unique genetic abilities, such as being well adapted to polyploidy. Plants are unique in that they are able to produce energy-dense carbohydrates via photosynthesis, a process which is achieved by use of Chloroplast|chloroplasts]]. Chloroplasts, like the superficially similar mitochondria, possess their own DNA. Chloroplasts thus provide an additional reservoir for genes and genetic diversity, and an extra layer of genetic complexity not found in animals.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23470640',
'title': 'Plant ecology',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'The study of plants and vegetation is complicated by their form. First, most plants are rooted in the soil, which makes it difficult to observe and measure nutrient uptake and species interactions. Second, plants often reproduce vegetatively, that is asexually, in a way that makes it difficult to distinguish individual plants. Indeed, the very concept of an individual is doubtful, since even a tree may be regarded as a large collection of linked meristems. Hence, plant ecology and animal ecology have different styles of approach to problems that involve processes like reproduction, dispersal and mutualism. Some plant ecologists have placed considerable emphasis upon trying to treat plant populations as if they were animal populations, focusing on population ecology. Many other ecologists believe that while it is useful to draw upon population ecology to solve certain scientific problems, plants demand that ecologists work with multiple perspectives, appropriate to the problem, the scale and the situation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '637102',
'title': 'Plant physiology',
'section': 'Section::::Environmental physiology.:Plant disease.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 46,
'end_character': 548,
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'passage_text': 'Because the biology of plants differs with animals, their symptoms and responses are quite different. In some cases, a plant can simply shed infected leaves or flowers to prevent the spread of disease, in a process called abscission. Most animals do not have this option as a means of controlling disease. Plant diseases organisms themselves also differ from those causing disease in animals because plants cannot usually spread infection through casual physical contact. Plant pathogens tend to spread via spores or are carried by animal vectors.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4183',
'title': 'Botany',
'section': 'Section::::Genetics.:Epigenetics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 64,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 64,
'end_character': 613,
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'passage_text': 'Unlike animals, many plant cells, particularly those of the parenchyma, do not terminally differentiate, remaining totipotent with the ability to give rise to a new individual plant. Exceptions include highly lignified cells, the sclerenchyma and xylem which are dead at maturity, and the phloem sieve tubes which lack nuclei. While plants use many of the same epigenetic mechanisms as animals, such as chromatin remodelling, an alternative hypothesis is that plants set their gene expression patterns using positional information from the environment and surrounding cells to determine their developmental fate.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4183',
'title': 'Botany',
'section': 'Section::::Scope and importance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 1027,
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'passage_text': 'The study of plants is vital because they underpin almost all animal life on Earth by generating a large proportion of the oxygen and food that provide humans and other organisms with aerobic respiration with the chemical energy they need to exist. Plants, algae and cyanobacteria are the major groups of organisms that carry out photosynthesis, a process that uses the energy of sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars that can be used both as a source of chemical energy and of organic molecules that are used in the structural components of cells. As a by-product of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen into the atmosphere, a gas that is required by nearly all living things to carry out cellular respiration. In addition, they are influential in the global carbon and water cycles and plant roots bind and stabilise soils, preventing soil erosion. Plants are crucial to the future of human society as they provide food, oxygen, medicine, and products for people, as well as creating and preserving soil.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14126223',
'title': 'Plant development',
'section': 'Section::::Growth.:Morphological variation during growth.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 522,
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'passage_text': 'Plants exhibit natural variation in their form and structure. While all organisms vary from individual to individual, plants exhibit an additional type of variation. Within a single individual, parts are repeated which may differ in form and structure from other similar parts. This variation is most easily seen in the leaves of a plant, though other organs such as stems and flowers may show similar variation. There are three primary causes of this variation: positional effects, environmental effects, and juvenility.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why are animals and plants so distinct, e.g why aren't there any plants that can walk or animals that do photosynthesis?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['There are animals like a sponge that you would likely mistake for a plant if you didn\'t know better, and plants that can move and eat "meat" like a venus fly trap. I know that plants and animals are different in that plants have cell walls and animals have cell membranes, and given how far back on the tree of life we are related, those two things must be really different and important.',
"Animal cells don't have the recipe to make chloroplasts cells, new cell recipes are not easy to develop. It's something that was discovered only once in history by a cell, and all nowadays plant are the descendant of this cell. \n\nSome slugs steal chloroplasts from plants and then do photosynthesis for themselves.",
"The distinction seems very vivid in part because it's a simplified way of classifying different living things. Fungi are an obvious weird further case but there are others. Some organisms - like [kelp](_URL_1_), for example - look like plants and can photosynthesize, but aren't *really* plants according to modern classification schemes. Meanwhile, the creepy wriggling [parasite that causes malaria](_URL_2_) is actually more closely related to plants than animals. [Golden Algae](_URL_0_) aren't plants but they can photosynthesise and have cellular tails that let them swim. In short, plants and animals may seem as different as chalk and cheese, but there all sorts of other weird chalky-cheesy mix up organisms out there we don't usually hear about.",
"If plant could walk it would require much more energy and photosynthesis can't produce enough food for that much work. \nAnd animals can't do photosynthesis cause they need more energy and can't be dependent on photosynthesis."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'e4h67j',
'query': "why are animals and plants so distinct, e.g why aren't there any plants that can walk or animals that do photosynthesis?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '755413',
'title': 'Pubarche',
'section': 'Section::::Average age.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 236,
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'passage_text': 'The average beginning of pubarche varies due to many factors, including climate, nourishment, weight, nurture, and genes. First (and often transient) pubic hair resulting from adrenarche may appear between ages 10-12 preceding puberty.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30983',
'title': 'Testosterone',
'section': 'Section::::Biological effects.:Before puberty.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 284,
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'passage_text': 'Before puberty effects of rising androgen levels occur in both boys and girls. These include adult-type body odor, increased oiliness of skin and hair, acne, pubarche (appearance of pubic hair), axillary hair (armpit hair), growth spurt, accelerated bone maturation, and facial hair.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22581',
'title': 'Estrogen',
'section': 'Section::::Biological function.:Female pubertal development.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 54,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 54,
'end_character': 291,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Estrogens are responsible for the development of female secondary sexual characteristics during puberty, including breast development, widening of the hips, and female fat distribution. Conversely, androgens are responsible for pubic and body hair growth, as well as acne and axillary odor.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25439126',
'title': 'Vulva',
'section': 'Section::::Development.:Puberty.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
'end_character': 350,
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'passage_text': 'Apocrine sweat glands secrete sweat into the pubic hair follicles. This is broken down by bacteria on the skin and produces an odor, which some consider to act as an attractant sex pheromone. The labia minora may grow more prominent and undergo changes in color. At puberty the first monthly period known as menarche marks the onset of menstruation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '767600',
'title': 'Axilla',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'In humans, the formation of body odor happens mostly in the axillary region. These odorant substances serve as pheromones which play a role related to mating. The underarm regions seem more important than the genital region for body odor which may be related to human bipedalism.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '755393',
'title': 'Adrenarche',
'section': 'Section::::Role in puberty.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 859,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The principal physical consequences of adrenarche are androgen effects, especially pubic hair (in which Tanner stage 2 becomes Tanner stage 3) and the change of sweat composition that produces adult body odor. Increased oiliness of the skin and hair and mild acne may occur. In most boys, these changes are indistinguishable from early testicular testosterone effects occurring at the beginning of gonadal puberty. In girls, the adrenal androgens of adrenarche produce most of the early androgenic changes of puberty: pubic hair, body odor, skin oiliness, and acne. In most girls the early androgen effects coincide with, or are a few months following, the earliest estrogenic effects of gonadal puberty (breast development and growth acceleration). As female puberty progresses, the ovaries and peripheral tissues become more important sources of androgens.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21244096',
'title': 'Odor',
'section': 'Section::::Physiology of smell.:Smell acuity by age and sex.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 541,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Pregnant women have increased smell sensitivity, sometimes resulting in abnormal taste and smell perceptions, leading to food cravings or aversions. The ability to taste also decreases with age as the sense of smell tends to dominate the sense of taste. Chronic smell problems are reported in small numbers for those in their mid-twenties, with numbers increasing steadily, with overall sensitivity beginning to decline in the second decade of life, and then deteriorating appreciably as age increases, especially once over 70 years of age.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do humans start getting body odor after they go through puberty?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Basically (the way I was taught this at least) you have two major types of sweat glands, apocrine and eccrine. Sweat produced by eccrine glands is mostly water. Apocrine sweat is more oily and contains a whole bunch of other stuff (which I won't get into). So bacteria can metabolize the components of apocrine sweat far more readily. \n\n\n\nApocrine glands (which are heavily concentrated in your pits and groin) are stimulated by sex hormones, the levels of which rise sharply during puberty. So you get an assload of oily sweat, which is then colonized by bacteria, who generate foul odors.",
'Fun fact: most east and southeast Asians and a significant percentage of native Americans have a gene that causes the apocrine glands to not secrete oils that bacteria like. So the bacteria don’t colonize their skin and they don’t get an unpleasant odor when they sweat. It’s called the ABCC11 gene.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'dcky6i',
'query': 'why do humans start getting body odor after they go through puberty?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '173279',
'title': 'Ley line',
'section': 'Section::::Criticism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 504,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A study by David George Kendall used the techniques of shape analysis to examine the triangles formed by standing stones to deduce if these were often arranged in straight lines. The shape of a triangle can be represented as a point on the sphere, and the distribution of all shapes can be thought of as a distribution over the sphere. The sample distribution from the standing stones was compared with the theoretical distribution to show that the occurrence of straight lines was no more than average.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52044791',
'title': 'Edge tessellation',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 373,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A tessellation, also known as a tiling, is a set of shapes that must cover the entire plane without the shapes overlapping. This repeating shape must cover every part of the plane without overlapping. An edge tessellation, is a special type of tessellation that is created by flipping or reflecting the shape over an edge. This can also be called a "folding" tessellation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22058210',
'title': 'Smoothed octagon',
'section': 'Section::::Construction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 652,
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'passage_text': 'By considering the family of maximally dense packings of the smoothed octagon, the requirement that the packing density remain the same as the point of contact between neighbouring octagons changes can be used to determine the shape of the corners. In the figure, three octagons rotate while the area of the triangle formed by their centres remains constant, keeping them packed together as closely as possible. For regular octagons, the red and blue shapes would overlap, so to enable the rotation to proceed the corners are clipped by a point that lies halfway between their centres, generating the required curve, which turns out to be a hyperbola.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21573591',
'title': 'Islamic geometric patterns',
'section': 'Section::::Pattern formation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 827,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "The circle symbolizes unity and diversity in nature, and many Islamic patterns are drawn starting with a circle. For example, the decoration of the 15th-century mosque in Yazd, Persia is based on a circle, divided into six by six circles drawn around it, all touching at its centre and each touching its two neighbours' centres to form a regular hexagon. On this basis is constructed a six-pointed star surrounded by six smaller irregular hexagons to form a tessellating star pattern. This forms the basic design which is outlined in white on the wall of the mosque. That design, however, is overlaid with an intersecting tracery in blue around tiles of other colours, forming an elaborate pattern that partially conceals the original and underlying design. A similar design forms the logo of the Mohammed Ali Research Center.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '580252',
'title': 'Reuleaux triangle',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 581,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A Reuleaux triangle is a shape formed from the intersection of three circular disks, each having its center on the boundary of the other two. Its boundary is a curve of constant width, the simplest and best known such curve other than the circle itself. Constant width means that the separation of every two parallel supporting lines is the same, independent of their orientation. Because all its diameters are the same, the Reuleaux triangle is one answer to the question "Other than a circle, what shape can a manhole cover be made so that it cannot fall down through the hole?"\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '61559',
'title': 'Archimedean spiral',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 285,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'One method of squaring the circle, due to Archimedes, makes use of an Archimedean spiral. Archimedes also showed how the spiral can be used to trisect an angle. Both approaches relax the traditional limitations on the use of straightedge and compass in ancient Greek geometric proofs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1291808',
'title': 'Competitive Lotka–Volterra equations',
'section': 'Section::::Spatial arrangements.:Line systems and eigenvalues.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 44,
'end_character': 335,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The eigenvalues of the circle system plotted in the complex plane form a trefoil shape. The eigenvalues from a short line form a sideways Y, but those of a long line begin to resemble the trefoil shape of the circle. This could be due to the fact that a long line is indistinguishable from a circle to those species far from the ends.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do circles tesselate hexagonally?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Mathematics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It's all geometry. Assuming equal radii between all circles, if you place them in a way that they don't intersect but touch each other at exactly one point (tessellating) and you start with just 3 circles, those circles form a triangle shape. If you connect the centerpoints of those circles, it forms an equilateral triangle (equal length sides, each corner is 60°). So if you continue placing circles the same way around that center circle, you can do that a total of 6 times because 360°/60°=6. A hexagon has 6 sides. Hope this helps.",
'To quote my mom, "because of the way it is."\n\nWhen circles are layered, they seat with an offset of 50%. Each subsequent layer offsets the one beneath it by 50%. Once a bunch of layers have been added you can look at a single circle and see how many other circles touch it. In this case, a single circle will have 6 other circles touching it.\n\nNow you have a single circle with the 6 circles around it, and it is clear that this structure is hexagonal.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'a9q9sw',
'query': 'why do circles tesselate hexagonally?',
'query_type': 'Mathematics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1331399',
'title': 'Slip-Slop-Slap',
'section': 'Section::::Effect on cancer rates.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 727,
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'passage_text': "The sun's UV radiation is both a major cause of skin cancer and the best natural source of vitamin D. The risk of skin cancer from too much sun exposure needs to be balanced with maintaining adequate vitamin D levels. Vitamin D deficiency in Australia has also greatly increased, since sunblock also reduces vitamin D production in the skin. Although sunscreens could almost entirely block the solar-induced production of cutaneous previtamin D3 on theoretical grounds or if administered under strictly controlled conditions, in practice they have not been shown to do so. This is mainly due to inadequacies in their application to the skin and because users of sunscreen may also expose themselves to more sun than non-users.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31990',
'title': 'Ultraviolet',
'section': 'Section::::Human health-related effects.:Beneficial effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 56,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 56,
'end_character': 279,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'UV light causes the body to produce vitamin D (specifically, UVB), which is essential for life. The human body needs some UV radiation in order for one to maintain adequate vitamin D levels; however, excess exposure produces harmful effects that typically outweigh the benefits.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25669714',
'title': 'Health effects of sunlight exposure',
'section': 'Section::::Risks to skin.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 1200,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Despite the importance of the sun to vitamin D synthesis, it is prudent to limit the exposure of skin to UV radiation from sunlight and from tanning beds. According to the National Toxicology Program Report on Carcinogens from the US Department of Health and Human Services, broad-spectrum UV radiation is a carcinogen whose DNA damage is thought to contribute to most of the estimated 1.5 million skin cancers and the 8,000 deaths due to metastatic melanoma that occur annually in the United States. The use of sunbeds is reported by the World Health Organization to be responsible for over 450,000 cases of non-melanoma skin cancer and over 10,000 cases of melanoma every year in the U.S., Europe, as well as Australia. Lifetime cumulative UV exposure to skin is also responsible for significant age-associated dryness, wrinkling, elastin and collagen damage, freckling, age spots and other cosmetic changes. The American Academy of Dermatology advises that photoprotective measures be taken, including the use of sunscreen, whenever one is exposed to the sun. Short-term over-exposure causes the pain and itching of sunburn, which in extreme cases can produce more-severe effects like blistering.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31990',
'title': 'Ultraviolet',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 224,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Ultraviolet is also responsible for the formation of bone-strengthening vitamin D in most land vertebrates, including humans (specifically, UVB). The UV spectrum thus has effects both beneficial and harmful to human health.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15177796',
'title': 'Light skin',
'section': 'Section::::Health implications.:Advantages of light skin pigmentation in low sunlight environments.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
'end_character': 648,
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'passage_text': "With the increase of vitamin D synthesis, there is a decreased incidence of conditions that are related to common vitamin D deficiency conditions of people with dark skin pigmentation living in environments of low UV radiation: rickets, osteoporosis, numerous cancer types (including colon and breast cancer), and immune system malfunctioning. Vitamin D promotes the production of cathelicidin, which helps to defend humans' bodies against fungal, bacterial, and viral infections, including flu. When exposed to UVB, the entire exposed area of body’s skin of a relatively light skinned person is able to produce between 10 - 20000 IU of vitamin D.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '470084',
'title': 'Cholecalciferol',
'section': 'Section::::Biochemistry.:Biosynthesis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 647,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The active UVB wavelengths are present in sunlight, and sufficient amounts of cholecalciferol can be produced with moderate exposure of the skin, depending on the strength of the sun. Time of day, season, and altitude affect the strength of the sun, and pollution, cloud cover or glass all reduce the amount of UVB exposure. Exposure of face, arms and legs, averaging 5–30 minutes twice per week, may be sufficient, but the darker the skin, and the weaker the sunlight, the more minutes of exposure are needed. Vitamin D overdose is impossible from UV exposure; the skin reaches an equilibrium where the vitamin degrades as fast as it is created.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5053663',
'title': 'Skin care',
'section': 'Section::::Sunscreen.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 426,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Sun protection is an important aspect of skin care. Though the sun is beneficial in order for the human body to get its daily dose of vitamin D, unprotected excessive sunlight can cause extreme damage to the skin. Ultraviolet (UVA and UVB) radiation in the sun's rays can cause sunburn in varying degrees, early ageing and increased risk of skin cancer. UV exposure can cause patches of uneven skin tone and dry out the skin.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does our body need UV to create vitamin D when UV exposure increases our risk of skin cancer?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It’s UV over-exposure that increases the risk of cancer. Too much/little of anything becomes a hazard to the human body. Too much/little food, water, heat, cold, attitude, sunshine, pressure, speed, etc. The key is moderation!',
'UV light is an energy source, since humans are automatically exposed in varying degrees to this energy source we have evolved to make use of the "free" energy to create vitamin D. We have also evolved to darken the skin to prevent over exposure to UV which would increase risks of skin cancer. Only animals like naked mole rats don\'t have to concern themselves about exposure to some degree or other to UV light _URL_0_',
"We don't have an alternative path to synthesize vitamin D ourselves, because throughout our evolutionary history, there hasn't been a strong selective pressure to. After all, for most of human existence it's been pretty difficult to hide from the sun all day every day. \n\nThat's more or less unrelated to UV exposure increasing the risk of skin cancer. As noted, for most of human existence, *you were going to be in the sun,* full stop. \n\nThe body did evolve mechanisms to handle this better. As our precursors became open savannah dwellers, the ultraviolet radiation caused not just DNA damage, but also depleted folate, which breaks down from UV exposure. Among other things, folate is needed for fertility. As such, darker skin pigmentation, which absorbs some of the harmful radiation, was naturally selected for. \n\nThis would also provide some protection, albeit not absolute, from the DNA damage caused by ultraviolet radiation. \n"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '92bn6w',
'query': 'why does our body need uv to create vitamin d when uv exposure increases our risk of skin cancer?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '12574529',
'title': 'Dual SIM',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 382,
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'passage_text': 'Dual SIM refers to mobile phones that support use of multiple SIM cards. When a second SIM card is installed, the phone either allows users to switch between two separate mobile network services manually, has hardware support for keeping both connections in a "standby" state for automatic switching, or has individual transceivers for maintaining both network connections at once.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12674948',
'title': 'Dual mode mobile',
'section': 'Section::::Dual-Mode Phone.:Network Compatibility.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 245,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Most dual mode handsets require two identifying cards (one SIM and one RUIM), though some dual-mode phones (for example, the iPhone 4S) only require one SIM and one ESN. Not all dual SIM handsets are dual mode (for example dual SIM GSM phones).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12574529',
'title': 'Dual SIM',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Dual SIM phones are mainstream in many countries where phones are normally sold unlocked. Dual SIMs are popular for separating personal and business calls in locations where lower prices apply to calls between clients of the same provider, where a single network may lack comprehensive coverage, and for travel across national and regional borders. In countries where dual SIM phones are the norm, people who require only one SIM simply leave the second SIM slot empty. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '197489',
'title': 'SIM card',
'section': 'Section::::Multiple-SIM devices.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 109,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 109,
'end_character': 924,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Dual-SIM devices have two SIM card slots for the use of two SIM cards, from one or multiple carriers. Dual-SIM mobile phones come with two slots for SIMs in various locations such as: one behind the battery and another on the side of the phone; both slots behind the battery; or on the side of the phone if the device does not have a removable battery. Multiple-SIM devices are commonplace in developing markets such as in Africa, East Asia, the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, where variable billing rates, network coverage and speed make it desirable for consumers to use multiple SIMs from competing networks. Dual SIM phones are also useful to separate one's personal phone number from a business phone number, without having to carry multiple devices. Some popular devices, such as the BlackBerry KeyOne have dual-SIM variants, however dual-SIM devices are not common in the US or Europe due to lack of demand.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12574529',
'title': 'Dual SIM',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Passive.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 292,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Dual SIM switch phones, such as the Nokia C1-00, are effectively a single SIM device as both SIMs share the same radio, and thus are only able to place or receive calls and messages on one SIM at the time. They do, however, have the added benefit of alternating between cards when necessary.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36996476',
'title': 'Multi-SIM card',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'end_character': 204,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Multi-SIM allows switching among (up to) 12 stored numbers from the phone's main menu. A new menu entry in subscriber’s phone automatically appears after inserting the multi-SIM card into the cell phone.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40398304',
'title': 'Samsung Galaxy Duos',
'section': 'Section::::Samsung "Dual SIM Always on" feature.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
'end_character': 404,
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'passage_text': 'In their marketing materials Samsung use the term "Dual SIM Always on” to describe the Duos phones, although technically the term is misleading, since it does not mean quite what is says – both SIM cards are not always on. All phones with this feature are regular Dual SIM Stand-by (DSS) phones with 1 transceiver (radio) – 2nd SIM is always connected when a call is in progress on SIM 1 and vice versa.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'how do dual SIM phones work',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['A [dual SIM](_URL_1_) phone can hold / use 2 [SIM cards](_URL_0_). \n\nThe SIM card holds an identifying (hardware) number that identifies the phone, so you can set up a subscription and associate the SIM number with a phone number.\n\nSo dual SIM phones can answer/handle two separate phone numbers. These can be on the same provider (Verizon for example) or on different providers (one Verizon one AT & T). Popular with business persons; they can have a single phone device, but a personal number and an official business number on it.',
'They work the same as a single SIM phone, but instead have two sets of cellular radios to allow it to connect to two networks at the same time. My dual SIM phones have two dialer and messaging applications, and has a toggle to quickly switch which SIM it uses for data transmission (unfortunately dont have automatic failover for lack of signal).\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8wxw24',
'query': 'how do dual sim phones work',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2536716',
'title': 'Dental extraction',
'section': 'Section::::Pain management.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 96,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 96,
'end_character': 857,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Many drug therapies are available for pain management after third molar extractions including NSAIDS (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory), APAP (acetaminophen), and opioid formulations. Although each has its own pain-relieving efficacy, they also pose adverse effects. According to two doctors, Ibuprofen-APAP combinations have the greatest efficacy in pain relief and reducing inflammation along with the fewest adverse effects. Taking either of these agents alone or in combination may be contraindicated in those who have certain medical conditions. For example, taking ibuprofen or any NSAID in conjunction with warfarin (a blood thinner) may not be appropriate. Also, prolonged use of ibuprofen or APAP has gastrointestinal and cardiovascular risks. There is high quality evidence that ibuprofen is superior to paracetamol in managing postoperative pain.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21035',
'title': 'Migraine',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 452,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Initial recommended treatment is with simple pain medication such as ibuprofen and paracetamol (acetaminophen) for the headache, medication for the nausea, and the avoidance of triggers. Specific medications such as triptans or ergotamines may be used in those for whom simple pain medications are not effective. Caffeine may be added to the above. A number of medications are useful to prevent attacks including metoprolol, valproate, and topiramate.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '322197',
'title': 'Tension headache',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 225,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Pain medication, such as aspirin and ibuprofen, are effective for the treatment of tension headache. Tricyclic antidepressants appear to be useful for prevention. Evidence is poor for SSRIs, propranolol and muscle relaxants.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '260578',
'title': 'Muscle relaxant',
'section': 'Section::::Spasmolytics.:Clinical use.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 961,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Spasmolytics such as carisoprodol, cyclobenzaprine, metaxalone, and methocarbamol are commonly prescribed for low back pain or neck pain, fibromyalgia, tension headaches and myofascial pain syndrome. However, they are not recommended as first-line agents; in acute low back pain, they are not more effective than paracetamol or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and in fibromyalgia they are not more effective than antidepressants. Nevertheless, some (low-quality) evidence suggests muscle relaxants can add benefit to treatment with NSAIDs. In general, no high-quality evidence supports their use. No drug has been shown to be better than another, and all of them have adverse effects, particularly dizziness and drowsiness. Concerns about possible abuse and interaction with other drugs, especially if increased sedation is a risk, further limit their use. A muscle relaxant is chosen based on its adverse-effect profile, tolerability, and cost.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21035',
'title': 'Migraine',
'section': 'Section::::Management.:Children.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 97,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 97,
'end_character': 298,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Ibuprofen helps decrease pain in children with migraines. Paracetamol does not appear to be effective in providing pain relief. Triptans are effective, though there is a risk of causing minor side effects like taste disturbance, nasal symptoms, dizziness, fatigue, low energy, nausea, or vomiting.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '322197',
'title': 'Tension headache',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Medications.:Treatment of ETTH.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 60,
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'passage_text': 'Over-the-counter drugs, like acetaminophen, aspirin, or NSAIDs(ibuprofen, Naproxen, Ketoprofen), can be effective but tend to only be helpful as a treatment for a few times in a week at most. For those with gastrointestinal problems (ulcers and bleeding) acetaminophen is the better choice over aspirin, however both provide roughly equivalent pain relief. It is important to note that large daily doses of acetaminophen should be avoided as it may cause liver damage especially in those that consume 3 or more drinks/day and those with pre-existing liver disease. Ibuprofen, one of the NSAIDs listed above, is a common choice for pain relief but may also lead to gastrointestinal discomfort.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37030599',
'title': 'Ibuprofen/paracetamol',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Ibuprofen/paracetamol sold under the brand name Combiflam is a combination of the two medications, ibuprofen and paracetamol (acetaminophen). It is available in India. It may be used for fever, headache, muscle pain and menstrual cramps (MC). Ibuprofen belongs to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) class of drugs.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How can general pain medication like paracetamol and ibuprofen treat so many different things?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Becsuse the dont treat the issue itself but rather act on the pain sensors in the brain. You just don't feel the pain. ",
"Prostaglandins are natural chemicals that are released into your body when you are injured or sick. When they're released, they make nearby nerves hurt. This is when your body can tell that something is wrong, and you feel pain. Meds like ibuprofen target prostaglandins. It keeps more of them from being made, which reduces more nerve pain. So it's not so much that pills can hit a wide variety of targets, it's that the body's target is the same for most injuries. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9ljcpi',
'query': 'how can general pain medication like paracetamol and ibuprofen treat so many different things?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1472607',
'title': 'Aid effectiveness',
'section': 'Section::::Findings and critiques on aid effectiveness.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 75,
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'passage_text': 'There are an increasing number of studies and literature that argue aid alone is not enough to lift developing countries out of poverty. Whether or not aid actually significantly affects growth, it does not operate in a vacuum. An increasing number of donor country policies can either complement or hinder development, such as trade, investment, or migration. The Commitment to Development Index published annually by the Center for Global Development is one such attempt to look at donor country policies toward the developing world and move beyond simple comparisons of aid given. It accounts for not only the quantity but the quality of aid, penalizing nations that given large amounts of tied aid.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1908551',
'title': 'Aid',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Urgency.:Development aid.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 49,
'end_character': 423,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Development aid is given by governments through individual countries' international aid agencies and through multilateral institutions such as the World Bank, and by individuals through . For donor nations, development aid also has strategic value; improved living conditions can positively effects global security and economic growth. Official Development Assistance (ODA) is a commonly used measure of developmental aid.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '53431942',
'title': 'Foreign direct investment and the environment',
'section': 'Section::::Foreign Direct Investment and Environment in Different Countries.:India.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 757,
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'passage_text': 'Many developing countries desire increased inflows of foreign direct investment as it brings the potential of technological innovation. However, studies have shown a host country must reach a certain level of development in education and infrastructure sectors in able to truly capture any potential benefits foreign direct investment might bring. If a country already has sufficient funds in terms of per capita income, as well as an established financial market, foreign direct investment has the potential to influence positive economic growth. Pre-determined financial efficiency combined with an educated labor force are the two main measures of whether or not foreign direct investment will have a positive impact on economic growth within a country.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1411925',
'title': 'Development aid',
'section': 'Section::::Effectiveness.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 114,
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'passage_text': 'Research has shown that developed nations are more likely to give aid to nations who have the worst economic situations and policies (Burnside, C., Dollar, D., 2000). They give money to these nations so that they can become developed and begin to turn these policies around. It has also been found that aid relates to the population of a nation as well, and that the smaller a nation is, the more likely it is to receive funds from donor agencies. The harsh reality of this is that it is very unlikely that a developing nation with a lack of resources, policies, and good governance will be able to utilize incoming aid money in order to get on their feet and begin to turn the damaged economy around. It is more likely that a nation with good economic policies and good governance will be able to utilize aid money to help the country establish itself with an existing foundation and be able to rise from there with the help of the international community. But research shows that it is the low-income nations that will receive aid more so, and the better off a nation is, the less aid money it will be granted. On the other hand, Alesina and Dollar (2000) note that private foreign investment often responds positively to more substantive economic policy and better protections under the law. There is increased private foreign investment in developing nations with these attributes, especially in the higher income ones, perhaps due to being larger and possibly more profitable markets.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1908551',
'title': 'Aid',
'section': 'Section::::Improving aid effectiveness.:Aid priorities.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 84,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 84,
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'passage_text': "Furthermore, consider the breakdown, where aid goes and for what purposes. In 2002, total gross foreign aid to all developing countries was $76 billion. Dollars that do not contribute to a country's ability to support basic needs interventions are subtracted. Subtract $6 billion for debt relief grants. Subtract $11 billion, which is the amount developing countries paid to developed nations in that year in the form of loan repayments. Next, subtract the aid given to middle income countries, $16 billion. The remainder, $43 billion, is the amount that developing countries received in 2002. But only $12 billion went to low-income countries in a form that could be deemed budget support for basic needs. When aid is given to the Least Developed Countries who have good governments and strategic plans for the aid, it is thought that it is more effective.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1411925',
'title': 'Development aid',
'section': 'Section::::Effects of Foreign Aid on Developing Countries.:Effects of Foreign Aid in Africa..\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 62,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 62,
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'passage_text': 'For aid to be effective and beneficial to economic development, there must be some support systems or ‘traction’ that, will enable foreign aid to spur economic growth. Research has also shown that Aid actually damages economic growth and development before ‘traction’ is attained.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1472607',
'title': 'Aid effectiveness',
'section': 'Section::::Findings and critiques on aid effectiveness.:Other theories.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 88,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 88,
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'passage_text': "Despite decades of receiving aid and experiencing different development models (which have had very little success), many developing countries' economies are still dependent on developed countries, and are deep in debt. There is now a growing debate about why developing countries remain impoverished and underdeveloped after all this time. Many argue that current methods of aid are not working and are calling for reducing foreign aid (and therefore dependency) and utilizing different economic theories than the traditional mainstream theories from the West. Historically, development and aid have not accomplished the goals they were meant to, and currently the global gap between the rich and poor is greater than ever, though not everybody agrees with this.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do developing countries receive development aid from other countries instead of simply "adding" the same amount of money into government budget?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Hyperinflation from printing money to cover government deficits happens because the supply of the currency is dramatically increased. Note that this happens relative to the currency of which the supply is increasing--for example, when there is hyperinflation occurring with the Zimbabwe dollar, prices when paying with U.S. dollars may actually be comparatively stable. This is why, when inflation becomes very bad, people try to abandon the local currency and use a more stable foreign currency, even if it is illegal to do so.\n\nDevelopment aid comes in the form of foreign currency or it\'s aid "in kind," in the form of goods. So the supply of the local currency isn\'t changed at all. It can still have a strong effect on the local economy, but for different reasons.',
"Because they get to keep that 5 mil euros/ dollars. They can pay with this money to import high tech or infrastructure from developing countries or medicine. It never gets converted to their own currency. A lot of developing countries import more than they export.\n\nEven if they did convert this money, they would have simply more to gain but this is more complicated to explain.\n\nImagine if you are a bakery. You have 10 breads and printing more money is like cutting those breads in half. You have 20 half breads but they are still worth 10 breads.\nBut let's say someone rich came to your business and gave you 10 more breads, you actually own 20 complete pieces of bread.\n\nMoney is just a piece of paper but it has value. That value is similar to bitcoin. 5 dollars of value does not equal to 5 pieces of a dollar paper. If you print 5 more pieces, that value will be divided by two and your money will be worth less. 5 dollars of value will equal to 10 pieces of paper\n\n"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8e4w3q',
'query': 'why do developing countries receive development aid from other countries instead of simply "adding" the same amount of money into government budget?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2525843',
'title': 'Cardiac cycle',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The cardiac cycle is the performance of the human heart from the ending of one heartbeat to the beginning of the next. It consists of two periods: one during which the heart muscle relaxes and refills with blood, called diastole (), followed by a period of robust contraction and pumping of blood, dubbed systole (). After emptying, the heart immediately relaxes and expands to receive another influx of blood "returning from" the lungs and other systems of the body, before again contracting to "pump blood to" the lungs and those systems. A normally performing heart must be fully expanded before it can efficiently pump again. Assuming a healthy heart and a typical rate of 70 to 75 beats per minute, each cardiac cycle, or heartbeat, takes about 0.8 seconds to complete the cycle.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '275216',
'title': 'Hemodynamics',
'section': 'Section::::Blood flow.:Cardiac output.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
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'end_paragraph_id': 44,
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'passage_text': 'The heart is the driver of the circulatory system, pumping blood through rhythmic contraction and relaxation. The rate of blood flow out of the heart (often expressed in L/min) is known as the cardiac output (CO).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26254474',
'title': 'Heart arrhythmia',
'section': 'Section::::Differential diagnosis.:Normal electrical activity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 55,
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'passage_text': 'Each heart beat originates as an electrical impulse from a small area of tissue in the right atrium of the heart called the sinus node or Sino-atrial node or SA node. The impulse initially causes both atria to contract, then activates the atrioventricular (or AV) node, which is normally the only electrical connection between the atria and the ventricles (main pumping chambers). The impulse then spreads through both ventricles via the Bundle of His and the Purkinje fibres causing a synchronised contraction of the heart muscle and, thus, the pulse.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36808',
'title': 'Heart',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The heart pumps blood with a rhythm determined by a group of pacemaking cells in the sinoatrial node. These generate a current that causes contraction of the heart, traveling through the atrioventricular node and along the conduction system of the heart. The heart receives blood low in oxygen from the systemic circulation, which enters the right atrium from the superior and inferior venae cavae and passes to the right ventricle. From here it is pumped into the pulmonary circulation, through the lungs where it receives oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide. Oxygenated blood then returns to the left atrium, passes through the left ventricle and is pumped out through the aorta to the systemic circulation−where the oxygen is used and metabolized to carbon dioxide. The heart beats at a resting rate close to 72 beats per minute. Exercise temporarily increases the rate, but lowers resting heart rate in the long term, and is good for heart health.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '242110',
'title': 'Cardiac output',
'section': 'Section::::Definition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'The function of the heart is to drive blood through the circulatory system in a cycle that delivers oxygen, nutrients and chemicals to the body\'s cells and removes cellular waste. Because it pumps out whatever blood comes back into it from the venous system, the quantity of blood returning to the heart effectively determines the quantity of blood the heart pumps out – its cardiac output, "Q". Cardiac output is classically defined alongside stroke volume (SV) and the heart rate (HR) as:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43153976',
'title': 'Accelerans nerve',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "The heart beats according to a rhythm set up by the sinus node or pacemaker. It is acted on by the nervous system, as well as hormones in the blood, and venous return: the amount of blood being returned to the heart. The two nerves acting on the heart are the vagus nerve, which slows heart rate down by emitting acetylcholine, and the accelerans nerve which speeds it up by emitting noradrenaline. This results in an increased bloodflow, preparing the body for a sudden increase in activity. These nerve fibers are part of the autonomic nervous system, part of the 'fight or flight' system.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '233429',
'title': 'Cardiac pacemaker',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The contraction of cardiac muscle (heart muscle) in all animals is initiated by electrical impulses known as action potentials. The rate at which these impulses fire controls the rate of cardiac contraction, that is, the heart rate. The cells that create these rhythmic impulses, setting the pace for blood pumping, are called pacemaker cells, and they directly control the heart rate. They make up the cardiac pacemaker, that is, the natural pacemaker of the heart. In most humans, the concentration of pacemaker cells in the sinoatrial (SA) node is the natural pacemaker, and the resultant rhythm is a sinus rhythm. \n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What starts the pumping of the human heart and how does it keep going?',
'selftext': 'I guess I’m asking how the heart works, like what’s the power source? I keep thinking of an engine which needs a method to turn on and to keep going. I sound dumb.',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["You don't sound dumb. It's a good question. The heart has its own electrical system that keeps it pumping independent of brain function. Sometimes it misfires, though, and that can lead to things like heart attacks. Basically, as long as there's blood flowing through the heart to keep it alive it doesn't even need to be in the body. That's what they do for heart transplants.",
'The power source for the heart actually runs off of electricity. The heart is a muscle that receives an electrical signal as specialized cells rapidly change their electrical charge from positive to negative and back. If you have ever been shocked with electricity, when it occurs, your muscles contract rapidly. Every time this electrical signal travels through the heart tissue, the part of the heart that is “shocked” will contract. Your body has a cardiac conduction system which handles creating and regulating these signals. This heartpump runs automatically after your first heart beat when you are in the womb by receiving these electrical signals. Your body does it instinctually, so we never even have to think about it unless it beats out of rhythm, beats too rapidly, etc. \n\nAnother way of understanding how the heart runs is to look at how a pacemaker works. The pacemaker is connected to sections of the heart. The “brains” of the pacemaker send out electrical signals from a battery at a set speed (beats per minute) to cause the muscles of the heart to contract in a specific order at a specific speed. This pacemaker behaves the way the cardiac conduction system is supposed to behave.\n\nAlso, the heart and circulatory system is a closed system with a certain amount of blood in it. Think of it like squeezing a water balloon where the water is your blood, and your hand and the balloon are the heart. When your heart contracts, the blood has two directional choices to go, either away from the heart where it came from(backwards), or away from the heart moving forward in your circulatory system. Simultaneously, as your heart muscle contracts, a valve closes that keeps the blood from moving backwards in your circulatory system. At this point, the blood can only move forward in the system.',
'The heart has pacemaker cells in it that send an electric signal throw the top through the bottom of the organ once those cells has reach a threshold of sadism influx, it’s cause a contraction which pumps the blood through the body and the cells reset by pumping out the sodium only for it to hit threshold again and contract.\n\nThis spot is called the SA Node.',
"The heart is a pretty special engine because it's what it's pumping around is it's own fuel! The blood stream is how all muscles receive the oxygen and sugar they need to work, also the heart, as it is a muscle. So as long as it the blood it's pumping is good, it has plenty of fuel to keep on running, only a fraction of the blood it's pumping is used to fuel the heart itself though!\n\nTo keep it's pace and keep on beating the heart is controlled by electrical nerve signals, but unlike muscles we control, they are not sent from the brain, but they start from the top of the heart itself in the so called Sinoatrial node and propagate downwards, so first the two atria (upper chambers) are contracted, then travels downwards, causing the ventricles to contract, then they relax in the same order before a new signal starts, rinse and repeat."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7hmpgb',
'query': 'what starts the pumping of the human heart and how does it keep going?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '7367038',
'title': 'Vacuum packing',
'section': 'Section::::Preventing freezer burn.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 52,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 52,
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'passage_text': 'When foods are frozen without preparation, freezer burn can occur. It happens when the surface of the food is dehydrated, and this leads to a dried and leathery appearance. Freezer burn also ruins the flavor and texture of foods. Vacuum packing reduces freezer burn by preventing the food from exposure to the cold, dry air.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50961891',
'title': 'Individual Quick Freezing',
'section': 'Section::::Benefits.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 440,
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'passage_text': 'One of the main advantages of this method of preparing frozen food is that the freezing process takes only a few minutes. The exact time depends on the type of IQF freezer and the product. The short freezing prevents formation of large ice crystals in the product’s cells, which destroys the membrane structures at the molecular level. This makes the product keep its shape, colour, smell and taste after defrost, at a far greater extent. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '339605',
'title': 'Frozen food',
'section': 'Section::::Defrosting.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 49,
'end_character': 260,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'People sometimes defrost frozen foods at room temperature because of time constraints or ignorance; such foods should be promptly consumed after cooking or discarded and never be refrozen or refrigerated since pathogens are not killed by the freezing process.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1641463',
'title': 'Freezer burn',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 377,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Freezer burn appears as grayish-brown leathery spots on frozen food, and occurs when air reaches the food's surface and dries the product. Color changes result from chemical changes in the food's pigment. Freezer burn does not make the food unsafe; it merely causes dry spots in foods. The food remains usable and edible, but removing the freezer burns will improve the taste.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '339605',
'title': 'Frozen food',
'section': 'Section::::Preservatives.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 439,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Frozen products do not require any added preservatives because microorganisms do not grow when the temperature of the food is below , which is sufficient on its own in preventing food spoilage. Long-term preservation of food may call for food storage at even lower temperatures. Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), a tasteless and odorless stabilizer, is typically added to frozen food because it does not adulterate the quality of the product.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1641463',
'title': 'Freezer burn',
'section': 'Section::::Cause and effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 440,
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'passage_text': 'This process occurs even if the package has never been opened, due to the tendency for all molecules, especially water, to escape solids via vapour pressure. Fluctuations in temperature within a freezer also contribute to the onset of freezer burn because such fluctuations set up temperature gradients within the solid food and air in the freezer, which create additional impetus for water molecules to move from their original positions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35490713',
'title': 'Physical factors affecting microbial life',
'section': 'Section::::Low temperatures.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 358,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Freezing food to preserve its quality has been used since time immemorial. Freezing temperatures curb the spoiling effect of microorganisms in food, but can also preserve some pathogens unharmed for long periods of time. Freezing kills some microorganisms by physical trauma, others are sublethally injured by freezing, and may recover to become infectious.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What causes the “refrigerated taste” food can get when it is uncovered in the freezer too long?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Fats tend to soak up smells and stuff around them. I’d recommend cleaning your fridge well every once in a while.',
'All the food inside is drying out and all the moisture takes smells into the air with it. The fridge is closed and small, so all that smelly air is trapped in there. Over time, food left in there a long time will have a dry crust and the humid smelly air will start to go back into the dry crust. The yucky taste and texture is all those mixed smells and dried out crust combined.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'g1ibhd',
'query': 'what causes the “refrigerated taste” food can get when it is uncovered in the freezer too long?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '4702515',
'title': 'Vapor-compression refrigeration',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'end_character': 300,
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'passage_text': 'Refrigeration may be defined as lowering the temperature of an enclosed space by removing heat from that space and transferring it elsewhere. A device that performs this function may also be called an air conditioner, refrigerator, air source heat pump, geothermal heat pump, or chiller (heat pump).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1172809',
'title': 'Defrosting',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 274,
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'passage_text': 'A defrosting procedure is generally performed periodically on refrigerators and freezers to maintain their operating efficiency. Over time, as the door is opened and closed, letting in new air, water vapour from the air condenses on the cooling elements within the cabinet.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46238',
'title': 'Refrigeration',
'section': 'Section::::Methods of refrigeration.:Cyclic refrigeration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 71,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 71,
'end_character': 357,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A "refrigeration cycle" describes the changes that take place in the refrigerant as it alternately absorbs and rejects heat as it circulates through a refrigerator. It is also applied to heating, ventilation, and air conditioning HVACR work, when describing the "process" of refrigerant flow through an HVACR unit, whether it is a packaged or split system.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33916504',
'title': 'Automobile air conditioning',
'section': 'Section::::Operating principles.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
'end_character': 226,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In the refrigeration cycle, heat is transported from the passenger compartment to the environment. A refrigerator is an example of such a system, as it transports the heat out of the interior and into the ambient environment.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '67029',
'title': 'Passive solar building design',
'section': 'Section::::Key passive solar building configurations.:Indirect solar system.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 99,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 99,
'end_character': 556,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'If vents are left open at night (or on cloudy days), a reversal of convective airflow will occur, wasting heat by dissipating it outdoors. Vents must be closed at night so radiant heat from the interior surface of the storage wall heats the indoor space. Generally, vents are also closed during summer months when heat gain is not needed. During the summer, an exterior exhaust vent installed at the top of the wall can be opened to vent to the outside. Such venting makes the system act as a solar chimney driving air through the building during the day.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '651372',
'title': 'Evaporative cooler',
'section': 'Section::::Designs.:Design considerations.:Exhaust.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 53,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 53,
'end_character': 1193,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Exhaust ducts and/or open windows must be used at all times to allow air to continually escape the air-conditioned area. Otherwise, pressure develops and the fan or blower in the system is unable to push much air through the media and into the air-conditioned area. The evaporative system cannot function without exhausting the continuous supply of air from the air-conditioned area to the outside. By optimizing the placement of the cooled-air inlet, along with the layout of the house passages, related doors, and room windows, the system can be used most effectively to direct the cooled air to the required areas. A well-designed layout can effectively scavenge and expel the hot air from desired areas without the need for an above-ceiling ducted venting system. Continuous airflow is essential, so the exhaust windows or vents must not restrict the volume and passage of air being introduced by the evaporative cooling machine. One must also be mindful of the outside wind direction, as, for example, a strong hot southerly wind will slow or restrict the exhausted air from a south-facing window. It is always best to have the downwind windows open, while the upwind windows are closed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4655742',
'title': 'Economizer',
'section': 'Section::::Refrigeration.:Cooler Economizer.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 818,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A common form of refrigeration economizer is a "walk-in cooler economizer" or "outside air refrigeration system". In such a system outside air that is cooler than the air inside a refrigerated space is brought into that space and the same amount of warmer inside air is ducted outside. The resulting cooling supplements or replaces the operation of a compressor-based refrigeration system. If the air inside a cooled space is only about 5\xa0°F warmer than the outside air that replaces it (that is, the ∆T5\xa0°F) this cooling effect is accomplished more efficiently than the same amount of cooling resulting from a compressor based system. If the outside air is not cold enough to overcome the refrigeration load of the space the compressor system will need to also operate, or the temperature inside the space will rise.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Is it real that when you left the refrigirator door open It consumes more energy?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Yes it does, a refrigerator is basically a pump that effectively pumps heat out of the inside and on the back coil, if you open it, air gets in from the outside, making it need to pump more heat out, but the heat then goes back in,\n\nTo be fair leaving it a bit open probably won’t waste that much power, but it definitely does ',
"It does cost more electric because your letting the cold out so it has to use more power to try and keep it cool BUT it is never going to be noticeable on the electricity bill unless you leave it fully open all day in temps with 20c and even then it's going to add maybe 25p per day,\n\nBUT here's my question who on earth goes to the fridge and leaves the door open regardless of whether it costs more electric it will make your food go off sooner and not be cold,\n\nI have never met anyone that opens the fridge and leaves it open it litterally makes no sense",
"Yes (but not very much), and the reason is pretty simple.\n\nWith the fridge door closed, the thermodynamic system is mostly closed -- (almost) no energy in, (almost) no energy out -- and so the guts of the fridge don't have to do a ton of work.\n\nBut every time you open the door, some of the cold air inside escapes, replaced with relatively warmer air from its surroundings.\n\nThe condenser and compressor in the fridge then have to work to take the heat from that air and vent it out the back, increasing the energy consumed.\n\nThe amount of air that's exchanged this way isn't very much, because the air inside the fridge isn't moving around a whole lot.\n\nYou'll actually spend more energy putting a plate of hot food in the fridge than you will opening the door several extra times, because the food is directly increasing the humidity and temperature of the internals!"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9mdop1',
'query': 'is it real that when you left the refrigirator door open it consumes more energy?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '9686259',
'title': 'The First 48',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': "The First 48 is an American documentary television series on A&E. Filmed in various cities in the United States, the series offers an insider's look at the real-life world of homicide investigators. While the series often follows the investigations to their end, it usually focuses on their first 48 hours, hence the title. Each episode picks one or more homicides in different cities, covering each alternately, showing how detectives use forensic evidence, witness interviews, and other advanced investigative techniques to identify suspects. While most cases are solved within the first 48 hours, some go on days, weeks, months, or even years after the first 48.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31860242',
'title': 'Stand By for Crime',
'section': 'Section::::Plot.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 280,
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'passage_text': '"Stand By For Crime" was unique in its format. The series was seen up to the point of the murder, with Inspector Webb, later Lt. Kidd, looking through the clues. However, before the killer was revealed, viewers were invited to phone in their own guesses as to who the killer was.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2037607',
'title': 'Missing (2003 TV program)',
'section': 'Section::::Format.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 347,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Nearing the end of the show, a "roundup" is presented showing the person(s) pictured with their first and last name. Some roundups feature four individuals at a time (usually when they are all missing and have the same surname). An individual is shown for two seconds; more time is allowed depending on how many individuals are in the same slide.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35029156',
'title': 'Jordan, Jesse, Go!',
'section': 'Section::::Format.:Recurring segments.:Momentous Occasions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 504,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In this segment, a selection of listener telephone calls left on the show\'s answering machine are played back, with the hosts and guests commenting on each call after it is played. While the content of the calls played varies, they are generally roughly divided into "momentous occasions", wherein the caller relates something interesting which has happened to or around them, or "moments of shame", wherein the caller recounts an event in which they acted foolishly or otherwise embarrassed themselves.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5837827',
'title': 'Rumble in the Morning',
'section': 'Section::::Programming.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 561,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The show is scheduled to air weekdays from 5:30AM to 10:00AM (though they often begin and end several minutes late, sometimes going to 10:15). The host(s) typically begin the program by announcing what is coming up on the show that day. They then take calls from their listeners and gives away prizes to the first caller of each show. They continue taking listener calls throughout the day, in addition to reading some listener e-mails. Sometimes they will introduce a particularly ridiculous, confusing, or embarrassing phone call as "Stupid Call of the Day."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23535224',
'title': 'The Chase (British game show)',
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.:Filming.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 604,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Three episodes are filmed in a day and each one takes around an hour and a half to film. According to Walsh, "It runs like clockwork." The Final Chase can be stopped and re-started if Walsh stumbles on a question. He told the "Radio Times", "If there is a slight misread, I am stopped immediately – bang – by the lawyers. We have the compliance lawyers in the studio all the time. What you have to do is go back to the start of the question, literally on videotape where my mouth opens – or where it\'s closed from the previous question – and the question is re-asked. It is stopped to the split second."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52833376',
'title': 'End of Watch Call',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 485,
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'passage_text': "The End of Watch Call or Last Radio Call is a ceremony in which, after a police officer's death (usually in the line of duty but sometimes from illness), the officers from his or her unit or department gather around a police radio, over which the police dispatcher issues one call to the officer, followed by a silence, then a second call, followed by silence, then finally announces that the officer has failed to respond because he or she has fallen in the line of duty. An example:\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Crime shows always say “they hung up before we could trace the call”. What goes into tracing a call and how long does it actually take?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It's 100% Hollywood bullshit. It might have been true decades ago when phone calls were connected manually, but not since the electronic switches that we have since the 1970s.",
'That’s not a real thing. The phone company would have the record of the call the instant the call was connected. Even if the police didn’t have anyone on the call itself they could call the phone company and get the record of the call. If they where looking for the location of the caller, they would call the phone company and have them give them the location the call was made from. They don’t have any need to keep someone on the line at all as far as locating the caller is concerned.',
"This is a holdover from how telephones worked before the 1970s. Nowadays, it's all electronic, and assuming the [caller ID isn't being spoofed](_URL_0_), it's pretty easy to obtain this info.\n\nPrior to the late 1970s, telephone networks didn't use computers and electronic systems. They used [electrically powered mechanical switches](_URL_2_) that were stacked together in arrays that filled entire buildings, and would physically connect different cables together to make a call go through. Several of these switches were required (in larger cities) to complete a call. In fact, this old mechanical switching system is what dictated how phone numbers were formatted, and assigned. The numbers you dialed would literally tell a switch which central office you wanted to reach, and then tell it how many times to step through its gears, to pass your call to the next switch in a different part of the network, and eventually, to your called person's phone line.\n\nIn this era, tracing a call *literally* involved a person (or several people) in the telephone central office working through the series of switches to see where a call came from. They would have to **trace** the path the call took... from the called phone line, back down to each switch that contacted it from one part of the network to the next, and on to the originating phone line. This is what took so much time. And, if the caller hung up before the trace was completed, then the effort was wasted... the call would end and all the electromechanical switches would snap back to their standby positions, waiting to be used in the next call.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nEdit: [Here's a video of these old phone switches in action.](_URL_1_)",
"While all these technical explanations are great, have you noticed that your phone tells you what number it's receiving a call from before it rings. That's how long it takes."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'ep5nqp',
'query': 'crime shows always say “they hung up before we could trace the call”. what goes into tracing a call and how long does it actually take?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '505536',
'title': 'Blood donation',
'section': 'Section::::Donor health benefits.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 69,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 69,
'end_character': 284,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In patients prone to iron overload, blood donation prevents the accumulation of toxic quantities. Donating blood may reduce the risk of heart disease for men, but the link has not been firmly established and may be from selection bias because donors are screened for health problems.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3790470',
'title': 'LGBT rights in Cuba',
'section': 'Section::::Blood donation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 72,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 72,
'end_character': 237,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Individuals seeking to donate blood must be in good health, have a regular pulse and must not have had a viral injection (catarrh or pharyngitis) within the past 7 days. Men who have sex with men are not explicitly banned from donating.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12907037',
'title': 'LGBT rights in Peru',
'section': 'Section::::Blood donation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 43,
'end_character': 383,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Nevertheless, when comedian and playwright Carolina Silva Santisteban applied to donate blood in early 2018, her application was rejected on the basis of her sexual orientation. Theoretically, blood donation rules in Peru do not prevent homosexual applicants from donating, if they are otherwise in good health, though in practive several blood drives have rejected such applicants.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17602457',
'title': 'Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 577,
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'passage_text': 'Many countries have laws that prohibit donations of blood or tissue for organ transplants from men who have sex with men (MSM), a classification of men who engage (or have engaged in the past) in sex with other men, regardless of whether they identify themselves as bisexual, gay or otherwise. Restrictions on donors are sometimes called "deferrals", since blood donors who are found ineligible may be found eligible at a later date. However, many deferrals are indefinite meaning that donation may not be accepted at any point in the future, thus constituting a de facto ban.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7015318',
'title': 'LGBT rights in Malta',
'section': 'Section::::Health and blood donation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 56,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 56,
'end_character': 646,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Gay and bisexual men in Malta are not allowed to donate blood. In May 2016, Minister for Health Chris Fearne announced that a technical committee set up in 2015 to review the ban had recently completed its report and recommended scrapping the current indefinite deferral on donations. The new policy, if implemented, would still exclude donations from men who have had sex with another man any time in the previous 12 months. In September 2016, the youth wing of the Labour Party announced their support for lifting the ban. There are plans to allow LGBT individuals in a stable monogamous relationship to donate blood by sometime in early 2019.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21420673',
'title': 'World Blood Donor Day',
'section': 'Section::::History.:2012: Every blood donor is a hero.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 30,
'end_character': 284,
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'passage_text': 'The 2012 campaign focused on the idea that any person can become a hero by giving blood. Blood cannot yet be manufactured artificially, so voluntary blood donation remains vital for healthcare worldwide. Many anonymous blood donors save lives every day through their blood donations.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1494752',
'title': 'Plateletpheresis',
'section': 'Section::::Platelet transfusion.:Whole blood platelets.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 268,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Problems with apheresis include the expense of the equipment used for collection. Whole blood platelets also do not require any additional donor recruitment, as they can be made from blood donations that are also used for packed red blood cells and plasma components.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why can’t you donate menstural blood?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Well more or less because its basically uterus wallpaper not exactly just blood like you would find in your veins.',
"It's not like blood from the rest of your body at all. Menstrual blood is filled with dead cells of the uterine lining, as well as a dead ovum. It's basically blood filled with biological garbage. It would cause ridiculous amounts of infection (sepsis) if it was given to someone in place of regular blood.",
"* Ew. \n\n* Lots of red liquid, not as much blood as you think there is in that liquid to make it red. \n\n* No good collection method.\n\n* It doesn't all come out at once.",
'In order to donate blood, you have to keep it clean and you have to add anticoagulants to stabilize it for transport otherwise it just coagulates. \n\nAside from the obvious contaminants that could be present in your random vagina, the blood comes out far too slowly to be viable for collection. The amount is also rather negligible when compared to standard donation methods(about 80ml of blood compared to a pint which is 473ml). \n\nI mean, what are you going to do? Stand over a blood bucket for 4 days?'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8yd2ok',
'query': 'why can’t you donate menstural blood?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '56009963',
'title': 'Fugitive dust',
'section': 'Section::::Other types.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 429,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Dust emitted from processing equipment that may not contain typical soil components is also considered fugitive dust. In this context, fugitive dust is dust that has "escaped" during any mechanical process and entered the atmosphere. Fugitive dust emissions within a structure can not only cause respiratory problems but, when generated during the processing of combustible materials, can cause fire and blast damage if ignited.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1839752',
'title': 'Electrostatic precipitator',
'section': 'Section::::Collection efficiency ("R").:Dust layer resistance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 590,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Resistance affects electrical conditions in the dust layer by a potential electric field (voltage drop) being formed across the layer as negatively charged particles arrive at its surface and leak their electrical charges to the collection plate. At the metal surface of the electrically grounded collection plate, the voltage is zero, whereas at the outer surface of the dust layer, where new particles and ions are arriving, the electrostatic voltage caused by the gas ions can be quite high. The strength of this electric field depends on the resistance and thickness of the dust layer.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9396111',
'title': 'Preservation (library and archival science)',
'section': 'Section::::Practices.:Storage environment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 312,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Particulate and gaseous pollutants, such as soot, ozone, sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, can cause dust, soiling, and irreversible molecular damage to materials. Pollutants are exceedingly small and not easily detectable or removable. A special filtration system in the building's HVAC is a helpful defense.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60933',
'title': 'Triboelectric effect',
'section': 'Section::::Risks and counter-measures.:In the workplace.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 503,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Means have to be provided to discharge static from carts which may carry volatile liquids, flammable gasses, or oxygen in hospitals. Even where only a small charge is produced, it can result in dust particles being attracted to the rubbed surface. In the case of textile manufacture this can lead to a permanent grimy mark where the cloth comes in contact with dust accumulations held by a static charge. Dust attraction may be reduced by treating insulating surfaces with an antistatic cleaning agent.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1839752',
'title': 'Electrostatic precipitator',
'section': 'Section::::Collection efficiency ("R").:High resistivity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
'end_character': 635,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'If the voltage drop across the dust layer becomes too high, several adverse effects can occur. First, the high voltage drop reduces the voltage difference between the discharge electrode and collection electrode, and thereby reduces the electrostatic field strength used to drive the gas ion-charged particles over to the collected dust layer. As the dust layer builds up, and the electrical charges accumulate on the surface of the dust layer, the voltage difference between the discharge and collection electrodes decreases. The migration velocities of small particles are especially affected by the reduced electric field strength.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1793107',
'title': 'Static cling',
'section': 'Section::::Cause and prevention.:Electronic devices.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 1042,
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'passage_text': "Dust accumulation caused by static cling is a significant issue for computers and other electronic devices with heat generating components that need to be cooled by airflow. Dust is carried into the computer by the airflow created by case- and component fans. The accumulated dust covers metal surfaces and clogs the empty space between the fins of heatsinks, diminishing the dissipation of heat and interrupting the outward flow of warm air. Especially for critical components such as microprocessors and memory banks, this raises the risk of them overheating which can ultimately damage or destroy them. To compensate, automatically controlled fans will raise their speed, generating more noise and shortening their lifespan. An additional risk is the (small) electrical conductivity of dust which, given enough accumulation of dust, can cause critical damage to the device's internal components. Dust accumulation grows exponentially, since the accumulated dust creates new static surfaces and physical bloccades for new dust to cling to.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1246810',
'title': 'Humidifier',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 243,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In addition, static electricity may become a problem in conditions of low humidity, destroying semiconductor devices, causing static cling of textiles, and causing dust and small particles to stick stubbornly to electrically charged surfaces.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How can dust damage electrical components?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['[dust corrosion](_URL_0_) \n\nDust contains all kinds of different elements, including some salts. The accumulation of these minerals over time paired with humidity, creates a salty solution, which then does what a salty solution does and eats into the material. \n\nI knew about this immediately because I work with structural fasteners, the kind that hold bridges and ships and buildings together. In storage they’re required to be covered to protect them from dust for this very reason. The dust can diminish any plating on the fasteners through the same process. \n\nEdit: added context\nEdit 2: added a related story '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '871jeh',
'query': 'how can dust damage electrical components?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2885000',
'title': 'Battery charger',
'section': 'Section::::Prolonging battery life.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 113,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 113,
'end_character': 763,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Motor vehicles, such as boats, RVs, ATVs, motorcycles, cars, trucks, etc have used lead–acid batteries. These batteries employ a sulfuric acid electrolyte and can generally be charged and discharged without exhibiting memory effect, though sulfation (a chemical reaction in the battery which deposits a layer of sulfates on the lead) will occur over time. Typically sulfated batteries are simply replaced with new batteries, and the old ones recycled. Lead–acid batteries will experience substantially longer life when a maintenance charger is used to "float charge" the battery. This prevents the battery from ever being below 100% charge, preventing sulfate from forming. Proper temperature compensated float voltage should be used to achieve the best results.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '726915',
'title': 'Alkaline battery',
'section': 'Section::::Leaks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
'end_character': 276,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'All batteries gradually self-discharge (whether installed in a device or not) and dead batteries will eventually leak. Extremely high temperatures can also cause batteries to rupture and leak (such as in a car during summer) as well as decrease the shelf life of the battery.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '298814',
'title': 'Jump start (vehicle)',
'section': 'Section::::Hazards.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
'end_character': 282,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A fully depleted battery will not draw more power if the cables are reversed, but reverse-charging a dead battery can damage its chemistry so that it loses charge capacity, and reverse voltage applied to the vehicle electronics may also damage them, resulting in expensive repairs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1164345',
'title': 'Automotive battery',
'section': 'Section::::Environmental impact.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 49,
'end_character': 1010,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Battery recycling of automotive batteries reduces the need for resources required for the manufacture of new batteries, diverts toxic lead from landfills, and prevents the risk of improper disposal. Once a lead acid battery ceases to hold a charge, it is deemed a used lead-acid battery (ULAB), which is classified as hazardous waste under the Basel Convention. The 12-volt car battery is the most recycled product in the world, according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency. In the U.S. alone, about 100 million auto batteries a year are replaced, and 99 percent of them are turned in for recycling. However the recycling may be done incorrectly in unregulated environments. As part of global waste trade ULABs are shipped from industrialized countries to developing countries for disassembly and recuperation of the contents. About 97 percent of the lead can be recovered. Pure Earth estimates that over 12 million third world people are affected by lead contamination from ULAB processing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '203197',
'title': 'Memory effect',
'section': 'Section::::Other problems perceived as memory effect.:Permanent loss of capacity.:Deep discharge.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 446,
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'passage_text': 'Some rechargeable batteries can be damaged by repeated deep discharge. Batteries are composed of multiple similar, but not identical, cells. Each cell has its own charge capacity. As the battery as a whole is being deeply discharged, the cell with the smallest capacity may reach zero charge and will "reverse charge" as the other cells continue to force current through it. The resulting loss of capacity is often ascribed to the memory effect.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20761049',
'title': 'IUoU battery charging',
'section': 'Section::::Special cases.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'If a battery is connected to a significant load during charging, the end of the Uo-phase may never be reached and the battery will gas and be damaged, depending on the charge current relative to the battery capacity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41382162',
'title': 'Battery regenerator',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'When batteries are stored in an uncharged state for an extended period, lead-sulfur deposits form and harden on the lead plates inside the battery. This causes what is known as a "sulfated battery", which will no longer charge to its original capacity. Regenerators send pulses of electric current through the battery, which in some cases may cause the sulfate to flake off the plates and eventually dissolve.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do car batteries only need to be charged when fully dead?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['They are actually charged every time you drive. This happens with a machine called an alternator. \n\nWhen your car engine is running, it also turns a little electrical generator that helps keep the car battery charged. ',
"Car batteries are kept charged by the alternator, which is turned by the engine. 12-volts DC is the nominal voltage of a car battery. If it falls about 10% below this, your car won't work. So the battery isn't completely dead when it doesn't work, it just isn't near 12-volts DC. \n\nThis is true of even household batteries that you use in electronics. When they no longer work, they aren't completely void of any power, they're just not near their nominal rating for the device to work properly."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '608dui',
'query': 'why do car batteries only need to be charged when fully dead?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '58859',
'title': 'Allergen',
'section': 'Section::::Seasonal allergy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 72,
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'passage_text': 'Recent research has suggested that humans might develop allergies as a defense to fight off parasites. According to Yale University Immunologist Dr Ruslan Medzhitov, protease allergens cleave the same sensor proteins that evolved to detect proteases produced by the parasitic worms. Additionally, a new report on seasonal allergies called “Extreme allergies and Global Warming”, have found that many allergy triggers are worsening due to climate change. 16 states in the United States were named as “Allergen Hotspots” for large increases in allergenic tree pollen if global warming pollution keeps increasing. Therefore, researchers on this report claimed that global warming is bad news for millions of asthmatics in the United States whose asthma attacks are triggered by seasonal allergies. Indeed, seasonal allergies are one of the main triggers for asthma, along with colds or flu, cigarette smoke and exercise. In Canada, for example, up to 75% of asthmatics also have seasonal allergies.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58859',
'title': 'Allergen',
'section': 'Section::::Seasonal allergy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 65,
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'passage_text': 'If both parents suffered from allergies in the past, there is a 66% chance for the individual to suffer from seasonal allergies, and the risk lowers to 60% if just one parent had suffered from allergies. The immune system also has strong influence on seasonal allergies, since it reacts differently to diverse allergens like pollen. When an allergen enters the body of an individual that is predisposed to allergies, it triggers an immune reaction and the production of antibodies. These allergen antibodies migrate to mast cells lining the nose, eyes and lungs. When an allergen drifts into the nose more than once, mast cells release a slew of chemicals or histamines that irritate and inflame the moist membranes lining the nose and produce the symptoms of an allergic reaction: scratchy throat, itching, sneezing and watery eyes. Some symptoms that differentiate allergies from a cold include:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58859',
'title': 'Allergen',
'section': 'Section::::Seasonal allergy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 71,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Among seasonal allergies, there are some allergens that fuse together and produce a new type of allergy. For instance, grass pollen allergens cross-react with food allergy proteins in vegetables such as onion, lettuce, carrots, celery and corn. Besides, the cousins of birch pollen allergens, like apples, grapes, peaches, celery and apricots, produce severe itching in the ears and throat. The cypress pollen allergy brings a cross reactivity between diverse species like olive, privet, ash and Russian olive tree pollen allergens. In some rural areas there is another form of seasonal grass allergy, combining airborne particles of pollen mixed with mold. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5558520',
'title': 'Milk allergy',
'section': 'Section::::Society and culture.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 64,
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'passage_text': "With the passage of mandatory labeling laws, food allergy awareness has definitely increased, with impacts on the quality of life for children, their parents and their immediate caregivers. In the U.S., the Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act of 2004 (FALPA) causes people to be reminded of allergy problems every time they handle a food package, and restaurants have added allergen warnings to menus. School systems have protocols about what foods can be brought into the school. Despite all these precautions, people with serious allergies are aware that accidental exposure can easily occur at other peoples' houses, at school or in restaurants. Food fear has a significant impact on quality of life. Finally, for children with allergies, their quality of life is also affected by actions of their peers. There is an increased occurrence of bullying, which can include threats or acts of deliberately being touched with foods they need to avoid, also having their allergen-free food deliberately contaminated.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '722360',
'title': 'Latex allergy',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Latex-fruit syndrome.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': 'People who have latex allergy also may have or develop an allergic response to some plants and/or products of these plants such as fruits. This is known as the "latex-fruit syndrome". Fruits (and seeds) involved in this syndrome include banana, pineapple, avocado, chestnut, kiwi fruit, mango, passionfruit, fig, strawberry, papaya, apple, melon, celery, potato, tomato, carrot, and soy. Some, but not all of these fruits contain a form of latex.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4642616',
'title': 'Lotion',
'section': 'Section::::Potential health risks.:Allergens.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
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'passage_text': "The American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology warns that natural lotion containing ingredients commonly found in food (such as goats milk, cow's milk, coconut milk, or oil) may introduce new allergies, and an allergic reaction when those foods are later consumed.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6945843',
'title': 'Tree nut allergy',
'section': 'Section::::Society and culture.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
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'passage_text': "Whether food allergy prevalence is increasing or not, food allergy awareness has increased, with impacts on the quality of life for children, their parents and their immediate caregivers. In the United States, the Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act of 2004 causes people to be reminded of allergy problems every time they handle a food package, and restaurants have added allergen warnings to menus. The Culinary Institute of America, a premier school for chef training, has courses in allergen-free cooking and a separate teaching kitchen. School systems have protocols about what foods can be brought into the school. Despite all these precautions, people with serious allergies are aware that accidental exposure can easily occur at other peoples' houses, at school or in restaurants. Food fear has a significant impact on quality of life. Finally, for children with allergies, their quality of life is also affected by actions of their peers. There is an increased occurrence of bullying, which can include threats or acts of deliberately being touched with foods they need to avoid, also having their allergen-free food deliberately contaminated.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Is there truly any way to get over non-seasonal Allergies?',
'selftext': 'I am aware it is possible for some to "get over" allergies when they are younger, but are there any ways to get over non-seasonal allergies such as those to dust/animal fur in later years? Is it only possible to reduce the allergies?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['I got allergy shots for six years. Granted most of mine were seasonal or at least flared up in spring/fall. Now I’m very glad to get those because I rarely have to even take meds for it.',
'Yes when i was younger i was very allergic to dust, well actually allergic to dustmite shit, and i\'ve gotten something called "Hyposensibilisierung" (thats the german word no idea whats the english one) where you get a shot of the thing you\'re allergic against at a small does kinda like a vaccine but you get it multiple times with bigger gaps between the longer you do it until you wait like 6 months for your last shot. And it actually helped me its not gone but it\'s greatly reduced',
'Immunotherapy is the process of getting micro doses of what causes allergies in the form of shots. Slowly over time your body builds up antibodies and you no longer have reactions to the allergens. At the clinic near me the process takes about 3 years.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'eshckn',
'query': 'is there truly any way to get over non-seasonal allergies?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '23818735',
'title': 'Criticism of Apple Inc.',
'section': 'Section::::Planned obsolescence.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 139,
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'passage_text': 'Apple said in December 2017 that the reason their older phones run slower (one of the criticised changes) is because the battery in their phones wear out over time and that their older phones may shut down unexpectedly.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22631818',
'title': 'Microsoft Kin',
'section': 'Section::::Original Kin series features.:Social networking.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
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'passage_text': 'Commentators noted Loop\'s 15-minute delay for updates, which CNET\'s Ina Fried described as "odd". "PC World" argued this delay was at odds with Microsoft\'s claim that the phone is "always-connected". Users could not adjust this interval, although updates could be manually triggered with an on-screen refresh button, or locking then unlocking the phone. Microsoft cited battery life and immature social networking APIs as reasons for the delay; "Engadget" speculated that Microsoft may have been using the delayed messaging to encourage Verizon to offer lower-priced data plans, which would be attractive to the platform\'s teenage target audience.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15233899',
'title': 'AirPort Time Capsule',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'In October 2009, several news sites reported that many first generation Time Capsules were failing after 18 months, with some users alleging that this was due to a design failure in the power supplies. Apple confirmed that certain Time Capsules sold between February 2008 and June 2008 do not power on, or may unexpectedly turn off. Apple offered free repair or replacement to affected units.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46875443',
'title': 'IOS 9',
'section': 'Section::::Problems.:Date reboot issue.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 108,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 108,
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'passage_text': 'In February 2016, a bug was discovered that could permanently disable 64-bit devices. The bug, setting the time to 1 January 1970, would cause the device to get stuck in a reboot process. iOS 9.3, released on March 21, 2016, fixed the issue.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12610483',
'title': 'Android (operating system)',
'section': 'Section::::Development.:Update schedule.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
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'passage_text': "Compared to its primary rival mobile operating system, Apple's iOS, Android updates typically reach various devices with significant delays. Except for devices within the Google Nexus and Pixel brands, updates often arrive months after the release of the new version, or not at all. This was partly due to the extensive variation in hardware in Android devices, to which each upgrade must be specifically tailored, a time- and resource-consuming process. Manufacturers often prioritize their newest devices and leave old ones behind. Additional delays can be introduced by wireless carriers that, after receiving updates from manufacturers, further customize and brand Android to their needs and conduct extensive testing on their networks before sending the upgrade out to users. There are also situations in which upgrades are not possible due to one manufacturing partner not providing necessary updates to drivers.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30879508',
'title': 'HTC Desire S',
'section': 'Section::::Hardware.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'A hardware design flaw or defective eMMC chip in some devices can render the phone unusable (bricked) and require SAT if the battery is removed if the device is on. Updating several applications from market at once can cause the device to not respond, forcing the user to remove the battery to reboot; this is the most usual cause of this problem to appear.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55440889',
'title': 'Pixel 2',
'section': 'Section::::Issues.:Other issues.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
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'passage_text': 'The phones are known to randomly reboot. Google promised a fix in the coming weeks. The random reboots are believed to be caused by the LTE modem. The Android 8.1 release in 2017 did not fix the problem.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do android phones get slower over time even after a factory reset?',
'selftext': "Often the common complaint would be of cache, data or new updated apps, but I've seen them get slower than a brand new phone even without any updated apps.",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['This is just speculation tbh.\n\n\nOver time, the same applications on your phone consume more resources. This is because the rate technology improves is swift, and application devs are constantly keeping up. So say an app is currently built to run well on a phone with 1GB RAM. When phones with 2GB RAM become the norm, app devs feel comfortable giving their app a larger footprint on available resources.\n\n\nBut your phone still has 1GB. And the app and the OS both have progressed to being comfortable using more resources than before. Hence the difference in performance.\n\n\nEdit: Apparently this has been asked before and the answer is flash memory degradation'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '76wxin',
'query': 'why do android phones get slower over time even after a factory reset?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1317000',
'title': 'Arecibo message',
'section': 'Section::::Explanation.:Double helix.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 280,
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'passage_text': 'DNA double helix; the vertical bar represents the number of nucleotides. The value depicted is around 4.3 billion, which was believed to be the case in 1974 when the message was transmitted. It is currently thought that there are about 3.2 billion base pairs in the human genome.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '841429',
'title': 'Synthetic biology',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Designed nucleic acid systems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 58,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 58,
'end_character': 375,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Scientists can encode digital information onto a single strand of synthetic DNA. In 2012, George M. Church encoded one of his books about synthetic biology in DNA. The 5.3 Mb of data was more than 1000 times greater than the previous largest amount of information to be stored in synthesized DNA. A similar project encoded the complete sonnets of William Shakespeare in DNA.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31001114',
'title': 'DNA nanoball sequencing',
'section': 'Section::::Procedure.:Rolling circle replication.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 791,
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'passage_text': 'Once a single-stranded circular DNA template is created, containing sample DNA that is ligated to two unique adapter sequences has been generated, the full sequence is amplified into a long string of DNA. This is accomplished by rolling circle replication with the Phi 29 DNA polymerase which binds and replicates the DNA template. The newly synthesized strand is released from the circular template, resulting in a long single-stranded DNA comprising several head-to-tail copies of the circular template. The resulting nanoparticle self-assembles into a tight ball of DNA approximately 300 nanometers (nm) across. Nanoballs remain separated from each other because they are negatively charged naturally repel each other, reducing any tangling between different single stranded DNA lengths.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2890145',
'title': 'William Astbury',
'section': 'Section::::X-ray diffraction studies of fibrous proteins.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 377,
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'passage_text': "Astbury and Bell reported that DNA's structure repeated every 2.7 nanometres and that the bases lay flat, stacked, 0.34 nanometres apart. At a symposium in 1938 at Cold Spring Harbor, Astbury pointed out that the 0.34 nanometre spacing was the same as amino acids in polypeptide chains. (The currently accepted value for the spacing of the bases in B-form of DNA is 0.332\xa0nm.)\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '583438',
'title': 'Transformation (genetics)',
'section': 'Section::::Natural competence and transformation.:Natural transformation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 311,
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'passage_text': 'In "B. subtilis" the length of the transferred DNA is greater than 1271 kb (more than 1 million bases). The length transferred is likely double stranded DNA and is often more than a third of the total chromosome length of 4215 kb. It appears that about 7-9% of the recipient cells take up an entire chromosome.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34253810',
'title': '2012 in science',
'section': 'Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:August.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 447,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 447,
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'passage_text': "BULLET::::- Researchers at Harvard's Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering successfully store 5.5 petabits of data – around 700 terabytes – in a single gram of DNA, breaking the previous DNA data density record by a thousand times. (ExtremeTech)\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5300',
'title': 'Computer data storage',
'section': 'Section::::Storage media.:Other storage media or substrates.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 113,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 113,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- DNA: stores information in DNA nucleotides. It was first done in 2012 when researchers achieved a rate of 1.28 petabytes per gram of DNA. In March 2017 scientists reported that a new algorithm called a DNA fountain achieved 85% of the theoretical limit, at 215 petabytes per gram of DNA.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "It's said that a single strand of DNA contains roughly 4 megabytes of information. How exactly do they know this and how are bytes convertible to something physical like base pairs?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["A bit is a binary digit. A byte is an 8 digit number, in binary.\n\nIn decimal, a ten digit number could represent a high count of something, or each digit could have it's own significance. For example, in a telephone number, where it really just represents what button to press. It's conceivable that every two digits could combine to represent something. Kind of like the first three in an American phone number represent a region.\n\nDNA is made up a discreet number of pairs of bases, no? The are four bases that bind in two different pairs. Even if it matters which is left and which is right, relative to something arbitrary (for instance the pairs of the entire preliminary length of the strand), it's all powers of two.\n\nSo in the case of DNA it would be pretty simple to convert to bits and bytes. Without even knowing specifically how many kinds of bases there are, or whether the chirality matters, as long as everything must pair up, each pair is represented by a strict number of bits, with no waste.\n\nI.e., if there are 4 bases I'll call a b c and d, but the pairs only form like ab and cd, then that's either 0 or 1 in binary. One digit covers all those possibilities. If chirality confess into play, so that relative to the first ab or cd, you can have ab ba cd or dc, then there are 4 possibilities, which are entirely grasped by two digits with no wasted digit.\n\nBy waste I mean, imagine if you had 5 possibilities. That would require 3 digits, but wouldn't use all the combinations of those 3.\n\nAlthough, even if the third digit is used, and a little bit a waste, it would still factor correctly into an amount of dat a, so that's somewhat moot.",
"Well, with only one of four nucleotides possible at any position on the strand (A, C, T, G), the nucleotide could be represented by a number 0, 1, 2 or 3, or the binary equivalent 00, 01, 10 or 11 (two bits per nucleotide). From there, it's just a matter of multiplying by the number of positions on the DNA strand for the total number of bits, and then dividing by eight to get bytes. The number still seems a bit off though, so perhaps I'm missing something.",
'Depends on what you mean by "information".\n\nIf we just say how much a *single* strand of DNA *could possibly encode*, it\'s ~750 MB. I agree with [this blogger\'s take](_URL_0_), and really reading that is better than an ELI5 here, probably, but...\n\n- The DNA code uses 4 "code pieces": A, T, C, and G. (They are teeny little bunches of specific atoms, such bunches are called "bases", and those letters stand for their names: adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine).\n\n- To use binary code--just 0 and 1--to distinguish between four things, you have to do it like so: 00, 01, 10, 11. So say "00" = A, "01" = T, and so on. A single digit is one "bit", in binary code.\n\n- So therefore you use 2 bits for each letter. \n\n- There are 3 billion such letters in a *single* strand of DNA. (though the blogger talks about 2 strands, one each from mom and dad...that\'s why the answer there is twice as big).\n\n- 3 billion x 2 bits = 6 billion bits / 8 bits per byte = 750 million bytes = 750 Megabytes also called 750 MB.\n\nSo where does the 4MB come from? \n\nInformation is defined in information theory as basically "that which we don\'t know"--in the sense that if you tell me "the sun will rise tomorrow", you haven\'t told me any information, since I already know that. \n\nSome estimates state that all human DNA is 99.5% the same as everyone else\'s. So, under this interpretation of information, if I got a sample of your specific DNA, I\'d only learn 0.5% new information compared to "Joe Human\'s" DNA.\n\nAnd 0.5% of 750 MB = 3.75 MB ≈ 4MB.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5t4pjp',
'query': "it's said that a single strand of dna contains roughly 4 megabytes of information. how exactly do they know this and how are bytes convertible to something physical like base pairs?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3468590',
'title': 'Australian rules football injuries',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "The high levels of injuries that take place during games of football are so much that not only during a players' career are they susceptible to injuries, but the effects afterwards are detrimental to their health. One example of a current player (as of 2005) that has suffered a large share of injuries is Essendon champion James Hird, who has suffered virtually every injury imaginable.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '67883',
'title': 'Sports injury',
'section': 'Section::::Types of sport injury.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Nearly two million people every year suffer sports-related injuries and receive treatment in emergency departments. Fatigue is a large contributing factor that results in many sport injuries. There are times where an athlete may participate on low energy leading to the deterioration in technique or form, resulting in a slower reaction time, loss in stability of muscle joints, and allowing an injury to occur. For both sexes the most common areas injured are the knee and ankle, with sprains/strains being the most common areas for injury. Injuries involving the patellofemoral articulation are significantly more frequent among females. The sport with the highest injury rate is football, with greater than 12 times the number of injuries seen in the next most common sport.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7191296',
'title': 'House Gymnastics',
'section': 'Section::::Injuries.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': "Injuries due to the sport are seen as unfortunate, but inevitable, and one reviewer of the site and product said it would be more likely to lead to a trip to the hospital than a thrill, for people who aren't trained professionals.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47676981',
'title': 'Concussions in Australian sport',
'section': 'Section::::AFL.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'end_paragraph_id': 6,
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'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The occurrence of concussions in amateur leagues are less common because of the lower impact intensity. However, concussions suffered at amateur levels can at times be more dangerous then those suffered in the AFL because of the inferior resources possessed and in some cases the coaches are not willing to pull a player out of the game, or rest them if they are suffering from a concussion. A study conducted by the Australian Football Injury Prevention Project (AFIPP) in 2002 showed that out of 301 players (who play for amateur clubs in the Melbourne metropolitan area), 14 suffered from a form of head knock, 7 of which resulted in concussion. 18.9% of players participating in the test suffered from concussion, bearing in mind that the sample size is also small.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34253452',
'title': 'Elimination from possibility of reaching postseason',
'section': 'Section::::Effect on rest of the season.:Modern era.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
'end_character': 240,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- In sports where there is a high rate of injury, the risk of going onto the field for a meaningless game, and subsequently suffering a serious injury, outweighs the mostly nonexistent benefits. "(See also: resting the starters)"\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47677054',
'title': 'Mental health in the Australian Football League',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Injuries.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 864,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Injury and the risk of injury also contributes to this lack of mental health because if a player does become injured they will have a lower or no income and their position in next season is on the rocks so knowing this makes them stress. Being injured also means they cannot exercise as much and this sudden drop in physical activity levels makes the player more likely to become anxious or depressed as physical activity is a mood enhancer. On average a total of 40 players miss a total of 142 games a season. This is a huge number and a constant lingering concern for players. The whole process of finding out about their injury to rehabilitation and returning to the sport is an emotional roller-coaster for players as they have strong negative feelings when they find out about their diagnosis, to struggling through rehab then having the pressure to perform.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '564204',
'title': 'Esports',
'section': 'Section::::Ethics and legal problems.:Player exploitation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 76,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 76,
'end_character': 277,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Players must handle their own treatments and carry their own medical insurance, which is opposite of the norm with professional sports teams. Since most esports play requires many actions per minute, some players may get repetitive strain injuries, causing hand or wrist pain.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does your average sport player not get the serious injuries commonly suffered by professionals?',
'selftext': 'Why do I not rupture my anterior cruciate ligament playing football in the park?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Probably just because professionals do it way more often and probably way more intensely than you. Lots of high school sports players get injured frequently.',
"Your average sports player does not have the strength and speed of a professional sports player nor are they competing against other professional sports player. Force equals mass times acceleration. The faster you're going and the more mass you have, the more strain it puts on you when you suddenly stop or say, plant on a foot and try to turn.",
"People still do, but what people also don't realize is that the movements that cause some ACL tears require a great deal of athleticism. You aren't running, cutting, planting, and spinning with nearly the same force, speed, and quickness that professional athletes do. It's those weird movements that lead to injuries.",
"People are talking about intensity but frequency is just as important. You play a couple hours once/week. Professional athletes are playing their sport 40+ hours/week. They may get injured at a higher rate (ie one ACL injury per 500 hours of training for an athlete vs. one per 1000 hours for you and you never hit the threshold) and as noted below, nobody is writing a news story about how /u/itravelforchurros/ knee injury is going to affect his team's chances, so there's recall bias at play too."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'aldva3',
'query': 'why does your average sport player not get the serious injuries commonly suffered by professionals?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '13339340',
'title': 'USB 3.0',
'section': 'Section::::Issues.:Speed and compatibility.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 49,
'end_character': 273,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A factor affecting the speed of USB storage devices (more evident with USB\xa03.0 devices, but also noticeable with USB\xa02.0 ones) is that the USB Mass Storage Bulk-Only Transfer (BOT) protocol drivers are generally slower than the USB Attached SCSI protocol (UAS[P]) drivers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25084036',
'title': 'USB image',
'section': 'Section::::Benefits and limitations.:Benefits.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 407,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The absence of moving parts in USB flash devices allows true random access avoiding the rotational latency and seek time, meaning small programs will start faster from a USB flash drive than from a local hard disk or live CD. However, as USB devices typically achieve lower data transfer rates than internal hard drives, booting from older computers that lack USB 2.0 or newer can be very slow.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '891379',
'title': 'Disk enclosure',
'section': 'Section::::Consumer enclosures.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 206,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- relatively high transfer speed; typically faster than other common portable media such as CDs, DVDs and USB flash drives, slower than drives connected using solely ATA, SCSI and SATA connectors\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '400414',
'title': 'USB flash drive',
'section': 'Section::::File transfer speeds.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 54,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 54,
'end_character': 425,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'USB flash drives usually specify their read and write speeds in megabytes per second (MB/s); read speed is usually faster. These speeds are for optimal conditions; real-world speeds are usually slower. In particular, circumstances that often lead to speeds much lower than advertised are transfer (particularly writing) of many small files rather than a few very large ones, and mixed reading and writing to the same device.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '100616',
'title': 'Parallel port',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Centronics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 1007,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "In theory, the Centronics port could transfer data as rapidly as 75,000 characters per second. This was far faster than the printer, which averaged about 160 characters per second, meaning the port spent much of its time idle. The performance was defined by how rapidly the host could respond to the printer's BUSY signal asking for more data. To improve performance, printers began incorporating buffers so the host could send them data more rapidly, in bursts. This not only reduced (or eliminated) delays due to latency waiting for the next character to arrive from the host, but also freed the host to perform other operations without causing a loss of performance. Performance was further improved by using the buffer to store several lines and then printing in both directions, eliminating the delay while the print head returned to the left side of the page. Such changes more than doubled the performance of an otherwise unchanged printer, as was the case on Centronics models like the 102 and 308.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5321416',
'title': 'Live USB',
'section': 'Section::::Benefits and limitations.:Benefits.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 464,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The absence of moving parts in USB flash devices allows true random access avoiding the rotational latency and seek time (see mechanical latency) of hard drives or optical media, meaning small programs will start faster from a USB flash drive than from a local hard disk or live CD. However, as USB devices typically achieve lower data transfer rates than internal hard drives, booting from older computers that lack USB 2.0 or newer can be very slow.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '317625',
'title': 'Image scanner',
'section': 'Section::::Computer connection.:Direct physical connection to a computer.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 64,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 64,
'end_character': 272,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Universal Serial Bus (USB) scanners can transfer data quickly. The early USB 1.1 standard could transfer data at 1.5 megabytes per second (slower than SCSI), but the later USB 2.0/3.0 standards can transfer at more than 20/60 megabytes per second in practice.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do USB/HDMI/DisplayPort keep getting faster?',
'selftext': 'Are they making new discoveries? If so what are they? Or are they simply making thicker cables? Eg. HDMI 2.0 -- > HDMI 2.1 went from 18Gbit/s to 48Gbit/s USB 3.0 -- > USB 3.1 went from 5Gbit/s to 10Gbit/s DisplayPort 1.2 -- > 1.3 went from 17.28 Gbit/s to 32.4Gbit/s This was last look at [5 years ago]( URL_0 ) with speeds doubling again do those answers hold up?',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Improvements in various things. For example in HDMI the speed increase is associated with a higher clock rate. Much like faster processors increased in Mhz, and into Ghz.\n\nHDMI Max Clock frequency to Data throughput\n\n - HDMI 1.0 - 1.2: 165mhz = 4.95Gbps\n\n - HDMI 1.3 - 1.4: 300mhz = 10.2Gbps\n\n - HDMI 2.0: 600mhz = 18Gbps\n\n - HDMI 2.1: ?? Spec not out to public or vendors yet, [here is some speculation though](_URL_0_).\n\nThis increase in clock speed is kind of like increasing the speed limit on the road. If the speed limit goes up from 25mph to 50mph, twice as many cars can go down that road.\n\nThere are various reasons that increasing the frequency of the signal is difficult, and just gets harder the higher the frequency gets.\n\nSometimes bandwidth increases come from adding pins/wires. This is like adding another set of lanes to that 25mph road. More lanes, more cars.\n\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5taus9',
'query': 'how do usb/hdmi/displayport keep getting faster?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '29407218',
'title': 'List of mergers and acquisitions by Facebook',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 594,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Facebook is a social networking company that has acquired other companies, including WhatsApp. The WhatsApp acquisition closed at a steep $16 billion; more than $40 per user of the platform. Facebook also purchased the defunct company ConnectU in a court settlement and acquired intellectual property formerly held by rival Friendster. The majority of the companies acquired by Facebook are based in the United States, and in turn, a large percentage of these companies are based in or around the San Francisco Bay Area. Facebook has also made investments in LuckyCal and Wildfire Interactive.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35930482',
'title': 'Initial public offering of Facebook',
'section': 'Section::::Preparation.:Valuation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 291,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The Facebook IPO brought inevitable comparisons with other technology company offerings. Some investors expressed keen interest in Facebook because they felt they had missed out on the massive gains Google saw in the wake of its IPO. LinkedIn stock, meanwhile, had doubled on its first day.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35930482',
'title': 'Initial public offering of Facebook',
'section': 'Section::::Aftermath.:Financial.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 39,
'end_character': 680,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The IPO impacted both Facebook investors and the company itself. It was said to provide healthy rewards for venture capitalists who finally saw the fruits of their labor. In contrast, it was said to negatively affect individual investors such as Facebook employees, who saw once-valuable shares become less lucrative. More generally, the disappointing IPO was said to lower interest in the stock by investors. That would make it more difficult for the company to accumulate cash reserves for large future expenditures such as acquisitions. CBS News said "the Facebook brand takes a pretty big hit for this," mostly because of the public interest that had surrounded the offering.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7529378',
'title': 'Facebook',
'section': 'Section::::Criticisms and controversies.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 139,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 139,
'end_character': 287,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Facebook's importance and scale has led to criticisms in many domains. Notable issues include Internet privacy, excessive retention of user information, its facial recognition software, its addictive quality and its role in the workplace, including employer access to employee accounts.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35930482',
'title': 'Initial public offering of Facebook',
'section': 'Section::::Preparation.:Valuation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 606,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A number of commentators argued retrospectively that Facebook had been heavily overvalued because of an illiquid private market on SecondMarket, where trades of stock were minimal and thus pricing unstable. Facebook\'s aggregate valuation went up from January 2011 to April 2012, before plummeting after the IPO in May - but this was in a largely illiquid market, with less than 120 trades each quarter during 2010 and 2011. "Valuations in the private market are going to make it \'difficult to go public\'", according to Mary Meeker, an American venture capitalist and former Wall Street securities analyst.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7529378',
'title': 'Facebook',
'section': 'Section::::History.:2006–2012: Public access, Microsoft alliance, and rapid growth.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 598,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In February 2011, Facebook announced plans to move its headquarters to the former Sun Microsystems campus in Menlo Park, California. In March 2011, it was reported that Facebook was removing about 20,000 profiles daily for violations such as spam, graphic content and underage use, as part of its efforts to boost cyber security. Statistics showed that Facebook reached one trillion page views in the month of June 2011, making it the most visited website tracked by DoubleClick. According to a Nielsen study, Facebook had in 2011 become the second-most accessed website in the U.S. behind Google.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29503005',
'title': 'Enterprise social networking',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 280,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The growth of Facebook was a boom in the social networking space. Facebook became a huge corporation that had 1400 employees in 2009; their estimated revenue was US$800 million in 2009. In 2010, it was reported that there were more than 200 social networking websites on the web.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is Facebook considered such a large company when it seems like the site itself is dying out?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It might just be regional, because I only know a couple of people who *don't* use Facebook. Facebook chat seems like the primary method of communication for a lot of people, or is at least tied with texting. I also see a lot of people and organizations using Facebook for planning events. I work in advertising and a lot of my clients also have Facebook pages for promoting their brands.\n\nGranted, I don't have any hard numbers to back that up so my experience is equally anecdotal, but it doesn't seem like Facebook is in any trouble."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6svvwl',
'query': 'why is facebook considered such a large company when it seems like the site itself is dying out?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '22192109',
'title': 'Tommy Rainone',
'section': 'Section::::Amateur career.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 693,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': '"When I was in the amateurs, I cut a lot of corners. I was having a good time partying, going out and just being young but doing so while half assing it boxing. I stopped boxing a couple a months after turning 23 because I had to make a decision to either continue having fun or to get serious about boxing and i was not mature enough to take the sport serious at that stage in my life. I realized that I could no longer do both. I took a break from boxing deciding that i was threw with the amateurs and would return to the sport to turn pro if and when i was ready to take it serious, i started doing some traveling, lived life with out restriction and just enjoyed myself for three years."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '148249',
'title': 'Alkaptonuria',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 565,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'After the age of 30, people begin to develop pain in the weight-bearing joints of the spine, hips, and knees. The pain can be severe to the point that interferes with activities of daily living and may affect ability to work. Joint-replacement surgery (hip and shoulder) is often necessary at a relatively young age. In the longer term, the involvement of the spinal joints leads to reduced movement of the rib cage and can affect breathing. Bone mineral density may be affected, increasing the risk of bone fractures, and rupture of tendons and muscles may occur.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '63520',
'title': 'Jane Fonda',
'section': 'Section::::Personal life.:Health.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 112,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 112,
'end_character': 255,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'It was in my 40s, and if you suffer from bulimia, the older you get, the worse it gets. It takes longer to recover from a bout ... I had a career, I was winning awards, I was supporting nonprofits, I had a family. I had to make a choice: I live or I die.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1630471',
'title': 'Late-onset hypogonadism',
'section': 'Section::::Symptoms, diagnosis, and screening.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 531,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Some men in their late 40s and early 50s develop depression, loss of libido, erectile dysfunction, and other physical and emotional symptoms such as irritability, loss of muscle mass and reduced ability to exercise, weight gain, lack of energy, difficulty sleeping, or poor concentration; many of these symptoms may arise from a midlife crisis or as the results of a long-term unhealthy lifestyle (smoking, excess drinking, overeating, lack of exercise) and may be best addressed by lifestyle changes, therapy, or antidepressants.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9788570',
'title': 'Richard Bryan (rugby union)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 259,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': '"When I first did it I didn\'t realise how long it would be, maybe three or four months, so it was really hard. It was the longest I\'d been out injured and it was a struggle watching all the boys playing, it was a case of trying to make the best of a bad job.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16413778',
'title': 'Ageing',
'section': 'Section::::Effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 346,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- People over 35 years of age are at increasing risk for losing strength in the ciliary muscle, which leads to presbyopia. and most people experience presbyopia, a difficulty focusing on close objects, by age 45–50. The cause is lens hardening by decreasing levels of -crystallin, a process which may be sped up by higher temperatures.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1265734',
'title': 'Middle age',
'section': 'Section::::Middle adulthood.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 397,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The body may slow down and the middle aged might become more sensitive to diet, substance abuse, stress, and rest. Chronic health problems can become an issue along with disability or disease. Approximately one centimeter of height may be lost per decade. Emotional responses and retrospection vary from person to person. Experiencing a sense of mortality, sadness, or loss is common at this age.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How come is it incredibly hard for me to get back in shape at age of 45?',
'selftext': "Getting back to shape used to be extremely easy. The reasons for slipping were many - too much work, too much stress, having kids. I used to always be able to get back in shape relatively easily. Fat out, muscles back, getting to running condition came relatively easily in 2-3 weeks. Somewhere around the age of 40 I noticed a considerable change. First of all, I started going out of shape way faster, and the results were much more extreme. If I fall sick or have to cut workouts for some reason for 2-4 weeks, all hell breaks loose. Fat accumulates, I breathe hard at stairs. When training again the fat does not dissappear. There's a constant ring around the midsection. Weights at gym plateau and sometimes go backwards despite training 3-4 times a week. The recovery time from workouts gets longer and longer. Sometimes after a hard workout muscle burn can last 3-4 days. I know I'm losing testosterone, but what else is happening? Why is it so hard?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["This is going to get removed but here it is:\n\nFiber is the key. Fiber and water. You have to poop a lot. That's it.",
"Its a cumulative effect. Testosterone loss is a huge cause of weight gain and the ability to lose weight. \r\rHowever old age in general is also a cause. Your metabolism slows down, hormones drop, life habits (like constant stress) begin hitting you harder than ever, and if you didn't have established muscle (aka old man muscle) its extremely hard to get it set in due to the slower processes. In essence, you have to work twice as hard to get half the effect. Things to help are hormone boosters, specialized diets, and *constant* work."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6i95fc',
'query': 'how come is it incredibly hard for me to get back in shape at age of 45?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '176148',
'title': 'Spa, Belgium',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 285,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Pliny the Elder noted "In Tongrie, country of Gaul, there is a famous source, whose water, while sparkling bubbles, a ferruginous taste that is, however, feel that when we finished drinking. This water purges the body, cures fevers and dispels calculous affections."(C lib.XXXI VIII).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '239918',
'title': 'Tap water',
'section': 'Section::::Potable water supply.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 500,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Tap water can sometimes appear cloudy, often mistaken for mineral impurities in the water. It is usually caused by air bubbles coming out of solution due to change in temperature or pressure. Because cold water holds more air than warm water, small bubbles will appear in water. It has a high dissolved gas content that is heated or depressurized, which reduces how much dissolved gas the water can hold. The harmless cloudiness of the water disappears quickly as the gas is released from the water.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5220330',
'title': 'Paper cup',
'section': 'Section::::Manufacture.:Waterproofing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 30,
'end_character': 324,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Originally, paper cups for hot drinks were glued together and made waterproof by dropping a small amount of clay in the bottom of the cup, and then spinning at high speed so that clay would travel up the walls of the cup, making the paper water-resistant. However, this resulted in drinks smelling and tasting of cardboard.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '478666',
'title': 'Antibubble',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 523,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Just as soap bubbles, with air inside and air outside, have negative buoyancy and tend to sink towards the ground, so antibubbles, with water inside and air outside have positive buoyancy and tend to rise towards the water surface. But again, just as soap bubbles can be filled with a lighter gas to give them positive buoyancy, so antibubbles can be filled with a heavier liquid to give them negative buoyancy. Using a drinking straw to drop droplets of sugar solution onto soapy water will produce antibubbles that sink.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6740960',
'title': 'Cheerios effect',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 433,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In fluid mechanics, the Cheerios effect is the phenomenon that occurs when floating objects that don\'t normally float attract one another. Wetting, an example of the "Cheerios effect," is when breakfast cereal clumps together or clings to the sides of a bowl of milk. It is named after the common breakfast cereal Cheerios and is due to surface tension. The same effect governs the behavior of bubbles on the surface of soft drinks.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5170889',
'title': 'Bubbles (video game)',
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 1131,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': '"Bubbles" is an action game where the player controls the protagonist, a soap bubble, from a top-down perspective. The object is to clean a kitchen sink by maneuvering over ants, crumbs, and grease spots to absorb them before they slide into the drain. As the bubble absorbs more objects, it grows in size, eventually acquiring first eyes and then a smiling mouth. At the same time, sponges and scrub brushes slowly move around the sink, cleaning it on their own in competition with the player. Touching either of these enemies costs a player one life unless the bubble is large enough to have a complete face. In this case, the enemy will be knocked away and the bubble will shrink. Sponges and brushes can be knocked into the drain for bonus points, eliminating them from play. Two other enemies in the sink are stationary razor blades and roaches that crawl out of the drain. Contact with a blade is always fatal, while the bubble can safely touch the roach only while carrying a broom, which will kill the roach with one hit. The broom can be acquired by running over a cleaning lady who appears in the sink from time to time.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '901260',
'title': 'Close-packing of equal spheres',
'section': 'Section::::Filling the remaining space.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
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'passage_text': "Spherical bubbles in soapy water in a fcc or hcp arrangement, when the water in the gaps between the bubbles drains out, also approach the rhombic dodecahedral honeycomb or trapezo-rhombic dodecahedral honeycomb. However, such fcc or hcp foams of very small liquid content are unstable, as they do not satisfy Plateau's laws. The Kelvin foam and the Weaire–Phelan foam are more stable, having smaller interfacial energy in the limit of a very small liquid content.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do the cups of water I set out at night end up with bubbles and a "stale" taste in the morning?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The bubbles have something to do with the oxygen being gassed out especially if the water is cold, since cold water holds more oxygen. And the taste is CO2 being dissolved in the water over the period of time which creates a chemical compound H₂CO₃ - carbonic acid. So the increase of the acid changed the taste of the water. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6jpmsi',
'query': 'why do the cups of water i set out at night end up with bubbles and a "stale" taste in the morning?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '42756649',
'title': 'Bring your own operating system',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'By allowing users to bring their own operating system there are significant cost savings to be made by organisations who commonly have many on-site users and are obliged to provide them with computer hardware to allow them to perform specific tasks as there is no longer a need to install a hard drive in each computer. Upgrading and maintaining many PC computers has also become easier as companies only need to supply users with new pen drives containing the operating system boot images rather than having to re-image every PC with the latest build of the operating system thus eliminating upgrade costs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9445932',
'title': 'Goldbricking',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': "Smartphones have greatly reduced the need for employees to use company computers/Internet access for personal matters, also making it harder for companies to restrict or track workers' Internet activity. \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35924721',
'title': 'Samsung Galaxy Ace 2',
'section': 'Section::::Samsung Galaxy Ace 2 x / Trend.:Software.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': "Since these phones run Android 4.0, they are still supported by cloud, communications and social networking services that push the latest versions of their apps, which have in some cases been designed with only the newest hardware in mind. Such applications hog system resources and cause the phones to run slowly. As a remedy, phone owners can replace those apps with less resource-hungry equivalents, or remove them entirely and use a web browser to access the services' sites.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12610483',
'title': 'Android (operating system)',
'section': 'Section::::Development.:Update schedule.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 1030,
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'passage_text': 'The extensive variation of hardware in Android devices causes significant delays for software upgrades, with new versions of the operating system and security patches typically taking months before reaching consumers, or sometimes not at all. The lack of after-sale support from manufacturers and carriers has been widely criticized by consumer groups and the technology media. Some commentators have noted that the industry has a financial incentive not to upgrade their devices, as the lack of updates for existing devices fuels the purchase of newer ones, an attitude described as "insulting". "The Guardian" complained that the method of distribution for updates is complicated only because manufacturers and carriers have designed it that way. In 2011, Google partnered with a number of industry players to announce an "Android Update Alliance", pledging to deliver timely updates for every device for 18 months after its release; however, there has not been another official word about that alliance since its announcement.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33496160',
'title': 'Mobile app',
'section': 'Section::::Development.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
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'passage_text': 'Developing apps for mobile devices requires considering the constraints and features of these devices. Mobile devices run on battery and have less powerful processors than personal computers and also have more features such as location detection and cameras. Developers also have to consider a wide array of screen sizes, hardware specifications and configurations because of intense competition in mobile software and changes within each of the platforms (although these issues can be overcome with mobile device detection).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '507143',
'title': 'Upgrade',
'section': 'Section::::Risks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "A further risk of software upgrades is that they can brick the device being upgraded, such as if power fails while the upgrade is in the middle of being installed. This is an especially big concern for embedded devices, in which upgrades are typically all-or-nothing (the upgrade is a firmware or filesystem image, which isn't usable if it's only partially written), and which have limited ability to recover from a failed upgrade. Solutions to this generally involve keeping multiple copies of firmware, so that one can be upgraded while the other remains intact as a backup, but there are still holes which can cause this to fail. Tools such as Sysup and SWUpdate provide more complete solutions that implement upgrades in a safe atomic way, and reduce or eliminate the need to customize bootloaders and other components.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45063324',
'title': 'Keepod',
'section': 'Section::::Impact.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 757,
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'passage_text': 'The majority of people around the world still do not have access to personal computing. Many of the current efforts to bridge the digital divide are failing and it is difficult for organizations to make a dent in this large demand. The idea of providing a “laptop per child” sounds feasible in theory, but there is merely not enough funding to do so. Other initiatives to provide students with mobile devices, such as cell phones and tablets, are struggling to provide a fulfilling educational experience, especially if students aspire to go into the professional world. The distribution of relatively expensive mobile devices can pose a danger to many students in low income communities throughout the world, as children become potential targets of crime.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why can't we upgrade our smartphones like we do on personal computers?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Smartphones are very small. They are built with components that have to fit very tightly together, otherwise there either won't be room inside the case, or the components might interfere with each other, or the heat dispersal won't be effective and the phone will overheat. The same problem applies to laptops too, which usually only let you replace a few components such as the RAM and peripherals.\n\nThe concept of a [modular smartphone](_URL_0_) is in development, but so far there have been very few practical implementations."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '61r0s5',
'query': "why can't we upgrade our smartphones like we do on personal computers?",
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '55380',
'title': 'Disk partitioning',
'section': 'Section::::Partition recovery.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
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'passage_text': 'When a partition is deleted, its entry is removed from a table and the data is no longer accessible. The data remains on the disk until being overwritten. Specialized recovery utilities, may be able to locate "lost" file systems and recreate a partition table which includes entries for these recovered file systems. Some disk utilities may overwrite a number of beginning sectors of a partition they delete. For example, if Windows Disk Management (Windows 2000/XP, etc.) is used to delete a partition, it will overwrite the first sector (relative sector 0) of the partition before removing it. It still may be possible to restore a FAT or NTFS partition if a backup boot sector is available.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '51250465',
'title': 'Asymmetric numeral systems',
'section': 'Section::::Remarks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 51,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The final state of encoding is required to start decoding, hence it needs to be stored in the compressed file. This cost can be compensated by storing some information in the initial state of encoder. For example, instead of starting with "10000" state, start with "1****" state, where "*" are some additional stored bits, which can be retrieved at the end of the decoding. Alternatively, this state can be used as a checksum by starting encoding with a fixed state, and testing if the final state of decoding is the expected one.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55380',
'title': 'Disk partitioning',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Disk partitioning or disk slicing is the creation of one or more regions on secondary storage, so that each region can be managed separately. These regions are called partitions. It is typically the first step of preparing a newly installed disk, before any file system is created. The disk stores the information about the partitions\' locations and sizes in an area known as the partition table that the operating system reads before any other part of the disk. Each partition then appears to the operating system as a distinct "logical" disk that uses part of the actual disk. System administrators use a program called a partition editor to create, resize, delete, and manipulate the partitions.. Partitioning allows the use of different filesystems to be installed for different kinds of files. Separating user data from system data can prevent the system partition from becoming full and rendering the system unusable. Partitioning can also make backing up easier. A disadvantage is that it can be difficult to properly size partitions resulting in having one partition with much free space and another nearly totally allocated.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '886722',
'title': 'Transcoding',
'section': 'Section::::Re-encoding/recoding.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Editing: If one wishes to edit data in a compressed format (for instance, perform image editing on a JPEG image), one will generally decode it, edit it, then re-encode it. This re-encoding causes digital generation loss; thus if one wishes to edit a file repeatedly, one should only decode it "once," and make all edits on that copy, rather than repeatedly re-encoding it. Similarly, if encoding to a lossy format is required, it should be deferred until the data is finalised, e.g. after mastering.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2079265',
'title': 'Undeletion',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanics.:FAT file systems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
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'passage_text': 'When a file is "deleted" using a FAT file system, the directory entry remains almost unchanged except for the first character of the file name, preserving most of the "deleted" file\'s name, along with its time stamp, file length and — most importantly — its physical location on the disk. The list of disk clusters occupied by the file will, however, be erased from the "File Allocation Table", marking those sectors available for use by other files created or modified thereafter. In case of FAT32, it is additionally erased field responsible for upper 16 bits of file start cluster value.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23039636',
'title': 'File carving',
'section': 'Section::::Motivation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'When a file is deleted, only the entry in the file system metadata is removed, while the actual data is still on the disk. After a format and even a repartitioning it might be that most of raw data is untouched and can be recovered using file carving.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31595644',
'title': 'Partition refinement',
'section': 'Section::::Data structure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'end_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'A partition refinement algorithm maintains a family of disjoint sets . At the start of the algorithm, this family contains a single set of all the elements in the data structure. At each step of the algorithm, a set is presented to the algorithm, and each set in the family that contains members of is split into two sets, the intersection and the difference .\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does sequence and separation of files in the deletion process of the computer work?',
'selftext': 'The other day I deleted a folder on my computer by accident. After a short dumbfounded three seconds the deletion process was interrupted by pressing cancel. But the process had already deleted one file of the folder. So two things I wonder about: How does the computer decide what to delete first? what gives the computer the ability to delete one file but not touch everything else?',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': [" > How does the computer decide what to delete first?\n\nTypically the delete command will assume that the sequence does not matter, so it just uses the most easily or quickly available one. Most likely, it will just call a routine to list the contents and delete them in that order, and that routine by default lists them simply in the order the filesystem returns them. Probably in the order in which they were added to the directory, but it really depends on the implementation details of the filesystem.\n\n > what gives the computer the ability to delete one file but not touch everything else?\n\nThat's not an ability but a side-effect of the fact that it has to do something for each file, and can only do one (or a few) things at a time.",
"A folder is just a special kind of file that contains a list of other files. When you delete the folder, it will go down that list and delete files one by one, then delete the folder at the end.\n\nNote that the list is not in any particular order. Your file browser will take that list and sort it in whatever order you choose. That means it won't be obvious which file will be first, they could be deleted in just about any order."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7ce93w',
'query': 'how does sequence and separation of files in the deletion process of the computer work?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '22320627',
'title': '2009 satellite collision',
'section': 'Section::::Fallout.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 485,
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'passage_text': 'By December 2011, many pieces of debris were in a steady orbital decay towards Earth, and expected to burn up in the atmosphere within one or two years. By January 2014, 24% of the known debris had decayed. In 2016, "Space News" listed the collision as the second biggest fragmentation event in history, with Kosmos-2251 and Iridium 33 producing respectively 1,668 and 628 pieces of cataloged debris, of which 1,141 and 364 pieces of tracked debris remain in orbit as of January 2016.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34457630',
'title': 'List of reentering space debris',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "List of large reentering space debris is a list of man made objects reentering Earth's atmosphere by mass (see space debris). They are typically destroyed by reentry heating, but some components can survive. Most of these objects are relatively small; larger objects have survived but usually break up into smaller pieces during reentry.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '266344',
'title': 'Space debris',
'section': 'Section::::Threats.:To Earth.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 66,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 66,
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'passage_text': 'Although most debris burns up in the atmosphere, larger objects can reach the ground intact. According to NASA, an average of one cataloged piece of debris has fallen back to Earth each day for the past 50 years. Despite their size, there has been no significant property damage from the debris.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1045142',
'title': 'Debris',
'section': 'Section::::Space.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': '"Space debris" usually refers to the remains of spacecraft that have either fallen to Earth or are still orbiting Earth. Space debris may also consist of natural components such as chunks of rock and ice. The problem of space debris has grown as various space programs have left legacies of launches, explosions, repairs, and discards in both low Earth orbit and more remote orbits. These orbiting fragments have reached a great enough proportion to constitute a hazard to future space launches of both satellite and manned vehicles. Various government agencies and international organizations are beginning to track space debris and also research possible solutions to the problem. While many of these items, ranging in size from nuts and bolts to entire satellites and spacecraft, may fall to Earth, other items located in more remote orbits may stay aloft for centuries. The velocity of some of these pieces of space junk have been clocked in excess of 17,000 miles per hour (27,000\xa0km/h). A piece of space debris falling to Earth leaves a fiery trail, just like a meteor.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16781106',
'title': 'Particulate pollution',
'section': 'Section::::Space debris.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 830,
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'passage_text': 'Space debris is classified by size and operational purpose, and divided into four main subsets: inactive payloads, operational debris, fragmentation debris and microparticulate matter. Inactive payloads refer to any launched space objects that have lost the capability to reconnect to its corresponding space operator; thus, preventing a return to Earth. In contrast, operational debris describes the matter associated with the propulsion of a larger entity into space, which may include upper rocket stages and ejected nose cones. Fragmentation debris refers to any object in space that has become dissociated from a larger entity by means of explosion, collision or deterioration. Microparticulate matter describes space matter that typically cannot be seen singly with the naked eye, including particles, gases, and spaceglow.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '266344',
'title': 'Space debris',
'section': 'Section::::Characterization.:Size.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'There are estimated to be over 128 million pieces of debris smaller than as of January 2019. There are approximately 900,000 pieces from one to ten cm. The current count of large debris (defined as 10\xa0cm across or larger) is 34,000. The technical measurement cutoff is c. . Over 98 percent of the 1,900 tons of debris in low Earth orbit (as of 2002) was accounted for by about 1,500 objects, each over . Total mass is mostly constant despite addition of many smaller objects, since they reenter the atmosphere sooner. Using a 2008 figure of 8,500 known items, it is estimated at .\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23950607',
'title': 'HTV-1',
'section': 'Section::::Operation.:Departure from the ISS and Re-entry.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'It is believed that some of the surviving debris from the HTV would have likely fallen in a rectangular area stretching across the Pacific Ocean between New Zealand and South America, according to the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "If left alone, will the debris in space around earth coalesce into a ring, if so how long 'til it happens?",
'selftext': 'If it were to form a ring is there enough debris that the ring would be visible from earth? If a ring is the natural form for orbital debris would it be easier to Clean NEO by encouraging it to form a ring rather then trying to get rid of it...',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The manmade satelites that aren't in a graveyard orbit will eventually reenter the atmosphere and burn up. Eventually the ones in the graveyard orbit will too but that will be quite a while. There isn't enough matter currently orbiting the earth to form rings comparable to our solar neighbours, save for the moon. #notascientist"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6ip56k',
'query': "if left alone, will the debris in space around earth coalesce into a ring, if so how long 'til it happens?",
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '18132000',
'title': 'Low sodium diet',
'section': 'Section::::Health effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Advising people to eat a low salt diet, however, is of unclear effect in either hypertensive or normal tensive people. In 2012, the British Journal "Heart" published an article claiming that a low salt diet appears to increase the risk of death in those with congestive heart failure, but the article was retracted in 2013. The article was retracted by the journal when it was found the two of the studies cited contained duplicate data that could not be verified.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '512662',
'title': 'Cardiovascular disease',
'section': 'Section::::Prevention.:Diet.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 96,
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'passage_text': 'A 2014 Cochrane review found unclear benefit of recommending a low-salt diet in people with high or normal blood pressure. In those with heart failure, after one study was left out, the rest of the trials show a trend to benefit. Another review of dietary salt concluded that there is strong evidence that high dietary salt intake increases blood pressure and worsens hypertension, and that it increases the number of cardiovascular disease events; both as a result of the increased blood pressure "and", quite likely, through other mechanisms. Moderate evidence was found that high salt intake increases cardiovascular mortality; and some evidence was found for an increase in overall mortality, strokes, and left ventricular hypertrophy.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22025300',
'title': 'Specific appetite',
'section': 'Section::::Specific appetite in humans.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 667,
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'passage_text': "There is very little strong evidence for specific appetite in humans. However, it has been demonstrated that humans have the ability to taste calcium, and indirect evidence supports the idea that patients on kidney dialysis who develop hypocalcemia prefer cheese with greater amounts of calcium added. Exercise also increases the preference for salt. Some diseases, including Gitelman syndrome and the salt-wasting variant of Congenital adrenal hyperplasia, impair the kidney's ability to retain sodium in the body and cause a specific craving for sodium. Extreme sodium depletion in human volunteers has been demonstrated to increase the desire for high-salt foods.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1605200',
'title': 'Salt',
'section': 'Section::::Edible salt.:Sodium consumption and health.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
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'passage_text': 'Because consuming too much sodium increases risk of cardiovascular diseases, health organizations generally recommend that people reduce their dietary intake of salt. High sodium intake is associated with a greater risk of stroke, total cardiovascular disease and kidney disease. A reduction in sodium intake by 1,000\xa0mg per day may reduce cardiovascular disease by about 30 percent. In adults and children with no acute illness, a decrease in the intake of sodium from the typical high levels reduces blood pressure. A low sodium diet results in a greater improvement in blood pressure in people with hypertension.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29825613',
'title': 'Salt and cardiovascular disease',
'section': 'Section::::Hypertension and cardiovascular disease.:Current trends and campaigns.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Despite the scientific uncertainty, most physicians and clinical scientists, the European Food Safety Authority and the US Centers for Disease Control recommend that consumers use less salt in their diets, mainly to reduce the risk of high blood pressure and associated cardiovascular diseases in adults and children. Of the nine medical guidelines surveyed by Trinquart and others in 2016, seven prescribed sodium reduction to lower cardiovascular disease incidence (issued by the US-based Institute of Medicine, American Heart Association, American College of Cardiology, World Health Organization and Japanese Society of Hypertension), and two stated that there was insufficient evidence to issue a recommendation on sodium intake as it relates to cardiovascular disease (UK Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition, and the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force). None of the surveyed guidelines were deemed to rule against the link between sodium intake and cardiovascular disease.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15558462',
'title': 'Dietary Guidelines for Americans',
'section': 'Section::::Criticisms of the 2015–2020 Guidelines.:Dietary salt restriction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'A Committee of the National Academies Institute of Medicine evaluated the evidence about dietary salt intake and health. Overall, the committee found evidence that higher salt intake was associate with increased risk of cardiovascular disease. However, the Committee also found that the evidence did not support the claim that lowering sodium intake in the general population to less than 2,300\xa0mg/day was associated with a lower risk of death nor with a higher risk of death.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1605200',
'title': 'Salt',
'section': 'Section::::Edible salt.:Sodium consumption and health.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
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'end_paragraph_id': 39,
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'passage_text': 'More recent evidence is showing a much more complicated relationship between salt and cardiovascular disease. According to a systematic review of multiple large studies, "mortality caused by levels of salt the association between sodium consumption and cardiovascular disease or mortality is U-shaped, with increased risk at both high and low sodium intake" The findings showed that increased mortality from excessive salt intake was primarily associated with individuals with hypertension. The levels of increased mortality among those with restricted salt intake appeared to be similar regardless of blood pressure. This evidence shows that while those with hypertension should primarily focus on reducing sodium to recommended levels, all groups should seek to maintain a healthy level of sodium intake of between 4 and 5 grams a day . \n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why having a diet high in salt is bad for your heart',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Simple explanation given to me I'm on a heart medication and diuretic (increased peeing = water and sodium levels decreased in blood) \n\nSodium is a known to cause fluid retention aka the more sodium you take in the more water stays in the body and not filtered out. \n\nso high salt = high amount of water in blood.\n\nlets say that water changes to 1 gallon of blood will be 1 gallon + water content so lets say 1 gallon of water.\n\nWell now your 1 Gallon volume circulatory system now has 2 gallons in it causing increased pressure on veins and making your heart work twice if not three times as hard to pump double the fluid content through your body.",
"People with hypertension benefit from a low salt diet, although it's not clear that salt causes hypertension."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '7gwq7j',
'query': 'why having a diet high in salt is bad for your heart',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '146879',
'title': 'Hypothermia',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Water immersion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
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'end_paragraph_id': 39,
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'passage_text': 'Heat is lost much more quickly in water than in air. Thus, water temperatures that would be quite reasonable as outdoor air temperatures can lead to hypothermia in survivors, although this is not usually the direct clinical cause of death for those who are not rescued. A water temperature of can lead to death in as little as one hour, and water temperatures near freezing can cause death in as little as 15 minutes. A notable example of this occurred during the sinking of the "Titanic", when most people who entered the water died in 15–30 minutes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '305265',
'title': 'Underwater environment',
'section': 'Section::::Physical characteristics.:Thermal conductivity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
'end_character': 312,
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'passage_text': "Water conducts heat around 25 times more efficiently than air. Hypothermia, a potentially fatal condition, occurs when the human body's core temperature falls below 35\xa0°C. Insulating the body's warmth from water is the main purpose of diving suits and exposure suits when used in water temperatures below 25\xa0°C.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24999087',
'title': 'Heat stroke',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Immersion in very cold water was once thought to be counterproductive by reducing blood flow to the skin and thereby preventing heat from escaping the body core. However, this hypothesis has been challenged in experimental studies, as well as by systematic reviews of the clinical data, indicating that cutaneous vasoconstriction and shivering thermogenesis do not play a dominant role in the decrease in core body temperature brought on by cold water immersion. This can be seen in the effect of submersion hypothermia, where the body temperature decrease is directly related to environmental temperature, and though bodily defenses slow the decrease in temperature for a time, they ultimately fail to maintain endothermic homeostasis. Dantrolene, a direct-acting paralytic which abolishes shuddering and is effective in many other forms of hyperthermia, including centrally-, peripherally- and cellularly-mediated thermogenesis, has no individual or additive effects to cooling in the context of heat stroke, showing a lack of endogenous thermogenic response to cold water immersion. Thus, aggressive ice-water immersion remains the gold standard for life-threatening heat stroke.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '59156',
'title': 'Dry ice',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 346,
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'passage_text': 'Dry ice sublimates at , at Earth atmospheric pressures. This extreme cold makes the solid dangerous to handle without protection due to burns caused by freezing (frostbite). While generally not very toxic, the outgassing from it can cause hypercapnia (abnormally elevated carbon dioxide levels in the blood) due to buildup in confined locations.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '54637386',
'title': 'Physiology of underwater diving',
'section': 'Section::::Exposure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'Hypothermia is reduced body temperature that happens when a body dissipates more heat than it absorbs. Hypothermia is a major limitation to swimming or diving in cold water. The reduction in finger dexterity due to pain or numbness decreases general safety and work capacity, which consequently increases the risk of other injuries. Body heat is lost much more quickly in water than in air, so water temperatures that would be quite reasonable as outdoor air temperatures can lead to hypothermia in inadequately protected divers, although it is not often the direct clinical cause of death.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2798893',
'title': 'Atmospheric icing',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 416,
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'passage_text': 'Atmospheric icing occurs in the atmosphere when water droplets freeze on objects they come in contact with. Icing conditions can be particularly dangerous to aircraft, as the built-up ice changes the aerodynamics of the flight surfaces, which can increase the risk of a stall. For this reason, on-board ice protection systems have been developed, and aircraft are often deiced prior to take-off in icy environments.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '219367',
'title': 'Drowning',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.:Cold water immersion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 67,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 67,
'end_character': 515,
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'passage_text': "Heat transfers very well into water, and body heat is therefore lost extremely quickly in water compared to air, even in merely 'cool' swimming waters around 70F (~20C). A water temperature of can lead to death in as little as one hour, and water temperatures hovering at freezing can lead to death in as little as 15 minutes. This is because cold water can have other lethal effects on the body, so hypothermia is not usually a reason for drowning or the clinical cause of death for those who drown in cold water.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is if more harmful to the human body to be exposed to freezing water than it is to be exposed to air of a similar temperature?',
'selftext': "I've always heard that spending even a short amount of time in an extremely cold body of water will most likely lead to hypothermia or even death, but spending the same amount of time outside in extreme temperatures doesn't seem to have the same effect.",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The heat capacity of water is much greater than air meaning it can absorb heat from the body much faster. This is basically the idea behind how you can reach into a newly opened oven without harm but dunking your hand into a casserole which was baking in there would hurt you.',
'Heat generally transfers from molecule to molecule. More molecules means faster heat transfer. The amount of molecules in a given volume is called density. Generally speaking, the denser a substance is, the better it is at transferring energy. Water is much denser than air. So, heat energy from your body will flow faster into water than it will into air. That\'s why cold water is more dangerous than cold air at the same temperature. The water will "suck" the heat out of you much faster than the air',
'The easiest example to show you of this can be done with an easy experiment at home. Get some tin foil, or an item with both metal and non metal surfaces. Touch the metal / tin foil surface with one hand, and touch the non metal surface (carpet or plastic or w/e) with the other. \n\nDespite them both being the same temperature, the metal feels colder, because it is more efficient at drawing heat energy away from you, which your body perceives as cold. Water functions in a similar manner, although in this case it is more about conduction vs convection heat loss, which makes a big difference.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6t9jw7',
'query': 'why is if more harmful to the human body to be exposed to freezing water than it is to be exposed to air of a similar temperature?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '7366298',
'title': 'Solid-state drive',
'section': 'Section::::Comparison with other technologies.:Memory cards.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 105,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 105,
'end_character': 316,
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'passage_text': 'While both memory cards and most SSDs use flash memory, they serve very different markets and purposes. Each has a number of different attributes which are optimized and adjusted to best meet the needs of particular users. Some of these characteristics include power consumption, performance, size, and reliability.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7366298',
'title': 'Solid-state drive',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 131,
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'passage_text': "Due to their generally prohibitive cost versus HDD's at the time, until 2009, SSDs were mainly used in those aspects of mission critical applications where the speed of the storage system needed to be as high as possible. Since flash memory has become a common component of SSDs, the falling prices and increased densities have made it more cost-effective for many other applications. Organizations that can benefit from faster access of system data include equity trading companies, telecommunication corporations, and streaming media and video editing firms. The list of applications which could benefit from faster storage is vast.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22348455',
'title': 'Memory virtualization',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Memory virtualization is also different from storage based on flash memory such as solid-state drives (SSDs) - SSDs and other similar technologies replace hard-drives (networked or otherwise), while memory virtualization replaces or complements traditional RAM.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7366298',
'title': 'Solid-state drive',
'section': 'Section::::Architecture and function.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
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'passage_text': 'The key components of an SSD are the controller and the memory to store the data. The primary memory component in an SSD was traditionally DRAM volatile memory, but since 2009 it is more commonly NAND flash non-volatile memory.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7366298',
'title': 'Solid-state drive',
'section': 'Section::::Architecture and function.:Memory.:DRAM-based.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
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'passage_text': 'SSDs based on volatile memory such as DRAM are characterized by very fast data access, generally less than 10\xa0microseconds, and are used primarily to accelerate applications that would otherwise be held back by the latency of flash SSDs or traditional HDDs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '622962',
'title': 'Single system image',
'section': 'Section::::Features of SSI clustering systems.:Single IPC space.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 273,
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'passage_text': 'Some SSI systems allow processes on different nodes to communicate using inter-process communications mechanisms as if they were running on the same machine. On some SSI systems this can even include shared memory (can be emulated with Software Distributed shared memory).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7366298',
'title': 'Solid-state drive',
'section': 'Section::::Comparison with other technologies.:Memory cards.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 107,
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'passage_text': 'In contrast, memory cards (such as Secure Digital (SD), CompactFlash (CF), and many others) were originally designed for digital cameras and later found their way into cell phones, gaming devices, GPS units, etc. Most memory cards are physically smaller than SSDs, and designed to be inserted and removed repeatedly. There are adapters which enable some memory cards to interface to a computer, allowing use as an SSD, but they are not intended to be the primary storage device in the computer. The typical CompactFlash card interface is three to four times slower than an SSD. As memory cards are not designed to tolerate the amount of reading and writing which occurs during typical computer use, their data may get damaged unless special procedures are taken to reduce the wear on the card to a minimum.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Difference between memory and SSD',
'selftext': 'Looking at laptops and confused between memory and SSD.',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Memory typically refers to RAM (random access memory) where as SSD (solid state drive) refers to storage.\n\nEasiest way to know the difference is think of RAM as a work table and SSD or other storage device like a hard drive as storage cabinets. \n\nIf you want to work on a project, you can only use as many tools (aka apps) as you have room on your work bench. If you run out of room on your work bench but need something else, you'll have to put something away in the cabinets and search for the new thing you need, pull it out and put it on the work bench to use. The bigger your work bench, the more stuff you can use at one time. The bigger the cabinets, the more stuff you can have in total, whether using it or not. \n\nThings like editing software take up a lot of room on the work bench. Games can too. Games also take up a lot of room in your storage cabinet. Things like pictures are tiny and take up little room on the work bench, but can add up in your storage cabinets if you have enough of them",
'Memory is temporary storage, similar to your brains "working memory". It controls how much stuff you can have "in-flight" or be working on/thinking about simultaneously (e.g., many browser tabs).\n\nSSD is like you brain\'s long term memory. A big, slow data store for things you want to refer to much later, like a word document or your garage code.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'eaee56',
'query': 'difference between memory and ssd',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '37879363',
'title': 'Elaboration principle',
'section': 'Section::::Recruitment.:Military.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'The most popular age group to recruit for the military is the youth population, because many youth are opting out of going to college because of the economic times and financial positions. "The recruiting process involves national and local advertising to efficiently supply information on a widespread basis; informational visits by recruiters to schools and student groups; traveling military exhibits to provide information to schools and the public; direct mail advertising and telephone solicitation to identify interested youth; web sites to provide information on military services; and contacts and visits with recruiters to qualify leads and to assist youth in gaining needed information about the decision to enlist and the selection of a particular Service."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '938728',
'title': 'Military service',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 205,
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'passage_text': 'Some nations with armed forces do not conscript their personnel (e.g. most NATO and European Union states). Instead, they promote military careers to attract and select recruits; see military recruitment.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3135672',
'title': 'Military recruitment',
'section': 'Section::::In the United States.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 78,
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'passage_text': 'The American military has had recruiters since the time of the colonies in the 1700s. Today there are thousands of recruiting stations across the United States, serving the Army, Navy, Marines, and Air Force. Recruiting offices normally consist of 2–8 recruiters between the ranks of E-5 and E-7. When a potential applicant walks into a recruiting station his or her height and weight are checked and their background investigated. A finger print scan is conducted and a practice ASVAB exam is given to them. Applicants can not officially swear their enlistment oath in the recruiting office. This is conducted at a Military Entrance Processing Station – MEPS.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3135672',
'title': 'Military recruitment',
'section': 'Section::::Outreach and marketing.:Early years.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': 'The process of attracting children and young people to military employment begins in their early years. In Germany, Israel, Poland, the UK, the US, and elsewhere, the armed forces visit schools frequently, including primary schools, to encourage children to enlist once they become old enough to do so. For example, a poster used by the German armed forces in schools reads: "After school you have the world at your feet, make it safer." ["Nach der Schule liegt dir die Welt zu Füßen, mach sie sicherer."] In the US, recruiters have right of access to all schools and to the contact details of students, and are encouraged to embed themselves into the school community. A former head of recruitment for the British Army, Colonel (latterly Brigadier) David Allfrey, explained the British approach in 2007:"Our new model is about raising awareness, and that takes a ten-year span. It starts with a seven-year-old boy seeing a parachutist at an air show and thinking, \'That looks great.\' From then the army is trying to build interest by drip, drip, drip."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38824110',
'title': 'Match Day (medicine)',
'section': 'Section::::Military.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 275,
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'passage_text': 'Members of the U.S. military participate in their own selection process for programs located at military hospitals, clinics, and bases. The military selection usually occurs in mid-December to allow students who did not match to participate in other national matching plans.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3135672',
'title': 'Military recruitment',
'section': 'Section::::Outreach and marketing.:Public realm.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Recruiters use civic space to promote their military organisation. Among the methods used are recruitment stalls in public spaces, air shows; military amusement parks, such as Patriot Park in Russia; national days, such as the Belgian national day and military parade; and annual armed forces days.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32212',
'title': 'United States Armed Forces',
'section': 'Section::::Personnel.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "It is an all-volunteer military, but conscription through the Selective Service System can be enacted at the president's request and Congress' approval. All males ages 18 through 25 who are living in the United States are required to register with the Selective Service for a potential future draft.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How come the military is "always recruiting" and are all countries like this?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['People are always leaving and moving up even when an army downsizes. Ergo there are always needs for replacements at the bottom. \n\nNow you may not get to be a helicopter pilot. There is always need in the infantry',
"There is a high turnaround in the military. A lot people join the military for a temporary job once they graduate high school. They only serve for a couple of years because: they need money for college, they figure it's a cheap way to learn a trade (mechanic, technician, driver, etc.) their parents kicked them out and they a need place to go, they have dreams of being war heroes but are quickly disenchanted, etc. Once they meet their short term goals, they leave the military and continue on with their lives. In this case, they always need new recruits to fill in the gaps.\n\nIn some, it depends on the current government policies. If you have military happy government, recruiters will lower the standards and accept more people. If the government cuts military funding, fewer people are accepted.",
'People leave the military a lot.\n\nEnd of contract, injuries, KIA, suicides, etc...\n\nSo they always have openings.',
'1) Drafts are no longer in effect in most countries so they only have volunteers, which means they have to recruit. \n\n2) There are always people leaving the military (retirement, medical discharge, behavioral discharge, death) and those people have to be replaced. That means that they have to recruit all the time. ',
'Most people join the military for a few years, so they need to keep replenishing the ranks since people keep leaving the military. They can use various financial incentives, training program access, how much advertising, etc. to control their immediate needs. Also often has to do with how the general job market is how hard they have to recruit.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7rbul5',
'query': 'how come the military is "always recruiting" and are all countries like this?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '41120920',
'title': 'Central nervous system fatigue',
'section': 'Section::::Manipulation.:Carbohydrates.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
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'end_paragraph_id': 24,
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'passage_text': 'Carbohydrates are the main source of energy in organisms for metabolism. They are an important source of fuel in exercise. A study conducted by the Institute of Food, Nutrition, and Human Health at Massey University investigated the effect of consuming a carbohydrate and electrolyte solution on muscle glycogen use and running capacity on subjects that were on a high carbohydrate diet. The group that consumed the carbohydrate and electrolyte solution before and during exercise experienced greater endurance capacity. This could not be explained by the varying levels of muscle glycogen; however, higher plasma glucose concentration may have led to this result. Dr. Stephen Bailey posits that the central nervous system can sense the influx of carbohydrates and reduces the perceived effort of the exercise, allowing for greater endurance capacity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8460',
'title': 'Dieting',
'section': 'Section::::How the body eliminates fat.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
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'passage_text': "When the body is expending more energy than it is consuming (e.g. when exercising), the body's cells rely on internally stored energy sources, such as complex carbohydrates and fats, for energy. The first source to which the body turns is glycogen (by glycogenolysis). Glycogen is a complex carbohydrate, 65% of which is stored in skeletal muscles and the remainder in the liver (totaling about 2,000 kcal in the whole body). It is created from the excess of ingested macronutrients, mainly carbohydrates. When glycogen is nearly depleted, the body begins lipolysis, the mobilization and catabolism of fat stores for energy. In this process fats, obtained from adipose tissue, or fat cells, are broken down into glycerol and fatty acids, which can be used to generate energy. The primary by-products of metabolism are carbon dioxide and water; carbon dioxide is expelled through the respiratory system.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '93827',
'title': 'Human nutrition',
'section': 'Section::::Nutrition for special populations.:Sports nutrition.:Carbohydrates.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 132,
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'passage_text': 'The main fuel used by the body during exercise is carbohydrates, which is stored in muscle as glycogen – a form of sugar. During exercise, muscle glycogen reserves can be used up, especially when activities last longer than 90\xa0min. Because the amount of glycogen stored in the body is limited, it is important for athletes participating in endurance sports such as marathons to consume carbohydrates during their events.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '791546',
'title': 'Ketogenic diet',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism of action.:Seizure control.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 91,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 91,
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'passage_text': 'On the ketogenic diet, carbohydrates are restricted and so cannot provide for all the metabolic needs of the body. Instead, fatty acids are used as the major source of fuel. These are used through fatty-acid oxidation in the cell\'s mitochondria (the energy-producing parts of the cell). Humans can convert some amino acids into glucose by a process called gluconeogenesis, but cannot do this by using fatty acids. Since amino acids are needed to make proteins, which are essential for growth and repair of body tissues, these cannot be used only to produce glucose. This could pose a problem for the brain, since it is normally fuelled solely by glucose, and most fatty acids do not cross the blood–brain barrier. However, the liver can use long-chain fatty acids to synthesise the three ketone bodies β-hydroxybutyrate, acetoacetate and acetone. These ketone bodies enter the brain and "partially" substitute for blood glucose as a source of energy.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21933440',
'title': 'Fatty-acid metabolism disorder',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': "The body's primary source of energy is glucose; however, when all the glucose in the body has been expended, a normal body digests fats. Individuals with a fatty-acid metabolism disorder are unable to metabolize this fat source for energy, halting bodily processes. Most individuals with a fatty-acid metabolism disorder are able to live a normal active life with simple adjustments to diet and medications.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3757348',
'title': 'GLUT4',
'section': 'Section::::Tissue distribution.:Adipose tissue.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 261,
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'passage_text': 'Adipose tissue, commonly known as fat,\xa0is a depository for energy in order to conserve metabolic homeostasis. As the body takes in energy in the form of glucose, some is expended, and the rest is stored as glycogen primarily in the liver, muscle cells, or fat.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21479285',
'title': 'Urine test strip',
'section': 'Section::::Diseases Identified with a Urine Test Strip.:Carbohydrate metabolism disorders.:Ketone test.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 58,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 58,
'end_character': 201,
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'passage_text': 'An increase in fat metabolism can be the result of starvation or malabsorption, the inability to metabolize carbohydrates (as occurs, for example, in diabetes) or due to losses from frequent vomiting.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does the body consume carbohydrates first and then fats when exercising?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The actual answer is a bit more complicated than that. What cells actually use for fuel is ATP, which is an energetic protein that we make using carbohydrates, fats, and other things as a fuel source.\n\nATP is mostly produced by mitochondria, organelles inside cells, and muscle cells have a lot of mitochondria.\n\nAt any given time, we have a little bit of liberated sugar, glucose mostly, which is floating around in the blood, being taken up by cells that need to produce more ATP, and being used by them to make ATP. When we start to exercise or burn a lot of calories, the amount of free glucose we have in the blood goes down, so we start liberating it by making more out of molecules we have stored.\n\nThe big ways we store energy are as glycogen, a long-chain sugar in the liver, and fat. It is pretty easy to separate glucose from glycogen, so that is the first form of reserve energy we go to. It is a more time-consuming process to make glucose from fats, and there are more bad by products produced. So we don't start burning fats until our bodies know we are in it for the long haul.",
'Fat is designed for long term storage in case food becomes scarce. It holds significantly more energy than carbs. A little over twice the amount per gram, actually. So your body wants to only expend what it needs to, as carbs are a weaker energy source, they are the first to go, while it tries to hold on to fat for as long as possible in case of food insecurity.\n\nRemember your body evolved in a comparatively unstable environment with predators still hunting us. Food was a lot more scarce so it is good to have long term energy storage (fat) in case of drought, famine, or any other reason why a food source would dry up. So it created these systems to keep you alive long enough to make babies. Burn the carbs first- keep the fat until you have no food.',
'The short answer I learned is, carbs are an easier and faster source of energy\nFat takes more effort to get energy from.\n\nAnd the body doesn\'t really plan ahead in the same way you do, your body has no idea if you are going to be running for 5 seconds, or 40 minutes. Your body just knows "oh your running, better fill up on energy"\n\nIt\'ll go with the easy solution first.'],
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'query_id': 'fed03x',
'query': 'why does the body consume carbohydrates first and then fats when exercising?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '55551',
'title': 'Tariff',
'section': 'Section::::Arguments in favor of tariffs.:Criticism of the theory of comparative advantage.:Using labour and capital to their full potential.\n',
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'passage_text': "If a country's resources were not fully utilized, production and consumption could be increased at the national level without participating in international trade. The whole raison d'être of international trade would disappear, as would the possible gains. In this case, a State could even earn more by refraining from participating in international trade and stimulating domestic production, as this would allow it to employ more labour and capital and increase national income. Moreover, any adjustment mechanism underlying the theory no longer works if unemployment exists.\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '62018',
'title': 'Comparative advantage',
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'passage_text': "If a country's resources were not fully utilized, production and consumption could be increased at the national level without participating in international trade. The whole raison d'être of international trade would disappear, as would the possible gains. In this case, a State could even earn more by refraining from participating in international trade and stimulating domestic production, as this would allow it to employ more labour and capital and increase national income. Moreover, any adjustment mechanism underlying the theory no longer works if unemployment exists.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15382',
'title': 'Invisible balance',
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'passage_text': "In a similar way, a nation may also have a surplus 'balance of trade' because it exports more than it imports but a negative (or deficit) 'balance of payments' because, it has a much greater shortfall in transfers of capital. And, just as easily, a deficit in the 'balance of trade' may be offset by a larger surplus in capital transfers from overseas to produce a balance of payments surplus overall.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26152387',
'title': 'European debt crisis',
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'passage_text': "A country with a large trade surplus would generally see the value of its currency appreciate relative to other currencies, which would reduce the imbalance as the relative price of its exports increases. This currency appreciation occurs as the importing country sells its currency to buy the exporting country's currency used to purchase the goods. Alternatively, trade imbalances can be reduced if a country encouraged domestic saving by restricting or penalising the flow of capital across borders, or by raising interest rates, although this benefit is likely offset by slowing down the economy and increasing government interest payments.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Economic reforms and recovery proposals regarding the Eurozone crisis',
'section': 'Section::::Address current account imbalances.\n',
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'passage_text': "A country with a large trade surplus would generally see the value of its currency appreciate relative to other currencies, which would reduce the imbalance as the relative price of its exports increases. This currency appreciation occurs as the importing country sells its currency to buy the exporting country's currency used to purchase the goods. Alternatively, trade imbalances can be reduced if a country encouraged domestic saving by restricting or penalizing the flow of capital across borders, or by raising interest rates, although this benefit is likely offset by slowing down the economy and increasing government interest payments.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28946427',
'title': 'United States balance of trade',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Over the long run, nations with trade surpluses tend also to have a savings surplus. The U.S. generally has developed lower savings rates than its trading partners, which have tended to have trade surpluses. Germany, France, Japan, and Canada have maintained higher savings rates than the U.S. over the long run.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23794617',
'title': 'Foreign trade of the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Trade policy.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Over the long run, nations with trade surpluses tend also to have a savings surplus. The U.S. generally has developed lower savings rates than its trading partners, which have tended to have trade surpluses. Germany, France, Japan, and Canada have maintained higher savings rates than the U.S. over the long run.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why can't a country in a trade surplus be sustained in that position indefinitely?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It can.\n\nImagine you have a job at a convenience store where they give you a 50% discount on baseball cards. You don’t care for them much, but your friend does. He regularly buys them from you for 90% of list. You never buy anything from him.\n\nYour friend has a trade deficit with you. The trade, though, is beneficial for both of you and you’ll keep doing it as long as it works out for both of you. And you’re not living outside your means to do it. \n\nYour teacher may have been talking about a budget deficit, which is a whole different thing. That is living outside your means. \n\n*edit: I had the trade deficit backwards. Macro at 7am never safe. '],
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'query_id': 'alby6r',
'query': "why can't a country in a trade surplus be sustained in that position indefinitely?",
'query_type': 'Economics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '51862',
'title': 'Supermarket',
'section': 'Section::::Layout strategies.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Supermarkets are designed to "give each product section a sense of individual difference and this is evident in the design of what is called the anchor departments; fresh produce, dairy, delicatessen, meat and the bakery". Each section has different floor coverings, style, lighting and sometimes even individual services counters to allow shoppers to feel as if there are a number of markets within this one supermarket.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Every aspect of the store is mapped out and attention is paid to color, wording and even surface texture. The overall layout of a supermarket is a visual merchandising project that plays a major role. Stores can creatively use a layout to alter customers’ perceptions of the atmosphere. Alternatively, they can enhance the store’s atmospherics through visual communications (signs and graphics), lighting, colors, and even scents. For example, to give a sense of the supermarket being healthy, fresh produce is deliberately located at the front of the store. In terms of bakery items, supermarkets usually dedicate 30 to 40 feet of store space to the bread aisle.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '183515',
'title': 'Retail',
'section': 'Section::::Retail format: types of retail outlet.:Retail types by marketing strategy.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A speciality (AE: specialty) store has a narrow marketing focus\xa0\xa0– either specializing on specific merchandise, such as toys, footwear, or clothing, or on a target audience, such as children, tourists, or plus-size women. Size of store varies\xa0\xa0– some speciality stores might be retail giants such as Toys "R" Us, Foot Locker, and The Body Shop, while others might be small, individual shops such as Nutters of Savile Row. Such stores, regardless of size, tend to have a greater depth of the specialist stock than general stores, and generally offer specialist product knowledge valued by the consumer. Pricing is usually not the priority when consumers are deciding upon a speciality store; factors such as branding image, selection choice, and purchasing assistance are seen as important. They differ from department stores and supermarkets which carry a wide range of merchandise.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '4944575',
'title': 'Grocery Outlet',
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'passage_text': 'Inventory comes primarily from overstocks and closeouts of name brand groceries, as well as private label groceries. Grocery Outlets buy mostly closeout or seasonal merchandise, so particular brand names change often. The company’s stores also carry food staples such as fresh meat, dairy and bread. All products sold by Grocery Outlet are purchased directly from manufacturers, not other retail stores.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Retail',
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'passage_text': "Concept stores are similar to speciality stores in that they are very small in size, and only stock a limited range of brands or a single brand. They are typically operated by the brand that controls them. Example: L'OCCITANE en Provence. The limited size and offering of L'OCCITANE's stores is too small to be considered a speciality store. However, a concept store goes beyond merely selling products, and instead offers an immersive customer experience built around the way that a brand fits with the customer's lifestyle. Examples include Apple's concept stores, Kit Kat's concept store in Japan.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
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'passage_text': 'Some groceries specialize in the foods of a certain nationality or culture, such as Chinese, Italian, Middle-Eastern, or Polish. These stores are known as ethnic markets and may also serve as gathering places for immigrants. In many cases, the wide range of products carried by larger supermarkets has reduced the need for such specialty stores. The variety and availability of food is no longer restricted by the diversity of locally grown food or the limitations of the local growing season.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '876132',
'title': 'Private label',
'section': 'Section::::Prevalence.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A Food Marketing Institute study found that store brands account for an average of 14.5 percent of in store sales with some stores projecting they will soon reach as high as 20 percent of all sales. Store branding is a mature industry; consequently, some store brands have been able to position themselves as premium brands. Sometimes store-branded goods mimic the shape, packaging, and labeling of national brands, or get premium display treatment from retailers. (For example, "Dr. Thunder" and "Mountain Lightning" are the names of the Sam\'s Choice store brand equivalents of Dr Pepper and Mountain Dew, respectively.)\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If supermarkets have a defined science/art as to where products are located, why are they all different?',
'selftext': 'My experience from Tesco, Sainsburys, ASDA, Waitrose and M & S show that in every single store the format is always different. Either completely mirrored, flipped on itself, some products coupled with others in a different way, and freezer/fridge aisles sometimes together sometimes apart, sometimes by the entrance, sometimes in the middle. Why is that if there are now defined principles in what you should place where, and even if each company believed in different principles, why doesnt each company at least standardise their own stores?',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Numerous factors- \n\n1 Store size. Different stores are different sizes, and shapes depending on the area they are situated and the availble space/ planned market.. What works for one floor plan doesn't neccesarily work for another.\n\n2 customers. Customers in different areas like different things, so different branches carry different products, and or different stock levels. This means certain types of product need more space in some stores then others.\n\n3 There's more then one possible arrangement that works well.\n\n4 They do tend to have LOTS of things in common. Walk into any supermarket. Fresh Fruit and Veg is almost always the first thing you come to. Dairy products are always kept together. Dental and medical supplies are in the same isle, sweets biscuits and crisps are next to one another. And so on.",
"In addition to other answes, the customer base is also factored in.\n\nFor example, when you walk into a Target, whose demographic is women, you see things women are drawn to (in general): women's clothing, jewelry, foundations, shoes, gift cards. \n\nMove to the opposite corner of the store for 'guy' things like electronics, sports gear, tools, fixit things you can't even see from the entrance.\n\nThen there is the hard-flooring racetrack around the store for getting at grab-and-go things like branded foods, detergents, personal care where no decisions are involved. You always buy Crest toothpaste and Tide detergent, so it's easy to find and grab just off the racetrack. If you get deep off the racetrack, you find things where you will need to stop and think and choose, like clothing, toys, small appliances and baby items. Clothing areas are carpeted because it reflects a higher end experience that customers prefer when shopping clothes. \n\nA different big store like Walmart has a different customer base (lower income, with younger kids) so you will see loss-leaders and seasonal stuff like school supplies by the entrance, but a similar racetrack for common items and carpeted clothing areas."],
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'query_id': 'btlpao',
'query': 'if supermarkets have a defined science/art as to where products are located, why are they all different?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '33130852',
'title': 'Barcode Scanner (application)',
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'passage_text': 'This application supports many different types of barcodes, including those used to identify products in commerce. The Barcode Scanner can automatically search the Web to identify a product with a barcode and use, for example, price-comparison information between vendors.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'International Article Number',
'section': 'Section::::Binary encoding of data digits into EAN-13 barcode.:Decoding.\n',
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'passage_text': 'By using the barcode center marker, it is possible for a barcode scanner to scan just one half of the barcode at a time. This allows reconstruction of the code by means of a helical scan of the barcode by an angle of approximately 45 degrees.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40502046',
'title': 'Autocoding',
'section': 'Section::::System elements.:1D and 2D barcode scanning.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The shop-floor touch screen device is linked to barcode scanners deployed to scan the code on each piece of packaging, including promotional labels and sleeves. Originally the bar codes scanned were based on standard 1D codes but to avoid mistakes 2D bar codes were introduced in 2004 so that each packaging type could hold a unique identity. To checks that the scanners are operational Autocoding solutions include two way communications with all hardware devices, or prevent the lines starting if links are not available.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23315269',
'title': 'Forms processing',
'section': 'Section::::Automated forms processing.:Components.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Barcode Recognition can read more than 20 industry 1D and 2D barcodes including Code39, CODABAR, Interleaved 2 of 5, Code93 and more. It automatically detects all barcodes in an image or specified area within the image.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '309457',
'title': 'Barcode reader',
'section': 'Section::::Types of barcode scanners.:Technology.:Omnidirectional barcode scanners.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Omnidirectional scanners are most familiar through the horizontal scanners in supermarkets, where packages are slid over a glass or sapphire window. There are a range of different omnidirectional units available which can be used for differing scanning applications, ranging from retail type applications with the barcodes read only a few centimetres away from the scanner to industrial conveyor scanning where the unit can be a couple of metres away or more from the code. Omnidirectional scanners are also better at reading poorly printed, wrinkled, or even torn barcodes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '309457',
'title': 'Barcode reader',
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'passage_text': 'A barcode reader (or barcode scanner) is an optical scanner that can read printed barcodes, decode the data contained in the barcode and send the data to a computer. Like a flatbed scanner, it consists of a light source, a lens and a light sensor translating for optical impulses into electrical signals. Additionally, nearly all barcode readers contain "decoder" circuitry that can analyze the barcode\'s image data provided by the sensor and sending the barcode\'s content to the scanner\'s output port.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28399034',
'title': 'Inventory management software',
'section': 'Section::::Features.:Product identification.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Barcodes are often the means whereby data on products and orders are inputted into inventory management software. A barcode reader is used to read barcodes and look up information on the products they represent. Radio-frequency identification (RFID) tags and wireless methods of product identification are also growing in popularity. \n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How to barcode scanners instantly detect what an item is, despite the barcode being at any angle and often on a crinkled surface, completeley changing the look of the code from the scanner's perspective?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The lasers that read the barcode hit it from many angles and scan it very quickly. Also barcodes have something like a checksum, where it's easy to recognize if the data that was read is garbage and needs to be read again. That's why when using hand scanners, like at the grocery store, sometimes it scans a valid item very quickly, and somtimes it takes a while. \n\nThe built-in scanners in the checkout lanes have lasers that shot from the sides and from the bottom.",
'The barcodes is designed in such a way that they are easy to read in different conditions. For example the very common UPC-A barcode used to encode almost all retail products all have the same number of bars and only differentiaties in the width of the bars in relation to each other. The barcode is not valid in reverse but can easily be detected as being in reverse allowing the scanner to reverse its scan direction if you scan something upside down.',
'It depends on the scanner for many of those to be true. A very simple barcode scanner will simply read one direction (allowing some but not much tilt) while others will use various techniques to account for these challenges.\n\nIn most cases, a beam of light is fired at a thin foil that is extremely sensitive to current change, allowing a rapid low current to be pulsed in to control the angle of the beam. Some, such as grocery store checkout lanes, supply multiple beams and reflectors allowing any angle to be scanned. \n\nThe reflection of the beam is sent back to the scanner when a reflection is possible, toggling an internal state between 1 and 0. During this, either the duty cycle - the time between “reads” of that 0/1 state, is constantly slowed and sped up, or the pulse rate to the reflectors is variated, changing the sampling rate very rapidly. This allows for distance to be much less of an issue. Basically, there’s always a beam of light and the hardware is asking repeatedly “Do you see the emitted IR light?”\n\nThat data is pushed into a cyclical buffer, and each read triggers a checksum calculation. Since the length of the code(s) are known, it allows the assertion “If these are the numbers, their sum should calculate to the check digit.” - if the checksum for example is just a basic digital root, and the numbers read as 6,4,8,3,7, then 6+4+8+3+7=28, 2+8=10, 1+0=1, so the check digit must be a 1.\n\nTo detect the start and end of a barcode, a specific character is often used - since were dealing with binary, it’s often a non-numeral character such as * or a,b,c - this extra data not only serves the purpose of telling a scanner where a start of a barcode is so it knows it can use more processing power to actually read the code, but the kind of code it is so it knows what checksum formula to use and how long to expect the barcode. These little details allow them to be extremely fast as it’s quick to tell, “If my buffer doesn’t start with *, it’s not a barcode, keep reading”\n\nYou can act see the effects of that on much older scanners, they’ll start flickering at a certain rate, quickly ramp up and down, then shut off when it hits that known character, often pausing for 1-2 seconds before the register receives a barcode.\n\ntl;dr, you can take a piece of paper and put a series of dots in a Braille fashion, 1 dot for one, 2 for off. Start a metronome and “read” whatever is under your finger, even if it’s the same dots or 3 dots apart, moving your finger at a constant rate, counting on/off, and grouping every 4 dots. Convert from binary to numbers. Repeat adjusting the metronome up or down until your finger hits each dot once per tick. That’s all it’s doing just using light.\n\n(I don’t expect you to actually do that but if you do - props - it also illustrates how much faster computers are at “thinking” than we are.'],
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'query_id': 'e2fvdf',
'query': "how to barcode scanners instantly detect what an item is, despite the barcode being at any angle and often on a crinkled surface, completeley changing the look of the code from the scanner's perspective?",
'query_type': 'Technology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2701254',
'title': 'Bachelor of Computer Science',
'section': 'Section::::Studying Computer Engineering.:Education:.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Computer science is known by its near synonyms, like Information Technology (IT) and Computing. At the beginning, only a few students can get computer science education, but as time passes, it’s popular in ordinary people. In UK, in 1981, only A level students can get it, but in 2014, even common pupils can study it.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '169633',
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'passage_text': 'Computer science (also called computing science) is the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation and their implementation and application in computer systems. One well known subject classification system for computer science is the ACM Computing Classification System devised by the Association for Computing Machinery.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5323',
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'passage_text': 'Computer science (sometimes called computation science or computing science, but not to be confused with computational science or software engineering) is the study of processes that interact with data and that can be represented as data in the form of programs. It enables the use of algorithms to manipulate, store, and communicate digital information. A computer scientist studies the theory of computation and the practice of designing software systems.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Computer science – is the theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. It involves the study of algorithms that process, store, and communicate digital information. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Computer science – is the theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. It involves the study of algorithms that process, store, and communicate digital information. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27010',
'title': 'Software engineering',
'section': 'Section::::Related fields.:Computer Science.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Computer science focuses on the high-level aspects of computing and computer systems, such as the study of algorithms that process, store, and communicate digital information. Its fields can be divided into a variety of theoretical and practical disciplines, which include the study of fundamental properties of computational and intractable problems, and the application of software development techniques to real-world situations.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5323',
'title': 'Computer science',
'section': 'Section::::Fields.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
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'passage_text': 'As a discipline, computer science spans a range of topics from theoretical studies of algorithms and the limits of computation to the practical issues of implementing computing systems in hardware and software.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is computer science?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['When computers were first built and people came to realize how powerful they were, they needed people to figure out how to make them work and how to make them better. The original designers tended to be mathematicians, physicists, engineers, etc. but no one field could really do it all. Computer science is sort of the catch all term for the people who ended up working on computers, both more theoretical and also applied.',
'So, this rundown is my own, and the idea here is to have a pseudo-historical list running in descending order of abstraction. Basically, I\'ll start with the most abstract and general ideas of the field, and work down towards nitty gritty practical bits that emerged.\n\nBut anyway, the main idea of computer science is to deal with processes, and specifically, unlike mathematics, processes that have extra limitation that you need to be able to perform them in a finite amount of time and space. Because, you know, humans have only limited amount of time to wait for computation to finish, and there\'s only finite amount of the universe we have access to.\n\nSo, in computer science specifically, what was a rather important point was that sometimes you have these processes be in the form of step-by-step lists of instructions(hereby called "algorithms") that even the stupidest could follow. So we built the stupidest thing, and we called it artifical computer(as opposed to computer of the old, who were humans, mostly women, performing calculations as required for some fields of science and engineering and such), and tried seeing what we can do with this concept. So now the question of study became, what can these artifical computers actually do. Some major results were achieved in 1940\'s, specifically Alan Turing was helpful, where he managed to prove some key things about things that can be computed, and perhaps more importantly, that there were some things that couldn\'t.\n\nAnd as computer technology advanced, computers itself started to become more complex, and the programs running on them started to require more and more sophisticated thinking, and computer science basically absorbed things like software engineering to itself, taking it further away from pure math world. Things like, what sort of tradeoffs you\'d have when designing operating system fit neatly in this world of questions that more or less deal with what can and cannot be done with computers.\n\nBut much of the discussion is still well within confines of pure math as well. Say, computational complexity is a measure of algorithms ability to use fewer steps to arrive at the right answer. You don\'t need to ever even have seen a computer to be able to answer questions about those kinds of things, and it\'s ultimately about processes and algorithms rather than this physical device, although limitations of this physical device did end up sparking interest in these types of questions. Likewise, "formal language theory" is basically mathematics, but that theory is the main way to understand programming languages, and the theoretical foundation for their existence. So the line gets blurred. I\'m unsure but I believe linguistics also makes an appearance here in this multi-dispiclinary mess. Another field that I want to highlight for math\'iness is artifical intelligence. Also, worth noting that encryption basically is just taking mathematical problems we can prove are hard in one way but easy in another.\n\nAnd then you also have fields that are more specifically about using computers, like user interface design, or user experience design, which start invoking psychology and such things.\n\nAnd obviously, physical design of computing devices with its electrical engineering, physics and chemistry connections has to be mentioned.\n\nBasically, it started out with a rather simple premise of "what this box do?" and then when the box turned out to be very powerful, the field just exploded to cover everything the box touched.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'emhktu',
'query': 'what is computer science?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '39367145',
'title': 'Biological aspects of fluorine',
'section': 'Section::::Hazards.:Hydrofluoric acid.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
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'passage_text': 'If the burn has been initially noticed, then HF should be washed off with a forceful stream of water for ten to fifteen minutes to prevent its further penetration into the body. Clothing used by the person burned may also present a danger. Hydrofluoric acid exposure is often treated with calcium gluconate, a source of Ca that binds with the fluoride ions. Skin burns can be treated with a water wash and 2.5 percent calcium gluconate gel or special rinsing solutions. Because HF is absorbed, further medical treatment is necessary. Calcium gluconate may be injected or administered intravenously. Use of calcium chloride is contraindicated and may lead to severe complications. Sometimes surgical excision of tissue or amputation is required.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7116204',
'title': 'Greater weever',
'section': 'Section::::Toxicity.:Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 51,
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'passage_text': 'The modern medicine does in fact recommend the application of any kind of heat preferably to souse the affected limb into hot water (40-42\xa0°C). Beside this first aid attempt to ease the pain it is recommended to clean the wound and to see a physician because antibiotics, further analgesics or even a tetanus prophylaxis might be appropriate.\u2060\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '412822',
'title': 'Folliculitis',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Bacterial.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 405,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Hot-tub folliculitis is caused by the bacterium "Pseudomonas aeruginosa". The folliculitis usually occurs after sitting in a hot tub that was not properly cleaned before use. Symptoms are found around the body parts that sit in the hot tub: the legs, hips, chest, buttocks, and surrounding areas. Symptoms are amplified around regions that were covered by wet clothing, such as bathing suits.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21766243',
'title': 'Thermal burn',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 780,
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'passage_text': 'The most important first action is to stop the burning process. The source of the burn should promptly be removed (or the patient removed from the source). If the person is on fire, he/she must be told to stop, drop and roll, or extinguish the fire by covering them with heavy blanket, wool, coat, or rug. Burning clothing should be removed as should all jewelry that could act as a tourniquet as swelling occurs, but burned clothing stuck to the skin must not be removed. Cooling the burn with cold running water has been shown to be beneficial if accomplished within 30 minutes of the injury. The pain or inflammation can then be effectively treated using acetaminophen (paracetamol), or ibuprofen. Ice, butter, cream and ointment cannot be used since they can worsen the burn.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2554507',
'title': 'Scalding',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 385,
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'passage_text': 'Applying first aid for scalds is the same as for burns. First, the site of the injury should be removed from the source of heat, to prevent further scalding. If the burn is at least second degree, remove any jewelry or clothing from the site, unless it is already stuck to the skin. Cool the scald for about 20 minutes with cool or lukewarm (not cold) water, such as water from a tap.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '432986',
'title': 'Physical fitness',
'section': 'Section::::Training.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 38,
'end_character': 373,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Aquajogging is a form of exercise that decreases strain on joints and bones. The water supplies minimal impact to muscles and bones, which is good for those recovering from injury. Furthermore, the resistance of the water as one jogs through it provides an enhanced effect of exercise (the deeper you are the greater the force needed to pull your leg through).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '233082',
'title': 'Burn',
'section': 'Section::::Management.:Wound care.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 41,
'end_character': 599,
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'passage_text': 'Early cooling (within 30 minutes of the burn) reduces burn depth and pain, but care must be taken as over-cooling can result in hypothermia. It should be performed with cool water and not ice water as the latter can cause further injury. Chemical burns may require extensive irrigation. Cleaning with soap and water, removal of dead tissue, and application of dressings are important aspects of wound care. If intact blisters are present, it is not clear what should be done with them. Some tentative evidence supports leaving them intact. Second-degree burns should be re-evaluated after two days.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does the burn of putting your leg in hot water seem to come a second or so after it’s been pulled out?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['So there’s ‘two’ nervous systems that usually work together. This is an example of where one takes over first.\n\n- CNS = Brain. It controls the actions you think about so it takes longer to work.\n- PNS = No Brain. Controls reflex actions, ones you don’t have to think about, so it’s faster.\n\nThe leg in hot water reaction would work something like this:\n1. Leg goes into water\n2. PNS realises you are in danger.\n3. PNS moves leg out of the water because it knows you’re in danger.\n4. CNS realises leg is out of water\n5. CNS realises leg is in pain and lets the brain know, meaning you only then feel pain.\n\nI hope that’s simple enough, ask any questions if you need clarification.',
'I don\'t think the other answers really get to the root of the question. You have different types of nerves. Big nerves and little nerves, insulated and non-insulated nerves. Big nerves are fast. Insulated nerves are fast. There are two types of pain nerves, and both are small (one is insulated, the other is not). \n\nAs for why you move your leg: the nerves send a signal to not just your brain but also special nerves that live in your spinal cord. These nerves (called interneurons) "short circuit" the system with a "reflex arc.". It sounds confusing, but what it means is the signal going up to your brain is always diverting just a bit to nerves that can make decisions without the brain of they hit a danger threshold to protect the body. It is the same system you see when doctors tap your patellar tendon at your knee (the brain kinda turns these off, and when you have an interview to the spinal cord, there is no off signal.... Just an on signal)',
"The central nervous system (CNS) is the brain **and** the spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is all the nerves that come off the brain and spinal cord (like in your arms and legs). Nerves are the way information in your body is communicated around (like a network).\n\n1. When your leg touches the hot water, a nerve in your leg 'senses' this heat and passes the info to your spinal cord (because that's where that nerve is connected to).\n2. In the spinal cord, this 'sensing' nerve passed the info to a 'moving' nerve.\n3. The moving nerve is connected to your leg muscles and when it receives the info, it makes the leg muscles move your leg out.\n4. At the same time that step 2 and 3 is happening, the spinal cord is sending this information up to your brain for you to process. By process, I mean 'feel' the pain and scream.\n5. Because it takes longer for the information to reach your brain than to go back to your leg (literally just compare the distance from leg to brain vs leg to leg), steps 2 and 3 will happen quicker than step 4.\n\nFor a bit of terminology, we call this a 'spinal reflex'. This means you don't actually need your brain for this reflex to happen, it just needs to spinal cord. But our brain is there to process the info so we know next time not to put our leg in the hot water because it will hurt like hell.\n\n & #x200B;\n\n & #x200B;",
"Oh man!\n\nNone of these cover the real reason it **burns** when you take it *out* of the water rather than why it takes a while to feel. It's super interesting!\n\n\nIt burns because of the mixture of hot and cold feeling in the same area at the same time. \n\nThe body has pressure and temperature sensing nerves. **But the body doesn't have a way to sense burns. Instead, it senses hot and the feeling of nerves not being able to send any signals because they're dying — which happens to feel like cold.**\n\nTry this experiment:\n\n*Take out 2 butter knives. Run one under cold water and the other under hot water for a few seconds. Feel the full back of each on the underside of your forearm and notice the sensations: hot and cold right?*\n\n*Now put both knives side by side so the flat parts are close together and touch the dull backs to your forearm at the same time. You haven't hurt yourself — but notice that it feels like it burns!*\n\n\n\nSo when you pull your leg out of very warm water, what happens? The warm water starts rapidly evaporating a few seconds later. And evaporating water — just like sweat, cools down your skin sending the cold sensation at the same time that deeper parts of the skin are still sending the hot sensation. Just like the two butter knives, it feels like burning. \n\nCool right?"],
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'query_id': 'b4r8ll',
'query': 'why does the burn of putting your leg in hot water seem to come a second or so after it’s been pulled out?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '14181749',
'title': 'History of YouTube',
'section': 'Section::::Business model, advertising, and profits.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 51,
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'passage_text': 'In June 2009, "BusinessWeek" reported that, according to San Francisco-based IT consulting company RampRate, YouTube was far closer to profitability than previous reports, including the April 2009, projection by investment bank Credit Suisse estimating YouTube would lose as much as $470 million in 2009. RampRate\'s report pegged that number at no more than $174 million.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7482183',
'title': 'Vimeo',
'section': 'Section::::Memberships.:Vimeo Basic.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
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'passage_text': 'On January 22, 2018, the limit for Basic accounts was changed for the first time in 11 years. Accounts were limited to a lifetime video storage limit of 5\xa0GB. Those which exceeded this limit prior to its implementation can keep uploaded videos online, but cannot upload new videos. The storage limit was implemented just two days after YouTube announced the demonetization of smaller channels, those with fewer than 1,000 lifetime subscribers and 4,000 annual hours of watch time, though Vimeo has yet to confirm that this directly caused the new limit.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14181749',
'title': 'History of YouTube',
'section': 'Section::::Business model, advertising, and profits.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The second view is e.g. taken by Christian Fuchs in his book "Internet and Society". He argues that YouTube is an example of a business model that is based on combining the gift with the commodity. The first is free, the second yields profit. The novel aspect of this business strategy is that it combines what seems at first to be different, the gift and the commodity. YouTube would give free access to its users, the more users, the more profit it can potentially make because it can in principle increase advertisement rates and will gain further interest of advertisers. YouTube would sell its audience that it gains by free access to its advertising customers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14181749',
'title': 'History of YouTube',
'section': 'Section::::Business model, advertising, and profits.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 45,
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'passage_text': 'Google did not provide detailed figures for YouTube\'s running costs, and YouTube\'s revenues in 2007 were noted as "not material" in a regulatory filing. In June 2008, a "Forbes" magazine article projected the 2008 revenue at $200 million, noting progress in advertising sales.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2146454',
'title': 'Media preservation',
'section': 'Section::::Online photo albums.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'Although there are many websites that allow the upload of photographs and videos, digital preservation for the long-term is still an issue. There is a lack of confidence that such websites are capable of storing data for long periods of time (ex. 50 years) without data degradation or loss.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3524766',
'title': 'YouTube',
'section': 'Section::::Revenue.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 92,
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'passage_text': 'Google does not provide detailed figures for YouTube\'s running costs, and YouTube\'s revenues in 2007 were noted as "not material" in a regulatory filing. In June 2008, a "Forbes" magazine article projected the 2008 revenue at $200\xa0million, noting progress in advertising sales. In January 2012, it was estimated that visitors to YouTube spent an average of 15 minutes a day on the site, in contrast to the four or five hours a day spent by a typical US citizen watching television. In 2012, YouTube\'s revenue from its ads program was estimated at $3.7\xa0billion. In 2013 it nearly doubled and estimated to hit $5.6\xa0billion according to eMarketer, while others estimated $4.7\xa0billion. The vast majority of videos on YouTube are free to view and supported by advertising. In May 2013, YouTube introduced a trial scheme of 53 subscription channels with prices ranging from $0.99 to $6.99 a month. The move was seen as an attempt to compete with other providers of online subscription services such as Netflix and Hulu. In 2017, viewers on average watch YouTube on mobile devices for more than an hour every day.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33577458',
'title': 'Super Video CD',
'section': 'Section::::Similar formats.:XSVCD.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
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'passage_text': 'To reduce the data rate without significantly reducing quality, the size of the GOP can be increased, the maximum data rate can be exceeded, and a different MPEG-2 quantization matrix can be used. These changes can be advantageous for those who want to either maximize video quality, or use fewer discs.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How is YouTube a sustainable business model? If view count remains constant but video storage costs continue to increase, wouldn't this lead to a permanent loss?",
'selftext': 'Let\'s assume that in 2020, YouTube maintains a daily view count of 500 million per day. However, they also keep old videos on the site that aren\'t generating views. Don\'t these "dead videos" eventually accumulate and overcome the profit margins with cost of storage?',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Storage costs are going down exponentially.\n\nEvery year the cost of storing 1 GB of data is half what it was the previous year.\n\nYouTube loses money every time someone uploads a long video that nobody watches, but it doesn't matter because they make insanely high profits off of the top 1% of the most popular videos.\n\nAs long as YouTube is a good place for popular videos, the business model is sustainable.\n\nIf it turned into an unpopular site where people just uploaded their personal videos but nothing popular or viral ever went there, it'd lose money.\n",
"As of the last time Google released any financial info about YouTube (early 2015) was that it was not a profitable business unit to operate.\n\nHowever, since then, most analysts are thinking Youtube is now profitable due to them selling way, way more ads than in previous years. Google has really taken a strong effort to get advertisers on Youtube, and the latest analysis thinks they will likely be profitable during 2017.\n\nHowever, in completeness, even if it was a money loser, Google would continue to operate it, as it provides benefits to google's other services. They (like many businesses) are willing to take losses in their left pocket to reap bigger profits in their right pocket",
"Eventually, maybe.\n\nThis can't be done eli5, can barely be done eliCollegeGraduate, but I'll try.\n\nThere are the fixed costs per video. Since Alphabet buys storage in such massive bulk they pay quite a bit less than you and I. They don't exactly like to tell people. So I'll use BackBlaze numbers and assume a reason profit margin to discount it. BackBlaze charges $0.005 per GB per month for storage, so I'll assume amortized over its lifetime we can assume for this Google is paying $0.003 per GB per month. Knowing their compression this is roughly an hour of stored video. \n\nImportantly the number is dropping. Costs per GB should roughly halve this year.\n\nYouTube of course has a lot of uploads, but YouTube is less than doubling each year. \n\nThe result is that in a year YouTube storage will actually cost less than today.\n\nThis is not permanently supportable, but should be sustained for 5+ years.\n\nComing soon we also have the shift in YouTube from VP9 to NetVC, this will reduce storage and bandwidth by as much as 25%. Making the storage cost even less. This will likely extend the storage cost reduction versus today to 8-9 years. After that they will probably have to purge some losing content, we probably won't even notice.\n\nThe bandwidth works much the same way. Alphabet buys so much bandwidth that they get it really cheap. They are paying less than $0.01 per GB streamed, I put their costs at roughly $0.003 per GB bandwidth.\n\nNow we have their costs what are their revenues? And how will they grow or shrink?\n\nToday YouTube ad rates come to $0.021 per viewed hour. 55% of this goes to content owners. This gives them $0.0095 per viewed hour to work with.\n\nYouTube stated they streamed 3250000000 hours per month in 2016, about $30 million a month after paying content owners.\n\nThe number of hours streamed likely won't increase by much, YouTube has reached saturation. However we can expect that ad pricing will keep up with inflation. At the same time we are seeing a rise in ad blockers with an expected growth of about 10% this year, but decreasing later. In 2019/2020 the growth of ad blockers will probably fall below inflation, meaning the revenue number will rise.\n\nSo what does this mean for YouTube revenue and YouTube profit?\n\n2016 YouTube probably turned a profit of roughly $130-150 million.\n\n2017 profits should be $120-130 million.\n\n2018 $110-120 million\n\n2019 $115-130 million\n\n2020 $120-150 million\n\nAt a certain point in the future if they do nothing it will flip upside down (2025ish) but minimal changes can keep it going to 2050 fairly easily.\n\nOf greater concern for me is the changes in pay to content owners. YouTube already pays among the lowest in the industry, and the next 2+ years will likely see the numbers drop even lower, after counting inflation it is possible that we will never see real pay per viewer hour rise on YouTube."],
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'query_id': '5rd8i0',
'query': "how is youtube a sustainable business model? if view count remains constant but video storage costs continue to increase, wouldn't this lead to a permanent loss?",
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '36880',
'title': 'Nuclear warfare',
'section': 'Section::::Types of nuclear warfare.\n',
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'passage_text': "The second, a full-scale nuclear war, could consist of large numbers of nuclear weapons used in an attack aimed at an entire country, including military, economic, and civilian targets. Such an attack would almost certainly destroy the entire economic, social, and military infrastructure of the target nation, and would probably have a devastating effect on Earth's biosphere.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2999725',
'title': 'Kinetic bombardment',
'section': 'Section::::Real life concepts and theories.\n',
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'passage_text': "The idea is that the weapon would naturally contain a large kinetic energy because it moves at orbital velocities, around 8 kilometers per second in orbit and 3 kilometers per second or Mach 10 at impact. As the rod would reenter Earth's atmosphere it would lose most of the velocity, but the remaining energy would cause considerable damage. Some systems are quoted as having the yield of a small tactical nuclear bomb. These designs are envisioned as a bunker buster. As the name suggests, the 'bunker buster' is powerful enough to destroy a nuclear bunker. With 6–8 satellites on a given orbit, a target could be hit within 12–15 minutes from any given time, less than half the time taken by an ICBM and without the launch warning. Such a system could also be equipped with sensors to detect incoming anti-ballistic missile-type threats and relatively light protective measures to use against them (e.g. Hit-To-Kill Missiles or megawatt-class chemical laser).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1593659',
'title': 'Nuclear weapons in popular culture',
'section': 'Section::::In video games.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- In "Warhammer 40,000", nuclear weapons are used to cause widespread damage to a planet (the methods collectively being called an "Exterminatus", a mass execution of a population through futuristic weapons) and in combat. The nukes must be properly arranged in orbit to create a global firestorm.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1291047',
'title': 'Brilliant Pebbles',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Excalibur.\n',
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'passage_text': 'By surrounding a nuclear warhead with dozens of such rods, each rod could be independently aimed to shoot down an enemy missile. A single such warhead might be able to destroy 50 missiles in a radius of a around it. A small fleet of such warheads could seriously disrupt any Soviet attack.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '841594',
'title': 'LGM-25C Titan II',
'section': 'Section::::Titan II missile.:Development.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The Department of Defense predicted that a Titan II missile could eventually carry a warhead with a 35 megaton yield, based on projected improvements. However, that warhead was never developed or deployed. This would have made this warhead one of the most powerful ever, with almost double the power-to-weight ratio of the B41 nuclear bomb.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '646872',
'title': 'Suitcase nuclear device',
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'passage_text': 'The maximum yield of the W54 warhead used in the Special Atomic Demolition Munition (pictured) was 1 kt (1000 tonnes of TNT equivalent). This is actually larger and heavier than the US W48 nuclear shell at 155 mm (6.1 inches) in diameter and 846 mm (33.3 inches) long and weighing 53.5 kg (118 lb), which represents the smallest complete, self-contained physics package to be fielded and had a yield of 72 tonnes of TNT. Nuclear weapons designer Ted Taylor has alleged that a 105 mm (4.1 inch) diameter shell with a mass of 19 kg is theoretically possible. Conversely, reduction beyond the size of the W54 means that linear implosion designs must be employed and neutron reflectors dispensed with ("bare core"), so a much larger mass of fissile material is required and explosive yield is reduced dramatically. Taylor\'s figures represent the minimum size and mass to sustain a prompt criticality but the duration without tamper or neutron reflection would be short. The slope of exponential growth, estimated number of fissions, and specific fissile material are not recorded. Neptunium-236 is fissile and possesses the smallest and lightest critical mass, but isolation of the specific radionuclide makes it an impractical choice. Several other novel fissile materials are known, but U-235 and Pu-239 are the only practical options although two US tests using U-233 (critical mass some 32% less than U235) have taken place.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '648563',
'title': 'START II',
'section': 'Section::::Impact of MIRV.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': "Hypothetically, if one were to assume that each side had 100 missiles, with 5 warheads each, and further that each side had a 95 percent chance of neutralizing the opponent's missiles in their silos by firing 2 warheads at each silo, then the side that strikes first can reduce the enemy ICBM force from 100 missiles to about 5 by firing 40 missiles with 200 warheads and keeping the remaining 60 missiles in reserve. Thus the destruction capability is greatly multiplied by MIRV, when the number of enemy silos does not significantly increase.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How powerful does a nuclear warhead have to be to destroy our planet?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['What do you mean by destroy the planet. If you mean death star type explosion with no planet left you would need a bomb around 100 Zettatons of tnt which is around a quadrillion times as big as the most powerful bomb ever made.',
'You have to be more specific. It takes a lot more to disintegrate the planet into little chunks than to kill all humans within 100 years.',
'[This](_URL_1_) and [this](_URL_0_) give me a ballpark figure of:\n\n50 & #8239;000 & #8239;000 & #8239;000 & #8239;000 & #8239;000 & #8239;Mt\n\nCompare this to the biggest bomb yet detonated by man at:\n\n57 & #8239;Mt\n\nNote how one of these numbers is substantially larger than the other.',
"Planets are pretty big thing and pretty hard to destroy.\n\nEven if you somehow managed to shatter a planet to pieces the pieces would just be drawn back to each other to reform a planet unless you pushed the pieces very, very hard away from each other.\n\nThere is a theory that Earth was impacted by a very large and fast object very early in its development and that the impact was energetic enough to push out a massive amount of molten rock and debris that eventually formed our moon.\n\nThat was literally an earth shattering kaboom and the planet still was only changed but not destroyed in the process.\n\nWikipedia says that the largest nuclear explosion ever was when the Russian tested their Tsar bomb. It was theoretical a 100 megaton bomb but they tested it at 50 mt which works out to be about 2.1×10^17 J.\n\nWikipedia also gives the energy released by the asteroid that killed all the dinosaurs (except birds) as 5×10^23 J. This means that impact was about 2 million times stronger than the strongest atomic bomb and while it certainly ruined the day for everyone a round at the time it didn't destroy the earth or kill all our ancestors (little furry things that they were).\n\nWikipedia also gives a value for the gravitational binding energy of Earth (which I assume would be needed to overcome to blast the planet apart) as 2×10^32 J. This would be 10^15 (a quadrillion) times higher than the largest nuclear explosion ever.\n\nYou can't really imagine a quadrillion times of anything with a human brain, but it is a lot. We can't scale up nuclear bombs that big.\n\nSo the Earth is safe from being blown apart by man made nuclear explosion.\n\nThat is good.\n\nAs the above value for the dinosaur killing impact shows we are probably also safe from completely destroying our own ecosphere on top of the planet. It is much more fragile than the planet itself, but it has survived explosions a million times bigger than anything we ever made and came out fine eventually.\n\nSo we won't kill the planet or life on earth.\n\nHumanity is even more fragile than life on earth. The giant impact above killed of all land species bigger than a medium sized dog. That sort of thing would have a good chance of killing of humanity.\n\nEven more fragile is human civilization. You don't need to kill of all humans with the explosion just make it big enough that the survivors will be bombed back into a stone age. That would be still too much for s ingle full yield tsar bomb, but the nuclear powers of the world have enough bombs to be able to confidently cause a collapse of human civilization, with a small but non-zero chance of total human extinction.\n\nThe earth will be fine. We won't."],
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'query_id': '6fqv6a',
'query': 'how powerful does a nuclear warhead have to be to destroy our planet?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '49159',
'title': 'Hallucination',
'section': 'Section::::Classification.:Olfactory.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Phantosmia (olfactory hallucinations), smelling an odor that is not actually there, and parosmia (olfactory illusions), inhaling a real odor but perceiving it as different scent than remembered, are distortions to the sense of smell (olfactory system) that, in most cases, are not caused by anything serious and usually go away on their own in time. It can result from a range of conditions such as nasal infections, nasal polyps, dental problems, migraines, head injuries, seizures, strokes, or brain tumors. Environmental exposures are sometimes the cause as well, such as smoking, exposure to certain types of chemicals (e.g., insecticides or solvents), or radiation treatment for head or neck cancer. It can also be a symptom of certain mental disorders such as depression, bipolar disorder, intoxication or withdrawal from drugs and alcohol, or psychotic disorders (e.g., schizophrenia). The perceived odors are usually unpleasant and commonly described as smelling burned, foul spoiled, or rotten.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38810922',
'title': 'Merciful anosmia',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Merciful anosmia is a condition in which the person is unaware of a foul smell emanating from his own nose. This condition is seen in atrophic rhinitis. In atrophic rhinitis, the turbinates, venous sinusoids, seromucinous glands and nerves undergo atrophy, resulting in a foul smelling discharge. As the nerve fibres sensing smell are also atrophied, the patient is unable to appreciate the foul smell.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19614304',
'title': 'Skunk (weapon)',
'section': 'Section::::Product.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': '“Imagine the worst, most foul thing you have ever smelled. An overpowering mix of rotting meat, old socks that haven’t been washed for weeks – topped off with the pungent waft of an open sewer. . .Imagine being covered in the stuff as it is liberally sprayed from a water cannon. Then imagine not being able to get rid of the stench for at least three days, no matter how often you try to scrub yourself clean.”\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9093929',
'title': 'Olfactory reference syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Odor complaint.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 293,
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'passage_text': 'Other symptoms may be reported and are claimed to be related to the cause of the odor, such as malfunction of the anal sphincter, a skin disease, "diseased womb", stomach problems or other unknown organic disease. Excessive washing in ORS has been reported to cause the development of eczema.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14315108',
'title': 'Dysosmia',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Smell disorders can result in the inability to detect environmental dangers such as gas leaks, toxins, or smoke. In addition to safety, nutritional and eating habits can also be affected. There is a loss of appetite because of unpleasant flavor and fear of failing to recognize and consuming spoiled food. A decreased or distorted sense of smell therefore results in a decreased quality of life. Distortions are believed to have a greater negative impact on people than the complete loss of smell because they are constantly reminded of the disorder and the distortions have a greater effect on eating habits.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '414280',
'title': 'Bad breath',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.:Self diagnosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 55,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "Scientists have long thought that smelling one's own breath odor is often difficult due to acclimatization, although many people with bad breath are able to detect it in others. Research has suggested that self-evaluation of halitosis is not easy because of preconceived notions of how bad we think it should be. Some people assume that they have bad breath because of bad taste (metallic, sour, fecal, etc.), however bad taste is considered a poor indicator.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9093929',
'title': 'Olfactory reference syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Odor complaint.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'Although all individuals with ORS believe they have an odor, in some cases the individual reports they cannot perceive the odor themselves. In the latter cases, the belief arises via misinterpretation of the behavior of others or with the rationale that a disorder of smell which prevents self detection of the odor (i.e. anosmia) exists. In the cases where the non-existent odor can be detected, this is usually considered as phantosmia (olfactory hallucination). Olfactory hallucination can be considered the result of the belief in an odor delusion, or the belief a result of the olfactory hallucination. In one review, the individual with ORS was unreservedly convinced that he or she could detect the odor themselves in 22% of cases, whilst in 19% there was occasional or intermittent detection and in 59% lack of self-detection was present.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Can smelling something be unhealthy? Like if there's a very bad smell, is there anything dangerous about the act of smelling it?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Unless the fumes contain chemicals that in their vapor form can damage breathing or affect the brain, no. Bad smells are not inherently more unhealthy than good smells. But if you're sniffing gasoline, which has a dangerous vapor form, then yeah, you'll get sick. ",
'Yes. Stuff like paint- and glue fumes can be highly toxic.\n\nI don\'t think that "regular" bad smells like rotting fish or excrement are dangerous even in large quantities, but both foster a myriad of harmful microbes so the smell is evolution telling you to stay away.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '6ihtn3',
'query': "can smelling something be unhealthy? like if there's a very bad smell, is there anything dangerous about the act of smelling it?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '77355',
'title': 'Shellsort',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Shellsort is a generalization of insertion sort that allows the exchange of items that are far apart. The idea is to arrange the list of elements so that, starting anywhere, considering every "h"th element gives a sorted list. Such a list is said to be "h"-sorted. Equivalently, it can be thought of as "h" interleaved lists, each individually sorted. Beginning with large values of "h", this rearrangement allows elements to move long distances in the original list, reducing large amounts of disorder quickly, and leaving less work for smaller "h"-sort steps to do. If the list is then "k-sorted" for some smaller integer "k", then the list remains "h"-sorted. Following this idea for a decreasing sequence of "h" values ending in 1 is guaranteed to leave a sorted list in the end.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '77355',
'title': 'Shellsort',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "Shellsort, also known as Shell sort or Shell's method, is an in-place comparison sort. It can be seen as either a generalization of sorting by exchange (bubble sort) or sorting by insertion (insertion sort). The method starts by sorting pairs of elements far apart from each other, then progressively reducing the gap between elements to be compared. Starting with far apart elements, it can move some out-of-place elements into position faster than a simple nearest neighbor exchange. Donald Shell published the first version of this sort in 1959. The running time of Shellsort is heavily dependent on the gap sequence it uses. For many practical variants, determining their time complexity remains an open problem.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28442',
'title': 'Sorting algorithm',
'section': 'Section::::Popular sorting algorithms.:Efficient sorts.:Shellsort.\n',
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'passage_text': '"Shellsort" was invented by Donald Shell in 1959. It improves upon insertion sort by moving out of order elements more than one position at a time. The concept behind Shellsort is that insertion sort performs in time, where k is the greatest distance between two out-of-place elements. This means that generally, they perform in "O"("n"), but for data that is mostly sorted, with only a few elements out of place, they perform faster. So, by first sorting elements far away, and progressively shrinking the gap between the elements to sort, the final sort computes much faster. One implementation can be described as arranging the data sequence in a two-dimensional array and then sorting the columns of the array using insertion sort.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48885825',
'title': 'Incompressibility method',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Theory of computation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
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'passage_text': 'Shellsort, discovered by Donald Shell in 1959, is a comparison sort which divides a list to be sorted into sublists and sorts them separately. The sorted sublists are then merged, reconstituting a partially-sorted list. This process repeats a number of times (the number of passes). The difficulty of analyzing the complexity of the sorting process is that it depends on the number formula_2 of keys to be sorted, on the number formula_89 of passes and the increments governing the scattering in each pass; the sublist is the list of keys which are the increment parameter apart. Although this sorting method inspired a large number of papers, only the worst case was established. For the average running time, only the best case for a two-pass Shellsort and an upper bound of formula_90 for a particular increment sequence for three-pass Shellsort were established. A general lower bound on an average formula_89-pass Shellsort was given which was the first advance in this problem in four decades. In every pass, the comparison sort moves a key to another place a certain distance (a path length). All these path lengths are logarithmically coded for length in the correct order (of passes and keys). This allows the reconstruction of the unsorted list from the sorted list. If the unsorted list is incompressible (or nearly so), since the sorted list has near-zero Kolmogorov complexity (and the path lengths together give a certain code length) the sum must be at least as large as the Kolmogorov complexity of the original list. The sum of the path lengths corresponds to the running time, and the running time is lower-bounded in this argument by formula_92. This was improved in to a lower bound of \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '49497',
'title': "Pascal's triangle",
'section': 'Section::::Patterns and properties.:Rows.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 44,
'end_character': 437,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- "The value of a row", if each entry is considered a decimal place (and numbers larger than 9 carried over accordingly), is a power of 11 ( , for row\xa0). Thus, in row\xa02, becomes 11, while in row\xa0five becomes (after carrying) 161,051, which is 11. This property is explained by setting in the binomial expansion of , and adjusting values to the decimal system. But can be chosen to allow rows to represent values in "any" base.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '286436',
'title': '255 (number)',
'section': 'Section::::In computing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 441,
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'passage_text': '255 is a special number in some tasks having to do with computing. This is the maximum value representable by an eight-digit binary number, and therefore the maximum representable by an unsigned 8-bit byte (the most common size of byte, also called an octet), the smallest common variable size used in high level programming languages (bit being smaller, but rarely used for value storage). The range is 0 to 255, which is 256 total values.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13790',
'title': 'Hash function',
'section': 'Section::::Hash function algorithms.:Trivial hash function.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 66,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 66,
'end_character': 359,
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'passage_text': 'The meaning of "small enough" depends on the size of the type that is used as the hashed value. For example, in Java, the hash code is a 32-bit integer. Thus the 32-bit integer codice_1 and 32-bit floating-point codice_2 objects can simply use the value directly; whereas the 64-bit integer codice_3 and 64-bit floating-point codice_4 cannot use this method.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'in the shell sort algorithm, why are the numbers 1,4,10,23,57,132,301,701,1750 used? They seem to be ambiguous and are really confusing me...',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Mathematics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Shell sort partitions the data. The exact partition is not that important, but the properties of the partition (i.e. "gap sequence") do affect the runtime.\n\n"Gonnet and Baeza-Yates observed that Shellsort makes the fewest comparisons on average when the ratios of successive gaps are roughly equal to 2.2."\n\nYou need to have some numbers to do the partition, so those numbers are one set that is known to work well, but you can change them and it will still work.\n\n_URL_0_'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '8bybpq',
'query': 'in the shell sort algorithm, why are the numbers 1,4,10,23,57,132,301,701,1750 used? they seem to be ambiguous and are really confusing me...',
'query_type': 'Mathematics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '28019168',
'title': 'Flashblood',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'After injecting herself with heroin using a syringe, the user will extract approximately 5 ccs of blood from her vein, which another user will inject into her vein. It is unclear if there is enough heroin in the small volume of injected blood to get high or if the high that many users claim is a result of traces of the heroin that had been injected by the user, or if the high is simply the result of the placebo effect. Sharing blood in this manner carries a very high risk of transmitting viruses such as hepatitis and HIV, which are prevalent among injection drug users in East Africa.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4223023',
'title': 'Lacing (drugs)',
'section': 'Section::::Commonly laced drugs.:Heroin.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
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'passage_text': 'Heroin is commonly cut with quinine, caffeine, dimethocaine, procaine, lactose, inositol, dextrose, mannitol, and starch. Other opioids are sometimes sold as heroin or cut with heroin. Fentanyl sold as or laced into heroin has made the news in the past due to the numerous fatalities it causes when it appears on the market. Recently, Fentanyl and close analogues have been produced in pure powder form for very cheap. Dealers may cut with or sell heroin with Fentanyl due to the street cost of Fentanyl versus the cost of heroin. The potency of such mixtures (especially if made carelessly) can be far above that of pure heroin, and users frequently overdose due to this.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5342540',
'title': 'Chasing the dragon',
'section': 'Section::::Health.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'This method of intake significantly decreases or eliminates certain risks of heroin use, such as the transmission of HIV, hepatitis, and other diseases through needle sharing, the introduction of skin bacteria to the blood stream due to non-sterile injection, and the stress that injection puts on veins cannot occur. Additionally, a small puff can be inhaled as a method of gauging the strength of the heroin. This may protect users from overdosing. Finally, the lungs can act to filter out adulterants that otherwise would pass directly into the bloodstream. One of the most common of these adulterants, talc, has an apparently greater potential to damage the lungs (as well as other organs, such as the kidneys) when present in the bloodstream, than when inhaled.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14034',
'title': 'Heroin',
'section': 'Section::::Routes of administration.:Insufflation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
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'passage_text': 'Another popular route to intake heroin is insufflation (snorting), where a user crushes the heroin into a fine powder and then gently inhales it (sometimes with a straw or a rolled-up banknote, as with cocaine) into the nose, where heroin is absorbed through the soft tissue in the mucous membrane of the sinus cavity and straight into the bloodstream. This method of administration redirects first-pass metabolism, with a quicker onset and higher bioavailability than oral administration, though the duration of action is shortened. This method is sometimes preferred by users who do not want to prepare and administer heroin for injection or smoking, but still experience a fast onset. Snorting heroin becomes an often unwanted route, once a user begins to inject the drug. The user may still get high on the drug from snorting, and experience a nod, but will not get a rush. A "rush" is caused by a large amount of heroin entering the body at once. When the drug is taken in through the nose, the user does not get the rush because the drug is absorbed slowly rather than instantly.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14034',
'title': 'Heroin',
'section': 'Section::::Routes of administration.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Ingestion does not produce a rush as forerunner to the high experienced with the use of heroin, which is most pronounced with intravenous use. While the onset of the rush induced by injection can occur in as little as a few seconds, the oral route of administration requires approximately half an hour before the high sets in. Thus, with both higher the dosage of heroin used and faster the route of administration used, the higher potential risk for psychological addiction.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14034',
'title': 'Heroin',
'section': 'Section::::Routes of administration.:Injection.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Injection, also known as "slamming", "banging", "shooting up", "digging" or "mainlining", is a popular method which carries relatively greater risks than other methods of administration. Heroin base (commonly found in Europe), when prepared for injection, will only dissolve in water when mixed with an acid (most commonly citric acid powder or lemon juice) and heated. Heroin in the east-coast United States is most commonly found in the hydrochloride salt form, requiring just water (and no heat) to dissolve. Users tend to initially inject in the easily accessible arm veins, but as these veins collapse over time, users resort to more dangerous areas of the body, such as the femoral vein in the groin. Users who have used this route of administration often develop a deep vein thrombosis. Intravenous users can use a various single dose range using a hypodermic needle. The dose of heroin used for recreational purposes is dependent on the frequency and level of use: thus a first-time user may use between 5 and 20\xa0mg, while an established addict may require several hundred mg per day. As with the injection of any drug, if a group of users share a common needle without sterilization procedures, blood-borne diseases, such as HIV/AIDS or hepatitis, can be transmitted.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6590389',
'title': 'Collapsed vein',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Smaller veins may collapse as a consequence of too much suction being used when pulling back against the plunger of the syringe to check that the needle is in the vein. This will pull the sides of the vein together and, especially if they are inflamed, they may stick together causing the vein to block. Removing the needle too quickly after injecting can have a similar effect.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do heroin users have to switch veins? What does the heroin do to “kill” the vein?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It's not the heroin. It's poking the same spot with a needle over and over again without giving it enough time to heal. It can get more complicated where if you *do* give it time to heal after you've abused it too much it will develop scar tissue which makes it harder to inject there. ",
"I suspect it's less about the heroin and more about the needle but I don't know for certain.\n\nFirst of all, needles are meant to be single use, but they can be hard to get so addicts often reuse and share needles (which is also why they have a very high HIV and other blood borne pathogen risk). The needle is bent, cracked, and blunted with each use, making it more destructive to the vein, both physically by making a more ragged hole, and by introducing pathogens and causing infection.\n\nEven if they did use a fresh needle every time though, every stick is at least a little traumatic to the vein wall. Chemo patients, patients on dialysis, and other chronically ill patients that require frequent venipuncture often have scarring on their veins as well (it feels like sticking rice crispies) and that's if the vein doesn't collapse altogether. Also if they're sticking themselves one handed it will be a less accurate shot, since using your other hand to stabilize the vein makes for a much smoother stick.\n\nThese are my thoughts as a former phlebotomist, not knowing much about heroin, but knowing a lot about venipuncture."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '89ect0',
'query': 'why do heroin users have to switch veins? what does the heroin do to “kill” the vein?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '145865',
'title': 'Parts-per notation',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Parts-per notation is often used describing dilute solutions in chemistry, for instance, the relative abundance of dissolved minerals or pollutants in water. The quantity “1\xa0ppm” can be used for a mass fraction if a water-borne pollutant is present at one-millionth of a gram per gram of sample solution. When working with aqueous solutions, it is common to assume that the density of water is 1.00 g/mL. Therefore, it is common to equate 1 kilogram of water with 1 L of water. Consequently, 1 ppm corresponds to 1\xa0mg/L and 1 ppb corresponds to 1 μg/L.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '138268',
'title': 'Spokane, Washington',
'section': 'Section::::Notes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 147,
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'passage_text': 'A study published in "The Spokesman-Review" on May 6, 1909, by City bacteriologist, Frank Rose found only seven or eight germs per cubic centimeter of water. As a standard, "water that contains 100 germs per cubic centimeter is considered comparatively pure".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24027000',
'title': 'Properties of water',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Water () is a polar inorganic compound that is at room temperature a tasteless and odorless liquid, which is nearly colorless apart from an inherent hint of blue. It is by far the most studied chemical compound and is described as the "universal solvent" and the "solvent of life". It is the most abundant substance on Earth and the only common substance to exist as a solid, liquid, and gas on Earth\'s surface. It is also the third most abundant molecule in the universe.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16270616',
'title': 'Glossary of environmental science',
'section': 'Section::::V.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 583,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 583,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- virtual water - the volume of water required to produce a commodity or service. First coined by Professor J.A. Allan of the University of London in the early 1990s, though this is now more widely known as cf. embedded (embodied) water.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21830',
'title': 'Nature',
'section': 'Section::::Water on Earth.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
'end_character': 739,
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'passage_text': 'Water is a chemical substance that is composed of hydrogen and oxygen and is vital for all known forms of life. In typical usage, "water" refers only to its liquid form or state, but the substance also has a solid state, ice, and a gaseous state, water vapor, or steam. Water covers 71% of the Earth\'s surface. On Earth, it is found mostly in oceans and other large bodies of water, with 1.6% of water below ground in aquifers and 0.001% in the air as vapor, clouds, and precipitation. Oceans hold 97% of surface water, glaciers, and polar ice caps 2.4%, and other land surface water such as rivers, lakes, and ponds 0.6%. Additionally, a minute amount of the Earth\'s water is contained within biological bodies and manufactured products.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24027000',
'title': 'Properties of water',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 404,
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'passage_text': 'Water is amphoteric, meaning that it can exhibit properties of an acid or a base, depending on the pH of the solution that it is in; it readily produces both and ions. Related to its amphoteric character, it undergoes self-ionization. The product of the activities, or approximately, the concentrations of and is a constant, so their respective concentrations are inversely proportional to each other.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1853642',
'title': 'Water damage',
'section': 'Section::::Categories.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 250,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Category 1 Water - Refers to a source of water that does not pose substantial threat to humans and classified as "clean water". Examples are broken water supply lines, tub or sink overflows or appliance malfunctions that involves water supply lines.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How are things n% water?',
'selftext': 'How is the human body like 70%/80% IIRC water? How is a cucumber like 95% water? I can understand with liquids or wet things but how is the water content of a banana or piece of muscle or bone calculated? How do water molecules just seem to be incorporated into everything? Why water? What purpose does it serve?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Heat it until the water evaporates, check its mass before and after and calculate the percentage'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '98x0om',
'query': 'how are things n% water?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '820425',
'title': 'Sociobiological theories of rape',
'section': 'Section::::Animal coercive sex.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'It has been noted that behavior resembling rape in humans is observed in the animal kingdom, including ducks and geese, bottlenose dolphins, and chimpanzees. Indeed, in orangutans, close human relatives, copulations of this nature may account for up to half of all observed matings. Such behaviors, referred to as \'forced copulations\', involve an animal being approached and sexually penetrated as it struggles or attempts to escape. These observations of forced sex among animals are not controversial. What is controversial is the interpretation of these observations and the extension of theories based on them to humans. "Thornhill introduces this theory by describing the sexual behavior of scorpionflies. In which the male may gain sex from the female either by presenting a gift of food during courtship or without a nuptial offering, in which case force is necessary to restrain her."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '820425',
'title': 'Sociobiological theories of rape',
'section': 'Section::::Human rape.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'It is hypothesized that rape is homologous to similar behavior in other animals. "Human rape appears not as an aberration but as an alternative gene-promotion strategy that is most likely to be adopted by the \'losers\' in the competitive, harem-building struggle. If the means of access to legitimate, consenting sex is not available, then a male may be faced with the choice between force or genetic extinction."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2298034',
'title': 'Rape culture',
'section': 'Section::::Prevalence.:In South Africa.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 64,
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'passage_text': 'Rape and sexual violence are also prevalent in South Africa because of confusion about what is to be regarded as rape. Certain acts of sexual coercion may not be legally distinguishable. While the criminal offense of rape is condemned by the society, many rapes or sexual assaults might not be recognized as such and thus are not thought to be unacceptable behavior.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '767439',
'title': 'Rape (county subdivision)',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'A rape is a traditional territorial sub-division of the county of Sussex in England, formerly used for various administrative purposes. Their origin is unknown, but they appear to predate the Norman Conquest. Historically the rapes formed the basis of local government in Sussex.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3845894',
'title': 'Human male sexuality',
'section': 'Section::::Sexual coercion and violence.:Evolutionary explanations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
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'passage_text': 'Thornhill and Palmer\'s "A Natural History of Rape" investigates the evolutionary causes of sexual coercion, particularly of rape, and suggests that such behaviour is a result of sexual selection, rather than Darwinian natural selection.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3845894',
'title': 'Human male sexuality',
'section': 'Section::::Sexual coercion and violence.:Evolutionary explanations.:Rape as an evolutionary by-product hypothesis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
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'passage_text': "The 'rape as a by-product' explanation holds that rape behaviour evolved as a by-product of other psychological adaptations in men to obtain many mates. This adaptation not only leads to rape but a number of other behaviours including overrating female sexual interest, a desire for sexual variety, coercion, and sexual arousal which is not dependent on the consent of mate.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2298034',
'title': 'Rape culture',
'section': 'Section::::Prevalence.:In South Africa.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 63,
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'passage_text': 'Researchers have attempted to explain the high rate of rape in South Africa and have connected it to the traditional and cultural norms embedded within the society. Certain norms like the belief of rape myths, the inequality between men and women, and the need to express their dominance made the rape appear justified to the assailants. Many began raping when they were young teenagers for entertainment, reflecting the notion that rape is a pastime for young men and boys.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': '- Why is, what seems like rape so prevalent in the animal kingdom?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Because most animals don\'t have morals. Humanity has gotten to a point of intelligence and society that we don\'t need to allow ourselves to just procreate willy-nilly. \n\nCats, dogs, and other animals rape as part of procreation because they don\'t have the morals, the intelligence, the sense of caring for others, that says "maybe they don\'t want sex".',
"Why not? If you're a male animal, and your primary goal is to increase the chances of your genes passing down as much as possible, you'd have sex with anything you can unless there's something preventing you.\n\nThere's no police in the wild, the only thing to really stop you is social factors, if you live in a complex enough social structure for that to matter. ",
"Animals don't 'rape' each other they don't have the capacity to even process that type of instinct for the most part",
'The most important thing to note here is that animals are amoral. There is no such thing as murder between animals; simply killing and being killed. Likewise, there is no concept of "consent". In most species, sex is not for pleasure but purely for reproduction. \n\nThe reason it is so common to see male animals "forcing" themselves on females to mate is because females are the choosy sex. Eggs are far more biologically expensive to produce than sperm, and therefore in higher demand. Much of sexual selection is female choice. Any male that manages to successfully reproduce and pass on its genes is "fit" (as in survival of the fittest), and often this involves being physically strong enough to overpower a reluctant female. Other times, it involves enticing a female. There is such a huge range of mating behaviors and systems that it is difficult to generalize, but that\'s about the gist of it. \n\nOne more factor here is that as far as we know there is no emotional component to most animal reproduction. It\'s just, "will you make babies that will live? Alright, let\'s mate." It is purely an instinctive and physical process. Calling it rape implies that the female is traumatized and that the male has committed a wrong when this is simply not true.\n\nEdit: One more thing. In many cases sex is painful for the female, which we tend to anthropomorphize as rape. However, painful intercourse incentives the female to be selective in her mates. Evolution is basically just a competition to see who can reproduce the most successfully. Reproductive success is generally interpreted as the relative number of offspring that also reproduce. If the males adapt to their role of either enticing or subduing a female, and the females to theirs of selecting the most fit mates, things seem to work out.\n\nSource: senior bio undergrad focusing on zoology. I know way too much about animal sex.\n\n'],
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'query_id': '92yvvv',
'query': '- why is, what seems like rape so prevalent in the animal kingdom?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '355802',
'title': 'Egg white',
'section': 'Section::::Foam.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'The physical stress of beating egg whites can create a foam. Two types of physical stress are caused by beating them with a whisk, the first of which occurs as the whisk drags the liquid through itself, creating a force that unfolds the protein molecules. This process is called denaturation. The second stress comes from the mixing of air into the whites, which causes the proteins to come out of their natural state. These denatured proteins gather together where the air and water meet and create multiple bonds with the other unraveled proteins, and thus become a foam, holding the incorporated air in place, because the proteins consist of amino acids; some are hydrophilic (attracted to water) and some are hydrophobic (repelled by water). This process is called coagulation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52988',
'title': 'Poaching (cooking)',
'section': 'Section::::Typical preparation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Typically an egg is poached just to the point where the white is no longer runny and the yolk is beginning to harden around the edges. Some people say creating a whirlpool helps with poaching eggs because it helps the egg stay together, wrapping the white around the yolk.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3505489',
'title': 'Indian ice cream (Canada)',
'section': 'Section::::Whipping process.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
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'passage_text': 'Similar to whipping egg whites, foaming is reduced in the presence of lipid contamination (grease, egg yolk, etc.). Foam depends on the ability of the surfactant (saponins in soapberries, denatured proteins in egg whites) molecules to bind with each other and create a hydrophobic interaction at the interface. When lipids are present, they interfere with this interaction and reduce the viscoelasticity of the foam.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '246992',
'title': 'Angel food cake',
'section': 'Section::::Molecular and structural composition.:Egg whites.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Egg white proteins have many uses in baking, one of which is the ability to create and maintain a foam. Whipping incorporates air throughout the egg whites, as well as denaturing or unfolding the proteins to create thinner protein molecules. Overrun, similar to lightness, describes the amount of air pushed into the foam. In terms of an angel food cake, overrun is the increase in volume from the original volume caused by the inclusion of air. The overrun of an egg white foam ranges from 500 to 800%. This means that whipping 100 mL of egg whites would result in 500 mL - 800 mL of air incorporated into the foam. During whipping, protein adsorption allows for rapid foam formation. Adsorption is the ability to spontaneously form a very thin layer on a surface. The denatured proteins move to the air/water interface to create the cell walls of the air bubbles. Cell wall formation occurs when the denatured proteins aggregate, forming an extremely thin network or film. Many interactions between the proteins and the interface are possible, including hydrogen bonding, electrostatic interactions, disulfate bonds, and Van der Waals interactions. A cake made with egg yolks would not be as light and airy because they have a lower foaming ability than egg whites.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19196010',
'title': 'Egg as food',
'section': 'Section::::Anatomy and characteristics.:Shell.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 590,
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'passage_text': "Eggshell color is caused by pigment deposition during egg formation in the oviduct and may vary according to species and breed, from the more common white or brown to pink or speckled blue-green. Generally, chicken breeds with white ear lobes lay white eggs, whereas chickens with red ear lobes lay brown eggs. Although there is no significant link between shell color and nutritional value, often there is a cultural preference for one color over another (see 'Color of eggshell', below). Brown eggs have significantly higher incidence of blood spots due to candling being less effective.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '355802',
'title': 'Egg white',
'section': 'Section::::Foam.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'When beating egg whites, they are classified in three stages according to the peaks they form when the beater is lifted: soft, firm, and stiff peaks. Overbeaten eggs take on a dry appearance, and eventually collapse. Egg whites do not beat up correctly if they are exposed to any form of fat, such as cooking oils or the fats contained in egg yolk.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10727548',
'title': 'Evolution of mammals',
'section': 'Section::::Evolution of mammalian features.:Lactation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 202,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- If so, that may explain why the patches from which monotremes secrete milk are hairy. It is easier to spread moisture and other substances over the egg from a broad, hairy area than from a small, bare nipple.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do egg-whites foam when we whisk them and do not when there is just a very tiny amount of egg yolk in it?',
'selftext': 'Why do egg-whites foam when we whisk them? I notice when there is just a drop of egg-yolk in the egg-white bowl then no matter how long or how hard we whisk the egg-white will never foam. What does the egg-yolk do?',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The foam form the whites is formed by proteins from the protein-rich egg-white. The yolk contains fats that destroy the protein foam (also called an emulsion). You can try this by mixing in a tiny amount of cooking oil into the egg-whites: it will have the same lack-of-foam effect as a tiny amount of yolk.',
'Whipping egg whites is kinda like building a sand castle. In this case your "sand" is little air bubbles and the "water" you need to make it stand up is the egg whites. A little bit of oil in your "cement" makes it not so sticky and the whole structure falls over.',
'Actually eggs will foam when whipped with yolk present, they just take longer to foam and the foam is not quite the same texture, little less stable. My favourite chocolate cake requires 4 whole eggs beaten till peaks form. ',
'Related question - why does using a copper bowl or whisk ake such a difference?',
"To compound what was already said by others, you actually can foam egg yolks. It's more difficult than with the whites, because yolks contain far more fats and far less water than the whites but it is still doable in the right conditions: the italian *zabaglione* cream is exactly that. The trick there is to mix yolks, sugar and a liqueur like *marsala* or *vin santo*, then gently heat the mix while vigorously stirring... the heat will make the ethanol inside the mix boil, forming steam bubbles that will make the foam grow (air is insufficient) and more importantly it will make the proteins in the yolk coagulate, stabilizing the foam. It is difficult to make the right way because you need to heat the mix slowly and exactly at 83°C and keep it at that temperature for a short time, long enough to make the right % of proteins coagulate but not for too long (or the cream will become too firm and unpleasant). Some chefs quickly cool the cream with ice after it reaches the desired firmness to stop the reaction exactly at the right point. Others will serve it still warm.",
"BTW if you heat your whites a bit it is easier to make an emulsion and it's more uh... solid"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9cje19',
'query': 'why do egg-whites foam when we whisk them and do not when there is just a very tiny amount of egg yolk in it?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '10473148',
'title': 'Dust explosion',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
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'passage_text': 'When this mixture of fuel and air is ignited, especially in a confined space such as a warehouse or silo, a significant increase in pressure is created, often more than sufficient to demolish the structure. Even materials that are traditionally thought of as nonflammable (such as aluminum), or slow burning (such as wood), can produce a powerful explosion when finely divided, and can be ignited by even a small spark.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17448',
'title': 'Kuwaiti oil fires',
'section': 'Section::::Extinguishing efforts.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
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'passage_text': 'In fighting a fire at a directly vertical spewing wellhead, high explosives, such as dynamite were used to create a blast wave that pushes the burning fuel and local atmospheric oxygen away from the well. (This is a similar principle to blowing out a candle.) The flame is removed and the fuel can continue to spill out without igniting. Generally, explosives were placed within 55 gallon drums, the explosives surrounded by fire retardant chemicals, and then the drums are wrapped with insulating material with a horizontal crane being used to bring the drum as close to the burning area as possible.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3428197',
'title': 'Flammability limit',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Mixtures of dispersed combustible materials (such as gaseous or vaporised fuels, and some dusts) and air will burn only if the fuel concentration lies within well-defined lower and upper bounds determined experimentally, referred to as flammability limits or explosive limits. Combustion can range in violence from deflagration through detonation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12909801',
'title': 'Fire accelerant',
'section': 'Section::::Types of accelerants.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'The properties of some ignitable liquids make them dangerous accelerants. Many ignitable liquids have high vapor pressures, low flash points and a relatively wide range between their upper and lower explosive limit. This allows ignitable liquids to ignite easily, and when mixed in a proper air-fuel ratio, readily explode. Many arsonists who use generous amounts of gasoline have been seriously burned or killed igniting their fire.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '508455',
'title': 'Oxygen therapy',
'section': 'Section::::Side effects.:Fire risk.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
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'passage_text': 'Highly concentrated sources of oxygen promote rapid combustion. Oxygen itself is not flammable, but the addition of concentrated oxygen to a fire greatly increases its intensity, and can aid the combustion of materials (such as metals) which are relatively inert under normal conditions. Fire and explosion hazards exist when concentrated oxidants and fuels are brought into close proximity; however, an ignition event, such as heat or a spark, is needed to trigger combustion. A well-known example of an accidental fire accelerated by pure oxygen occurred in the Apollo 1 spacecraft in January 1967 during a ground test; it killed all three astronauts. A similar accident killed Soviet cosmonaut Valentin Bondarenko in 1961.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2774201',
'title': 'Boiler explosion',
'section': 'Section::::Firebox explosions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
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'passage_text': 'In the case of a firebox explosion, these typically occur after a burner flameout. Oil fumes, natural gas, propane, coal, or any other fuel can build up inside the combustion chamber. This is especially of concern when the vessel is hot; the fuels will rapidly volatize due to the temperature. Once the lower explosive limit (LEL) is reached, any source of ignition will cause an explosion of the vapors.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1575209',
'title': 'Accelerant',
'section': 'Section::::Fire.:Types.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'end_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'The properties of some ignitable liquids make them dangerous fuels. Many ignitable liquids have high vapor pressures, low flash points and a relatively wide range between their upper and lower explosive limit. This allows ignitable liquids to ignite easily, and when mixed in a proper air-fuel ratio, readily explode. Many arsonists who use generous amounts of gasoline have been seriously burned or killed igniting their fire.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why do large amounts of flammable material in a small space explode (ex: gasoline can) when ignited instead of just lighting on fire and burning like wood',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Burning causes things to expand, heat up and release gases. if its in an enclosed space such as a pipe, grenade casing, gas can, etc... then the pressure from these reactions builds up causing the big bada boom.',
'Whether a mixture of air and gas is combustible depends on the air-to-fuel ratio. For each fuel, ignition occurs only within the explosive range (i.e., the lower and upper explosive limits). For example, for methane and gasoline vapor, the explosive range is 5-15% and 1.4-7.6% gas to air, respectively.\n\nSo a sealed or partially sealed can of liquid gasoline wouldn’t actually explode. The top layer would burn and consume oxygen, but it can’t burn faster than it consumes oxygen. However, a can of gas vapor at the appropriate concentration would explode.\n\nSame goes for wood. A block of wood will burn steadily, because the exposed surface area is limited. However, if sawdust is thrown into the air it can combust rapidly because the individual grains of sawdust have more exposed surface area and more available oxygen. This is why sawmills and grain silos blow up every now and then.',
"chemical reactions often create gases. gases want to expand. If they are confined into a casing they instead build up pressure. Usually the pressure rises till the casing breaks under the pressure, and the high pressure is released very fast. that is an explosion. If your casing is stronger, you get a bigger explosion.\n\nOpen flames also create gases, but they don't build up pressure, as the gas can easily expand into the open air. The only way to get an explosion with an open flame, when the flame spreads faster than the pressure can relax into the air (which happens at the speed of sound)."],
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'query_id': 'cintr9',
'query': 'why do large amounts of flammable material in a small space explode (ex: gasoline can) when ignited instead of just lighting on fire and burning like wood',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '25582520',
'title': 'Transposer',
'section': 'Section::::Physical obstruction.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Reception of RF signals is sensitive to the size of obstruction in the path between the transmitter and the receiver. Generally speaking, if the size exceeds the wavelength the reception is interrupted. Since the wavelength is inversely proportional to frequency, it follows than that the higher frequency broadcast is more sensitive to objects between the transmitter and receiver. If the transmitter and the receiver were at the opposite sides of a hill, MW radio signals may be received, but UHF TV signals won’t be received at all. That’s why translators are mostly employed for VHF and UHF broadcasting (television and FM radio).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1607203',
'title': 'FM broadcasting',
'section': 'Section::::Technology.:Pre-emphasis and de-emphasis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'Random noise has a "triangular" spectral distribution in an FM system, with the effect that noise occurs predominantly at the highest audio frequencies within the baseband. This can be offset, to a limited extent, by boosting the high frequencies before transmission and reducing them by a corresponding amount in the receiver. Reducing the high audio frequencies in the receiver also reduces the high-frequency noise. These processes of boosting and then reducing certain frequencies are known as pre-emphasis and de-emphasis, respectively.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3800090',
'title': 'Motorboating (electronics)',
'section': 'Section::::Occurrence.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Audio equipment associated with radio transmitters, particularly transceivers in two way radios, such as Citizens band, FRS, which have automatic gain control (AGC) or squelch noise control. Malfunctions in the AGC or squelch circuits, which have long time constants, can cause low frequency oscillation. Another possible cause, sometimes in combination with the first, is leakage of the strong radio frequency (RF) signal from the transmitter into the receiver audio sections, which can cause quenching oscillations. This is a RFI problem, caused by inadequate shielding or filtering to keep the RF out.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52141',
'title': 'Inversion (meteorology)',
'section': 'Section::::Consequences.:Electromagnetic radiation (radio and television).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 91,
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'end_paragraph_id': 91,
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'passage_text': 'Very high frequency radio waves can be refracted by inversions, making it possible to hear FM radio or watch VHF low-band television broadcasts from long distances on foggy nights. The signal, which would normally be refracted up and away from the ground-based antenna, is instead refracted down towards the earth by the temperature-inversion boundary layer. This phenomenon is called tropospheric ducting. Along coast lines during Autumn and Spring, due to multiple stations being simultaneously present because of reduced propagation losses, many FM radio stations are plagued by severe signal degradation causing them to sound scrambled.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20959696',
'title': 'Armstrong phase modulator',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Frequency modulation generates high quality audio and greatly reduces the amount of noise on the channel when compared with amplitude modulation. Early broadcasters used amplitude modulation because it was easier to generate than frequency modulation and because the receivers were simpler to make. The electronics theory indicated that a frequency modulated signal would have infinite bandwidth; for an amplitude modulated signal, the bandwidth is approximately twice the highest modulating frequency.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41574',
'title': 'Preemphasis improvement',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The reason that preemphasis is needed is that the process of detecting a frequency-modulated signal in a receiver produces a noise spectrum that rises in frequency (a so-called "triangular" spectrum). Without preemphasis, the received audio would sound unacceptably noisy at high frequencies, especially under conditions of low carrier-to-noise ratio, i.e., during fringe reception conditions. Preemphasis increases the magnitude of the higher signal frequencies, thereby improving the signal-to-noise ratio. At the output of the discriminator in the FM receiver, a deemphasis network restores the original signal power distribution.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22416553',
'title': 'Tropospheric propagation',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The service area from a VHF or UHF radio transmitter extends to just beyond the optical horizon, at which point signals start to rapidly reduce in strength. Viewers living in such a "deep fringe" reception area will notice that during certain conditions, weak signals normally masked by noise increase in signal strength to allow quality reception. Such conditions are related to the current state of the troposphere.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does a weak am/fm radio signal result in a consistent static/fuzzy sound while a weak satellite radio signal results in intermittent high quality sound?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The simple answer is that AM/FM is an analog signal, which you can "kind of" pick up. Think of analog as a scale of 100-0 with the quality increasing or decreasing as you move from the transmitter.\n\nSatellite radio is a digital signal. Think 1 or 0. It\'s either there, or it\'s not. The same holds true for satellite TV, where in a severe storm your picture will be perfect right up until it cuts out into nothingness.',
"This is one of the major advantages of digital broadcasts over analogue. \n\nWhen your analogue AM/FM radio signal is weak you start to hear background noise and interference because it becomes difficult for your receiver to distinguish between signal and noise. Even on modern analogue devices, the internal filtering can't tell if the crackling static is part of the real signal or not when it's weak.\n\nDigital is either received or it isn't. If the digital signal is weak then the receiver just doesn't give you noise since it has nothing to decode. Whereas analogue actually transmits something directly related to the audio you hear, digital is just 1s and 0s. Noise and interference just make it hard to tell what's being received - they don't change 1s to 0s or 0s to 1s. Noise on analogue still turns into noise which you can hear. ",
"Broadcast radio is (mostly) analog. That means if you get a partial signal, you can get a partial.\n\nSatellite radio is digital, which means all or nothing.\n\nIt is kind of like talking in a noisy room. \n\nIf we are just having a conversation and you miss a word or two, you can probably guess from the context what I am saying. \n\nBit if I am trying to give you a phone number, and you miss a few numbers, they numbers you do hear aren't going to do you much good."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5mq0ag',
'query': 'why does a weak am/fm radio signal result in a consistent static/fuzzy sound while a weak satellite radio signal results in intermittent high quality sound?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '7225239',
'title': 'Bowel infarction',
'section': 'Section::::Management.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'An infarcted or dead intestinal segment is a serious medical problem because of the fact that intestines contain non-sterile contents within the lumen. Although the fecal content and high bacterial loads of the intestine are normally safely contained, progressive ischemia causes tissue breakdown and inevitably leads to bacteria spreading to the bloodstream. Untreated bowel infarction quickly leads to life-threatening infection and sepsis, and may be fatal. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24536042',
'title': 'Feces',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Feces (or faeces) are the solid or semisolid remains of food that could not be digested in the small intestine. Bacteria in the large intestine further break down the material. Feces contain a relatively small amount of metabolic waste products such as bacterially altered bilirubin, and the dead epithelial cells from the lining of the gut.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6250168',
'title': 'Indicator bacteria',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Each gram of human feces contains approximately ~100 billion () bacteria. These bacteria may include species of pathogenic bacteria, such as "Salmonella" or "Campylobacter", associated with gastroenteritis. In addition, feces may contain pathogenic viruses, protozoa and parasites. Fecal material can enter the environment from many sources including waste water treatment plants, livestock or poultry manure, sanitary landfills, septic systems, sewage sludge, pets and wildlife. If sufficient quantities are ingested, fecal pathogens can cause disease. The variety and often low concentrations of pathogens in environmental waters makes them difficult to test for individually. Public agencies therefore use the presence of other more abundant and more easily detected fecal bacteria as indicators of the presence of fecal contamination.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '586558',
'title': 'Trap–neuter–return',
'section': 'Section::::A Controversial Practice.:The Debate - the pros and cons of free-roaming cats and TNR.:Risks to human and animal health.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 71,
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'passage_text': 'There are numerous zoonotic pathogens shed in feline feces, such as Campylobacter and Salmonella spp; ascarids (e.g., Toxocara cati); hookworms (Ancylostoma spp); and the protozoan parasites Cryptosporidium spp, Giardia spp, and T gondii. Contaminated soil is an important source of infection for humans, herbivores, rodents, and birds and several studies suggest that pet feces contribute to bacterial loading of streams and coastal waters.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32161',
'title': 'Urinary tract infection',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'Uropathogenic "E. coli" from the gut is the cause of 80–85% of community-acquired urinary tract infections, with "Staphylococcus saprophyticus" being the cause in 5–10%. Rarely they may be due to viral or fungal infections. Healthcare-associated urinary tract infections (mostly related to urinary catheterization) involve a much broader range of pathogens including: "E. coli" (27%), "Klebsiella" (11%), "Pseudomonas" (11%), the fungal pathogen "Candida albicans" (9%), and "Enterococcus" (7%) among others. Urinary tract infections due to "Staphylococcus aureus" typically occur secondary to blood-borne infections. "Chlamydia trachomatis" and "Mycoplasma genitalium" can infect the urethra but not the bladder. These infections are usually classified as a urethritis rather than urinary tract infection.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21525',
'title': 'Nutrition',
'section': 'Section::::Intestinal bacterial flora.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 86,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Animal intestines contain a large population of gut flora. In humans, the four dominant phyla are Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria, and Proteobacteria. They are essential to digestion and are also affected by food that is consumed. Bacteria in the large intestine perform many important functions for humans, including breaking down and aiding in the absorption of fermentable fiber, stimulating cell growth, repressing the growth of harmful bacteria, training the immune system to respond only to pathogens, producing vitamin B, and defending against some infectious diseases. "Probiotics" refers to the idea of deliberately consuming live bacteria in an attempt to change the bacterial population in the large intestine, to the health benefit of the host human or animal. "Prebiotic (nutrition)" refers to the idea that consuming a bacterial energy source such as soluble fiber could support the population of health-beneficial bacteria in the large intestine. There is not yet a scientific consensus as to health benefits accruing from probiotics or prebiotics.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '165423',
'title': 'Digestion',
'section': 'Section::::Human digestion process.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 61,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 61,
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'passage_text': 'In the large intestine the passage of food is slower to enable fermentation by the gut flora to take place. Here water is absorbed and waste material stored as feces to be removed by defecation via the anal canal and anus.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Feces being a major source of harmful germs,how is it the lower intestine isn't chronically infected.",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['This has to do with the fact that our intestines are made up of microscopic nutrients collectors (imagine a fluffy rug and roll it) [i don\'t know how it\'s called in english.] So tiny that bacteria can\'t fit through them but the nutrients however can. \n\nBacteria decompose food in our intestines which then get absorbed into the bloodstream via the hair-like collectors. But bacteria never get into direct contact with the blood and so it never infects our bodies. (But if for example a perforation occurs in the intestines, there\'s a big risk of infection cause it disrupts this barrier.) \n\nOn the other hand if you come into contact with feces "outside" the bacteria can get into your body much easier through little wounds and mouth (if you don\'t wash your hands properly.) ',
"The vast majority of the bacteria in your colon are (mostly) harmless organisms that have evolved to live with us. The high populations of these bacteria tend to suppress the growth of other, harmful bacteria. Think of an apartment building with 100 units. 98 of them are already occupied by quiet residents. Even if the other 2 units are occupied by hooligans, they can't cause a lot of trouble and that trouble can't spread.\n\nNow these bacteria aren't completely harmless. The very common E. coli bacteria causes infections ranging from mild (simple urinary tract infections) to life threatening (sepsis of the blood) if it gets somewhere it isn't supposed to be.\n\nWhen we kill off the friendly bacteria, sometimes less savory ones take their place. A bowel infection known as C. difficile colitis is typically caused when antibiotics kill off the benign bacteria, leaving it behind. And some bacteria are just bad actors (like Salmonella or Shigella) and can cause infections even in healthy colons.\n\nThe colon itself as another poster noted is resistant to invasion from most gut microbes."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6l9pcx',
'query': "feces being a major source of harmful germs,how is it the lower intestine isn't chronically infected.",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '4597608',
'title': 'Net capital outflow',
'section': 'Section::::Explanation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': "By an accounting identity, Country A's NCO is always equal to A's Net Exports, because the value of net exports is equal to the amount of capital spent abroad (i.e. outflow) for goods that are imported in A. It is also equal to the net amount of A's currency traded in the foreign exchange market over that time period. The value of exports (bananas, ice cream, clothing) produced in country A is always matched by the value of reciprocal payments of some asset (cash, stocks, real estate) made by buyers in other countries to the producers in country A. This value is also equal to the total amount of A's currency traded in the foreign exchange market over that year, because essentially the buyers in other countries trade in their assets (e.g. foreign currency) to convert to equivalent amount in A's currency, and use this amount to pay for A's export products.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21534875',
'title': 'Fixed exchange-rate system',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'In a fixed exchange-rate system, a country’s central bank typically uses an open market mechanism and is committed at all times to buy and/or sell its currency at a fixed price in order to maintain its pegged ratio and, hence, the stable value of its currency in relation to the reference to which it is pegged. To maintain a desired exchange rate, the central bank during a time of private sector net demand for the foreign currency, sells foreign currency from its reserves and buys back the domestic money. This creates an artificial demand for the domestic money, which increases its exchange rate value. Conversely, in the case of an insipient appreciation of the domestic money, the central bank buys back the foreign money and thus adds domestic money into the market, thereby maintaining market equilibrium at the intended fixed value of the exchange rate.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1769925',
'title': 'Commodity currency',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': "A commodity currency is a name given to some currencies that co-move with the world prices of primary commodity products, due to these countries' heavy dependency on the export of certain raw materials for income.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '380509',
'title': 'Terms of trade',
'section': 'Section::::Two country model CIE economics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'In the simplified case of two countries and two commodities, terms of trade is defined as the ratio of the total export revenue a country receives for its export commodity to the total import revenue it pays for its import commodity. In this case the imports of one country are the exports of the other country. For example, if a country exports 50 dollars\' worth of product in exchange for 100 dollars\' worth of imported product, that country\'s terms of trade are 50/100 = 0.5. The terms of trade for the other country must be the reciprocal (100/50 = 2). When this number is falling, the country is said to have "deteriorating terms of trade". If multiplied by 100, these calculations can be expressed as a percentage (50% and 200% respectively). If a country\'s terms of trade fall from say 100% to 70% (from 1.0 to 0.7), it has experienced a 30% deterioration in its terms of trade. When doing longitudinal (time series) calculations, it is common to set a value for the base year to make interpretation of the results easier.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '180311',
'title': 'Exchange rate',
'section': 'Section::::The retail exchange market.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': "Currency for international travel and cross-border payments is predominantly purchased from banks, foreign exchange brokerages and various forms of bureaux de change. These retail outlets source currency from the inter-bank markets, which are valued by the Bank for International Settlements at 5.3 trillion US dollars per day. The purchase is made at the spot contract rate. Retail customers will be charged, in the form of commission or otherwise, to cover the provider's costs and generate a profit. One form of charge is the use of an exchange rate that is less favourable than the wholesale spot rate. The difference between retail buying and selling prices is referred to as the bid–ask spread.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '648277',
'title': 'Foreign exchange market',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': "The main participants in this market are the larger international banks. Financial centers around the world function as anchors of trading between a wide range of multiple types of buyers and sellers around the clock, with the exception of weekends. Since currencies are always traded in pairs, the foreign exchange market does not set a currency's absolute value but rather determines its relative value by setting the market price of one currency if paid for with another. Ex: US$1 is worth X CAD, or CHF, or JPY, etc.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21534875',
'title': 'Fixed exchange-rate system',
'section': 'Section::::Types of fixed exchange rate systems.:The gold standard.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
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'passage_text': 'Under the gold standard, a country’s government declares that it will exchange its currency for a certain weight in gold. In a pure gold standard, a country’s government declares that it will freely exchange currency for actual gold at the designated exchange rate. This "rule of exchange” allows anyone to enter the central bank and exchange coins or currency for pure gold or vice versa. The gold standard works on the assumption that there are no restrictions on capital movements or export of gold by private citizens across countries.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does trade between countries work in terms of currency? If Country A buys millions of dollars worth of commodities from Country B, how do they pay? Do they give them cash? Gold? Bank transfer?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Think of countries as regular companies for this case. \n\nCountries don't really buy things - it's state companies that are run (more or less) like private companies, think of train networks requiring trains, power grids require generators, water networks needing pumps, etc. - when they buy something - and it doesn't matter if its domestic or foreign - they'll agree on a price (and a currency - especially in countries with weak local currencies, a strong foreign currency is actually agreed upon even on domestic deals) with the seller. \n\nOn longer running deals, most companies (state or private owned doesn't matter) then pay some insurance to have their exchange rate fixed (especially if the exchange rate between the local and foreign currency is more volatile) so they'll pay the same amount in their local currency for the foreign product over a longer amount of time."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'bmixbr',
'query': 'how does trade between countries work in terms of currency? if country a buys millions of dollars worth of commodities from country b, how do they pay? do they give them cash? gold? bank transfer?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '5665',
'title': 'Currency',
'section': 'Section::::Currency convertibility.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
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'passage_text': 'Convertibility of a currency determines the ability of an individual, corporation or government to convert its local currency to another currency or vice versa with or without central bank/government intervention. Based on the above restrictions or free and readily conversion features, currencies are classified as:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6555853',
'title': 'Currency converter',
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'passage_text': 'The currency conversion software calculates the rates as decimal point numbers with typically 4 decimals after the comma. Some may calculate the conversion rates with more decimals internally but only 4 are displayed. This is related to precision, software internalization (i18n) and how the Forex (foreign exchange) market works, where most conversions have 4 decimal places, although some currency pairs also have 5. Most currency converters use up to 4.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5390',
'title': 'Conversion of units',
'section': 'Section::::Techniques.:Conversion factors.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'end_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'A conversion factor is used to change the units of a measured quantity without changing its value. The unity bracket method of unit conversion consists of a fraction in which the denominator is equal to the numerator, but they are in different units. Because of the identity property of multiplication, the value of a quantity will not change as long as it is multiplied by one. Also, if the numerator and denominator of a fraction are equal to each other, then the fraction is equal to one. So as long as the numerator and denominator of the fraction are equivalent, they will not affect the value of the measured quantity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6555853',
'title': 'Currency converter',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Currency converters aim to maintain real-time information on current market or bank exchange rates, so that the calculated result changes whenever the value of either of the component currencies does. They do so by connecting to a database of current currency exchange rates. The frequency at which currency converters update the exchange rates they use varies: Yahoo currency converter updates its rates every day, while Convert My Money every hour.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8267',
'title': 'Dimensional analysis',
'section': 'Section::::The factor-label method for converting units.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
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'end_paragraph_id': 30,
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'passage_text': 'Each conversion factor is chosen based on the relationship between one of the original units and one of the desired units (or some intermediary unit), before being re-arranged to create a factor that cancels out the original unit. For example, as "mile" is the numerator in the original fraction and formula_3, "mile" will need to be the denominator in the conversion factor. Dividing both sides of the equation by 1 mile yields formula_4, which when simplified results in the dimensionless formula_5. Multiplying any quantity (physical quantity or not) by the dimensionless 1 does not change that quantity. Once this and the conversion factor for seconds per hour have been multiplied by the original fraction to cancel out the units "mile" and "hour", 10 miles per hour converts to 4.4704 meters per second.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '168706',
'title': 'Money supply',
'section': 'Section::::Link with inflation.:Rates of growth.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 92,
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'end_paragraph_id': 92,
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'passage_text': 'In terms of percentage changes (to a close approximation, under low growth rates), the percentage change in a product, say XY, is equal to the sum of the percentage changes %ΔX + %ΔY). So, denoting all percentage changes as per unit of time, \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '211017',
'title': 'Decimalisation',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "While metrication describes the adoption by different countries of a common system of decimalised metric measurements, countries generally have their own currencies. The decimalisation of currencies is the process of converting each country's currency from its previous non-decimal denominations to a decimal system, with one basic unit of currency and one or more sub-units, such that the number of sub-units in one basic unit is a power of 10, most commonly 100). The decimalisation process for individual countries is described below.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'how the conversion rates between currencies are decided. Who, or what, decides these?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It works kind of like the stock market. Look up forex trading for details.\n\nBut basically a bunch of people make and take offers to trade one currency for another, and the rates those people are willing to trade at determine the exchange rate.',
'"Conversion rate" is just another word of "price of a currency", and that is, like most prices, ruled by supply and demand.\n\nDemand for a currency comes mostly from the trade balance. Think about a company that produces in Europe, but sells its products in the USA. The workers want to be paid in euros, but the customers pay in dollars. That means that the company needs to buy euros with those dollars, or they will run out of euros to pay their workers.\n\nMeaning, if a country exports a lot, that increases demand for that countries\' currency, and therefore this currency will rise. (Which in turn makes those exports less profitable, but thats another story).\n\nOf course, there are also other things that influence the conversion rates, like speculants. And obviously, if a country decides to print lots of its own money, that increases the supply, reducing its value.\n\nSo, no person or institution decides these rates, they are just the outcome of banks and corporations trying to buy and sell currencies.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'cth0kp',
'query': 'how the conversion rates between currencies are decided. who, or what, decides these?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2061874',
'title': 'Wine accessory',
'section': 'Section::::Wine bottle openers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'Wine bottle openers are required to open wine bottles that are stoppered with a cork. They are slowly being supplanted by the screwcap closure. There are many different inceptions of the wine bottle opener ranging from the simple corkscrew, the screwpull lever, to complicated carbon dioxide driven openers. The most popular is the wine key, sommelier knife or "waiter\'s friend" which resembles a pocket knife and has a small blade for cutting foil and a screw with a bottle brace.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1182550',
'title': 'Bottle opener',
'section': 'Section::::Corkscrews.:Mounted corkscrew.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
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'passage_text': "This tool is used by businesses that need to open a large volume of wine efficiently and without waste or breakage. It is a large brass tubular device, fixed at a 45° angle to the bar, with a lever pivoted halfway and extending towards the user. The bottle's neck is inserted firmly in the lower aperture of the tube and the lever pulled down firmly and steadily to the bottom. This drives a corkscrew into the cork at a regular depth each time. When the lever is returned to its original position it extracts the cork. When the bottle is removed pull the lever to expose the cork at the bottom, it loosens the cork and returns the lever firmly to its starting position, whereupon the cork will then fall out.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22779492',
'title': 'Storage of wine',
'section': 'Section::::Orientation of the bottle.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "Research in the late 1990s suggested that the ideal orientation for wine bottles is at a slight angle, rather than completely horizontal. This allows the cork to maintain partial contact with the wine in order to stay damp but also keeps the air bubble formed by a wine's ullage at the top rather than in the middle of the bottle if the wine is lying on its side. Keeping the ullage near the top, it has been argued, allows for a slower and more gradual oxidation and maturation process. This is because the pressure of the air bubble that is the ullage space rises and falls depending on temperature fluctuation. When exposed to higher temperatures the bubble's pressure increases (becomes positive relative to the air outside of the bottle), and if the wine is tilted at an angle, this compressed gas will diffuse through the cork and not harm the wine. When the temperature falls the process reverses.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1182550',
'title': 'Bottle opener',
'section': 'Section::::Technique.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 303,
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'passage_text': 'Under most use, a bottle opener functions as a second-class lever: the fulcrum is the far end of the bottle opener, placed on the top of the crown, with the output at the near end of the bottle opener, on the crown edge, "between" the fulcrum and the hand: in these cases, one pushes "up" on the lever.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '241223',
'title': "Poisson's ratio",
'section': "Section::::Applications of Poisson's effect.\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 40,
'end_character': 739,
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'passage_text': "Although cork was historically chosen to seal wine bottle for other reasons (including its inert nature, impermeability, flexibility, sealing ability, and resilience), cork's poisson's ratio of zero provides another advantage. As the cork is inserted into the bottle, the upper part which is not yet inserted does not expand in diameter as it is compressed axially. The force needed to insert a cork into a bottle arises only from the friction between the cork and the bottle due to the radial compression of the cork. If the stopper were made of rubber, for example, (with a Poisson ratio of about 1/2), there would be a relatively large additional force required to overcome the radial expansion of the upper part of the rubber stopper.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22777652',
'title': 'Ullage (wine)',
'section': 'Section::::In the bottle.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 734,
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'passage_text': 'The ullage level of a wine bottle is sometimes described as the "fill level". This describes the space between the wine and the bottom of the cork. During the bottling process, most wineries strive to have an initial ullage level of between 0.2–0.4\xa0inches (5–10mm). As a cork is not a completely airtight sealant, some wine is lost through the process of evaporation and diffusion. As a wine ages in the bottle, the amount of ullage will continue to increase unless a wine is opened, topped up and recorked. If the wine is stored on its side, in contact with the cork, some wine will also be lost by absorption into the cork with longer corks having the potential to absorb more wine (and thus create more ullage) than shorter corks.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '372921',
'title': 'Wine bottle',
'section': 'Section::::Punts.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 44,
'end_character': 225,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- It makes the bottle easier to clean prior to filling with wine. When a stream of water is injected into the bottle and impacts the punt, it is distributed throughout the bottom of the bottle and removes residues.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does the opening bottle of wine in a shoe work?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Liquids don't compress. Holding the bottle upside down and striking the heel sends shockwaves through the bottle, which terminate in the spongey cork, causing it to move. Since it can't move into the liquids, it moves out of the neck."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8zzujv',
'query': 'how does the opening bottle of wine in a shoe work?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '34061',
'title': 'Winter',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 482,
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'passage_text': "During winter in either hemisphere, the lower altitude of the Sun causes the sunlight to hit the Earth at an oblique angle. Thus a lower amount of solar radiation strikes the Earth per unit of surface area. Furthermore, the light must travel a longer distance through the atmosphere, allowing the atmosphere to dissipate more heat. Compared with these effects, the effect of the changes in the distance of the Earth from the Sun (due to the Earth's elliptical orbit) is negligible.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24873453',
'title': 'Season',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 524,
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'passage_text': "During May, June, and July, the Northern Hemisphere is exposed to more direct sunlight because the hemisphere faces the Sun. The same is true of the Southern Hemisphere in November, December, and January. It is Earth's axial tilt that causes the Sun to be higher in the sky during the summer months, which increases the solar flux. However, due to seasonal lag, June, July, and August are the warmest months in the Northern Hemisphere while December, January, and February are the warmest months in the Southern Hemisphere.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '272065',
'title': 'Al-Kindi',
'section': 'Section::::Accomplishments.:Meteorology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 45,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 45,
'end_character': 320,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'When the sun is in its northern declination northerly places will heat up and it will be cold towards the south. Then the northern air will expand in a southerly direction because of the heat due to the contraction of the southern air. Therefore most of the summer winds are merits and most of the winter winds are not.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9228',
'title': 'Earth',
'section': 'Section::::Physical characteristics.:Atmosphere.:Weather and climate.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 59,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 59,
'end_character': 588,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The distance from the Earth to the Sun varies. The Earth is closest to the Sun (at perihelion) in January, which is summer in the Southern Hemisphere. It is furthest away (at aphelion) in July, which is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, and only 93.55% of the solar radiation from the Sun falls on a given square area of land than at perihelion. Despite this, there are larger land masses in the Northern Hemisphere, which are easier to heat than the seas. Consequently, summers are warmer in the Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere under similar conditions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '321956',
'title': 'List of common misconceptions',
'section': 'Section::::Science and technology.:Astronomy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 118,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 118,
'end_character': 385,
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'passage_text': "BULLET::::- Seasons are not caused by the Earth being closer to the Sun in the summer than in the winter, but by the Earth's 23.4-degree axial tilt. Each Hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun in its respective summer (July in the Northern Hemisphere and January in the Southern Hemisphere), resulting in longer days and more direct sunlight, with the opposite being true in the winter.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '88213',
'title': 'Apsis',
'section': 'Section::::Perihelion and aphelion.:Earth perihelion and aphelion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
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'passage_text': 'Because of the increased distance at aphelion, only 93.55% of the solar radiation from the Sun falls on a given area of land as does at perihelion. However, this fluctuation does not account for the seasons, as it is summer in the northern hemisphere when it is winter in the southern hemisphere and "vice versa." Instead, seasons result from the tilt of Earth\'s axis, which is 23.4 degrees away from perpendicular to the plane of Earth\'s orbit around the sun. Winter falls on the hemisphere where sunlight strikes least directly, and summer falls where sunlight strikes most directly, regardless of the Earth\'s distance from the Sun. In the northern hemisphere, summer occurs at the same time as aphelion. Despite this, there are larger land masses in the northern hemisphere, which are easier to heat than the seas. Consequently, summers are warmer in the northern hemisphere than in the southern hemisphere under similar conditions. Astronomers commonly express the timing of perihelion relative to the vernal equinox not in terms of days and hours, but rather as an angle of orbital displacement, the so-called longitude of the periapsis (also called longitude of the pericenter). For the orbit of the Earth, this is called the "longitude of perihelion", and in 2000 it was about 282.895°; by the year 2010, this had advanced by a small fraction of a degree to about 283.067°.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10304194',
'title': 'Daytime',
'section': 'Section::::Daytime variations with latitude and seasons.:Around the poles.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 1041,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'At and near the poles, the Sun never rises very high above the horizon, even in summer, which is one of reasons why these regions of the world are consistently cold in all seasons (others include the effect of albedo, the relative increased reflection of solar radiation of snow and ice). Even at the summer solstice, when the Sun reaches its highest point above the horizon at noon, it is still only 23.5° above the horizon at the poles. Additionally, as one approaches the poles the apparent path of the Sun through the sky each day diverges increasingly from the vertical. As summer approaches, the Sun rises and sets become more northerly in the north and more southerly in the south. At the poles, the path of the Sun is indeed a circle, which is roughly equidistant above the horizon for the entire duration of the daytime period on any given day. The circle gradually sinks below the horizon as winter approaches, and gradually rises above it as summer approaches. At the poles, apparent sunrise and sunset may last for several days.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If the sun is on the other side of the earth at night, how does it stay so warm during the summer?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Okay, the only difference between summer and winter as far as heat goes is the angle that the sun hits the earth. With the axis, the sun hits at a steeper angle (ie. Straight up/down) which means greater concentration of energy, think: smaller area, same heat energy. That being said, the world and atmosphere absorb a ton of heat, and hold it as well, that is where the heat sticking around at night comes from.',
"The Earth's atmosphere acts like a blanket and holds in the heat. Without our thick atmosphere, the heat generated by the sun during the day would just radiate back out into space at night. We need greenhouse gasses to keep earth livable, but too much greenhouse gas would make the earth too hot. Thats why we worry about levels of carbon dioxide rising too fast.",
'To answer your first question: take a pot of boiling water. When you turn off the burner, is it suddenly safe to touch? Matter carries heat with it, and it takes time for the heat to leave the matter. It does get colder at night, by 10 to 30 degrees in the summer, but the land and air doesnt lose all if its heat all at once. \n\nFor a deeper understanding; materials radiate energy, always following the law of entropy, higher energy states will disperse their energy toward materials and space with lower energy states. Sometimes this is in the form of visible light. Another form.of light on the Electromagnetic spectrum is infrared, which you give off. We feel infrared as heat. During the day, the land and air, but mostly land, absorb energy. As the energy is absorbed, the particles in the upper portion of the land start to move faster inn accordance with the law of conservation of energy. As the input of energy falls at night, the law of entropy explains why this higher energy state- particles in the upper layer of land will then start to emit the own form of EM radiation; infrared radiation. This will keep the average temperature not intensely cold for the duration of the night. \n\nWhy summers and winters are different: \nSummer: take a flashlight and shine it directly down. Notice how each spot under the light gets more rays, which carry heat, because its brighter. \n\nWinter: take that flashlight and shine it at an angle. Notice how each spot under the light gets less rays, which carry hear, because its dimmer. \n\nNotice how in the summer, the sun is overhead more days. Notice how in the winter the sun is lower in the sky.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'fvd2l2',
'query': 'if the sun is on the other side of the earth at night, how does it stay so warm during the summer?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '642387',
'title': 'Adapter',
'section': 'Section::::Computer adapters.:Adapters for external ports.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Adapters (sometimes called "dongles") allow connecting a peripheral device with one plug to a different jack on the computer. They are often used to connect modern devices to a legacy port on an old system, or legacy devices to a modern port. Such adapters may be entirely passive, or contain active circuitry.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52340783',
'title': 'Smart ring',
'section': 'Section::::Use.:Security.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 386,
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'passage_text': 'Secure access control such as for company entry and exit, home access, cars, and electronic devices was the first use of smart rings. Smart rings change the status quo for secure access control by increasing ease of use, decreasing physical security flaws such as by ease of losing the device, and by adding two-factor authentication mechanisms including biometrics and key code entry.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '210476',
'title': 'SIM lock',
'section': 'Section::::Unlocking technology.:Economics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 480,
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'passage_text': "Handset manufacturers have economic incentives both to strengthen SIM lock security (which placates network providers and enables exclusivity deals) and to weaken it (broadening a handset's appeal to customers who are not interested in the service provider that offers it). Also, making it too difficult to unlock a handset might make it less appealing to network service providers who have a legal obligation to provide unlock codes for certain handsets or in certain countries.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11368440',
'title': 'The Open Organisation Of Lockpickers',
'section': 'Section::::Mission.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 332,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The more that people know about lock technology, the better they are capable of understanding how and where certain weaknesses are present. This makes them well-equipped to participate in sportpicking endeavors and also helps them to simply be better consumers in the marketplace, making decisions based on sound fact and research.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17049617',
'title': 'Best Lock Corporation',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 272,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Best Access products are sold primarily and directly to corporate and institutional end users without locksmith and wholesaler access to competitive distribution. Its products are typically marketed toward and installed into moderately sized or larger master key systems.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31250501',
'title': 'Connected car',
'section': 'Section::::Criticism.:Fighting the challenges.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 83,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 83,
'end_character': 407,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Internal cooperation between departments of the company: product-security teams and corporate IT-security teams will have to work closely together in order to prevent the hackability of their devices. To do so, companies may create guidelines that minimize probabilities of bugs, and security gaps (software). Making modifying and patching systems easier can be another effect driven from that.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41228384',
'title': 'The Eastern Company',
'section': 'Section::::Products & Services.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 407,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Electronic and mechanical locking devices (such as timers, drop meters, coin security products, smart cards and related equipment and technology, value transfer stations, access control units, and some appliances in kitchen) for electric equipment in consumer market and gaming industries. The company also provides security products such as luggage, furniture, laboratory equipment and commercial laundry.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do tech manufacturers region lock their devices?',
'selftext': "Like, why can't my 3DS play Japanese games, or my DVD player won't play discs from a different region",
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Many reasons. Sometimes they need to lower their price point in order to sell into a poorer market. Sometimes they release content differently in some markets (think, censorship in China, for example). Other times it is easier to region lock than to meet all local regulations in all devices.',
'It\'s pretty simple, depending on the region you sell your product the highest price people are ready to pay for your device can differ quite significantly. If you have the same price all over the world you wont sell in some regions. If you have different prices and don\'t region lock people will just buy from the cheapest region. The "solution" is region lock.\nTl;dr: it\'s because of money.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'bsjszm',
'query': 'why do tech manufacturers region lock their devices?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '68351',
'title': 'Pattern',
'section': 'Section::::Science and mathematics.:Fractals.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
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'passage_text': 'Some mathematical rule-patterns can be visualised, and among these are those that explain patterns in nature including the mathematics of symmetry, waves, meanders, and fractals. Fractals are mathematical patterns that are scale invariant. This means that the shape of the pattern does not depend on how closely you look at it. Self-similarity is found in fractals. Examples of natural fractals are coast lines and tree shapes, which repeat their shape regardless of what magnification you view at. While self-similar patterns can appear indefinitely complex, the rules needed to describe or produce their formation can be simple (e.g. Lindenmayer systems describing tree shapes).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35659147',
'title': 'Patterns in nature',
'section': 'Section::::Types of pattern.:Trees, fractals.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 30,
'end_character': 245,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Fractal-like patterns occur widely in nature, in phenomena as diverse as clouds, river networks, geologic fault lines, mountains, coastlines, animal coloration, snow flakes, crystals, blood vessel branching, actin cytoskeleton, and ocean waves.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15955754',
'title': 'Multi-scale camouflage',
'section': 'Section::::History.:2000s fractal-like digital patterns.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 446,
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'passage_text': "Fractal-like patterns work because the human visual system efficiently discriminates images which have different fractal dimension or other second-order statistics like Fourier spatial amplitude spectra; objects simply appear to pop out from the background. Timothy O'Neill helped the Marine Corps to develop first a digital pattern for vehicles, then fabric for uniforms, which had two colour schemes, one designed for woodland, one for desert.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44362809',
'title': 'Symmetry (geometry)',
'section': 'Section::::Scale symmetry and fractals.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 53,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 53,
'end_character': 344,
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'passage_text': 'Because fractals can generate the appearance of patterns in nature, they have a beauty and familiarity not typically seen with mathematically generated functions. Fractals have also found a place in computer-generated movie effects, where their ability to create complex curves with fractal symmetries results in more realistic virtual worlds.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3999',
'title': 'Benoit Mandelbrot',
'section': 'Section::::Research career.:Fractals and the "theory of roughness".\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
'end_character': 502,
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'passage_text': 'Fractals are also found in human pursuits, such as music, painting, architecture, and stock market prices. Mandelbrot believed that fractals, far from being unnatural, were in many ways more intuitive and natural than the artificially smooth objects of traditional Euclidean geometry: Clouds are not spheres, mountains are not cones, coastlines are not circles, and bark is not smooth, nor does lightning travel in a straight line.\xa0\xa0—Mandelbrot, in his introduction to "The Fractal Geometry of Nature"\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10913',
'title': 'Fractal',
'section': 'Section::::Simulated fractals.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 37,
'end_character': 967,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Fractal patterns have been reconstructed in physical 3-dimensional space and virtually, often called "in silico" modeling. Models of fractals are generally created using fractal-generating software that implements techniques such as those outlined above. As one illustration, trees, ferns, cells of the nervous system, blood and lung vasculature, and other branching patterns in nature can be modeled on a computer by using recursive algorithms and L-systems techniques. The recursive nature of some patterns is obvious in certain examples—a branch from a tree or a frond from a fern is a miniature replica of the whole: not identical, but similar in nature. Similarly, random fractals have been used to describe/create many highly irregular real-world objects. A limitation of modeling fractals is that resemblance of a fractal model to a natural phenomenon does not prove that the phenomenon being modeled is formed by a process similar to the modeling algorithms.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3999',
'title': 'Benoit Mandelbrot',
'section': 'Section::::Research career.:Developing "fractal geometry" and the Mandelbrot set.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 355,
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'passage_text': 'Wolfram briefly describes fractals as a form of geometric repetition, "in which smaller and smaller copies of a pattern are successively nested inside each other, so that the same intricate shapes appear no matter how much you zoom in to the whole. Fern leaves and Romanesco broccoli are two examples from nature." He points out an unexpected conclusion:\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why are there patterns and fractals in nature?',
'selftext': 'It seems nature is fundamentally a bunch of patterns and fractals. A lot of very similar similarities. Is math based off of nature? Is math independent from nature? Or is nature independent from math? Or do the two coincide with one another?',
'category': 'Mathematics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': [' > Why are there patterns and fractals in nature?\n\nPatterns and fractals are just the large scale result of simple repeating behaviors. Suppose you have a stem that will grow for a bit and then split, then those stems grow for a bit and split, etc. You end up with a branching pattern from simple base behaviors.\n\n > Is math based off of nature?\n\nSort of, in the most simplistic sense it is a way to model reality. People start counting stones and math adopts the behavior that things don\'t just spontaneously appear or vanish. You pick up one rock and then pick up another rock you will have "two" rocks. At this point of abstraction the system takes off behaving with internally consistent rules which yield results consistent with reality (in many cases).\n\nSo while the internally consistent rules can yield things which have no real counterpart (such as imaginary numbers) the application of those rules can allow the deduction of behaviors of the universe which are not immediately apparent via observation. This is again based on the basic observation that the universe behaves according to internally consistent rules and that the fundamental rules of mathematics are based on easily observed behaviors of the universe.',
"Lots of systems are just due to minimization of energy. It's why soap bubbles are round, honeycombs are hexagons, balls roll down hills, nuclear reactions happen in the sun, etc, etc. Systems naturally want to find their minimum every state and organisms want to find the way to do something with the least amount of work."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'bbrqha',
'query': 'why are there patterns and fractals in nature?',
'query_type': 'Mathematics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1267',
'title': 'Alpha decay',
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'passage_text': "Alpha decay or α-decay is a type of radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus emits an alpha particle (helium nucleus) and thereby transforms or 'decays' into a different atomic nucleus, with a mass number that is reduced by four and an atomic number that is reduced by two. An alpha particle is identical to the nucleus of a helium-4 atom, which consists of two protons and two neutrons. It has a charge of and a mass of . For example, uranium-238 decays to form thorium-234. Alpha particles have a charge , but as a nuclear equation describes a nuclear reaction without considering the electrons – a convention that does not imply that the nuclei necessarily occur in neutral atoms – the charge is not usually shown.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '97830',
'title': 'Nuclear technology',
'section': 'Section::::History and scientific background.:Discovery.\n',
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'passage_text': 'As the atom came to be better understood, the nature of radioactivity became clearer. Some larger atomic nuclei are unstable, and so decay (release matter or energy) after a random interval. The three forms of radiation that Becquerel and the Curies discovered are also more fully understood. Alpha decay is when a nucleus releases an alpha particle, which is two protons and two neutrons, equivalent to a helium nucleus. Beta decay is the release of a beta particle, a high-energy electron. Gamma decay releases gamma rays, which unlike alpha and beta radiation are not matter but electromagnetic radiation of very high frequency, and therefore energy. This type of radiation is the most dangerous and most difficult to block. All three types of radiation occur naturally in certain elements.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21285',
'title': 'Nuclear physics',
'section': 'Section::::Modern nuclear physics.:Nuclear decay.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In gamma decay, a nucleus decays from an excited state into a lower energy state, by emitting a gamma ray. The element is not changed to another element in the process (no nuclear transmutation is involved).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2035588',
'title': 'Radiochemistry',
'section': 'Section::::Main decay modes.\n',
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'passage_text': "1. α (alpha) radiation—the emission of an alpha particle (which contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons) from an atomic nucleus. When this occurs, the atom's atomic mass will decrease by 4 units and atomic number will decrease by 2.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21787470',
'title': 'Alpha particle',
'section': 'Section::::Sources of alpha particles.:Alpha decay.\n',
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'passage_text': "The best-known source of alpha particles is alpha decay of heavier ( 106 u atomic weight) atoms. When an atom emits an alpha particle in alpha decay, the atom's mass number decreases by four due to the loss of the four nucleons in the alpha particle. The atomic number of the atom goes down by exactly two, as a result of the loss of two protons\xa0– the atom becomes a new element. Examples of this sort of nuclear transmutation are when uranium becomes thorium, or radium becomes radon gas, due to alpha decay.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25856',
'title': 'Radiation',
'section': 'Section::::Ionizing radiation.:Gamma radiation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
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'passage_text': 'Gamma (γ) radiation consists of photons with a wavelength less than 3x10 meters (greater than 10 Hz and 41.4 keV). Gamma radiation emission is a nuclear process that occurs to rid an unstable nucleus of excess energy after most nuclear reactions. Both alpha and beta particles have an electric charge and mass, and thus are quite likely to interact with other atoms in their path. Gamma radiation, however, is composed of photons, which have neither mass nor electric charge and, as a result, penetrates much further through matter than either alpha or beta radiation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4651',
'title': 'Beta decay',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Discovery and initial characterization.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'In 1901, Rutherford and Frederick Soddy showed that alpha and beta radioactivity involves the transmutation of atoms into atoms of other chemical elements. In 1913, after the products of more radioactive decays were known, Soddy and Kazimierz Fajans independently proposed their radioactive displacement law, which states that beta (i.e., )\xa0emission from one element produces another element one place to the right in the periodic table, while alpha emission produces an element two places to the left.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What decides whether something will release Alpha, Beta, or Gamma radiation?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Type of radiation is determined by the material that emits it. Gamma radiation is electomagnetic radiation, like radio waves, microwave, x-rays, gamma rays... they are typically formed when a charge (electron) is accelerated or decelerated or moved in a circular path (which is an acceleration btw). It can also be formed when an electron jumps between shells in an atom (different energy states).\nAlpha radiation is essentially helium atom cores. They typically form as a result of a radioactive decay. Similar thing for beta except they are electrons.\n',
"The type of radiation released depends on the particular isotope.\n\nAlpha radiation is helium atom nuclei (2 protons and 2 neutrons), which are ejected from a large atomic nucleus. In general, alpha radiation occurs in very large nuclei (things like uranium: 92 protons, 146 neutrons). Essentially, the nucleus is so big, that it can barely hold together against the repulsion between all the positively charged protons - so a cluster of protons gets ejected, taking some neutrons with it.\n\nBeta radiation tends to occur when the ratio of neutrons to protons in the nucleus is wrong. For light atoms, the optimal ratio is roughly 1:1, but as the nuclei get heavier, you need more neutrons (uranium is roughly 1 proton to 1.5 neutrons). \n\nIf a nucleus has too many neutrons, a neutron can transform into a proton and an electron. The electron can't stay in the nucleus, so gets kicked out as beta radiation. \n\nIf a nucleus has too many protons, a proton can transform into a neutron and a positron (a positively charged electron). The positron can't stay, so gets kicked out as (positively charged) beta radiation. \n\nGamma rays are just pure energy. They are released from a nucleus when it has too much energy - think of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus like dozens of those little magnets you can make scultpures from. Sometimes, the magnets can hold a position which isn't optimal, and then suddenly, they'll find a better position and bind tighter. When this happens in a nucleus, you get a gamma ray. \n\nGamma rays are released when alpha or beta radiation is produced. If you have a big nucleus, and an alpha breaks off, the nucleus is going to be a bit lopsided, so it will rearrange and form a more compact shape, releasing a gamma ray at the same time. \n\nA similar sort of thing happens with beta radiation - when a proton converts to a neutron, this can leave the nucleus a bit uneven. Sometimes, the energy is immediately released and it all goes into the beta radiation, but sometimes, some of the energy comes out separately as a gamma ray. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '6zv9d5',
'query': 'what decides whether something will release alpha, beta, or gamma radiation?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '6449908',
'title': 'Consumer fireworks',
'section': 'Section::::Examples.:Novelty fireworks.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Novelty fireworks typically produce a much weaker explosion and sound. In some countries and areas where fireworks are illegal to use, they still allow these small, low grade fireworks to be used. A few examples include:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56478514',
'title': 'Fireworks policy in the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Consumer fireworks safety.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Availability and use of consumer fireworks are hotly debated topics. Critics and safety advocates point to the numerous injuries and accidental fires that are attributed to fireworks as justification for banning or at least severely restricting access to fireworks. Complaints about excessive noise created by fireworks and the large amounts of debris and fallout left over after shooting are also used to support this position. There are numerous incidents of consumer fireworks being used in a manner that is supposedly disrespectful of the communities and neighborhoods where the users live.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '667188',
'title': 'Adobe Fireworks',
'section': 'Section::::Features.:Image optimization.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'Fireworks was created specifically for web production. Since not every user may be in possession of a fast Internet connection, it is at the best interest of the web developers to optimize the size of their digital contents. In terms of image compression, Fireworks has a better compression rate than Photoshop with JPEG, PNG and GIF images.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '224894',
'title': 'Skyrocket',
'section': 'Section::::Professional displays.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A common misconception about professional fireworks displays is that skyrockets are used to propel the pyrotechnic effects into the air. In reality, skyrockets are more widely used as a consumer item. Professional fireworks displays utilize mortars to fire aerial shells into the air, not rockets.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '59493',
'title': 'Fireworks',
'section': 'Section::::Safety.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'Improper use of fireworks may be dangerous, both to the person operating them (risks of burns and wounds) and to bystanders; in addition, they may start fires after landing on flammable material. For this reason, the use of fireworks is generally legally restricted. Display fireworks are restricted by law for use by professionals; consumer items, available to the public, are smaller versions containing limited amounts of explosive material to reduce potential danger.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60785644',
'title': 'Fireworks bans in China',
'section': 'Section::::Reasons for Ban Fireworks.:Environment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'The pollution of fireworks on the environment is becoming more and more apparent. Fireworks cause the most serious pollution in the environment in the shortest time. Although fireworks are not one of the most common sources of pollution in the atmosphere, they are one of the major causes of air pollutants ozone, sulphur, dioxide and nitrogen oxides, as well as aerosols. Fireworks contain a mass of tiny metal particles. These metals are burned to produce color for fireworks: copper for blue, strontium or lithium for red, and barium compounds for bright green or white. When fireworks are set off in the air, a large number of incomplete decomposition or degradation of metal particles, dangerous toxins, harmful chemicals remain in the air for a long time, resulting in air pollution.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22092889',
'title': "Shoot Loud, Louder... I Don't Understand",
'section': 'Section::::Reception.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The "Los Angeles Times" said the film was "as appetizing as a piece of stale pre-fab pizza... lengthy and boring... never were so many fireworks set off in such a dud of a movie.". The "Chicago Tribune" called it a "tedious and terrible mess... a disastrous dud."\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do fireworks look so bad on film/video, yet look good irl?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Fireworks can look great on video if you have a good enough camera. Cheap cameras, like the ones in our phones, can't handle low light conditions very well and have a hard time focusing on the rapid flashes coming from a firework. The camera is constantly trying to auto focus but can't, resulting in a blurry image. ",
'[Video compression work by detecting similarities from one frame to the next and encoding the difference between successive frames. This is usully done by cutting each frame into tiny blocks and then sending only the blocks that have changed. Some things like fireworks, snow or confetti will change most of the blocks in every frame, forcing the compression algorithm to lower quality significantly to keep up.](_URL_0_)',
'Fireworks [can look amazing ](_URL_0_) on video. You just need the right equipment. ',
"The other part of the problem is that fireworks are HUGE. You feel a certain way when you experience something much much larger than yourself. \n\nYour TV just doesn't have that power over humans in the same way. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9vcmlj',
'query': 'why do fireworks look so bad on film/video, yet look good irl?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2050894',
'title': 'Astringent',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Astringency, the dry, puckering mouthfeel caused by the tannins in unripe fruits, lets the fruit mature by deterring eating. Ripe fruits and fruit parts including blackthorn (sloe berries), "Aronia" chokeberry, chokecherry, bird cherry, rhubarb, quince and persimmon fruits, and banana skins are very astringent; citrus fruits, like lemons, are somewhat astringent. Tannins, being a kind of polyphenol, bind salivary proteins and make them precipitate and aggregate, producing a rough, "sandpapery", or dry sensation in the mouth. The tannins in some teas and red grape wines like Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot produce mild astringency.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '147735',
'title': 'Toothpaste',
'section': 'Section::::Safety.:Miscellaneous issues and debates.:Alteration of taste perception.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
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'passage_text': 'After using toothpaste, orange juice and other juices have an unpleasant taste. Sodium lauryl sulfate alters taste perception. It can break down phospholipids that inhibit taste receptors for sweetness, giving food a bitter taste. In contrast, apples are known to taste more pleasant after using toothpaste. Distinguishing between the hypotheses that the bitter taste of orange juice results from stannous fluoride or from sodium lauryl sulfate is still an unresolved issue and it is thought that the menthol added for flavor may also take part in the alteration of taste perception when binding to lingual cold receptors.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '61983',
'title': 'Tannin',
'section': 'Section::::Food items with tannins.:Drinks with tannins.:Fruit juices.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 67,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 67,
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'passage_text': 'Although citrus fruits do not themselves contain tannins, orange-colored juices often contain food dyes with tannins. Apple juice, grape juices and berry juices are all high in tannins. Sometimes tannins are even added to juices and ciders to create a more astringent feel to the taste.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9291334',
'title': 'Limonin',
'section': 'Section::::Presence in citrus products.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'Limonin and other limonoid compounds contribute to the bitter taste of some citrus food products. Researchers have proposed removal of limonoids from orange juice and other products (known as "debittering") through the use of polymeric films.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '367867',
'title': 'Citron',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Culinary.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 42,
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'passage_text': 'While the lemon or orange are peeled to consume their pulpy and juicy segments, the citron\'s pulp is dry, containing a small quantity of insipid juice, if any. The main content of a citron fruit is the thick white rind, which adheres to the segments and cannot be separated from them easily. The citron gets halved and depulped, then its rind (the thicker the better) is cut in pieces, cooked in sugar syrup, and used as a spoon sweet, in Greek known as "kitro glyko" (κίτρο γλυκό), or it is diced and caramelized with sugar and used as a confection in cakes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15349424',
'title': 'Succade',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Succade is the candied peel of any of the citrus species, especially from the citron or "Citrus medica" which is distinct with its extra-thick peel; in addition, the taste of the inner rind of the citron is less bitter than those of the other citrus. However, the term is also occasionally applied to the peel, root, or even entire fruit or vegetable like parsley, fennel and cucurbita which have a bitter taste and are boiled with sugar to get a special "sweet and sour" outcome.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21299730',
'title': 'Lemon',
'section': 'Section::::Nutritional value and phytochemicals.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Lemons contain numerous phytochemicals, including polyphenols, terpenes, and tannins. Lemon juice contains slightly more citric acid than lime juice (about 47\xa0g/l), nearly twice the citric acid of grapefruit juice, and about five times the amount of citric acid found in orange juice.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does squirting lemon juice over spicy food make it less spicy?',
'selftext': "I'm Indian but I do NOT eat spicy food. Whenever I go to family get-togethers they cook food with minimal spicy food first, take out some portion of this for me then add the remaining spices. I'm an outlaw. Sometimes it happens that they forget to do that so I end up having to eat spicy food. But almost always do they squirt lemons over it before serving it to me. They say it reduces the spiciness (it always works).",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It does reduce the spice. Spicy chili peppers contain an oil called *capsaicin* which gives the spicy flavor. Lemon juice has acids in it, and the acids neutralize the oils, which reduces the spice. '],
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'query_id': '65xl5g',
'query': 'why does squirting lemon juice over spicy food make it less spicy?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '35520122',
'title': 'List of accidents and incidents involving the Westland Sea King',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "Of the accidents and incidents included in this list, six were caused by engine failure, while six flight-into-terrain accidents were recorded, with two additional hard landings resulting in serious damage to the aircraft. Seven more of the accidents and incidents were a result of problems in the helicopters' drive systems, while five others were caused by collisions, three of them being mid-air collisions - two with other Sea Kings, the third, with a Lockheed Hercules transport -, one a collision with the superstructure of a ship, and another a collision with a high-tension cable. Two accidents were the result of failure of the main rotor, with two others being caused by weather, while one accident each was caused by instrument failure, bird strike (presumed), fuel exhaustion, and on-board fire; eleven other accidents and incidents did not mention a specific cause, simply that the helicopter involved crashed or ditched without further detail being provided.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2334889',
'title': 'Radio-controlled helicopter',
'section': 'Section::::Construction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 53,
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'passage_text': 'The construction of helicopters has to be more precise than for fixed-wing model aircraft, because helicopters are susceptible to even the smallest of vibrations, which can cause problems when the helicopter is in flight.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6809465',
'title': 'Air-sea rescue',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Introduction of the helicopter.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Helicopters became frequently used, due to a number of advantages; they could fly in rougher weather than fixed-wing aircraft and could deliver injured passengers directly to hospitals or other emergency facilities. Helicopters can hover above the scene of an accident while fixed-wing aircraft must circle, or for seaplanes, land and taxi toward the accident. Helicopters can save those stranded among rocks and reefs, where seaplanes are unable to go. Landing facilities for helicopters can be much smaller and cruder than for fixed-wing aircraft. Additionally, the same helicopter that is capable of air-sea rescue can take part in a wide variety of other operations including those on land. Disadvantages include the loud noise causing difficulties in communicating with the survivors and the strong downdraft that the hovering helicopter creates which increases wind chill danger for already-soaked and hypothermic patients. Helicopters also tend to have limited range and endurance.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '531385',
'title': 'Lee wave',
'section': 'Section::::Aviation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': 'The rotor turbulence may be harmful for other small aircraft such as balloons, hang gliders and paragliders. It can even be a hazard for large aircraft; the phenomenon is believed responsible for many aviation accidents and incidents, including the in-flight breakup of BOAC Flight 911, a Boeing 707, near Mt. Fuji, Japan in 1966, and the in-flight separation of an engine on an Evergreen International Airlines Boeing 747 cargo jet near Anchorage, Alaska in 1993.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '670783',
'title': 'Wake turbulence',
'section': 'Section::::Helicopters.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'Helicopters also produce wake turbulence. Helicopter wakes may be of significantly greater strength than those from a fixed wing aircraft of the same weight. The strongest wake can occur when the helicopter is operating at lower speeds (20 to 50 knots). Some mid-size or executive class helicopters produce wake as strong as that of heavier helicopters. This is because two-blade main rotor systems, typical of lighter helicopters, produce a stronger wake than rotor systems with more blades. The strong rotor wake of the Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey tiltrotor can extend beyond the description in the manual, which contributed to a crash.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3512082',
'title': 'Low-g condition',
'section': 'Section::::Effects.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In contrast, low-g conditions can be disastrous for helicopters. In such a situation their rotors may flap beyond normal limits. The excessive flapping can cause the root of the blades to exceed the limit of their hinges and this condition, known as mast bumping, can cause the separation of the blades from the hub or for the mast to shear, and hence detach the whole system from the aircraft, falling from the sky. This is especially true for helicopters with teetering rotors, such as the two-bladed design seen on Robinson helicopters.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46644621',
'title': '2015 Pakistan Army Mil Mi-17 crash',
'section': 'Section::::Investigation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The helicopter crash was attributed to technical and mechanical fault, indicated by the air force inquiries. Initial military reports suggested engine failure. Developing reports later revealed a failure in the helicopter\'s tail rotor while it was landing, which caused it to lose control and crash. The black box was recovered. According to Foreign secretary Aizaz Ahmad, "It was purely an accident, and accidents do happen." Ahmad added that the helicopter was serviced regularly, with the last service taking place 11 hours before the crash. The Chief of Army Staff and Chief of Air Staff constituted a military board of inquiry, the results of which would be made available to the public.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do helicopters crash so much more often than other aircraft?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['When a helicopters engine fails they become big metal bricks. A plane however, the shape allows for some control and the ability to glide while trying to get the engines back to working. Most planes have multiple engines as well, if one fails the others compensate. There’s no such redundancy in helicopters.',
'Depends on if they are single or dual engine. \n\nI’d say more often than not though it’s pilots that are flying in weather they should not be flying in',
"Helicopters have extremely poor glide characteristics. Your best case scenario for a malfunction resulting in loss of lift is a controlled crash. There are a lot of flight regimes in which you're basically just 100% screwed in a helicopter because you simply don't have enough velocity or altitude to make any real recovery.\n\nPlanes have a lot more options because they are much simpler machines, and most are pretty decent gliders. A small private plane that loses power at altitude can get a pretty good distance before he hits the ground. That allows for the pilot to have some time to consider the situation, attempt to recover the aircraft, or pick a good spot to land/crash.\n\nHelicopters also tend to operate near the ground a lot more often than planes.",
'Helicopters can land safely even when the engine fails. It\'s called "autorotation".\n\nThe pilot lowers the "collective" lever - the one which makes the helicopter go up and down. This results in the angle of the rotor blades changing, so that as the helicopter descends, the airflow through the rotor causes the rotor to rotate (and therefore giving the pilot control), and causing drag (slowing the helicopter down).\n\nHelicopters don\'t have much control when the engine fails, but because they can land almost anywhere, this is all the control they need - enough to pick somewhere directly below and land.\n\nMost larger helicopters have two engines, though, so an engine failure is much less of an issue.',
'Your premise itself is incorrect. Helicopters crash less than fix winged aircraft. [Here](_URL_0_) is the relevant data from 2014. It is just that there have been several high profile celebrity deaths from helicopter crashes, which makes people think they are more common.',
"Well they don't crash very often. But as with most aviation incidents, especially fatal ones, the incidents are given a tremendous amount of media coverage. Car accidents are tremendously common, involving roughly 1 million crashes per year just in America, with about 30,000 deaths, but because of how common they are we barely hear about them. But an airliner crash is primetime news, often for days or week",
"The people saying helicopters are less stable or inherently less safe than fixed-wing aircraft (planes) are mistaken. Autorotation (described by /u/jacklychi) allows helicopters to make controlled landings without an engine very easily, and helicopters get just as many safety inspections as any other aircraft, more or less, *if* they are for commercial transportation.\n\nThe biggest difference is that helicopters are used primarily for low, short flights between nearby destinations. Autorotation requires a certain height above the ground in order to work - that means if a helicopter loses and engine it's safer if you're *higher* up. Except that most helicopters are flying lower to the ground. That makes autorotation more difficult. And since helicopters are usually flying over populated areas it's less likely that a helicopter will be able to find a clear, open place to land. Although autorotation allows a helicopter to land safely if it has a place to land, they still don't have glide slopes - you're not going to get very far, only straight down. A plane will be flying probably much higher and although a landing without an engine is more dangerous, they will at least have more energy and lift to travel horizontally to a safer, emptier place.\n\nThe tendency for helicopters to be used for lower, shorter flights also puts them closer to obstacles like power lines, buildings, birds, and even tall trees. In the case of the Kobe crash, it crashed into a hillside. Visibility was poor. Although the cause has not yet been determined, it *could* be as simple as the pilot misread the instruments and didn't see the hillside until it was too late to avoid it. Compare that to most passenger planes which would be flying so high that not being able to see the terrain isn't an issue, because there isn't any. I have zero other information, I'm not saying that was the cause, I am only suggesting that it *could* be a cause which is generally not true of most commercial passenger flights.\n\nThe other problem is that helicopters are more likely to be privately owned and operated, at least compared to big passenger planes. Those are regulated *very* strictly. Although *any* flights are very regulated, a small for-hire helicopter service may not have the same stringency applied to it as other modes of air travel. This is also true of small planes, too, and one of the reasons they tend to crash more often than big passenger planes."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'euhve0',
'query': 'why do helicopters crash so much more often than other aircraft?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '651370',
'title': 'Precocious puberty',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Central.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Precocious puberty can make a child fertile when very young, with the youngest mother on record being Lina Medina, who gave birth at the age of 5 years, 7 months and 17 days, in one report and at 6 years 5 months in another.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35016910',
'title': 'DeltaWomen',
'section': 'Section::::Projects.:DeltaWomen Against Teenage Pregnancy In Nigeria.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': 'These young girls, some as young as 12, are being force into sexual relationships which results to them being pregnant and becoming mothers at an early age when they should be looked after by their parents. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7133791',
'title': 'Brown greater galago',
'section': 'Section::::Reproduction morphology and behavior.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
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'passage_text': 'Females typically give birth to 2 young, sometimes 1 or 3. The gestation period is on average 133 days. The female typically reaches sexual maturity by 2 years of age. Because of competition between males based upon size males usually reach reproductive age later than females. After birth, the mother leaves the young to forage and returns nourishing the young with nutrient rich milk. The juveniles typically remain with their mother until they reach close to sexual maturity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2539563',
'title': 'Sociology of the family',
'section': 'Section::::Sociology of motherhood.:Motherhood statistics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 79,
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'passage_text': 'In the United States, 82.5 million women are mothers of all ages, while the national average age of first child births is 25.1 years. In 2008, 10% of births were to teenage girls, and 14% were to women ages 35 and older. In the United States, a study found that the average woman spends 5 years working and building a career before having children, and mothers working non-salary jobs began having children at age 27, compared to mothers with salary positions, who became pregnant at age 31. The study shows that the difference in age of child birth is related to education, since the longer a woman has been in school, the older she will be when she enters the workforce.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '313530',
'title': 'Sperm whale',
'section': 'Section::::Life cycle.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 82,
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'passage_text': 'Females become fertile at around 9 years of age. The oldest pregnant female ever recorded was 41 years old. Gestation requires 14 to 16 months, producing a single calf. Sexually mature females give birth once every 4 to 20 years (pregnancy rates were higher during the whaling era). Birth is a social event, as the mother and calf need others to protect them from predators. The other adults may jostle and bite the newborn in its first hours.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '83859',
'title': 'Adolescence',
'section': 'Section::::Biological development.:Reproduction-related changes.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In females, changes in the primary sex characteristics involve growth of the uterus, vagina, and other aspects of the reproductive system. Menarche, the beginning of menstruation, is a relatively late development which follows a long series of hormonal changes. Generally, a girl is not fully fertile until several years after menarche, as regular ovulation follows menarche by about two years. Unlike males, therefore, females usually appear physically mature before they are capable of becoming pregnant.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4296838',
'title': 'Spotted-winged fruit bat',
'section': 'Section::::Behaviour and biology.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Females give birth to a single young up to twice a year, typically between June and January. The young are born blind, and weighing around , after a gestation of 135 days. They are weaned by 40–80 days, and are able to fly by the time they have reached in weight. Females are sexually mature at ten months of age.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'how come women begin being biologically capable of having babies at an age (periods can start as early as 9) in which they are not developmentally/emotionally/physically capable to?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It used to be common for women to have babies at 13 or so. We have since gained a better understanding of the emotional development of children and realize they are nowhere near fully developed at 12 or 13.',
'I’d say that modern medicine and how we have better nutrition nowadays has also affected this. Thoughts?',
'Evolution and natural selection. There may have been subsets of women that didn’t hit menarche until they were 16/18/20 but back when you only lived to 25 or 30 that would have been a serious disadvantage. Women with the genes to hit it earlier would have been selected over time because they would have had more children and earlier. Fast forward to today, and most women can have kids earlier. There will always be mutations that cause some women to hit menarche later, and now that modern medicine exists they have a much much better chance of having healthy fertile offspring that survive and stuff, but since we come from the branch of the tree where women had kids early, most women will be able to have them early.',
"I see a lot of people mentioning evolution. Valid to some point. But a huge influence are \nendocrine disruptors like BPA. A few decades ago it wasn't common for girls as young as 9 to get their period. The chances of surviving a birth as a 9 year old are also pretty low.",
"The trend of the average age of menarche going down almost every year since at least the early 19th century has multiple factors mostly devided into genetical and environmental factors.\n\nFrom an evolutionary stand point it seems to be advantageous to reach menarche and later fertility at an early age especially in respect to pre-modern societies and still today it seems to increase the possibility to produce offspring.\n\nYet we can see that the average age of menarche going down possibly leads to girls becomming fertile at an age ([US: \\~11 in the 1990's](_URL_1_)) that seems to be to you young to produce and sustain healthy offspring.\n\nLooking at environmental factors we can see a correlation (2+ things happening at the same time) between the age of menarche going down and an increase in living standards. Because we know that a higher amount of fat in the body mass of girls triggers puberty/menarche we can conclude that to some extent the availability of food became a majore factor in driving the average age of menarche down.\n\nWithin the last 200-300 years things like the introduction of corn, potatoes and bird poo fertilizer world wide that lead to the industrial revolution, the development of synthetic fertilizer by Fritz Haber, the development of new strains of plants like wheat that can grow in regions where they formlery could not, etc. all possibly lead to this.\n\nLooking at more recent developments like the development and introductions of chemicals into our lives might have also impacted the average age of menarche. For example some chemicals might change hormone (chemicals that control your body) levels in our body like BPA and could also lead to an earlier puberty/menarche.\n\nDr. Sandra Steingraber mentions the following in her paper she did for the brestcancerfund:\n\n > \\- low birth weight & premature birth \n > \n > \\- obesity and weight gain \n > \n > \\- formula feeding (feeding infants milk powder) \n > \n > \\- physical inactivity \n > \n > \\- psychosocial stressors \n > \n > \\- television and media consumption \n > \n > \\- environmental exposures\n\nThese correlations do not mean that this is the definitive reason why the average age of menarche went down but it is likely that those factors contributed to it.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nEdit:\n\nMore detailed:\n\n > [During the last 50 years, however, additionalforces seem to have been at work. The evidence suggests that children’s hormonal systems are being altered by various stimuli and that early puberty is the coincidental, non-adaptive outcome. The intricate and innately reactive HPG and HPA axes are highly vulnerable to disruption, and this disruption can take many shapes. Obesity is one manifestation of endocrine disruption and may lead to hyperinsulinism,leptin resistance and enhanced aromatase activity. Preterm birth and intrauterine growth restriction—especially when followed by rapidweight gain—is a second kind of endocrinedisruptor that raises the risk for early pubarche.](_URL_0_)",
"We're the only mammals that go through puberty. Reasonable to assume that there is a genetic advantage to it.\n\nModern medicine aside, women about 25 years old are more likely to have a healthy baby than other age groups. That's almost 10 years of her looking fertile but being not yet fully fertile.\n\nOne theory is that she is in practice mode. She looks like a woman and starts to take on more household duties, including childcare. Courtship can take years and the guy is more likely to be interested if she looks like a woman rather than a child. By the time she is fully fertile, she will have spent many thousands of hours doing what mothers do.",
"Not being emotionally ready isn't purely down to age, that's a society thing too. In the UK for example (or in my experience at least), kids are allowed to just be kids and generally are up until at least 13-14. In some cultures though, by this point they may have been teaching/grooming them into adulthood and talking about having their own kids for years.\n\nDoesn't explain the physical side though, I really don't know about that."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'bw651h',
'query': 'how come women begin being biologically capable of having babies at an age (periods can start as early as 9) in which they are not developmentally/emotionally/physically capable to?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1077353',
'title': 'Curiosity',
'section': 'Section::::Role of neurological aspects and structures.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Although the phenomenon of curiosity is widely regarded, its root causes are relatively unknown beyond theory. However, recent studies have provided some insight into the neurological mechanisms that make up what is known as the reward pathway which may impact characteristics associated with curiosity, such as learning, memory, and motivation. Due to the complex nature of curiosity, research that focuses on specific neural processes with these characteristics can help create a better understanding the phenomenon of curiosity as a whole. The following are characteristics of curiosity and their links to neural aspects that can be thought of as essential in creating exploratory behaviors:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1077353',
'title': 'Curiosity',
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'passage_text': 'The term "curiosity" can also be used to denote the behavior or emotion of being curious, in regard to the desire to gain knowledge or information. Curiosity as a behavior and emotion is attributed over millennia as the driving force behind not only human development, but developments in science, language, and industry.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1077353',
'title': 'Curiosity',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
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'passage_text': 'These traditional ideas of curiosity have recently expanded to look at the difference between "curiosity as the innate exploratory behavior" that is present in all animals and "curiosity as the desire for knowledge" that is specifically attributed to humans.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1077353',
'title': 'Curiosity',
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'passage_text': 'Curiosity (from Latin "cūriōsitās", from "cūriōsus" "careful, diligent, curious", akin to "cura" "care") is a quality related to inquisitive thinking such as exploration, investigation, and learning, evident by observation in humans and other animals. Curiosity is heavily associated with all aspects of human development, in which derives the process of learning and desire to acquire knowledge and skill.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60475502',
'title': 'Optimal stimulation level',
'section': 'Section::::Customer Behavior.:Exploration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'Curiosity can categorize as particular interest stimulated behavior and diverse curiosity encouraged the practice. The first mentioned of two displays an in-depth analysis for a single incentive because this stimulation evokes curiousness of consumer; in this situation, exploration is a reaction for a specific stimulus motivated by collative properties. However, the diverse curiosity, which can be initiated by an assortment of sources, refers to the response for boredom, meaning that it does not react to a particular stimulus.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1077353',
'title': 'Curiosity',
'section': 'Section::::Theories.:Curiosity-drive theory.\n',
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'passage_text': "Subsets of curiosity-drive theory differ on whether curiosity is a primary or secondary drive and if this curiosity-drive is originated due to one's need to make sense of and regulate their environment or if it is caused by an external stimulus. Causes can range from basic needs that need to be satisfied (e.g. hunger, thirst) to needs in fear induced situations. Each of these subset theories state that whether the need is primary or secondary curiosity is developed from experiences that create a sensation of uncertainty or perceived unpleasantness. Curiosity then acts as a means in which to dispel this uncertainty. By exhibiting curious and exploratory behavior, one is able to gain knowledge of the unfamiliar and thus reduce the state of uncertainty or unpleasantness. This theory, however, does not address the idea that curiosity can often be displayed even in the absence of new or unfamiliar situations. This type of exploratory behavior is common in many species. Take the example of a human toddler who, if bored in his current situation devoid of arousing stimuli, will walk about until something interesting is found. The observation of curiosity even in the absence of novel stimuli pinpoints one of the major shortcomings in the curiosity-drive model.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1077353',
'title': 'Curiosity',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'Curiosity can be seen as an innate quality of many different species. It is common to human beings at all ages from infancy through adulthood, and is easy to observe in many other animal species; these include apes, cats, and rodents. Early definitions cite curiosity as a motivated desire for information. This motivational desire has been said to stem from a passion or an appetite for knowledge, information, and understanding.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does curiosity often outweigh common sense?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['I think it might have to do with our hunter gatherer ancestors. We have a need for knowledge of everything near us, so we can be aware of predators, food, and other things either beneficial or detrimental to our survival. ',
'1. I think the proper answer is: "Does it?" Does it really for everyone or even a majority? I doubt it does, we\'re just seeing the especially blatant offenders on youtube falling on their noses...\n\n2. Furthermore, there\'s another effect at place: Things you are curious about are very specific things just in front of you, stuff to see, touch, something to go to, something to actually *do*. While all the reasons why it might not be a good idea are, at least at that very moment, abstract concepts of what *might* happen. People usually refer better to things they can vividly imagine than some abstract ideas they might have about a possible future.\n\n3. I think that people often massively misjduge how dangerous something can be due to lack of knowledge. Assume I show you a shining, nice, perfecly glittering disk in front of you. Why not touch it? It is interesting, it is not loud, what could be the issue? You have no way of telling it is actually a mass of 500 kg of pure tungsten with razorsharp blades that spins with 5000 rounds per minute and will take anything right off that comes close.\n\nDue to 2. and 3., many people often think they are more in control than they are, that something is more safe that it actually is. Just watch any rallye video on youtube and I bet you\'ll find some moron standing way too close to 1000+ kg cars barrelling past beyond any speed that could be considered safe... but I bet any of them will tell you "It is safe, I know cars!" [Fallacy: You knowing how to fix breaks is not preventing that car from flipping over in just the wrong moment] or "It is safe, I have done this before" [Fallacy: Just because you were lucky in the past has no bearing on this situation] or "It is safe, I just make photos" [Fallacy: Whatever the people think is a reason... actually isn\'t causally related at all].\n\nOf the countless people who refrain from most "stupid ideas" because "it is not worth it" you never, ever hear. \n\n\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '64hzb7',
'query': 'why does curiosity often outweigh common sense?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '27108790',
'title': 'TV Everywhere',
'section': 'Section::::Reception.:Password sharing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
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'passage_text': "There have been instances of users deliberately sharing their TV Everywhere login credentials, or having them sold without their owner's knowledge on the black market, in order to allow others to view programs without subscribing to the channel. Charter Communications CEO Tom Rutledge, and ESPN's executive vice president for affiliate sales and marketing Justin Connolly, have considered this practice equivalent to piracy. In December 2017, it was reported that television providers and program distributors have begun to implement measures in order to discourage this practice, including reducing the length of login session, reducing the number of concurrent streams allowed on a single account, and monitoring unusual usage patterns such as large numbers of concurrent streams on a single account—especially those originating from outside of the customer's region, or during major programs.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1813588',
'title': 'Digital distribution',
'section': 'Section::::Challenges.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
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'passage_text': 'A general issue is the large number of incompatible data formats in which content is delivered, possibly restricting the devices that may be used, or making data conversion necessary. Streaming services can have several drawbacks: requiring a constant Internet connection to use content; the restriction of some content to never be stored locally; the restriction of content from being transferred to physical media; and the enabling of greater censorship at the discretion of owners of content, infrastructure, and consumer devices.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29426527',
'title': 'Autoroll',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'Because subscription TV providers tend not to discuss the methods by which they encrypt and decrypt their signals, mention of "autoroll" software and "autorolling" on a website usually indicates that the website\'s owners are engaged in illegal TV piracy. Normally such sites claim they are not legally bound to reveal customers\' identities; often enough too, such sites will claim their activities are completely legal. Yet according to both U.S. and Canadian laws neither claim is true. In fact, the U.S.\'s Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998 compels equipment and coding providers to turn over their customers\' records to subscription-service providers if the former is found to have engaged in or aided in stealing the latter\'s services.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12831000',
'title': 'Internet censorship in Thailand',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 252,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Although the great majority of censored sites were pornographic, the list also includes anonymous proxy servers which circumvent web-blocking and provide access to Internet gambling sites. Pornography and gambling are specifically illegal in Thailand.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58801187',
'title': 'Organised crime in Indonesia',
'section': 'Section::::Cybercrime.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Illegal streaming sites contribute heavily to cyber crime in Indonesia. There was a major decrease in illegal sites in the music industry in 2017, after two-thirds of related sites were taken down towards the end of the year. These sites often create new websites meant to share content. Some experts suggest that taking down these sites will eventually close many of these operations down, claiming that there will be less viewers and lower revenue.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7169138',
'title': '18 Doughty Street',
'section': 'Section::::Birth and Early Beginnings.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'The station used live video streaming technology in a Windows format to webcast from 19:00 until midnight from Monday to Friday, with all programmes being made available to stream again shortly after the programme had aired. Due to the technology of the time, viewers could not download archived videos to their computer or portable device directly from the site, although a video podcast service of all archive videos was offered shortly before the station ceased broadcasting. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1038024',
'title': 'Pirate decryption',
'section': 'Section::::Political issues.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 70,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 70,
'end_character': 202,
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'passage_text': 'Pirate or grey-market reception also provides viewers a means to bypass local blackout restrictions on sporting events and to access hard-core pornography where some content is not otherwise available.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How are well known illegal TV streaming sites able to stay up?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["These sites do one of two things.\n\nThey operate in a jurisdiction where it would be difficult to shut them down.\n\nIf they are ever actually shut down, they simply create a new site and port everything over.\n\nIt's usually a game of whack-a-mole. With law enforcement trying to shut them down but the sites simply coming back up with a new domain name.",
'Many of these sites operate out of jurisdictions where it\'s difficult to shut down the site. They aren\'t hosted in US datacenters for example.\n\nThey also obfuscate their ownership. Shutting down a site and holding the people involved responsible are two different things. The copyright holders prefer the later to send a message.\n\nThey are also prolific and easy to spinup/move. If a particular site gets shutdown, 3 will pop up to take it\'s place within hours, and the authorities are well aware of this fact.\n\nTaking down a major player like the PirateBay seemed like a big win for the authorities but the site was back online within hours under new ownership and in a new location. Then the process of taking them down had to start all over again.\n\nLegal proceedings are expensive and take time, so the copyright holders can\'t afford to take every single one of these sites to court. Part of the problem is that it isn\'t profitable to do so, many of these sites have no real assets and are run as a hobby, so you ~~can~~ can\'t squeeze a multi-million dollar settlement out of them to cover your costs.\n\nSome of the big media companies are finally waking up to the idea that a lot of people don\'t pirate because it\'s free, they did it out of convenience. A lot of early piracy was driven by peoples realization that you could download a show and not have to tune in "same Bat time same Bat channel" anymore, or have to wait 2 months for that episode you wanted to show to appear in syndication. The way you defeat piracy is to provide a similar and reasonably priced service. People are perfectly willing to pay for a reasonably priced legal content on a streaming service.',
"So what's the point in hosting these?\n\nWho makes (any) money?"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'fts5ry',
'query': 'how are well known illegal tv streaming sites able to stay up?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '36189845',
'title': 'SingingCoach',
'section': 'Section::::Pitch recognition technology.\n',
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'passage_text': '"SingingCoach" utilizes a pitch recognition technology that was developed by Carlo Franzblau and engineered by his team of programmers. Its technology uses a white tracking line on screen to record and display the pitch of one’s voice in reference to the "in tune" bars of the song. This allows the user to understand whether or not they are singing in tune, and to adjust their voice accordingly. A score is given after completion of a song based on the percentage of time the singer was in tune.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8456905',
'title': 'Vocal coach',
'section': 'Section::::Methods of instruction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Recording studio coaching that takes place in a recording studio with a microphone and multitrack recording equipment, which is operated by an audio engineer. Singing for recordings requires different singing techniques than singing at live shows. To give one example, when a singer is performing at a small coffeehouse gig without a microphone, she does not need to worry about "plosive" consonants (such as the letter "p"); however, when singing in front of a microphone, words with the letter "p" can be overemphasized by the microphone, due to the nature of the way we produce these sounds.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15417462',
'title': 'The Singing Machine Company',
'section': 'Section::::Products.:Karaoke Machines.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': "In the fall of 2015 The Singing Machine introduced its new digital line of products, no CD-G required allowing users to create playlists on the company's branded site and chose their favorite songs, download them to a USB, giving them the freedom of mixing and matching genres, singers, and enjoying the songs they want to sing.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '668442',
'title': 'Lip sync',
'section': 'Section::::In music.:Protests by artists.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 57,
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'passage_text': 'In some cases, when producers force singers to lip-synch on live TV broadcasts, the vocalists deliberately make it clear that they are not singing live. When Public Image Limited singer John Lydon performed on Dick Clark’s "American Bandstand" TV show, the "...punk pioneer refused to mime during an appearance... and instead he sat on the floor of the [TV] studio, threw himself into the assembled audience, and stuck his nose into the camera while recordings over his own voice played" on the air.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32965913',
'title': 'Child Is Father of the Man',
'section': 'Section::::Recording.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'Several sections of the song were recorded, but aside from a group piano demo, only one variation of the chorus\'s backing track was overdubbed with vocals sung in elaborate musical rounds. According to "The Smile Sessions" compiler Mark Linett, "When he\'s not singing, you can hear faint background vocal parts that no longer exist on the multitrack. They must have been in his headphones, and were picked up by the vocal mic. It could be that Brian decided he didn\'t need them, or that he was going to re-record them, but never did. You hear this sort of stuff throughout the tapes." The song was worked on between October and December 1966. After one more revisit in April 1967, the track was abandoned forever by the group.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12166462',
'title': 'The Raven (song)',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'It was one of the first rock songs to use a vocoder, developed by EMS, to distort vocals. It is also one of the few songs by the band featuring the vocals of Alan Parsons, who sings the first verse through the EMI vocoder. Actor Leonard Whiting performs the lead vocals for the remainder of the song, with Eric Woolfson and a choir as backing vocals.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '49635906',
'title': 'Sing My Song (season 1)',
'section': 'Section::::The Recordings.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'The blind audition stage in Sing My Song is called "The Recordings". In front of each producer, there is a lyric screen and a red control bar. If a producer pushes the bar, it means he/she is recording the song and want the song in his/her original album. The lyrics screen will then move down, allowing the producer to see the contestant on stage. This part bears resemblance to the blind auditions in The Voice.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do people remove vocals from a song for adverts for example?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Most songs nowadays are composed using layers on a track. So all it really takes is removing the layer. It's trickier with older songs that didn't use this production method.",
"One of my best friends runs a company that sells music to adverts and TV shows and the like. Most bands have an instrumental version of all songs they've recorded, so they can licence them to ads etc. ",
"Little late to the party but I figured I'd add my two cents and hope you see it. \n\nI'm an audio engineer in a studio in Pittsburgh, and before that I worked in a large studio in Chicago called CRC. CRC is one of the biggest independent studios in the country and we did both music and post-production (video games, movies, tv shows, etc.) \n\nWhat other people are saying about layers is correct. You have multiple tracks in a single session/song. When the final mix is done, all those tracks are combined into a two channel mix and very often a summed mono mix so that normal stereos can play the track. \n\nWhile I was at CRC, it was very common for us to finish the final mix, and then do multiple variant mixes that we would then give to the artist. For example, we would print the final mix, then we would turn the vocals up a pinch and print a VOX Up mix, then turn them down and do a VOX Down mix, then mute all the instruments and do an acapella mix and then mute all the vocals and do an instrumental mix. We would give all these mixes to the artist or label and then when someone wanted to use the instrumental track for something like a movie trailer, the artist already had an instrumental mix that they could send right away. \n\nOnce a mix is printed it's damn near impossible to remove just the vocals and not affect anything else. I say damn near because there could possibly be a program out there that could do it, but I don't know of any and I'm not sure how it would be possible. Like you mentioned previously, if you isolate the frequencies of the vocals you're also going to isolate and remove any instrument that falls in that frequency range. \n\nHope this helps! "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6f345b',
'query': 'how do people remove vocals from a song for adverts for example?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '68672',
'title': 'Anger',
'section': 'Section::::Physiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 83,
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'passage_text': 'Neuroscience has shown that emotions are generated by multiple structures in the brain. The rapid, minimal, and evaluative processing of the emotional significance of the sensory data is done when the data passes through the amygdala in its travel from the sensory organs along certain neural pathways towards the limbic forebrain. Emotion caused by discrimination of stimulus features, thoughts, or memories however occurs when its information is relayed from the thalamus to the neocortex. Based on some statistical analysis, some scholars have suggested that the tendency for anger may be genetic. Distinguishing between genetic and environmental factors however requires further research and actual measurement of specific genes and environments.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4829036',
'title': 'Problem of mental causation',
'section': 'Section::::Commonsensical Solutions.:The Advent of Crying.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
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'end_paragraph_id': 19,
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'passage_text': 'How Emotions are Made: The Secret Life of the Brain by Lisa Feldman Barrett for a rigorous discussion. One’s crying is not planned, unless one is an actor, then we are able to tap into the mechanism that causes tears to flow. Otherwise it just happens outside of out awareness of causing it by thinking. The brain has patterns of neurons that once activated generate physiologic responses that happens up to 10 seconds before we are aware. (Koch, Christof. 2012. “How Physics and Neuroscience Dictate Your “Free” Will”. Scientific American: April 12.) and many others.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26848013',
'title': 'Amygdala hijack',
'section': 'Section::::Definition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'Goleman states that emotions "make us pay attention right now—this is urgent—and gives us an immediate action plan without having to think twice. The emotional component evolved very early: Do I eat it, or does it eat me?" The emotional response "can take over the rest of the brain in a millisecond if threatened."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '806023',
'title': 'Sympathy',
'section': 'Section::::Neuroscience perspectives.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "Social and emotional stimuli, particularly those related to the well-being of another person, are being more directly studied with advent of technology that can track brain activity (such as Electroencephalograms and functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging). Amygdala and insula activation occur when a person experiences emotions, such as fear and disgust respectively. Primary motor regions are also activated during sympathy. This could be caused by humans' reaction to emotional faces, reflecting the expressions on their own faces, which seems to help people better understand the other person's emotion. In addition, researchers have also suggested that the neural mechanisms that are activated when personally experiencing emotions are also activated when viewing another person experiencing the same emotions (mirror neurons). Pain seems to specifically activate a region known as the cingulate cortex, in addition to activation that is mentioned earlier. The temporal parietal junction, orbitofrontal cortex, and ventral striatum are also thought to play a role in the production of emotion.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '788091',
'title': 'Psychological trauma',
'section': 'Section::::Symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'Triggers and cues act as reminders of the trauma and can cause anxiety and other associated emotions. Often the person can be completely unaware of what these triggers are. In many cases this may lead a person suffering from traumatic disorders to engage in disruptive behaviors or self-destructive coping mechanisms, often without being fully aware of the nature or causes of their own actions. Panic attacks are an example of a psychosomatic response to such emotional triggers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '54301172',
'title': 'Well-being contributing factors',
'section': "Section::::Biological factors.:Neuroscience's findings.\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 54,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 54,
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'passage_text': 'By identifying neural correlates for emotions, scientists may be able to use methods like brain scans to tell us more about the different ways of being "happy". Richard Davidson has conducted research to determine which parts of the brain are involved in positive emotions. He found that the left prefrontal cortex is more activated when we are happy and is also associated with greater ability to recover from negative emotions as well as enhanced ability to suppress negative emotions. Davidson found that people can train themselves to increase activation in this area of their brains. It is thought that our brain can change throughout our lives as a result of our experiences; this is known as neuroplasticity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1098140',
'title': 'Spindle neuron',
'section': 'Section::::ACC spindle neurons.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'In humans, intense emotion activates the anterior cingulate cortex, as it relays neural signals transmitted from the amygdala (a primary processing center for emotions) to the frontal cortex, perhaps by functioning as a sort of lens to focus the complex texture of neural signal interference patterns. The ACC is also active during demanding tasks requiring judgment and discrimination, and when errors are detected by an individual. During difficult tasks, or when experiencing intense love, anger, or lust, activation of the ACC increases. In brain imaging studies, the ACC has specifically been found to be active when mothers hear infants cry, underscoring its role in affording a heightened degree of social sensitivity.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What happens in our brains when we hold in emotions and then snap?',
'selftext': 'I want to know if there are any chemicals or enzymes that release when you suppress emotion and what happens when we finally release it. And then why do we then resort to extreme sadness or anger?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["\nYour front brain simulates consequences and chooses the best action to take. When you're emotional, this usually means stopping you from doing something like punting your co workers. Sometimes one or multiple emotions become really strong and it takes lots of effort to stop you from acting on them. Effort makes your brain tired, and either it becomes worse at modulating behavior OR the emotions become too strong for the front brain to hold back. Then you have an emotional outburst where the front brain is kinda offline. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6duqtt',
'query': 'what happens in our brains when we hold in emotions and then snap?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '381434',
'title': 'Budding',
'section': 'Section::::Cellular reproduction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'Some cells divide asymmetrically by budding, for example "Saccharomyces cerevisiae", the yeast species used in baking and brewing. This process results in a \'mother\' cell and a smaller \'daughter\' cell. Cryo-electron tomography recently revealed that mitochondria in cells divide by budding.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12240016',
'title': 'Cell fusion',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 325,
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'passage_text': 'In 1847 Theodore Schwann expanded upon the theory that all living organisms are composed of cells when he added to it that discrete cells are the basis of life. Schwann observed that in certain cells the walls and cavities of the cells coalesce together. It was this observation that provided the first hint that cells fuse.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4230',
'title': 'Cell (biology)',
'section': 'Section::::Origins.:Origin of the first cell.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 83,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 83,
'end_character': 474,
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'passage_text': 'Cells emerged at least 3.5 billion years ago. The current belief is that these cells were heterotrophs. The early cell membranes were probably more simple and permeable than modern ones, with only a single fatty acid chain per lipid. Lipids are known to spontaneously form bilayered vesicles in water, and could have preceded RNA, but the first cell membranes could also have been produced by catalytic RNA, or even have required structural proteins before they could form.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2068726',
'title': 'History of Earth',
'section': 'Section::::Proterozoic Eon.:Emergence of eukaryotes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 67,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 67,
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'passage_text': 'Around this time, the first proto-mitochondrion was formed. A bacterial cell related to today\'s "Rickettsia", which had evolved to metabolize oxygen, entered a larger prokaryotic cell, which lacked that capability. Perhaps the large cell attempted to digest the smaller one but failed (possibly due to the evolution of prey defenses). The smaller cell may have tried to parasitize the larger one. In any case, the smaller cell survived inside the larger cell. Using oxygen, it metabolized the larger cell\'s waste products and derived more energy. Part of this excess energy was returned to the host. The smaller cell replicated inside the larger one. Soon, a stable symbiosis developed between the large cell and the smaller cells inside it. Over time, the host cell acquired some genes from the smaller cells, and the two kinds became dependent on each other: the larger cell could not survive without the energy produced by the smaller ones, and these, in turn, could not survive without the raw materials provided by the larger cell. The whole cell is now considered a single organism, and the smaller cells are classified as organelles called mitochondria.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25229064',
'title': 'Evolution of cells',
'section': 'Section::::Quotes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 698,
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'passage_text': ' "The First Cell arose in the previously pre-biotic world with the coming together of several entities that gave a single vesicle the unique chance to carry out three essential and quite different life processes. These were: (a) to copy informational macromolecules, (b) to carry out specific catalytic functions, and (c) to couple energy from the environment into usable chemical forms. These would foster subsequent cellular evolution and metabolism. Each of these three essential processes probably originated and was lost many times prior to The First Cell, but only when these three occurred together was life jump-started and Darwinian evolution of organisms began." (Koch and Silver, 2005) \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '996341',
'title': 'Spindle checkpoint',
'section': 'Section::::Chromosome segregation.:Cell division: duplication of material and distribution to daughter cells.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'When cells are ready to divide, because cell size is big enough or because they receive the appropriate stimulus, they activate the mechanism to enter into the cell cycle, and they duplicate most organelles during S (synthesis) phase, including their centrosome. Therefore, when the cell division process will end, each daughter cell will receive a complete set of organelles. At the same time, during S phase all cells must duplicate their DNA very precisely, a process termed DNA replication. Once DNA replication has finished, in eukaryotes the DNA molecule is compacted and condensed, to form the mitotic chromosomes, each one constituted by two sister chromatids, which stay held together by the establishment of cohesion between them; each chromatid is a complete DNA molecule, attached via microtubules to one of the two centrosomes of the dividing cell, located at opposed poles of the cell. The structure formed by the centrosomes and the microtubules is named mitotic spindle, due to its characteristic shape, holding the chromosomes between the two centrosomes. Both sister chromatids stay together until anaphase; at this moment they separate from each other and they travel towards the centrosome to which they are attached. In this way, when the two daughter cells separate at the end of the division process, each one will receive a complete set of chromatids. The mechanism responsible for the correct distribution of sister chromatids during cell division is named chromosome segregation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '102858',
'title': 'Cell theory',
'section': 'Section::::Cell theory.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': 'However, the idea that all cells come from pre-existing cells had in fact already been proposed by Robert Remak; it has been suggested that Virchow plagiarized Remak and did not give him credit. Remak published observations in 1852 on cell division, claiming Schleiden and Schawnn were incorrect about generation schemes. He instead said that binary fission, which was first introduced by Dumortier, was how reproduction of new animal cells were made. Once this tenet was added, the classical cell theory was complete.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'At what point did the first cells decide that it was okay to eat each other? And why? Couldn’t they have kept dividing just as the first living cell did? Did they divide to survive or JUST to eat each other? Or both? What mechanism even decided those?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['They didn\'t "decide". That\'s a conscious motive that you\'re applying to the simplest organisms. \n\nThe simple answer is that you need more stuff to make more cells. Just like building a house, you need to get more lumber, bricks, drywall...etc to build more houses. The easiest way to get the biological molecules an organism needs to make more of itself is to consume them from another organism that already has them.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'amzxa6',
'query': 'at what point did the first cells decide that it was okay to eat each other? and why? couldn’t they have kept dividing just as the first living cell did? did they divide to survive or just to eat each other? or both? what mechanism even decided those?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '843336',
'title': 'Remote control vehicle',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'A remote control vehicle is defined as any vehicle that is teleoperated by a means that does not restrict its motion with an origin external to the device. This is often a radio control device, cable between control and vehicle, or an infrared controller. A remote control vehicle or RCV differs from a robot in that the RCV is always controlled by a human and takes no positive action autonomously.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '843336',
'title': 'Remote control vehicle',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Military and law enforcement.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'Remote control vehicles are used in law enforcement and military engagements for some of the same reasons. The exposure to hazards are mitigated to the person who operates the vehicle from a location of relative safety. Remote controlled vehicles are used by many police department bomb-squads to defuse or detonate explosives. See Dragon Runner, Military robot.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2926730',
'title': 'Fleet management',
'section': 'Section::::Fleet security and control.:Remote vehicle disabling systems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
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'passage_text': "Remote vehicle disabling systems provide users at remote locations the ability to prevent an engine from starting, prevent movement of a vehicle, and to stop or slow an operating vehicle. Remote disabling allows a dispatcher or other authorized personnel to gradually decelerate a vehicle by downshifting, limiting the throttle capability, or bleeding air from the braking system from a remote location. Some of these systems provide advance notification to the driver that the vehicle disabling is about to occur. After stopping a vehicle, some systems will lock the vehicle's brakes or will not allow the vehicle's engine to be restarted within a certain time-frame.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6343317',
'title': 'Remote controlled weapon station',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'A remote controlled weapon station (RCWS), or remote weapon station (RWS), also known as a remote weapon system, (RWS) is a remotely operated weaponized system often equipped with fire-control system for light and medium-caliber weapons which can be installed on ground combat vehicle or sea- and air-based combat platforms. Such equipment is used on modern military vehicles, as it allows a gunner to remain in the relative protection of the vehicle. It may also be retrofitted onto existing vehicles, for example, the CROWS system is being fitted to American Humvees and the Thales SWARM for Bushmaster IMVs of the Royal Netherlands Army.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23438548',
'title': 'Remote starter',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "A remote starter is a radio controlled device, which is installed in a vehicle by the factory or an aftermarket installer to preheat or cool the vehicle before the owner gets into it. Once activated, by pushing a button on a special key chain remote, it starts the vehicle automatically for a predetermined time. Different models have keyless entry as well. Most newer vehicles need some kind of bypass module to bypass the factory anti-theft system, so the vehicle can be started without the ignition key in the ignition, this is bypassed only to start the vehicle, which after it is running returns to its original state. For cars with manual transmission additional safety features may need to be added to prevent the car from starting while it's parked in gear. Having a remote starter installed in a vehicle will usually not void the factory warranty when installed properly.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27945098',
'title': 'Timeline of United States inventions (1890–1945)',
'section': 'Section::::Progressive Era (1890–1919).\n',
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'passage_text': 'A remote control is an electronic device used to operate any machine, such as a television, remotely. Many of these remotes communicate to their respective devices through infrared signals and radio control. In Madison Square Garden, at the Electrical Exhibition, Nikola Tesla gave the first demonstration of a boat propelling in water, controlled by his remote control which he designed using radio signals. Tesla received a patent for his invention in 1898.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2253116',
'title': 'Unmanned ground vehicle',
'section': 'Section::::Design.:Control systems.:Remote operated.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 324,
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'passage_text': 'A remote-operated UGV is a vehicle that is controlled by a human operator via interface. All actions are determined by the operator based upon either direct visual observation or remote use of sensors such as digital video cameras. A basic example of the principles of remote operation would be a remote controlled toy car.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do remote controlled cars work?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['A radio sends commands to a controller in the car. That in turn sends electrical signals to the various motors and solenoids that operate the mechanical parts of the car.\n\nThis can be super basic in a battery powered car with simple steering, or increasingly complex as you approach full sized gasoline powered vehicles. \n\n',
'An RC car consists of the radio system \\(transmitter and receiver\\), the motor, motor speed controller, steering servo, and battery. Each function like steering and throttle are on separate channels, usually channel 1 for steering, channel 2 for throttle. When you hit the throttle the radio transmitter sends the signal to the receiver on the car. The receiver will send the throttle signal to the motor speed controller, which then sends power to the motor. When you steer, the receiver will send the steering signal to the steering servo which steers the wheels. The battery pack powers everything.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8c0wdm',
'query': 'how do remote controlled cars work?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '53622964',
'title': 'Resonance ionization',
'section': 'Section::::Optical excitation and ionization schemes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
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'end_character': 493,
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'passage_text': 'The RIS process can be used to ionize all elements on the periodic table, except helium and neon, using available lasers. In fact, it is possible to ionize most elements with a single laser set-up, thus enabling rapid switching from one element to another. In the early days, optical schemes from RIMS have been used to study over 70 elements and over 39 elements can be ionized with a single laser combination using a rapid computer-modulated framework that switches elements within seconds.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '194031',
'title': 'Nuclear fuel cycle',
'section': 'Section::::Fuel cycles.:Minor actinides recycling.:Fuel or targets for this actinide transmutation.:Actinides in a uranium matrix.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 106,
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'passage_text': 'If the actinides are incorporated into a uranium-metal or uranium-oxide matrix, then the neutron capture of U-238 is likely to generate new plutonium-239. An advantage of mixing the actinides with uranium and plutonium is that the large fission cross sections of U-235 and Pu-239 for the less energetic delayed-neutrons could make the reaction stable enough to be carried out in a critical fast reactor, which is likely to be both cheaper and simpler than an accelerator driven system.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1886874',
'title': 'Neutron capture',
'section': 'Section::::Neutron absorbers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': 'Hence, it is quite important to be able to separate the zirconium from the hafnium in their naturally occurring alloy. This can only be done inexpensively by using modern chemical ion-exchange resins. Similar resins are also used in reprocessing nuclear fuel rods, when it is necessary to separate uranium and plutonium, and sometimes thorium.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '194031',
'title': 'Nuclear fuel cycle',
'section': 'Section::::Fuel cycles.:Minor actinides recycling.:Fuel or targets for this actinide transmutation.:Mixed matrix.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 108,
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'passage_text': 'It is also possible to create a matrix made from a mix of the above-mentioned materials. This is most commonly done in fast reactors where one may wish to keep the breeding ratio of new fuel high enough to keep powering the reactor, but still low enough that the generated actinides can be safely destroyed without transporting them to another site. One way to do this is to use fuel where actinides and uranium is mixed with inert zirconium, producing fuel elements with the desired properties.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27739443',
'title': 'Nuclear transmutation',
'section': 'Section::::Artificial transmutation of nuclear waste.:Reactor types.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
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'end_paragraph_id': 28,
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'passage_text': 'For instance, plutonium can be reprocessed into MOX fuels and transmuted in standard reactors. The heavier elements could be transmuted in fast reactors, but probably more effectively in a subcritical reactor which is sometimes known as an energy amplifier and which was devised by Carlo Rubbia. Fusion neutron sources have also been proposed as well suited.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3185688',
'title': 'Nuclear reactor physics',
'section': 'Section::::Criticality.:Starter sources.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'end_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': 'The mere fact that an assembly is supercritical does not guarantee that it contains any free neutrons at all. At least one neutron is required to "strike" a chain reaction, and if the spontaneous fission rate is sufficiently low it may take a long time (in U reactors, as long as many minutes) before a chance neutron encounter starts a chain reaction even if the reactor is supercritical. Most nuclear reactors include a "starter" neutron source that ensures there are always a few free neutrons in the reactor core, so that a chain reaction will begin immediately when the core is made critical. A common type of startup neutron source is a mixture of an alpha particle emitter such as Am (americium-241) with a lightweight isotope such as Be (beryllium-9).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3183152',
'title': 'Gun-type fission weapon',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Since it is a relatively slow method of assembly, plutonium cannot be used unless it is purely the 239 isotope. Production of impurity-free plutonium is very difficult and is impractical. The required amount of uranium is relatively large, and thus the overall efficiency is relatively low.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What prevents us from just arranging Protrons, Electrons and Neutrons together in any way we like to create any elements we want and make anything we want out of nothing?',
'selftext': "Eli5: What prevents us from just arranging Protrons, Electrons and Neutrons together in any way we like to create any elements we want and make anything we want out of nothing? I am just curious about what has held back the leap. Because I am under the impression that these particles make all matter so in theory intelligent human life should be able to make whatever matter than want with just particles right? Like if I wanted to make gold out of nothing but particles why can't I? If I wanted to make a iPhone for instance, shouldn't I be able to arrange the particles to make it out of nothing but particles? Eli5 what's holding this next step back",
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['About 7000 nuclides are predicted to exist according to certain calculations in theoretical nuclear physics. Of those 7000, about 3000 have been found in nature and/or produced using particle accelerators/nuclear reactors.\n\nSo we can produce a huge range of nuclear species for experimental purposes.',
'It takes a *lot* of energy to attach and rearrange those pieces. Think about burning a log: you\'re rearranging the *chemicals* by changing the bonds between different atoms, so that you turn cellulose into carbon dioxide and water (and some other byproducts). Doing so requires you to add energy to the system (a match) and produces excess energy. Or electrolysis, which is using electricity to turn water (H20) into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2), which requires even more energy in and you get less energy out of it than you put into it.\n\nThe bonds between protons and neutrons is *much* stronger. How much stronger? [Here are some atoms being rearranged violently to form different chemicals](_URL_0_), and [here\'s some protons and neutrons being rearranged violently to form different atoms](_URL_1_). There is a *lot* more energy involved in making different elements compared to chemical changes. The technology to produce that energy and, more importantly, to control it simply doesn\'t exist at the moment.\n\nEDIT: That said, this is pretty much exactly what particle accelerators do. That\'s how we "discover" more elements: we smash smaller elements together to form bigger elements. We just do that at a very very small scale (a few atoms at a time). But we use larger elements, which require less energy to get to fuse. We could conceivably get smaller elements to fuse, but it wouldn\'t be economical at all to do so.',
"Basically, we can. There are many different ways to arrange subnucleonic particles into atoms, and we have created many elements that don't exist in nature cause they are very short lived and unstable. But even creating a few common atoms requires complex machinery and a lot of energy, so making a complex device out of them isn't efficient or even feasible, especially since we can just mine a lot of the materials and create the ones we don't have through relatively easy to manage large scale chemical reactions.",
'For one it wouldn\'t be "from nothing" you would still need to isolate particles which is in no way an easy task. Then you have to discover how to manipulate neutrons which is really hard because they dont have a charge so moving them through conventional means is really hard. Then you would have to force the protons close enough together which is really expensive and takes a TON of energy, and also releases a ton of energy which has to be contained or else you have a bomb. Keep in mind that forcing protons together is pretty hard, because they dont want to be near each other due to electromagnetic forces, and the more protons you are pushing together the more energy it requires. TL;DR nuclear-synthesis takes a massive amount of energy that we simply dont have. ',
"Protons, electrons and neutrons are so tiny, it's not like you can get a tweezers and connect them just how you want them.\n\nNo, you have to smash them together at high speeds, millions of times, and hope that you get the thing you want. It's like building an alarm clock by shooting springs and bells and gears at each other.\n\nAnd even after all that work atom smashing work, you typically just end up with a handful of your special new atom. In order to get enough to look at, even just a tiny speck, never mind enough to hold in your hand, you need billions and billions."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6f4zyk',
'query': 'what prevents us from just arranging protrons, electrons and neutrons together in any way we like to create any elements we want and make anything we want out of nothing?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '12169672',
'title': "Brandt's bat",
'section': 'Section::::Biology.:Longevity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 37,
'end_character': 206,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "In mammals, larger animals tend to have longer lifespans than smaller ones; the Brandt's bat is the most extreme outlier to this pattern, with lifespans exceeding 40 years in the wild while only weighing .\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46764',
'title': 'Even-toed ungulate',
'section': 'Section::::Lifestyle.:Reproduction and life expectancy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 165,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 165,
'end_character': 253,
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'passage_text': 'The life expectancy is typically twenty to thirty years; as in many mammals, smaller species often have a shorter lifespan than larger species. The artiodactyls with the longest lifespans are the hippos, cows, and camels, which can live 40 to 50 years.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55895027',
'title': 'Disposable soma theory of aging',
'section': 'Section::::Evidence.:Growth and aging.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 226,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'There is a large body of evidence indicating the negative effects of growth on longevity across many species. As a general rule, individuals of a smaller size generally live longer than larger individuals of the same species.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5914541',
'title': 'Evolution of ageing',
'section': 'Section::::Natural selection.:Mortality.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 383,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'When examining the body-size vs. lifespan relationship, one also observes that predatory mammals tend to live longer than prey mammals in a controlled environment, such as a zoo or nature reserve. The explanation for the long lifespans of primates (such as humans, monkeys, and apes) relative to body size is that their intelligence, and they would have a lower intrinsic mortality.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '192225',
'title': 'Opiliones',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 310,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Typical body length does not exceed , and some species are smaller than 1\xa0mm, although the largest known species, "Trogulus torosus" (Trogulidae), grows as long as . The leg span of many species is much greater than the body length and sometimes exceeds and to in Southeast Asia. Most species live for a year.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22403915',
'title': 'Body size and species richness',
'section': 'Section::::Possible mechanisms.:Energetic constraints.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 541,
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'passage_text': 'A small bodied animal has a greater capacity to be more abundant than a large bodied one. Purely as a function of geometry many more small things can be packed into a given space than can large things into the same area. However, these limits are generally never reached in ecological systems as other resources become limiting long before the packing limits are reached. Additionally, smaller species may have many more ecological niches available to them and thus facilitating the diversification of life (Hutchinson and MacArthur, 1959).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18669',
'title': 'Life expectancy',
'section': 'Section::::Human patterns.:Sex differences.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 327,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Some argue that shorter male life expectancy is merely another manifestation of the general rule, seen in all mammal species, that larger (size) individuals (within a species) tend, on average, to have shorter lives. This biological difference occurs because women have more resistance to infections and degenerative diseases.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do smaller animals seem to live shorter lives and larger animals longer? Such as a fly compared to a whale',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Typically organisms with shorter life spans have a survival strategy based on rapid and mass reproduction. A fly for example would be expected to grow many larvae to maturity, mate, and lay their own eggs within a month because flies die all the time to various things. If a fly needed to survive for 5 years before it could reproduce then it would never work as the mass of flies required every generation would be impossible to achieved. From the other side it is equally untenable as there is no way to grow a whale up to full size in 28 days. There simply isn't enough available food even if the organism could grow that quickly."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6y32rp',
'query': 'why do smaller animals seem to live shorter lives and larger animals longer? such as a fly compared to a whale',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '27158894',
'title': 'Addiction',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanisms.:Reward sensitization.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 52,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 52,
'end_character': 847,
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'passage_text': '"Cue-induced wanting" or "cue-triggered wanting", a form of craving that occurs in addiction, is responsible for most of the compulsive behavior that addicts exhibit. During the development of an addiction, the repeated association of otherwise neutral and even non-rewarding stimuli with drug consumption triggers an associative learning process that causes these previously neutral stimuli to act as conditioned positive reinforcers of addictive drug use (i.e., these stimuli start to function as drug cues). As conditioned positive reinforcers of drug use, these previously neutral stimuli are assigned incentive salience (which manifests as a craving)\xa0– sometimes at pathologically high levels due to reward sensitization\xa0– which can transfer to the primary reinforcer (e.g., the use of an addictive drug) with which it was originally paired.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8582684',
'title': 'Reward system',
'section': 'Section::::Anatomy.:Animals vs. humans.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
'end_character': 626,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Berridge developed the "incentive salience hypothesis" to address the "wanting" aspect of rewards. It explains the compulsive use of drugs by drug addicts even when the drug no longer produces euphoria, and the cravings experienced even after the individual has finished going through withdrawal. Some addicts respond to certain stimuli involving neural changes caused by drugs. This sensitization in the brain is similar to the effect of dopamine because "wanting" and "liking" reactions occur. Human and animal brains and behaviors experience similar changes regarding reward systems because these systems are so prominent.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1085344',
'title': 'Motivational salience',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical significance.:Addiction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 417,
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'passage_text': 'In addiction, the "liking" (pleasure or hedonic value) of a drug or other stimulus becomes dissociated from "wanting" (i.e., desire or craving) due to the sensitization of incentive salience. In fact, if the incentive salience associated with drug-taking becomes pathologically amplified, the user may want the drug more and more while liking it less and less as tolerance develops to the drug\'s pleasurable effects.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46506010',
'title': 'A-process',
'section': 'Section::::A and b process.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 234,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Research on the brain mechanisms of drug addiction showed how the a-process is equated with the pleasure derived from drugs and once it weakens, it is followed by the strengthening of the b-process, which are the withdrawal symptoms.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47537620',
'title': 'Personality theories of addiction',
'section': 'Section::::Role of affect dysregulation in addiction.:Negative affect.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 424,
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'passage_text': 'Key to this concept is the Hedonic Hypothesis, which states that individuals initiate use of the substance or behaviour for their pleasurable effects, but then take it compulsively to avoid withdrawal symptoms, resulting in dependence. Based on this hypothesis, some researchers believe that individuals engaging in risky use of substances or behaviours may be over-responsing to negative stimuli, which leads to addiction.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9228775',
'title': 'Politics of drug abuse',
'section': 'Section::::World Health Organization.:Definitions of drug abuse and drug addiction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 468,
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'passage_text': '"Drug addiction is a state of periodic or chronic intoxication produced by the repeated consumption of a drug (natural or synthetic). Its characteristics include: (i) an overpowering desire or need (compulsion) to continue taking the drug and to obtain it by any means; (ii) a tendency to increase the dose; (iii) a psychic (psychological) and generally a physical dependence on the effects of the drug; and (iv) detrimental effects on the individual and on society."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56103154',
'title': 'Discrimination against drug addicts',
'section': 'Section::::Lack of objective information about drugs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 1303,
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'passage_text': "When an individual falls victim to drug addiction, they will undergo the five stages of addiction which are the first use, the continued use, tolerance, dependence, and addiction. The first use stage, is the stage where individuals experiment with drugs and alcohol. This is the stage where individuals will partake in drug use because of curiosity, peer pressure, emotional problems etc. They discover how the drug will make them feel. In the continued use stage, individuals know how the drug makes them feel and is likely to notice that they're not getting “high” as quickly as they use to. In the tolerance stage, the brain and the body have adjusted to the drug and it takes longer to get the “high” an individual is seeking. Tolerance arrives after a period of continued use and is one of the first warning signs of addiction. In the dependence stage, the brain becomes accustomed to the drug and doesn't function well without it. Substance abusers become physically ill without the use of drugs and will begin to develop symptoms of withdrawal. This is sign that the addiction is beginning to take hold of the individual. In the addiction stage, individuals find it impossible to stop using drugs even if they do not enjoy it or if their behavior has caused problems within an individual's life.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "- why does one get cravings? When one quits a drug/behavior, what's exactly happening when one senses a 'craving'?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['When one does drugs or smoke or eat junk food, our brain responds by giving you a “feel good” feeling. This feeling is caused by chemicals aka neurotransmitters, in our body like dopamine and endorphins. Our brain remembers what caused us to feel this way and knows in the future what it needs to make yourself feel good like before ., which leads to cravings. \n\n\nWith quitting drugs, particularly opiates, painful or just unpleasant withdraw happens because our body grew accustomed or dependent on the drugs to make the body produce the feel good chemicals and it didn’t think it needed to produce anymore of its feel good chemicals on its own. Once the drugs stop, the body takes time to readjust and build its own supply back up on its own. ......in the mean time, the person is in agony. \n',
'Our brains get "rewired" when we use drugs, alcohol or develop an addictive behavior. This isn\'t just to the substance but to the *ritual* involved.\n\nAlcoholics like the sound of a beer tab, or bottle cracking open; gamblers love the feeling of walking into a card game or casino, etc. The ritual becomes part of the addiction. Even smoking cigarettes is as much about opening the pack and lighting up as it is getting the nicotine high.\n\nThe brain associates those behaviors, as well as the chemicals triggered, with feeling good/better.\n\nSource: recovered/recovering alcoholic/pillhead',
"Basically your brain is using the same circuits as are active in extreme hunger, to motivate you to seek the drug the same way you would seek food if you hadn't eaten for five days."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9qjimh',
'query': "- why does one get cravings? when one quits a drug/behavior, what's exactly happening when one senses a 'craving'?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '349632',
'title': 'Clothes iron',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'A clothes iron is a device that, when heated, is used to press clothes to remove creases and help prevent the spread of infectious disease. Domestic irons generally range in operating temperature from between to . It is named for the metal (iron) of which the device was historically made, and the use of it is generally called ironing. Ironing works by loosening the ties between the long chains of molecules that exist in polymer fiber materials. With the heat and the weight of the ironing plate, the fibers are stretched and the fabric maintains its new shape when cool. Some materials, such as cotton, require the use of water to loosen the intermolecular bonds. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38180',
'title': 'Clothing',
'section': 'Section::::Life cycle.:Laundry, ironing, storage.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 70,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 70,
'end_character': 547,
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'passage_text': 'Many kinds of clothing are designed to be ironed before they are worn to remove wrinkles. Most modern formal and semi-formal clothing is in this category (for example, dress shirts and suits). Ironed clothes are believed to look clean, fresh, and neat. Much contemporary casual clothing is made of knit materials that do not readily wrinkle, and do not require ironing. Some clothing is permanent press, having been treated with a coating (such as polytetrafluoroethylene) that suppresses wrinkles and creates a smooth appearance without ironing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '54029391',
'title': 'Mary Florence Potts',
'section': 'Section::::Mid life and career.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "The most pronounced feature of Potts's clothes iron was a detachable rounded wooden handle. That allowed the iron base to be placed on a heated stovetop and the handle removed at that time to stay away and cool while the base heated up. This prevented burned fingers, that often happened with the conventional all-solid-metal clothes iron of the nineteenth century. The handle and bases were designed standard and could be easily reattached to various sizes after they were heated for little delay in ironing. \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '232412',
'title': 'Putrefaction',
'section': 'Section::::Factors affecting putrefaction.:Exogenous (external).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 44,
'end_character': 240,
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'passage_text': 'Clothing: Loose-fitting clothing can speed up the rate of putrefaction, as it helps to retain body heat. Tight-fitting clothing can delay the process by cutting off blood supply to tissues and eliminating nutrients for bacteria to feed on.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '54029391',
'title': 'Mary Florence Potts',
'section': 'Section::::Mid life and career.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "The conventional solid metal clothes iron of the 19th century weighed around to and had to be heated on a stove. It was so hot, that often a rag or thick cloth mitt was utilized to touch the metal handle to prevent burning the fingers. Once this all-metal iron cooled down, the ironing job at hand had to stop until it was reheated. The advantage of Potts's system was that there was always a waiting heated base ready to be switched out with the used cooled base, so the ironing could continue immediately. \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21402762',
'title': 'Ironing',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Ironing is the use of a machine, usually a heated tool (an iron), to remove wrinkles from fabric. The heating is commonly done to a temperature of 180–220 °Celsius, depending on the fabric. Ironing works by loosening the bonds between the long-chain polymer molecules in the fibers of the material. While the molecules are hot, the fibers are straightened by the weight of the iron, and they hold their new shape as they cool. Some fabrics, such as cotton, require the addition of water to loosen the intermolecular bonds. Many modern fabrics (developed in or after the mid-twentieth century) are advertised as needing little or no ironing. Permanent press clothing was developed to reduce the ironing necessary by combining wrinkle-resistant polyester with cotton.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21402762',
'title': 'Ironing',
'section': 'Section::::Equipment.:Ironing board.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'Most ironing is done on an ironing board, a small, portable, foldable table with a heat-resistant surface. Some commercial-grade ironing boards incorporate a heating element and a pedal-operated vacuum to pull air through the board and dry the garment.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why must clothes irons be hot in order to serve their purpose ?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It's kinda like how you straighten hair the carbon bonds are weak in hair heat allows the breaking of bonds and forms it straight under the flat surface "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8rn3yr',
'query': 'why must clothes irons be hot in order to serve their purpose ?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2639335',
'title': 'Timeline of astronomy',
'section': 'Section::::1929.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 121,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Edwin Hubble discovered that the universe is expanding and that the farther away a galaxy is, the faster it is moving away from us. Two years later, Georges Lemaître suggests that the expansion can be traced to an initial "Big Bang".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4116',
'title': 'Big Bang',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Since Georges Lemaître first noted in 1927 that an expanding universe could be traced back in time to an originating single point, scientists have built on his idea of cosmic expansion. The scientific community was once divided between supporters of two different theories, the Big Bang and the Steady State theory, but a wide range of empirical evidence has strongly favored the Big Bang which is now universally accepted. In 1929, from analysis of galactic redshifts, Edwin Hubble concluded that galaxies are drifting apart; this is important observational evidence for an expanding universe. In 1964, the cosmic microwave background radiation was discovered, which was crucial evidence in favor of the hot Big Bang model, since that theory predicted the existence of background radiation throughout the universe before it was discovered. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5382',
'title': 'Inflation (cosmology)',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 631,
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'passage_text': 'Based on a huge amount of experimental observation and theoretical work, it is now believed that the reason for the observation is that "space itself is expanding", and that it expanded very rapidly within the first fraction of a second after the Big Bang. This kind of expansion is known as a ""metric"" expansion. In the terminology of mathematics and physics, a "metric" is a measure of distance that satisfies a specific list of properties, and the term implies that "the sense of distance within the universe is itself changing", although at this time it is far too small an effect to see on less than an intergalactic scale.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1130097',
'title': 'Inflationary epoch',
'section': 'Section::::Inflationary epoch.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 568,
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'passage_text': 'The expansion is thought to have been triggered by the phase transition that marked the end of the preceding grand unification epoch at approximately 10 seconds after the Big Bang. One of the theoretical products of this phase transition was a scalar field called the inflaton field. As this field settled into its lowest energy state throughout the universe, it generated a repulsive force that led to a rapid expansion of space. This expansion explains various properties of the current universe that are difficult to account for without such an inflationary epoch.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4116',
'title': 'Big Bang',
'section': 'Section::::Features of the model.:Expansion of space.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
'end_character': 563,
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'passage_text': 'The Big Bang is not an explosion of matter moving outward to fill an empty universe. Instead, space itself expands with time everywhere and increases the physical distance between two comoving points. In other words, the Big Bang is not an explosion "in space", but rather an expansion "of space". Because the FLRW metric assumes a uniform distribution of mass and energy, it applies to our universe only on large scales—local concentrations of matter such as our galaxy are gravitationally bound and as such do not experience the large-scale expansion of space.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5985207',
'title': 'Expansion of the universe',
'section': 'Section::::Cosmic inflation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 443,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Based on large quantities of experimental observation and theoretical work, the scientific consensus is that "space itself is expanding", and that it expanded very rapidly within the first fraction of a second after the Big Bang. This kind of expansion is known as "metric expansion". In mathematics and physics, a "metric" means a measure of distance, and the term implies that "the sense of distance within the universe is itself changing".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5378',
'title': 'Physical cosmology',
'section': 'Section::::Subject history.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 427,
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'passage_text': "Given the cosmological principle, Hubble's law suggested that the universe was expanding. Two primary explanations were proposed for the expansion. One was Lemaître's Big Bang theory, advocated and developed by George Gamow. The other explanation was Fred Hoyle's steady state model in which new matter is created as the galaxies move away from each other. In this model, the universe is roughly the same at any point in time.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'The universe is expanding, but where is the center of the expansion? is that the point in which the big bang happened? And where are we relatively to it?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Every point is expanding away from every other point. There\'s no "center of the expansion".\n\nImagine an infinitely large rubber sheet, with a 1" grid drawn on it.\n\nNow stretch out the rubber sheet so that the grid lines are 2" apart instead, everywhere. Is there a "center" to this stretching? Every point is moving away from every other point.',
'The idea is that space itself was a product of the big bang. So every point around you and in the universe was concentrated at a single point at the beginning. This would make every point in the universe the center of the universe.\n\nSo the universe is expanding relative to every point in the universe. A result of that is that no matter where you look from, the universe is always expanding outwards.',
'If you were to bake a fruitcake, you put the raw mix into the oven and it begins to expand and rise.\n\nThe pieces of fruit inside the cake are moving away from each other inside the fruitcake mix. From each piece of fruits perspective every other piece is moving away from it. If there is any center, then the individual piece is it because every other piece is moving away with expansion.',
'This is a common question both [in ELI5](_URL_1_) and is in the /r/askscience FAQ ([once](_URL_2_), [twice](_URL_0_)).\n\nTip: askscience will get you more accurate answers.\n\ntl;dr There is no center. The universe is infinite. Everything expands away from everything else.',
'There is no center. All points are expanding away from all other points. As a result, if you want to get down to brass tacks, the Big Bang occurred at **all** points in the Universe.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '73ze7h',
'query': 'the universe is expanding, but where is the center of the expansion? is that the point in which the big bang happened? and where are we relatively to it?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '313461',
'title': 'Encoder',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 203,
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'passage_text': 'An encoder is a device, circuit, transducer, software program, algorithm or person that converts information from one format or code to another, for the purpose of standardization, speed or compression.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38870173',
'title': 'Feature learning',
'section': 'Section::::Multilayer/deep architectures.:Autoencoder.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 39,
'end_character': 849,
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'passage_text': 'An autoencoder consisting of an encoder and a decoder is a paradigm for deep learning architectures. An example is provided by Hinton and Salakhutdinov where the encoder uses raw data (e.g., image) as input and produces feature or representation as output and the decoder uses the extracted feature from the encoder as input and reconstructs the original input raw data as output. The encoder and decoder are constructed by stacking multiple layers of RBMs. The parameters involved in the architecture were originally trained in a greedy layer-by-layer manner: after one layer of feature detectors is learned, they are fed up as visible variables for training the corresponding RBM. Current approaches typically apply end-to-end training with stochastic gradient descent methods. Training can be repeated until some stopping criteria are satisfied.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37535513',
'title': 'Incremental encoder',
'section': 'Section::::Signal types.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 321,
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'passage_text': 'Incremental encoders employ various types of electronic circuits to drive (transmit) their output signals, and manufacturers often have the ability to build a particular encoder model with any of several driver types. Commonly available driver types include open collector, mechanical, push-pull and differential RS-422.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37583418',
'title': 'Glossary of video terms',
'section': 'Section::::D.:Decoder.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 147,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 147,
'end_character': 420,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Device used to recover the component signals from a composite (encoded) source. Decoders are used in displays and in various processing hardware where components signals are required from a composite source such as composite chroma keying or color correction equipment. Device that changes digital signals to analog, or reconstructs information (data) by performing the inverse (reverse) functions of an encode process.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37535513',
'title': 'Incremental encoder',
'section': 'Section::::Incremental encoder interface.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 41,
'end_character': 252,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'An incremental encoder interface is an electronic circuit that receives signals from an incremental encoder, processes the signals to produce absolute position and other information, and makes the resulting information available to external circuitry.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11163240',
'title': 'Residual frame',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'end_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'An encoder will use various algorithms such as motion estimation to construct a frame that describes the differences. This allows a decoder to use the reference frame plus the differences to construct the desired frame.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27945098',
'title': 'Timeline of United States inventions (1890–1945)',
'section': 'Section::::Great Depression and World War II (1929–1945).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 451,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 451,
'end_character': 587,
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'passage_text': "A vocoder, a portmanteau of the words voice and encoder, is an analysis and synthesis system, mostly used for speech. In the encoder, the input is passed through a multiband filter, each band is passed through an envelope follower, and the control signals from the envelope followers are communicated to the decoder. The decoder applies these control signals to corresponding filters in the (re)synthesizer. Research physicist Homer Dudley invented the Vocoder at Bell Labs in 1939 which served the purpose of improving the voice-carrying capabilities of his employer's telephone lines.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'encoders, decoders and transcoders',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Encoder - changes data into a certain format or "code". Usually it\'s to conform to certain standards for displaying the information, such as ASCII being the standard for displaying letters and symbols on computers and other devices, or .mp3 being a common format for audio data.\n\nDecoder - changes the encoded data back into it\'s original form\n\nTranscoder - changes encoded data into a different code, which is generally faster and more efficient than decoding it and re-encoding it to the new format (although in some cases, that\'s all you can do).',
'A human example:\n\nEncoder: hear someone talking, write their words down on paper\n\nDecoder: read words from paper out loud\n\nTranscoder: Read words from paper, type into computer without moving your lips.\n\nOr alternatively, transcoder: Read words from paper, translate into French & write down on new bit of paper.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '87t95r',
'query': 'encoders, decoders and transcoders',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '146879',
'title': 'Hypothermia',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Paradoxical undressing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
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'passage_text': 'One explanation for the effect is a cold-induced malfunction of the hypothalamus, the part of the brain that regulates body temperature. Another explanation is that the muscles contracting peripheral blood vessels become exhausted (known as a loss of vasomotor tone) and relax, leading to a sudden surge of blood (and heat) to the extremities, causing the person to feel overheated.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21754540',
'title': 'Herpes labialis',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 207,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The colloquial term for this condition, "cold sore" comes from the fact that herpes labialis is often triggered by fever, for example, as may occur during an upper respiratory tract infection (i.e. a cold).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1189582',
'title': 'Shivering',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 754,
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'passage_text': "Shivering (also called shaking) is a bodily function in response to cold in warm-blooded animals. When the core body temperature drops, the shivering reflex is triggered to maintain homeostasis. Skeletal muscles begin to shake in small movements, creating warmth by expending energy. Shivering can also be a response to a fever, as a person may feel cold. During fever the hypothalamic set point for temperature is raised. The increased set point causes the body temperature to rise (pyrexia), but also makes the patient feel cold until the new set point is reached. Severe chills with violent shivering are called rigors. Rigors occur because the patient's body is shivering in a physiological attempt to increase body temperature to the new set point.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36168126',
'title': 'Iranian traditional medicine',
'section': 'Section::::Humors.:Phlegm.:Excessive phlegm symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 343,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 343,
'end_character': 728,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Feeling heavy specially the eyelids and the head, getting puffy and swollen, feeling cold (in contrast with people with sanguine temperament), breaking into cold sweat, getting sweaty palms, getting pale, not feeling thirsty or feeling false thirst, increased mucus production (getting runny nose or watery eyes), stringy or thick saliva, weakness, weakened muscle, sagging of skin, sleepiness, having trouble waking up especially in dam places or northern cities with high humidity and during cold seasons, memory loss, dizziness, difficulty learning or remembering something, having difficulty digesting food, bloating, frequent urination, sour burp, and diarrhea are the symptoms of excessive phlegm in the body.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25735155',
'title': 'Knee pain',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Cold temperature.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 74,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 74,
'end_character': 391,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Knee pain is more common among people working in the cold than in those in normal temperature. Cold-induced knee pain may also be due to tenosynovitis of the tendons around the knee, in which cold exposure has a specific role, either as a causative or a contributing factor. Frank arthritis has been reported in children due to frostbite from extreme cold causing direct chondrocyte injury.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '92693',
'title': 'Common cold',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 694,
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'passage_text': 'The typical symptoms of a cold include cough, runny nose, sneezing, nasal congestion, and a sore throat, sometimes accompanied by muscle ache, fatigue, headache, and loss of appetite. A sore throat is present in about 40% of cases and a cough in about 50%, while muscle ache occurs in about half. In adults, a fever is generally not present but it is common in infants and young children. The cough is usually mild compared to that accompanying influenza. While a cough and a fever indicate a higher likelihood of influenza in adults, a great deal of similarity exists between these two conditions. A number of the viruses that cause the common cold may also result in asymptomatic infections.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25735155',
'title': 'Knee pain',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Cold temperature.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 75,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 75,
'end_character': 206,
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'passage_text': 'There is also a hereditary disease, familial cold autoinflammatory syndrome (FCAS), which often features knee pain, in addition to hives, fever and pain in other joints, following general exposure to cold.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Feeling weak while having a cold. What causes that?',
'selftext': 'Hello! We all have had a cold. Sympthoms vary: sore throat, runny nose, raised temperature... and above all that "general weakness" affecting whole body. I have that right now without any other sympthoms (had them before though :D), and it got me thinking: what is my body doing now, when all other sympthoms are gone? Why, altough I skipped all exercising for few days, I feel soo tired, yet not sleepy? And why does it get worse in the evening? Cheers and thanks in advance!',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Your body is spending so much energy on fighting the cold that it doesn't spare energy for much else. A proper immune response requires a bit of energy, and fighting infection becomes job 1 (aside from breathing, heart function, etc.). Your immune system is activating chemical and cellular systems that are normally dormant.\n\nAdditionally, a raised temperature means that some regular enzymes may not work as well. Enzymes are picky about temperature. Changing from your body's normal temperature (usually 36.5–37.5 °C or 97.7–99.5 °F) can cause some enzymes to become less active, erratic, or even dysfunctional-- leading to a general feeling of lethargy."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6fvmcj',
'query': 'feeling weak while having a cold. what causes that?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '44489146',
'title': 'December 1966',
'section': 'Section::::December 7, 1966 (Wednesday).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 38,
'end_character': 326,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- David James, a 28-year old graduate student in chemistry at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in Pasadena, demonstrated his discovery of a solution made by combining one part polyethylene oxide to 199 parts of water that could cause water to flow upward, in what he described as a "tubeless siphon.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47488',
'title': 'Barometer',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 801,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Four accounts of Berti's experiment exist, but a simple model of his experiment consisted of filling with water a long tube that had both ends plugged, then standing the tube in a basin already full of water. The bottom end of the tube was opened, and water that had been inside of it poured out into the basin. However, only part of the water in the tube flowed out, and the level of the water inside the tube stayed at an exact level, which happened to be , the same height Baliani and Galileo had observed that was limited by the siphon. What was most important about this experiment was that the lowering water had left a space above it in the tube which had no intermediate contact with air to fill it up. This seemed to suggest the possibility of a vacuum existing in the space above the water.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4549327',
'title': 'Siphon tubes',
'section': 'Section::::Operation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 348,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The simplest siphon tubes are operated by simply filling the tube with water (by immersion in the canal, or other means), keeping one end in the canal and with the other end sealed, placing it in the area to be irrigated. The seal can then be removed and the water will siphon transferring the water from the submerged higher end to the lower end.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '491221',
'title': 'Electrowetting',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 230,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Microfluidic manipulation of liquids by electrowetting was demonstrated first with mercury droplets in water and later with water in air and water in oil. Manipulation of droplets on a two-dimensional path was demonstrated later.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3487818',
'title': 'Hand pump',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Siphon.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 817,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A siphon (or syphon) at its simplest is a bent tube, with one end placed in the water to be moved, and the other end into the vessel to receive the water. The receiving vessel must be at a lower level than the supplying vessel. Water will always try to find its lowest level. Using this principle, very simple pumps with plastic or rubber bulb with flap valve at each end are used for emptying fuel or water cans into tanks. Once the bulb is full, the fluid will flow without further effort from the higher to the lower container. Many hand pumps will allow the passage of fluid through them in the direction of flow and diaphragm pumps are particularly good at this. Thus where the levels are correct large volumes of liquid such as swimming pools can be emptied with very little effort and no expensive energy use.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '459163',
'title': 'Siphon',
'section': 'Section::::Theory.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 349,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Once started, a siphon requires no additional energy to keep the liquid flowing up and out of the reservoir. The siphon will draw liquid out of the reservoir until the level falls below the intake, allowing air or other surrounding gas to break the siphon, or until the outlet of the siphon equals the level of the reservoir, whichever comes first.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '238601',
'title': 'Quiet PC',
'section': 'Section::::Individual components in a quiet PC.:Cooling systems.:Watercooling.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 95,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 95,
'end_character': 369,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Watercooling is a method of heat-dissipation by transferring the heat through a conductive material which is in contact with a liquid, such as demineralised water with an additive to prevent bacterial growth. This water travels in a loop that usually contains a reservoir, radiator and pump. Modern 12 V DC pump technologies allow extremely powerful and quiet designs.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'This Siphon Water experiment',
'selftext': 'Hey can someone break down this experiment? URL_0 I understand that this is a siphon, but whats the point of using the water bottle that is filled with a bit of water? Also what forces are causing the water to be able to move from the higher cup to the lower cup and not stay inside the bottle?',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The force causing the movement of the water is pressure and gravity. \n\nwhen you suck on a straw, you are creating a low pressure area in your mouth, this causes whatever you are trying to drink to flow through that straw, because the air pressure on the surface of the liquid is pushing down on it, and you sucking on your straw is giving it a place to go.\n\nOK, about the video:\n\nThe water in the bottle is there to start the process. It\'s high up, and gravity causes it to start flowing into the lower cup. As it does this, it is making more room in the bottle than it had to start. It is effectively sucking water out of the bottle. It\'s creating low pressure, a vacuum. This "sucking force" then continues to "suck" the water from the higher cup. This happens because of the air pressure pushing on the higher cup\'s water is high enough vs the low pressure in the bottle to push the higher cups water up a bit, so you get that fountain effect. Then, the water in the bottle just continues to go down the blue straw, which continuous to "suck" the bottle and thus the higher cups water.\n\nIf there was no water in the bottle to start with, then you really just have a straw in a cup. A weird straw with a bottle on it, but just a straw. There\'s no difference in pressure, so the higher cups water has no where to go.\n\nActually you CAN start with no water in the bottle, but then you have to suck on the blue straw to start the process. Get the water to hit the blue straw, then the process will become self sustaining until the water is all, or mostly all, in the lower cup.\n\nEDIT: if you got 20 min to kill, here\'s [cody\'s lab building and testing a mercury vacuum pump like in the olden days](_URL_0_). It\'s uses some of the same principles.\n',
"So you understand that it's a siphon. You could siphon between the two glasses if there was just a single tube.\n\nThe bottle doesn't actually change anything - it could just as easily be a rubber hose connecting the two straws. When the water drops out of the bottle, it creates a vacuum, sucking water into the bottle from the upper glass. The only reason you start with water in the bottle is because you need to have the siphon primed (full of water) in order to get it going."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9e1vxu',
'query': 'this siphon water experiment',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2747470',
'title': 'Biological thermodynamics',
'section': 'Section::::The focus of thermodynamics in biology.:Energy transformation in biological systems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'The sun is the primary source of energy for living organisms. Some living organisms like plants need sunlight directly while other organisms like humans can acquire energy from the sun indirectly. There is however evidence that some bacteria can thrive in harsh environments like Antarctica as evidence by the blue-green algae beneath thick layers of ice in the lakes. No matter what the type of living species, all living organisms must capture, transduce, store, and use energy to live.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '53574209',
'title': 'Kamal Public Sr. Secondary School',
'section': 'Section::::Infrastructure/Features Of The School.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
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'end_paragraph_id': 31,
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'passage_text': 'Solar energy has more positive impacts on the environment compared to any other energy source. It is obtained from the sun’s radiation and it can be converted to electricity or heat. It is freely available and thanks to advances in technology, we have installed more of solar energy plants to conserve electricity in a better way.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27979',
'title': 'Sunlight',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': "Sunlight is a key factor in photosynthesis, the process used by plants and other autotrophic organisms to convert light energy, normally from the Sun, into chemical energy that can be used to synthesize carbohydrates and to fuel the organisms' activities.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17964574',
'title': 'List of ecoregions in North America (CEC)',
'section': 'Section::::North American Deserts.:Natural resources.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 541,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 541,
'end_character': 552,
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'passage_text': 'Sunlight is one of the deserts most important resource as it is renewable and has sustainable exploitations. Deserts within North America tend to have fields of solar panels, so they can reuse the sun as energy. Areas such as New Mexico, Texas, Arizona, and the Great Basin area, put up fields for green energy. We monitored how the sun provides energy for resources such as plants and animals; we decided to make solar panels to produce energy for us. Water is also a resource found in the desert that can be reused and has sustainable exploitations.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1055890',
'title': 'Sustainable energy',
'section': 'Section::::Renewable energy sources.:Solar heating.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
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'passage_text': "Energy received from the sun by the earth is that of electromagnetic radiation. Light ranges of visible, infrared, ultraviolet, x-rays, and radio waves received by the earth through solar energy. The highest power of radiation comes from visible light. Solar power is complicated due to changes in seasons and from day to night. Cloud cover can also add to complications of solar energy, and not all radiation from the sun reaches earth because it is absorbed and dispersed due to clouds and gases within the earth's atmospheres.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39833813',
'title': 'Icebreaker Life',
'section': 'Section::::Science.:Habitability.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 38,
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'passage_text': 'While sunlight is a powerful energy source for life, it is unlikely to be biologically useful on present Mars because it requires life to be at the surface exposed to the extremely lethal radiation and to dry conditions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9649',
'title': 'Energy',
'section': 'Section::::Scientific use.:Earth sciences.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
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'passage_text': 'Sunlight may be stored as gravitational potential energy after it strikes the Earth, as (for example) water evaporates from oceans and is deposited upon mountains (where, after being released at a hydroelectric dam, it can be used to drive turbines or generators to produce electricity). Sunlight also drives many weather phenomena, save those generated by volcanic events. An example of a solar-mediated weather event is a hurricane, which occurs when large unstable areas of warm ocean, heated over months, give up some of their thermal energy suddenly to power a few days of violent air movement.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why can't we live just off of sunlight energy?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Biologically? Even plants can't live off sunlight alone, and they sit around all day. They still need essential nutrients and water from the soil, despite the fact that they don't move.\n\nCold-blooded animals (like reptiles) move little and do get some energy from UV light. That's why you might see lizards sitting under a big blue lightbulb in pet stores. However they still need extra sustenance to thrive and grow.\n\nWarm-blooded animals like us humans use a lot of energy. We're constantly heating our bodies, and we move around all the time. We simply need more energy than can be collected from sunlight alone.",
'ELI5: Your body needs food, and sunlight isn’t food. Sunlight just gives plants a little help making their own food, and then we eat those things as our own food. \n\nELI’mInCollege: (Also, if someone ends up reading this that knows more about this subject than I do, please correct me). My understanding of why we can’t do it comes down to the cellular level, and the production of a substance called Adenosine Triphophsate, or ATP for short. \n\nIn very simple terms that is glossing over a LOT of other steps, your body runs on ATP, and that’s where your “energy” really comes from. Each cell produces ATP, but you have an astoundingly small amount of it in your body at any given moment - I think something like half a gram - that is also used nearly as quickly as you produce it. The average human will actually go through close to 80 lbs of it per day, but most of that weight is actually cycled in and out of your body through cellular respiration. Without ATP, you die very quickly, which is why poisons like cyanide kill you within seconds; it stops ATP production (or something). \n\nThe cellular respiration is where your question comes into play. In a normal situation, your body needs (all sorts of stuff really) to function properly, but without Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen, or carbohydrates, your body can’t produce ATP. And then you die. And while sunlight is essentially the purest form of energy we can access, we can’t actually live without other stuff. \n\nIt’s a really big, really complex subject that absolutely rocks your world the more you learn about just how precarious and precise life really is.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'd7nap7',
'query': "why can't we live just off of sunlight energy?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '9518',
'title': 'Edmund Husserl',
'section': "Section::::Husserl and psychologism.:Husserl's criticism of psychologism.\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 71,
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'passage_text': '3. Judgments can be true or not true. Psychologists argue that judgments are true because they become "evidently" true to us. This evidence, a psychological process that "guarantees" truth, is indeed a psychological process. Husserl responds by saying that truth itself, as well as logical laws, always remain valid regardless of psychological "evidence" that they are true. No psychological process can explain the "a priori" objectivity of these logical truths.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '526636',
'title': 'False consensus effect',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Additionally, when confronted with evidence that a consensus does not exist, people often assume that those who do not agree with them are defective in some way. There is no single cause for this cognitive bias; the availability heuristic, self-serving bias, and naïve realism have been suggested as at least partial underlying factors. Maintenance of this cognitive bias may be related to the tendency to make decisions with relatively little information. When faced with uncertainty and a limited sample from which to make decisions, people often "project" themselves onto the situation. When this personal knowledge is used as input to make generalizations, it often results in the false sense of being part of the majority.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1678145',
'title': 'Underdetermination',
'section': 'Section::::Arguments involving underdetermination.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'Arguments involving underdetermination attempt to show that there is no reason to believe some conclusion because it is underdetermined by the evidence. Then, if the evidence available at a particular time can be equally well explained by at least one other hypothesis, there is no reason to believe it rather than the equally supported rival, which can be considered observationally equivalent (although many other hypotheses may still be eliminated).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2267234',
'title': 'Objective approach',
'section': 'Section::::Criticism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'That is, they will select out those views and facts which agree with their own (cf. confirmation bias). However this view fails to explain why, for example, people will do things which are not in their self-interest, based on what they believe to be an objective approach.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17313159',
'title': 'Argument from reason',
'section': 'Section::::Criticisms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
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'passage_text': 'Other critics have objected that Lewis\'s argument from reason fails because the causal origins of beliefs are often irrelevant to whether those beliefs are rational, justified, warranted, etc. Anscombe, for example, argues that "if a man has reasons, and they are good reasons, and they are genuinely his reasons, for thinking something—then his thought is rational, whatever causal statements we make about him" (Anscombe 1981: 229). On many widely accepted theories of knowledge and justification, questions of how beliefs were ultimately caused (e.g., at the level of brain neurochemistry) are viewed as irrelevant to whether those beliefs are rational or justified. Some defenders of Lewis claim that this objection misses the mark, because his argument is directed at what he calls the "veridicalness" of acts of reasoning (i.e., whether reasoning connects us with objective reality or truth), rather than with whether any inferred beliefs can be rational or justified in a materialistic world.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10837',
'title': 'Faith and rationality',
'section': 'Section::::Reformed epistemology.:Faith as underlying rationality.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
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'passage_text': 'The view that faith underlies all rationality holds that rationality is dependent on faith for its coherence. Under this view, there is no way to comprehensively "prove" that we are actually seeing what we appear to be seeing, that what we remember actually happened, or that the laws of logic and mathematics are actually real. Instead, all beliefs depend for their coherence on "faith" in our senses, memory, and reason, because the foundations of rationalism cannot be proven by evidence or reason. Rationally, you can not prove anything you see is real, but you can prove that you yourself are real, and rationalist belief would be that you can believe that the world is consistent until something demonstrates inconsistency. This differs from faith based belief, where you believe that your world view is consistent no matter what inconsistencies the world has with your beliefs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47278',
'title': 'Cognitive bias',
'section': 'Section::::Criticisms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 67,
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'passage_text': 'There are criticisms against theories of cognitive biases based on the fact that both sides in a debate often claim each other\'s thoughts to be in human nature and the result of cognitive bias, while claiming their own viewpoint as being the correct way to "overcome" cognitive bias. This is not due simply to debate misconduct but is a more fundamental problem that stems from psychology\'s making up of multiple opposed cognitive bias theories that can be non-falsifiably used to explain away any viewpoint.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'The Psychological Reason People Can Still Not Believe An Argument When Presented With Evidence.',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It\'s because one person\'s irrefutable evidence, is total bullshit to someone else. Evidence is subjective. When you say something is a fact, how often is it that you do not really know that for a fact. You are relying on "studies", "statistics", lots of things you don\'t really know to be true yourself, but have accepted as "the truth". \n\nWell if you get into an argument with someone that does not accept the word of all of those people, or their electron microscopes that allegedly show what things look like at very small scales, or other things you consider scientific fact, than they are going to be unmoved by your argument, as you are unmoved by the things they believe the truth to be. \n\nIn short, there is no universal truth.',
"It's because they believe in something else more than the validity of the argument. The argument might have flaws, after all. \n\nLet's say you think wine causes lung cancer and they think cigarettes do. If they are 99.99% sure that cigarettes cause cancer and your argument that it's caused by wine has only a 95% chance of being valid, they should rightfully (given their beliefs) ignore it. And in this case, they ARE right!\n\nSince people can have irrational beliefs that they are near-certain of, no amount of argument can change those beliefs - they always think it's more likely that the argument is wrong rather than their belief."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6shlmz',
'query': 'the psychological reason people can still not believe an argument when presented with evidence.',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '41758901',
'title': 'Odorigui',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': '"Odorigui" refers to the consumption of live seafood while it is still moving, or the consumption of moving animal parts. Animals usually consumed in odorigui style include octopus, squids, ice gobies, and other similar animals. Consumption of live seafood without remarkable movements, such as sea urchins, is usually not included in "odorigui."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '234121',
'title': 'European storm petrel',
'section': 'Section::::Behaviour.:Feeding.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
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'passage_text': 'Petrels can be attracted to boats with "chum", a malodorous mixture typically containing fish heads, bones and offal, with added fish oil and popcorn to aid flotation. An apparently empty ocean will soon fill with hundreds of birds attracted by the smell. The attraction of the fishy odour is sometimes enhanced by the addition of dimethylsulphide (DMS) a chemical also naturally produced by some planktonic organisms, although there are doubts about the safety of this possible carcinogen.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '516020',
'title': 'Ziziphus',
'section': 'Section::::Ecology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'The differences are ecological adaptations to different environments over a relatively dry-wet climate. Species in less humid environment are smaller or less robust, with less abundant and thinner foliage and have oleifera cells that produce trees with a more fragrant aroma.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37063005',
'title': 'Effects of global warming on human health',
'section': 'Section::::Oceans and human health.:Food safety.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 113,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 113,
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'passage_text': 'Our insatiable appetite for seafood of all types has led to overfishing and has already significantly strained marine food stocks to the point of collapse in many cases. With seafood being a major protein source for so much of the population, there are inherent health risks associated with global warming. As mentioned above increased agricultural runoff and warmer water temperature allows for eutrophication of ocean waters. This increased growth of algae and phytoplankton in turn can have dire consequences. These algal blooms can emit toxic substances that can be harmful to humans if consumed. Organisms, such as shellfish, marine crustaceans and even fish, feed on or near these infected blooms, ingest the toxins and can be consumed unknowingly by humans. One of these toxin producing algae is Pseudo-nitzschia fraudulenta. This species produces a substance called domoic acid which is responsible for amnesic shellfish poisoning. The toxicity of this species has been shown to increase with greater concentrations associated with ocean acidification. Some of the more common illnesses reported from harmful algal blooms include; Ciguatera fish poisoning, paralytic shellfish poisoning, azaspiracid shellfish poisoning, diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, neurotoxic shellfish poisoning and the above-mentioned amnesic shellfish poisoning.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26866',
'title': 'Seafood',
'section': 'Section::::Texture and taste.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
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'passage_text': 'Over 33,000 species of fish and many more marine invertebrate species have been described. Bromophenols, which are produced by marine algae, gives marine animals an odor and taste that is absent from freshwater fish and invertebrates. Also, a chemical substance called dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) that is found in red and green algae is transferred to animals in the marine food chain. When broken down, dimethyl sulfide (DMS) is produced, and is often released during food preparation when fresh fish and shellfish are heated. In small quantities it creates a specific smell one associates with the ocean, but which in larger quantities gives the impression of rotten seaweed and old fish. Another molecule known as TMAO occurs in fishes and give them a distinct smell. It also exists in freshwater species, but becomes more numerous in the cells of an animal the deeper it lives, so that fish from the deeper parts of the ocean has a stronger taste than species who lives in shallow water. Eggs from seaweed contains sex pheromones called dictyopterenes, which are meant to attract the sperm. These pheromones are also found in edible seaweeds, which contributes to their aroma. However, only a small number of species are commonly eaten by humans.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '151806',
'title': 'St Kilda, Scotland',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Way of life.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
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'passage_text': 'This feature of island life came at a price. When Henry Brougham visited in 1799, he noted that "the air is infected by a stench almost insupportable – a compound of rotten fish, filth of all sorts and stinking seafowl". An excavation of the "Taigh an t-Sithiche" (the "house of the faeries" – see below) in 1877 by Sands unearthed the remains of gannet, sheep, cattle and limpets amidst various stone tools. The building is between 1,700 and 2,500 years old, which suggests that the St Kildan diet had changed little over the millennia. Indeed, the tools were recognised by the St Kildans, who could put names to them as similar devices were still in use.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5236',
'title': 'Coast',
'section': 'Section::::Wildlife.:Animals.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 97,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 97,
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'passage_text': 'Some of the animals live along a typical coast. There are animals like puffins, sea turtles and rockhopper penguins. Sea snails and various kinds of barnacles live on the coast and scavenge on food deposited by the sea. Most coastal animals are used to humans in developed areas, such as dolphins and seagulls who eat food thrown for them by tourists. Since the coastal areas are all part of the littoral zone, there is a profusion of marine life found just off-coast.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is seafood much more fragrant/smelly than land based animals?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Trimethylamine oxide. It's odorless, but after you kill the fish bacteria break it down into ammonia. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7op85x',
'query': 'why is seafood much more fragrant/smelly than land based animals?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3113279',
'title': 'University of Texas at San Antonio College of Engineering',
'section': 'Section::::Research.:Electrical engineering.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
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'end_paragraph_id': 29,
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'passage_text': 'The department is also working extensively in the areas of cyber security and homeland defense. Reliable and secure voice and data communications are important in mission success and in providing assurances to the public. Electromagnetic wave analysis regarding fallout may become necessary after a physical attack. Computer information security, high-speed intrusion detection, problem identification, reliable high-speed network design and redundancy are all important for cyber attack prevention; computer engineering faculty work with the Center for Infrastructure Assurance and Security in these efforts. Target analysis and radar signature identification help identify and track friends or foes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3696371',
'title': 'Cisco certifications',
'section': 'Section::::Primary Certifications.:Associate Certifications.:CCNA CyberOps.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
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'passage_text': "Today's organizations are challenged with rapidly detecting cybersecurity breaches and effectively responding to security incidents. Teams of people in Security Operations Centers (SOC’s) keep a vigilant eye on security systems, protecting their organizations by detecting and responding to cybersecurity threats.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47671202',
'title': 'Cyber threat intelligence',
'section': 'Section::::Attribution.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
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'passage_text': 'Cyber threats involve the use of computers, software and networks. During or after a cyber attack technical information about the network and computers between the attacker and the victim can be collected. However, identifying the person(s) behind an attack, their motivations, or the ultimate sponsor of the attack, is difficult. Recent efforts in threat intelligence emphasize understanding adversary TTPs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33927215',
'title': 'U.S. Department of Defense Strategy for Operating in Cyberspace',
'section': 'Section::::Cyber Threats.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The DoD begins discussion of current cyber threats by focusing on threats to DoD daily operations, with a progressively expanding scope to encompass broader national security concerns. The DoD is aware of the potential for adversaries to use small scale-technology, such as widely available hacking tools, to cause a disproportionate impact and pose a significant threat to U.S. national security. The DoD is concerned with external threat actors, insider threats, supply chain vulnerabilities, and threats to the DoDʼs operational ability. Additionally, the document mentions the DoDʼs need to address “the concerted efforts of both state and non-state actors to gain unauthorized access to its networks and systems.” The DoD strategy cites the rapidly evolving threat landscape as a complex and vital challenge for national and economic security.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31567052',
'title': 'International cybercrime',
'section': 'Section::::Case analysis.:U.S..:Legal and regulatory measures.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 88,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 88,
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'passage_text': 'A number of agencies have been set up in the U.S. to fight against cybercrime, including the FBI, National Infrastructure Protection Center, National White Collar Crime Center, Internet Fraud Complaint Center, Computer Crime and Intellectual Property Section of the Department of Justice (DoJ), Computer Hacking and Intellectual Property Unit of the DoJ, and Computer Emergency Readiness Team/Coordination Center (CERT/CC) at Carnegie-Mellon, and so on.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10819266',
'title': 'CSI (franchise)',
'section': 'Section::::Differences between series.:Washington, D.C..\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 47,
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'passage_text': "The FBI Cyber Crime Division investigates cyber-based terrorism, internet-related murders, espionage, computer intrusions, major cyber-fraud, cyber-theft, hacking, sex offenses, blackmail, and any other crime deemed to be cyber-related within the FBI's jurisdiction.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '771174',
'title': 'Cyberterrorism',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.:Defining cyberterrorism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
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'passage_text': 'The FBI, another United States agency, defines "cyber terrorism" as “premeditated, politically motivated attack against information, computer systems, computer programs, and data which results in violence against non-combatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents”.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do IT departments handle frequent cyber attacks?',
'selftext': "Context: the director of my organization's IT department mentioned in a presentation that we encounter hundreds of cyber attacks every week (this organization is well-known globally). How is it possible that we are attacked so frequently and how do the IT folks handle it? I know nothing about CS.",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Almost any publically accessible IP address is constantly bombarded by various attacks and scans. At home your router most likely protects you from a direct assault on your home computers by forbidding direct connections unless you've explicitly set up your router to allow it. \n\nSame is true in the corporate world. Depending on your organization's IT department, budget and policies they may have one more of the following\n\n* Firewalling routers that block desirable internet traffic.\n\n* Application level proxies, that check internet traffic, inspect it for undesirable content and relay it on to the actual application. \n\n* regular updating of software and applications and virus scanning\n\n* various intrusion detection systems that monitor what applications are running on various servers, a fingerprint of various files on the servers and what type of network traffic patterns those servers typically have. \n\n* Maybe even a honey pot system which can mimic vulnerable targets that appear to be easy targets. Once an attack on a honeypot is detected, steps can be implemented to block them. \n"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6ode2m',
'query': 'how do it departments handle frequent cyber attacks?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '46820054',
'title': 'Boba ice cream bar',
'section': 'Section::::Health concerns.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 213,
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'passage_text': 'Asides from risk of illness, eating too much ice cream can lead to high blood cholesterol levels, due to its high milkfat content of at least 10%, which in turn can increase ones risk for heart disease or stroke.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1207268',
'title': 'Ice cream maker',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'An ice cream maker has to simultaneously freeze the mixture while churning it so as to aerate the mixture and keep the ice crystals small (less than 50 μm). As a result, most ice creams are ready to consume immediately. However, those containing alcohol must often be chilled further to attain a firm consistency.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12967446',
'title': 'Heat cramps',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'In order to prevent them, one may drink electrolyte solutions such as sports drinks during exercise or strenuous work or eat potassium-rich foods like bananas and apples. When heat cramps occur, the affected person should avoid strenuous work and exercise for several hours to allow for recovery.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1186042',
'title': 'Dondurma',
'section': 'Section::::Consumption and culture.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 220,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Some Turks believe that cold foods, such as ice cream, will cause illnesses – such as sore throats and the common cold; it is held that consumption of warm liquid while consuming ice cream will counteract these effects.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '985329',
'title': 'Ezaki Glico',
'section': 'Section::::Products.:Ice-cream products.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
'end_character': 249,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Calorie Control Ice Cream series, which uses lower-calorie sweetening agents maltitol and sucralose in place of sugar and starch syrup often used in ice cream. Tofu is also used to replace dairy products to lower the amount of calories.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29806816',
'title': 'William Wilson Talcott',
'section': 'Section::::Ice cream business.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 324,
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'passage_text': 'HARDEN YOURSELF TO ENDURE COLD -- EAT PLENTY OF ICE CREAMbrICE CREAM IS A GREAT HARDENER -- EAT IT OFTEN ALL WINTERbrICE CREAM FOR LUNCH ON SCHOOL DAYS WILL ENABLE YOUR CHILDREN TO ENJOY THESE RUGGED, WINTRY DAYSbrFIGHT COLD WITH COLD -- EAT ICE CREAMbrTHE BLASTS OF WINTER HAVE LITTLE EFFECT ON CHILDREN THAT EAT ICE CREAM\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48212',
'title': 'Ice cream',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Expansion in popularity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 292,
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'passage_text': 'Technological innovations such as these have introduced various food additives into ice cream, most notably the stabilizing agent gluten, to which some people have an intolerance. Recent awareness of this issue has prompted a number of manufacturers to start producing gluten-free ice cream.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Shouldnt we burn a lot of calories when eating ice cream because our body works to raise the temperature of the ice cream?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["We do burn calories when eating cold food - it takes energy to keep the body warm, and to counteract the effects of cold food - but it doesn't take that to heat up a few scoops of ice cream, especially compared to the calories you take in by eating it.\n\nFor one thing, ice cream really isn't that cold - a freezer is typically between -10 and -20 C, a fridge between 0 and 10 degrees. So compared to something out of the fridge, you don't net more than 30 degrees, and probably less, since it's warming up from the air. It will also largely melt in your mouth, which has a lot more exposure to the outside air, and it's not only your metabolism warming it back up.\n\nSecond, a single food calorie - kilocalories - is enough to raise 1 kg of water by 1 degree. Presumably, you're not eating a 1kg of ice cream at a time (if so, mazel), but let's say you've got a hearty serving of 100g. Each Calorie raises that by 10 degrees, and you're only going up 50 degrees or so. So, that's no more than six calories, tops: which you'd replenish with a gram and a half of sugar."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7x15fv',
'query': 'shouldnt we burn a lot of calories when eating ice cream because our body works to raise the temperature of the ice cream?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '150374',
'title': 'Self-harm',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 711,
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'passage_text': 'Many people who self-harm state that it allows them to "go away" or dissociate, separating the mind from feelings that are causing anguish. This may be achieved by tricking the mind into believing that the present suffering being felt is caused by the self-harm instead of the issues they were facing previously: the physical pain therefore acts as a distraction from the original emotional pain. To complement this theory, one can consider the need to "stop" feeling emotional pain and mental agitation. "A person may be hyper-sensitive and overwhelmed; a great many thoughts may be revolving within their mind, and they may either become triggered or could make a decision to stop the overwhelming feelings."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21738234',
'title': 'Body-focused repetitive behavior',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'Research has suggested that the urge to repetitive self-injury is similar to a body-focused repetitive behavior but others have argued that for some the condition is more akin to a substance abuse disorder.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8084306',
'title': 'Self-destructive behavior',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
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'passage_text': "Aside from this, a need for attention or a feel good sensation can ultimately cause this behavior. A prime example of this would be addiction to drugs or alcohol. In the beginning stages, people have the tendency to ease their way into these unhealthy behaviors because it gives them a pleasurable sensation. However, as time goes on, it becomes a habit that they can not stop and they begin to lose these great feeling easily. When these feelings stop, self-destructive behavior enhances because they aren't able to provide themselves with that feeling that makes mental or physical pain go away. \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42112603',
'title': 'Perpetrator trauma',
'section': 'Section::::Cycles of violence.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 481,
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'passage_text': 'Several of the symptoms are capable of causing or allowing for renewed acts of violence. The outbursts of anger can have an impact in domestic violence and street crime. The sense of emotional numbing, detachment and estrangement from other people can also contribute to these, along with contributing to participation in further battle activities or to apathetic reactions when violence is done by others. Associated substance abuse may also have connections to acts of violence.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '445201',
'title': 'Anger management',
'section': 'Section::::Potential causes for development of problems.:Medical causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 784,
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'passage_text': 'Drug addiction, alcoholism, a mental disability, biochemical changes and PTSD can all lead to a person committing an aggressive act against another person. Not having sufficient skills on how to handle oneself when faced with aggression can lead to very undesirable outcomes. These factors are typically associated with a heightened chance of anger, but there are other, less-known factors that can lead to people acting in a negative way. Prolonged or intense anger and frustration contributes to physical conditions such as headaches, digestive problems, high blood pressure and heart disease. Problems dealing with angry feelings may be linked to psychological disorders such as anxiety or depression. Angry outbursts can be a way of trying to cope with unhappiness or depression.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '150374',
'title': 'Self-harm',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
'end_character': 484,
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'passage_text': 'Alternatively, self-harm may be a means of feeling "something", even if the sensation is unpleasant and painful. Those who self-harm sometimes describe feelings of emptiness or numbness (anhedonia), and physical pain may be a relief from these feelings. "A person may be detached from themselves, detached from life, numb and unfeeling. They may then recognise the need to function more, or have a desire to feel real again, and a decision is made to create sensation and \'wake up\'."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1781075',
'title': 'Applied behavior analysis',
'section': 'Section::::Functional analysis (psychology).:Functions of behavior.:Escape/avoid undesirable events (negative reinforcement).:Escape/avoid specific stimulation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 116,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "The individual engages in the behavior because it produces a decrease in aversive stimulation. Put another way, something aversive is occurring in some location on the organism's body, and engaging in the behavior decreases the level of discomfort. For example, a child bangs their head against the wall to decrease the pain experienced from a toothache. Another example includes a child scratching their arm to decrease the level of itchiness experienced from a bug bite. Common forms of aversive stimulation abated by engaging in specific behaviors include sinus pain, itching, hunger, etc.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What causes the urge to move around after hurting yourself?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["You gotta run the pain off. For real, in the wild, if you get hurt, there's probably someone or something that hurt you and your body wants to get away from them asap so you don't sustain any more injuries. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'at3p9k',
'query': 'what causes the urge to move around after hurting yourself?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '25350412',
'title': 'Childhood leukemia',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Types.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 46,
'end_character': 364,
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'passage_text': 'Chemotherapy is a treatment that uses chemicals to interfere with the cancer cells ability to grow and reproduce. Chemotherapy can be used alone or in combination with other therapies. Chemotherapy can be given either as a pill to swallow orally, an injection into the fat or muscle, through an IV directly into the bloodstream or directly into the spinal column.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60330200',
'title': 'CNS tumour',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment and chances of cure.:Chemotherapy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 83,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 83,
'end_character': 307,
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'passage_text': 'Chemotherapy is a treatment that injects a drug into a vein (IV) or that is given via the mouth to prevent the growth of cancer cells by stopping them from dividing. It is often used after surgery or as the first line of treatment. The drug injected flows through the bloodstream and destroys cancer cells.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '105219',
'title': 'Cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Management.:Chemotherapy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 141,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 141,
'end_character': 398,
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'passage_text': 'Chemotherapy is the treatment of cancer with one or more cytotoxic anti-neoplastic drugs (chemotherapeutic agents) as part of a standardized regimen. The term encompasses a variety of drugs, which are divided into broad categories such as alkylating agents and antimetabolites. Traditional chemotherapeutic agents act by killing cells that divide rapidly, a critical property of most cancer cells.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25081142',
'title': 'Treatment of cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Types of treatments.:Chemotherapy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 877,
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'passage_text': 'Chemotherapy is the treatment of cancer with drugs ("anticancer drugs") that can destroy cancer cells. In current usage, the term "chemotherapy" usually refers to "cytotoxic" drugs which affect rapidly dividing cells in general, in contrast with "targeted therapy" (see below). Chemotherapy drugs interfere with cell division in various possible ways, e.g. with the duplication of DNA or the separation of newly formed chromosomes. Most forms of chemotherapy target all rapidly dividing cells and are not specific to cancer cells, although some degree of specificity may come from the inability of many cancer cells to repair DNA damage, while normal cells generally can. Hence, chemotherapy has the potential to harm healthy tissue, especially those tissues that have a high replacement rate (e.g. intestinal lining). These cells usually repair themselves after chemotherapy.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8553095',
'title': 'Urethral cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 375,
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'passage_text': 'Chemotherapy is sometimes used to destroy urethral cancer cells. It is a systemic urethral cancer treatment (i.e., destroys urethral cancer cells throughout the body) that is administered orally or intravenously. Medications are often used in combination to destroy urethral cancer that has metastasized. Commonly used drugs include cisplatin, vincristine, and methotrexate.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13705018',
'title': 'Breast cancer management',
'section': 'Section::::Systemic therapy.:Chemotherapy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 68,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 68,
'end_character': 274,
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'passage_text': 'Chemotherapy (drug treatment for cancer) may be used before surgery, after surgery, or instead of surgery for those cases in which surgery is considered unsuitable. Chemotherapy is justified for cancers whose prognosis after surgery is poor without additional intervention.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60385615',
'title': 'Paranasal Sinus and Nasal Cavity Cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment and prevention.:Chemotherapy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
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'passage_text': 'Lastly, the chemotherapy can be defined as a treatment towards the cancer by using the medication to destroy the malignant cells. The chemotherapy is usually used before the surgery and radiation therapy or after the treatment of surgery and radiation therapy. The chemotherapy can be implemented by using the drugs to stop the spread of paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer. The chemotherapy could make contribution to destroy the cancer cells or stop them from division. The chemotherapy could have effect on the cancer cell of the whole body by injecting into vein or taken by patient. The chemotherapy could influence a specific area by placing it into a specific area. Evidence shows that the chemotherapy could make also contribution to the treatment of sinonasal cancer which is a sub-branch of the paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer. Infection, loss of hair might occur after the implementation of chemotherapy.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is chemotherapy used the way it is?',
'selftext': "As a general treatment of the body, rather than a local treatment of the area affected by the cancer? It just seems like if we are able to use anesthic locally, or generally, then why can't we choose to do the same with chemo?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['I think that is what radiotherapy is. Radiotherapy focuses on one spot but chemo kills cancer cells which are trying to spread. I could be wrong tho.',
"Chemo attempts to stop cells from dividing. Ideally the cells that stop dividing are targeted (hence the plethora of drugs for various cancers; different drugs = different targets) but because the chemistry is nowhere near an exact science, lots of other fast-dividing cells get hit too (hair, muscles, skin, white/red blood cells, etc). \n\nThe logic is that the cancer itself is a mutant, and won't survive more than 'a little while' without constantly dividing and replicating, so if you can specifically poison the body, stop cellular division for a while, and otherwise keep the person alive, the cancer will die off while (most of) the rest of the person stays alive.\n\nThink of it like having a castle full of people, and there was one group of particularly troublesome monks inside you wanted to kill off. The monks only ate apples, but your intel was shitty and you knew only that the monks ate sweet foods. You siege the castle and prevent anything sweet from getting in, sugar, fruits, plants...anything that contained or could become sugar. Many people develop scurvy and other malnutrition related problems and die off, but the monks all die too. You celebrate that the monks are dead, and get on living with whatever is left alive in the castle as the population slowly recovers.\n\nThe monks are cancer, the people are the healthy cells in the body, and everything else is the process of treating and living with the aftermath of cancer.",
'Chemotherapy can be given locally, this is sometimes done for example in the bladder for bladder cancer and by intra-arterial chemotherapy (TACE) for liver metastasis. However many times metastases are not in one place and you want to treat every metastasis, even if it is too small to be detected, and therefore systemic administration is more beneficial.',
'Cancer is particularly nasty because of its ability to metastasize. If you remove a cancerous tumor from someone there\'s no guarantee that you got all of the cancerous cells. Some may have escaped in to circulation and set up residence elsewhere in the body. Chemotherapy targets rapidly proliferating cells, as others have mentioned, and so it is useful to "mop up" these rogue cells.\n\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '64b3r5',
'query': 'why is chemotherapy used the way it is?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '263209',
'title': 'Mushroom cloud',
'section': 'Section::::Physics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 580,
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'passage_text': "Mushroom clouds are formed by many sorts of large explosions under earth's gravity, but they are best known for their appearance after nuclear detonations. Without gravity, the explosive's by-product gases would remain spherical. Nuclear weapons are usually detonated above the ground (not upon impact, because some of the energy would be dissipated by the ground motions), to maximize the effect of their spherically expanding fireball and blast wave. Immediately after the detonation, the fireball begins to rise into the air, acting on the same principle as a hot-air balloon.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '263209',
'title': 'Mushroom cloud',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 524,
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'passage_text': 'A mushroom cloud is a distinctive pyrocumulus mushroom-shaped cloud of debris/smoke and usually condensed water vapor resulting from a large explosion. The effect is most commonly associated with a nuclear explosion, but any sufficiently energetic detonation or deflagration will produce the same effect. They can be caused by powerful conventional weapons, like thermobaric weapons, including the ATBIP and GBU-43/B Massive Ordnance Air Blast. Some volcanic eruptions and impact events can produce natural mushroom clouds.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21757046',
'title': 'Hydrodynamic stability',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Rayleigh–Taylor instability.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 45,
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'end_paragraph_id': 45,
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'passage_text': 'This phenomenon can be seen in interstellar gas, such as the Crab Nebula. It is pushed out of the Galactic plane by magnetic fields and cosmic rays and then becomes Rayleigh–Taylor unstable if it is pushed past its normal scale height. This instability also explains the mushroom cloud which forms in processes such as volcanic eruptions and atomic bombs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '263209',
'title': 'Mushroom cloud',
'section': 'Section::::Nuclear mushroom clouds.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'end_character': 360,
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'passage_text': 'Nuclear detonations produced high above the ground might not create mushroom clouds with a stem. The heads of the clouds themselves consist of highly radioactive particles, primarily the fission products and other weapon debris aerosols, and are usually dispersed by the wind, though weather patterns (especially rain) can produce problematic nuclear fallout.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3737244',
'title': 'NGC 7129',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 347,
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'passage_text': 'The much cooler molecular cloud outside the bubble is mostly invisible to Spitzer. However, three very young stars near the center of the nebula are sending jets of supersonic gas into the cloud. The collision of these jets heats carbon monoxide molecules in the nebula. This produces the complex nebulosity that appears like a stem of a rosebud.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '263209',
'title': 'Mushroom cloud',
'section': 'Section::::Nuclear mushroom clouds.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'Detonations significantly below ground level or deep below the water (for instance, nuclear depth charges) also do not produce mushroom clouds, as the explosion causes the vaporization of a huge amount of earth and water in these instances, creating a bubble which then collapses in on itself; in the case of a less deep underground explosion, this produces a subsidence crater. Detonations underwater but near the surface produce a pillar of water, which, in collapsing, forms a cauliflower-like shape, which is easily mistaken for a mushroom cloud (such as in the well-known pictures of the "Crossroads Baker" test). Underground detonations at low depth produce a mushroom cloud and a base surge, two different distinct clouds. The amount of radiation vented into the atmosphere decreases rapidly with increasing detonation depth.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22669',
'title': 'Open cluster',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Young open clusters may be contained within the molecular cloud from which they formed, illuminating it to create an H II region. Over time, radiation pressure from the cluster will disperse the molecular cloud. Typically, about 10% of the mass of a gas cloud will coalesce into stars before radiation pressure drives the rest of the gas away.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What causes the cloud rings to form around and above a nuclear or thermonuclear bomb?',
'selftext': 'Example of [high-yield fusion Castle Bravo shot]( URL_0 ) with rings.',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The immense force of the blast creates a wave of high pressure in the air, traveling outwards from the centre.\n\nFollowing this high pressure is an area of extreme low pressure, this low pressure causes a drastic temperature drop.\n\nDropping temperature results in water in the air condensing, causing the ring of "cloud" that you see.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6dp3y9',
'query': 'what causes the cloud rings to form around and above a nuclear or thermonuclear bomb?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '14208',
'title': 'Holocene extinction',
'section': 'Section::::Defaunation.:Recent extinction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 63,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 63,
'end_character': 418,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A 2019 study published in "Nature Communications" found that rapid biodiversity loss is impacting larger mammals and birds to a much greater extent than smaller ones, with the body mass of such animals expected to shrink by 25% over the next century. Over the past 125,000 years, the average body size of wildlife has fallen by 14% as human actions eradicated megafauna on all continents with the exception of Africa.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21424701',
'title': 'Defaunation',
'section': 'Section::::Drivers.:Habitat destruction and fragmentation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 459,
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'passage_text': 'Human population growth results in changes in land-use, which can cause natural habitats to become fragmented, altered, or destroyed. Large mammals are often more vulnerable to extinction than smaller animals because they require larger home ranges and thus are more prone to suffer the effects of deforestation. Large species such as elephants, rhinoceroses, large primates, tapirs and peccaries are the first animals to disappear in fragmented rainforests.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41387300',
'title': 'Empty forest',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Predatory large mammals are important for increasing overall diversity by making sure that smaller predators and herbivores do not become overabundant and dominate. An absence of large predators seems to result in uneven densities of prey species. Even though certain animals may not have become completely extinct, they may have lowered in numbers to the point that they have suffered an ecological extinction. The animals that have most likely suffered an ecological extinction in neotropical forests are the ones who are the most important predators, large seed dispersers, and seed predators.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2645668',
'title': 'Prehistory of Australia',
'section': 'Section::::Advent of fire farming and megafauna extinctions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 495,
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'passage_text': 'The changes to the fauna were even more dramatic: the megafauna, species significantly larger than humans, disappeared, and many of the smaller species disappeared too. All told, about 60 different vertebrates became extinct, including the Diprotodon family (very large marsupial herbivores that looked rather like hippos), several large flightless birds, carnivorous kangaroos, "Wonambi naracoortensis", a 5-metre snake, a five-metre lizard and "Meiolania", a tortoise the size of a small car.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11464497',
'title': 'Fauna of Europe',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'end_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Before the arrival of humans European fauna was more diverse and widespread than today. The European megafauna of today is much reduced from its former numbers. The Holocene extinction drastically reduced numbers and distribution of megafauna. Many of these species still exist in smaller numbers, while others thrive in the developed continent free from natural predators. Many other species became extinct. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22286',
'title': 'Oligocene',
'section': 'Section::::Fauna.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 643,
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'passage_text': 'Even more open landscapes allowed animals to grow to larger sizes than they had earlier in the Paleocene epoch 30 million years earlier. Marine faunas became fairly modern, as did terrestrial vertebrate fauna on the northern continents. This was probably more as a result of older forms dying out than as a result of more modern forms evolving. Many groups, such as equids, entelodonts, rhinos, merycoidodonts, and camelids, became more able to run during this time, adapting to the plains that were spreading as the Eocene rainforests receded. The first felid, "Proailurus", originated in Asia during the late Oligocene and spread to Europe.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55703377',
'title': '2018 in mammal paleontology',
'section': 'Section::::Mammals in general.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 533,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- A study on the mammalian extinction selectivity, continental body size distributions, and taxonomic diversity over five time periods spanning the past 125,000 years is published by Smith "et al." (2018), who report evidence indicating that larger species of mammals were at greater risk of extinction following the global expansion of hominins over the late Quaternary, and that the degree of size-selectivity of mammalian extinctions in this period was unprecedented in the past 65 million years of mammalian evolution.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why are animals and fauna no longer as large as they once were? What has changed about our world that mega fauna and mega animals no longer exist?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Cold. Bigger bodies are better at retaining heat in cold climate. As the climate warmed over the past 10-20,000 years smaller bodies that shed heat quickly became more advantageous.',
'We don’t *actually* know but some theories are that temperature of the earth was the major factor for mammals getting so big. If the ambient temperature is lower, the heat/energy of a larger mammal is much easier. \n\nFor insects (and maybe plants), there was a much higher concentrations of oxygen in the atmosphere that helped produce gigantic bugs (we think) and when birds were getting bigger and preying on them (we think) they started to die off (we think)',
'I will point out that the blue whale is the biggest animal to have ever existed as far as we know',
'Humans. Look at Australia, Europe, America. Wherever humans spread to, megafauna vanish. They’re either really good food sources or dangerous predators to exterminate, and early humans had zero interest in conservation.',
'The oxygen levels were about 30% as compared to the 20% we live in now ...due to Oxygen rich atmosphere the plants and animals would be larger than those existing today',
'Do you mean fauna and flora? Fauna are animals.',
"First off, it isn't strictly true. \n\nBlue whales are the largest animal by mass ever to exist. \n\nGiant redwood trees are amongst the largest trees ever to exist. \n\nElephants are pretty big too.\n\nBut the world has seen larger insects, fish, birds, reptiles and land animals that is true. So why?\n\nInsects don't have lungs. They breathe through their skin. As size goes up, volume increases faster than surface area so the amount of insect increases faster than the amount of skin it can breathe with. The limit to the size of insects is directly related to the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere. \n\nThis was higher in the past. \n\nReptiles and fish - cold blooded. The maximum size depends on temperature and the amount of food available. It was hotter in the past so they could get bigger, and so did the stuff they ate. That's not the full story, as there are many things that will limit the size of an animal, but it a the major difference between today and the dinosaur age.\n\nBirds and land animals - These mega fauna lived not so long ago in the grand scheme of things. Their extinction suspiciously coincides with the arrival of a new breed of predator spreading across the globe. \n\nAnimals such as giant sloths, giant kangaroos, mammoths, moas all survived ice ages and subsequent warm periods before the world plunged into another ice age, again and again. \n\nThen, during the last ice age, they start disappearing. \n\nBecause of us. Humans spread out of Africa and the mammoths of north Europe and Asia started dying out. Humans spread across the Indonesian archipelago to Australia 40000 years ago, and that's when the giant kangaroos died off. 12000 years ago and humans rapidly swarmed through the Americas starting in Alaska down to Patagonia in only a few centuries, driving the extinction of giant sloths and other megafauna southwards with them. \n\nThe big animals living on the Caribbean islands outlived their mainland cousins by a few thousand years until humans reached the islands by boat. \n\nMoas were big flightless birds native to New Zealand. They had lived there for thousands and thousands of years. \n\nThey only had one predator - the Haast Eagle aka the largest eagle ever to exist. \n\nThis was the last major landmass (other than Antarctica) that humans reached. The Maori arrived sometime in the 13th century. \n\nBy 1445, all Moas were dead. Haast eagles followed shortly after. \n\ntl;dr there are big animals, but the planet isn't warm enough or oxygeny enough for big reptiles and insects. Humans ate the rest."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'c34lta',
'query': 'why are animals and fauna no longer as large as they once were? what has changed about our world that mega fauna and mega animals no longer exist?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1251508',
'title': 'Geothermal heating',
'section': 'Section::::Ground-source heat pumps.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'Switching the direction of heat flow, the same system can be used to circulate the cooled water through the house for cooling in the summer months. The heat is exhausted to the relatively cooler ground (or groundwater) rather than delivering it to the hot outside air as an air conditioner does. As a result, the heat is pumped across a larger temperature difference and this leads to higher efficiency and lower energy use.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30938449',
'title': 'Ice storage air conditioning',
'section': 'Section::::Air conditioning.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': "The air conditioning chillers' efficiency is measured by their coefficient of performance (COP). In theory, thermal storage systems could make chillers more efficient because heat is discharged into colder nighttime air rather than warmer daytime air. In practice, heat loss overpowers this advantage, since it melts the ice.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '750772',
'title': 'Cooling tower',
'section': 'Section::::Classification by use.:Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'An HVAC (heating, ventilating, and air conditioning) cooling tower is used to dispose of ("reject") unwanted heat from a chiller. Water-cooled chillers are normally more energy efficient than air-cooled chillers due to heat rejection to tower water at or near wet-bulb temperatures. Air-cooled chillers must reject heat at the higher dry-bulb temperature, and thus have a lower average reverse-Carnot cycle effectiveness. In areas with a hot climate, large office buildings, hospitals, and schools typically use one or more cooling towers as part of their air conditioning systems. Generally, industrial cooling towers are much larger than HVAC towers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2893444',
'title': 'Building automation',
'section': 'Section::::Infrastructure.:Air handlers.:Variable volume air-handling units.:Air Handling unit (AHU) Discharge Air Temperature control.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Air Handling units (AHU) and Roof Top units (RTU) that serve multiple zones should vary the DISCHARGE AIR TEMPERATURE SET POINT VALUE automatically in the range 55 F to 70 F. This adjustment reduces the cooling, heating, and fan energy consumption. When the outside temperature is below 70 F, for zones with very low cooling loads, raising the supply-air temperature decreases the use of reheat at the zone level.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '478933',
'title': 'Energy conservation',
'section': 'Section::::Consumer products.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
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'passage_text': 'In warm climates where air conditioning is used, any household device that gives off heat will result in a larger load on the cooling system. Items such as stoves, dish washers, clothes dryers, hot water and incandescent lighting all add heat to the home. Low-power or insulated versions of these devices give off less heat for the air conditioning to remove. The air conditioning system can also improve in efficiency by using a heat sink that is cooler than the standard air heat exchanger, such as geothermal or water.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13337091',
'title': 'Water chiller',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "In air conditioning, chilled water is often used to cool a building's air and equipment, especially in situations where many individual rooms must be controlled separately, such as a hotel. A chiller lowers water temperature to between 40° and 45°F before the water is pumped to the location to be cooled. \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '68316',
'title': 'Heat pump',
'section': 'Section::::Performance considerations.\n',
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'passage_text': "When there is a high temperature differential (e.g., when an air-source heat pump is used to heat a house with an outside temperature of, say, 0\xa0°C (32\xa0°F)), it takes more work to move the same amount of heat to indoors than on a milder day. Ultimately, due to Carnot efficiency limits, the heat pump's performance will decrease as the outdoor-to-indoor temperature difference increases (outside temperature gets colder), reaching a theoretical limit of 1.0 at −273\xa0°C. In practice, a COP of 1.0 will typically be reached at an outdoor temperature around −18\xa0°C (0\xa0°F) for air source heat pumps.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does putting the air conditioner on 25°C in a cooling mode feel different from the same 25°C in heating mode?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["In cooling mode, the thermostat will wait until the temperature goes over 25°C and then turn on the AC until it falls back under 25°C. This produces a 'spike' of cold air when the AC is on, followed by the temperature slowly drifting up toward warm.\n\nIn heating mode, the thermostat will wait until the temperature goes under 25°C, then turn on the heater until it is back over 25°C. This produces a 'spike' of hot (and dry!) air when the heater comes on, followed by the temperature slowly dropping back down toward cold.\n\nNaturally, these feel different from one another.",
"The unit isn't putting out air at 25 C.\n\nIf it's in cooling mode, it's putting out very cold air until the ambient temperature reaches 25 C. \n\nIf it's in heating mode, it's putting out very warm air until the ambient temperature hits 25 C.",
'Humidity is also important. \n\nAir can hold a certain amount of water. The closer it is to capacity, the less additional water it can absorb and the more humid it feels. The farther from full capacity it is, the more water it will absorb and the drier the air feels.\n\nHot air can hold more water than cold air, and the A/C doesn’t change the amount of water in the air, it just adjusts the temperature.\n\nSo if you start with cold air, there will be very little water in it, because it can’t hold much, but because it can’t hold much, that little bit of water gets it most of the way to full, so it doesn’t feel very dry. If you heat that air up, there is now a lot more room for water in the air, but it is still only holding that little bit of water, so now it’s going to feel very dry.\n\nIf you start with hot air, it has more room for water, so it will be holding a good amount of water. Cool it down, and now it has less room for water, but is still holding that larger amount, so it feels more humid.\n\nIf you’re heating the air to 25C, the end result is going to feel drier than if you’re cooling the air to 25C, because the amount of water in the air to start with is likely to be different depending on which direction you’re coming from temperature-wise.',
'Top tip: if the day is t too hot but it’s really humid, some air cons have a ‘dry’ mode. Use this to remove the moisture front he air and the air will ‘feel’ cooler whilst using less energy',
'An AC is designed to put out air 20F cooler than the ambient temp. Doesn’t matter if you set the thermostat to 25 or 0, same temp will come out. It will just stop once it reaches the temp you set.\n\nSo the air you are feeling isn’t 25C',
'It is mentioned else on this thread that the output temperature is going to be different whether you are in cooling or heating. In addition, the air has a different level of humidity between in heating or cooling. When in cooling the dew point is like 54F. In heating it can be much much lower. The lower dew point will feel colder because it more readily allows moisture to evaporate.',
'I would have had to pay the difference of the previous month’s electricity bill to get my grandpa to keep the temperature at 25C',
'Humidity. If you heat to 25, chances are it is colder outside and dryer, so the humidity is lower and it feels colder. If you cool to 25, the opposite is in effect.',
'Holy moly I thought this would be covered already... your body loses/ gains heat by radiant heating/cooling according to the heat differential between you and the walls. If the walls and windows are cold (I.e. you’ve got the heat set to 75) you’re going to feel the heat loss. Same thing if you’ve got the A/C set to 75, that means the outside is probably hotter than 75 and you’re gaining heat from radiation.',
'Also to add on to this, why does it feel different inside when it could be the very same temperature outside? I feel dumb for this but I have wondered forever.',
'Don’t forget: you perceive the average radiant temperature of your surroundings. \nIn summer with HVAC at 25C, the walls might be 28C so you feel warm. \nIn winter with the HVAC set at 25C, the walls could be 18C, so you feel chilled.\n\nAlso, HVAC is always playing catch up- if the unit is on in summer, the air is warmer than 25, if it’s in in winter the the air is cooler than 25.',
'Moisture/humidity. Key factor to get to the standard "comfort zone" in heating and air design. Combine latent temp with actual temp at the standard levels and as long as the unit is properly sized and removing the moisture during summer you feel comfortable. In winter the heat is dominate with less moisture so often it "feels" different to different people. The standard is pretty close for most people though. If you add a humidifier to your system you can control the psychometrics and feel more or less the same year round indoors if you wanted to go that far.',
'Mean radiant temperature also plays a part, a heated room will have colder walls and you will feel less radiant heat from them. A cooled room will have warmer walls radiating more heat towards you.',
'This actually has more to do with the humidity of the air. When your unit is cooling mode, the air’s humidity is reduced. With the reduction in humidity it is easier for our bodies to evaporate sweat, carrying off some of your heat. Heating increasing the humidity of the air, which will slow down the rate of sweat evaporation, making you feel warmer. Most people like a humidity of 40-60%.',
'Air conditioners also work buy lowering humidity, heating doesn’t so in addition to temp, there could be a measurable change in humidity.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'e0a1gy',
'query': 'why does putting the air conditioner on 25°c in a cooling mode feel different from the same 25°c in heating mode?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '55453598',
'title': 'Oxygen firebreak',
'section': 'Section::::Home oxygen fires.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'end_character': 385,
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'passage_text': 'Oxygen is not flammable, but when it is present in increased concentrations it will enable fires to start much more easily. Once a fire has started, if supplemental oxygen is present it will burn more fiercely, based on the principle of the fire triangle. Materials that do not burn in ambient air may burn when there is a greater concentration of oxygen present than there is in air.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32024255',
'title': 'Condensed aerosol fire suppression',
'section': 'Section::::Performance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The extinguishing performance of condensed aerosol fire suppressants is dependent on the density of aerosol particulates in the immediate vicinity of the flame. As with gaseous fire suppression systems, the faster the agent can build around the flame, the more efficient the extinguishing agent will be in terminating the flame’s combustion process. The extinguishing and design densities of aerosol fire suppression agents are generally expressed in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m^3). Thus, the efficiency of aerosol extinguishing agents varies depending on a number of factors, such as the location of the aerosol relative to the flame, the proximity of other combustible flammable materials, the type of fuel involved, etc. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26551',
'title': 'Raku ware',
'section': 'Section::::Reduction process.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 1000,
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'passage_text': 'Reduction firing is when the kiln atmosphere, which is full of combustible material, is heated up. "Reduction is incomplete combustion of fuel, caused by a shortage of oxygen, which produces carbon monoxide" (Arbuckle, 4) Eventually, all of the available oxygen is used. This then draws oxygen from the glaze and the clay to allow the reaction to continue. Oxygen serves as the limiting reactant in this scenario because the reaction that creates fire needs a constant supply of it to continue; when the glaze and the clay come out hardened, this means that the oxygen was subtracted from the glaze and the clay to accommodate the lack of oxygen in the atmosphere. Consequently, the Raku piece appears black or white, which depends upon the amount of oxygen that was lost from each area of the piece. The empty spaces that occur from the reduction of oxygen are filled in by carbon molecules in the atmosphere of the container, which makes the piece blacker in spots where more oxygen was retracted.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '855608',
'title': 'Firefighting',
'section': 'Section::::Science of extinguishment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 84,
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'end_paragraph_id': 84,
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'passage_text': 'Using water is one common method to extinguish a fire. Water extinguishes a fire by cooling, which removes heat because of water’s ability to absorb massive amounts of heat as it converts to water vapor. Without heat, the fuel cannot keep the oxidizer from reducing the fuel in order to sustain the fire. Water also extinguishes a fire by smothering it. When water is heated to its boiling point, it converts to water vapor. When this conversion takes place, it dilutes the oxygen in the air above the fire, thus removing one of the elements that the fire requires to burn. This can also be done with foam.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3715184',
'title': 'Firescale',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Attempts to reduce this problem include preventative and curative ones. Firestain can be largely prevented by heating the object in an atmosphere in which the oxygen has been replaced with another combustive gas such as hydrogen or ammonia. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32024255',
'title': 'Condensed aerosol fire suppression',
'section': 'Section::::Methods of fire extinction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 910,
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'passage_text': "Condensed aerosols’ primary extinguishing mechanism involves the fourth element of the fire tetrahedron by means of chemical reactions with the free radicals of the flame, therefore interfering with the combustion process of the fire. Typically, condensed aerosol particulates consist of potassium carbonate (K2CO3)) that are produced from the thermal decomposition of a solid aerosol-forming compound that includes potassium nitrate as an oxidizer. As the aerosol particles surround and come into contact with the flame, the particulates absorb the flame heat energy, breaking down and releasing large concentrations of potassium radicals (K+) (ions with an unpaired electron). The potassium radicals bond with the hydroxide (OH+), hydrogen (H+) and oxygen (O+) free radicals which sustain flame's combustion process, producing harmless by-product molecules such as potassium hydroxide (KOH) and water (H2O).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '855608',
'title': 'Firefighting',
'section': 'Section::::Use of water.:Closed volume fire.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 103,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 103,
'end_character': 444,
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'passage_text': 'Modern methods for extinguishing an urban fire dictate the use of a massive initial water flow, e.g. 500\xa0L/min for each fire hose. The aim is to absorb as much heat as possible at the beginning to stop the expansion of the fire and to reduce the smoke. If the flow is too low, the cooling is insufficient, and the steam that is produced can burn firefighters (the drop of pressure is too small and the vapor is pushed back in their direction).\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "why does increased air flow extinguish flames? Wouldn't you be adding the necessary ingredients?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Fire requires fuel, oxygen, and heat. When you know out a flame, you're removing the heat necessary to continue the self-sustaining combustion reaction.",
"Yer not alone in askin', and kind strangers have explained:\n\n1. [ELI5: Why can air both extinguish and stoke up a fire? ](_URL_2_)\n1. [ELI5: Why does blowing air on a small flame put it out, but doing the same on a big fire only fuels it? ](_URL_1_)\n1. [ELI5: Why does blowing on a flame put it out, but glowing on coals makes them brighter? ](_URL_4_)\n1. [ELI5: If fire thrives on oxygen, then why does wind blow a fire out? ](_URL_5_)\n1. [ELI5 Why does a flame (like on a match, lighter, etc.) go out when you blow on it but when I blow on an ember it intensifies? ](_URL_3_)\n1. [ELI5: How does wind blow out fire, like on a match? ](_URL_0_)\n"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6prw04',
'query': "why does increased air flow extinguish flames? wouldn't you be adding the necessary ingredients?",
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '639',
'title': 'Alkane',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 161,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 161,
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'passage_text': 'Propane and butane are gases at atmospheric pressure that can be liquefied at fairly low pressures and are commonly known as liquified petroleum gas (LPG). Propane is used in propane gas burners and as a fuel for road vehicles, butane in space heaters and disposable cigarette lighters. Both are used as propellants in aerosol sprays.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23643',
'title': 'Propane',
'section': 'Section::::Sources.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 416,
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'passage_text': 'Propane is produced as a by-product of two other processes, natural gas processing and petroleum refining. The processing of natural gas involves removal of butane, propane, and large amounts of ethane from the raw gas, in order to prevent condensation of these volatiles in natural gas pipelines. Additionally, oil refineries produce some propane as a by-product of cracking petroleum into gasoline or heating oil.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23643',
'title': 'Propane',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Motor fuel.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
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'end_paragraph_id': 44,
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'passage_text': 'Propane is also used as fuel for small engines, especially those used indoors or in areas with insufficient fresh air and ventilation to carry away the more toxic exhaust of an engine running on gasoline or Diesel fuel. More recently, there have been lawn care products like string trimmers, lawn mowers and leaf blowers intended for outdoor use, but fueled by propane in order to reduce air pollution.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22364466',
'title': 'Timeline of United States discoveries',
'section': 'Section::::Twentieth century.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 57,
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'end_paragraph_id': 57,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Propane is a three-carbon alkane, normally a gas, but compressible to a transportable liquid. It is derived from other petroleum products during oil or natural gas processing. It is commonly used as a fuel for engines, barbecues, portable stoves, and residential central heating. Propane was first identified as a volatile component in gasoline by Dr. Walter O. Snelling of the U.S. Bureau of Mines in 1910.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Propane',
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'passage_text': 'Propane () is a three-carbon alkane with the molecular formula . It is a gas at standard temperature and pressure, but compressible to a transportable liquid. A by-product of natural gas processing and petroleum refining, it is commonly used as a fuel. Propane is one of a group of liquefied petroleum gases (LP gases). The others include butane, propylene, butadiene, butylene, isobutylene, and mixtures thereof.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '626455',
'title': 'Alternative fuel',
'section': 'Section::::Propane autogas.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
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'passage_text': 'Propane is a cleaner burning, high-performance fuel derived from multiple sources. It is known by many names including propane, LPG (liquified propane gas), LPA (liquid propane autogas), Autogas and others. Propane is a hydrocarbon fuel and is a member of the natural gas family.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12249109',
'title': 'Sustainable automotive air conditioning',
'section': 'Section::::Arguments.:Arguments against non-CO refrigerants.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Butane and propane are very flammable petroleum products; they are used as fuels for gas barbecue grills, disposable lighters, etc. Like gasoline, to which it chemically is closely related, propane has a tendency to explode if mixed with oxygen and ignited in an enclosed container.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do we get propane and other gases from the ground?',
'selftext': 'If there are pockets of gases in the Earth how do we get them from the ground without the gases just dispersing into the air?',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['We refine crude oil which contains gases in the oil(similar to carbonated beverages but less fizzy) and can undergo chemical reactions which will take bigger molecules and break them down into smaller molecules, like propane, which we then seperate out. ',
'Propane is a product of the refining process of crude oil. The longer hydrogen carbon chains are cracked into smaller ones, propane, hexane and benzine are common products.\n\nNatural gas is different, it formed naturally is often found in pockets above crude oil and I think coal '],
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'query': 'how do we get propane and other gases from the ground?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '20647810',
'title': 'Sunburn',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Duration.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Sunburn can occur in less than 15 minutes, and in seconds when exposed to non-shielded welding arcs or other sources of intense ultraviolet light. Nevertheless, the inflicted harm is often not immediately obvious.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3125085',
'title': 'Polymorphous light eruption',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Recurring yearly, the eruption can sometimes last longer than a few days if persistent and repeated sun exposure occurs. However, the "hardening" effect, with respite during the later summer, frequently occurs with gradual exposure of sunlight, eventually leading to significant improvement.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4762233',
'title': 'Solar eclipse of August 21, 2017',
'section': 'Section::::Eye damage.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Short-term damage includes solar keratitis, which is similar to sunburn of the cornea. Symptoms usually occur within twenty-four hours and include eye pain and light sensitivity. Long-term or permanent damage includes solar retinopathy, which occurs when the sun burns a hole in the retina, usually at the fovea (the focus of the retina). Symptoms can occur as long as several weeks after the incident, and can include loss of central vision and/or other vision, as well as eye pain and light sensitivity, afterimages, and changes in color vision. Depending on the severity of damage, vision problems can last for several months or be permanent.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20647810',
'title': 'Sunburn',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Duration.\n',
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'passage_text': 'After the exposure, skin may turn red in as little as 30 minutes but most often takes 2 to 6 hours. Pain is usually strongest 6 to 48 hours after exposure. The burn continues to develop for 1 to 3 days, occasionally followed by peeling skin in 3 to 8 days. Some peeling and itching may continue for several weeks.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1871740',
'title': 'Ultraviolet index',
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'passage_text': 'The UV Index is designed as an open-ended linear scale, directly proportional to the intensity of UV radiation that causes sunburn on human skin. For example, if a light-skinned individual (without sunscreen) begins to sunburn in 30 minutes at UV Index 6, then that individual should expect to sunburn in about 15 minutes at UV Index 12 – twice the UV, twice as fast.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20647810',
'title': 'Sunburn',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Variations.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Minor sunburns typically cause nothing more than slight redness and tenderness to the affected areas. In more serious cases, blistering can occur. Extreme sunburns can be painful to the point of debilitation and may require hospital care.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2544267',
'title': 'Radiation burn',
'section': 'Section::::Beta burns.\n',
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'passage_text': 'If the exposure to beta radiation is intense, the beta burns may first manifest in 24–48 hours by itching and/or burning sensation that last for one or two days, sometimes accompanied by hyperaemia. After 1–3 weeks burn symptoms appear; erythema, increased skin pigmentation (dark colored patches and raised areas), followed by epilation and skin lesions. Erythema occurs after 5–15\xa0Gy, dry desquamation after 17\xa0Gy, and bullous epidermitis after 72\xa0Gy. Chronic radiation keratosis may develop after higher doses. Primary erythema lasting more than 72 hours is an indication of injury severe enough to cause chronic radiation dermatitis. Edema of dermal papillae, if present within 48 hours since the exposition, is followed by transepidermal necrosis. After higher doses, the malpighian layer cells die within 24 hours; lower doses may take 10–14 days to show dead cells. Inhalation of beta radioactive isotopes may cause beta burns of lungs and nasopharyngeal region, ingestion may lead to burns of gastrointestinal tract; the latter being a risk especially for grazing animals.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': '4 continuous hours in the sun results in a sunburn, but 4 hours broken up into 15 minutes chunks does not.',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
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'answers': ['Light is radiation. Radiation is like a really tiny bullet that can shoot through important stuff in your cells (like your DNA). Damaged DNA can cause cancer. When your body detects that the DNA in a cell has been damaged, the cell kills itself for the greater good of the body. No cell, no potential cancer. \n\nNow think of a tinted window in a car. Not as much light gets through it, right? Like a tinted window, your body releases a “tint” called melanin which is what makes you darker when you’ve been in the sun. Your body does this to avoid as many radiation “bullets” passing into skin cells and making them commit suicide. \n\nIf you expose yourself to 4 hours in a row, you don’t give your body time to release the melanin to protect your cells so they die and cause sunburn.\n\nIf you give your body enough time, it can tint your skin to protect you and you don’t burn (or not as severely).\n\nEdit: \nI could go into detail about basal reversal repairs and the issue with double helix breaks, but would it be an ELI5? I’m not going to explain enzyme metabolic rates n shit to a 5 year old. The melanin vector is easiest (and is one of the primary factors).',
"Something I think folks are missing is how much the sun's power depends depends on time of day- if that four hour window includes noon-2PM, you are getting way more light intensity than 15 minutes at 8 AM or 10 AM.",
"Imagine having to drink 5 gallons of water in one hour. Now imagine have to drink 5 gallons of water over the course of a week. Same amount of water, different amount of time. You're giving your body more time to process the 5 gallons of water.",
'The explanations so far are not correct. 4 continuous hours of sunlight will give your damaged cells less time to repair DNA and less time to apoptose (safely die without causing inflammation).\n\n4 hours spread out over increments gives your cells time to repair DNA and, if need be, apoptose irreparable cells in-between exposures.\n\nIf you do not have this break time in-between exposures, cells will become damaged so badly that they cannot die in a safe, organized manner (apoptosis). Instead, they die quicker and release their proteins into the space between cells. Nearby cells sense this, freak out and release chemicals that cause inflammation and pain.\n\nAdditionally, immune cells in skin undergoing DNA damage from UV may directly contribute to inflammation.\n\nFun fact: When you feel heat, when you are out in the sun, it’s from infrared light. A lot of people have the misconception that they aren’t feeling the heat from the sun, so they aren’t getting burned. The “heat” (really just pain) from a sunburn will come on much later, and is produced by inflammation and hypersensitive nerve endings.\n\nEdit: I should add. Even if your 4 hours is broken up into increments, if you’re fair-skinned, you’ll probably still get burned.',
'Vary basicly spoken. \nIts the same as if you wave your hand trough a candle light flame for 1 secund 60 times, or keep your hand in the flame for a full minute in 1 go. \n The warmt/heat/radiation will be spread over longer time or not.',
'Put your hand in 130 degree water for 10 seconds, take a 10 minute break, and redo 10 times. Now put your hand in 130 degree water for 100 seconds and see which hurts more and damages more. \n\nIt’s the same concept. Your body has time to reset and recover if there are breaks in between. ',
"UV when it come into contact with cells messes with alignment of DNA. This DNA has 4 possible things it could be ACGT (adenosine, cytosine, guanine, thymine) these 4 nucleotides in a order make up our genetic make up and have a complimentary antiparallel strand holding them for stability. when UV touches a part of DNA with 2 Ts together they break their bond with the antiparallel partner and bond with the other T. This is a thymine diaper this causes DNA damage. The body has the ability to fix this but over time these diapers build up and eventually cells have to go kaplooey. When you do tests between UV and nonUV your body has time to fix these diapers and not constantly bombarded (think like those cartoons with leaks and how everytime Tom plugged a hole another leak would be sprung, that's what happens to DNA except each leak is another TT diamer.",
'Exactly the same thing as running for exemple, It’s not hard to run 15 minutes, rest? and do it 16 times.\nOn the other hand, it’s extremely hard to run 4 hours.\n\nThe simple answer is that, in the second case, your body gets to recover.\nThe more detailed answer is already in the comments. ',
'This seems like a good time to remind everyone that May is Skin Cancer Awareness month, and folks in the states can get a free skin cancer check courtesy of the American Academy of Dermatology. Find your nearest screening here: _URL_0_\n\n',
"ELI5: You regenerate. You don't regenerate fast enough to maintain 4 continuous hours of sun. ",
'60 seconds underwater results in death but 60 seconds broken up into 10-second chunks does not. \n\nSunburn is a result of cell death, let them recover and you can bombard your cells with UV again. ',
"Touch a hot stove for 1 second and pull you hand away before it burns it. You can repeat that a dozen times as long as there's a break inbetween.\n\nMeanwhile, touch a hot stove and hold you hand on it for 10 seconds, you're going to burn your hand.",
'Holding your hand to a stove for 5 seconds burns you, poking the stove once every 10 seconds does not',
'4 hours? I was thinking more along the lines of 4 minutes. ',
"4 hours? You haven't experienced sun until you can't go out for more than 7 minutes without protection or staying in the shade.",
"Nurse here with related topic: I just completed a Skin Check clinic with an MD. We saw 55 people in 6 hours. Our job was to do a quick skin check, and refer them to their primary MD or a dermatologist if we found something suspicious.\n\n11 people had something that needed to be addressed, but wasn't urgent. \n\n5 people had something that was very likely skin cancer. In two of those people, the condition had progressed due to lack of diagnosis and care. One of those was almost certainly melanoma, but a biopsy would be needed for any diagnosis to be sure. They were all urged to get to an MD asap.\n\n1 case of undiagnosed psoriasis, lots of eczema, and acne, and a whole host of other skin conditions.\n\nThis is what I have learned as a nurse and as someone with a history of squamous cell skin cancer: get yourself checked out. Yearly. The things that you are worried about? Probably nothing. The things that you aren't worried about? Might very well be something.\n\nMake sure your MD is doing a thorough check... you have to get nude, and you have to part cheeks. If your MD wants to rush through the body check, get another MD. Better yet, go to a dermatologist. Dermatologists are best, because skin conditions are so nebulous, even a primary MD might not know what they're looking at. \n\nRemember: most of the really scary skin stuff is caused by sun exposure, so be aware of that! Everyone thinks of the beach, but consider gardening/yard work, outdoor exercise, walking to and from your car, even driving (your left arm is almost always exposed to the sun because it's against the window). Beaches and snow reflect the sun. Don't play outside between 10 and 4. \n\nSo: sun screen, sun screen, sun screen. Reapply every 2 hours, even if you don't get wet. Hats. Long sleeved shirts. No sunburns allowed! Wanna look good as you age? Avoid the sun and don't smoke.\n\nFinally: go online and learn the ABC's of skin cancer. It could save your life, or the life of someone you know and love.\n\nedit: words, and then some more words.",
'A few second of water down your throat is drinking. A few minutes of water down your throat is drowning. '],
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'query': '4 continuous hours in the sun results in a sunburn, but 4 hours broken up into 15 minutes chunks does not.',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '21227685',
'title': 'Solid-state battery',
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'passage_text': 'A solid-state battery is a battery technology that uses solid electrodes and a solid electrolyte, instead of the liquid or polymer gel electrolytes found in lithium-ion or lithium polymer batteries. Materials proposed for use as solid electrolytes in solid-state batteries include ceramics (e.g. oxides, sulfides, phosphates), and solid polymers. Solid-state batteries have found use in pacemakers, RFID and wearable devices. They are potentially safer, with higher energy densities, but at a much higher cost..\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '21227685',
'title': 'Solid-state battery',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In the late 1950s, efforts were made to develop a solid-state battery. The first solid-state batteries utilized a silver ion conducting electrolyte, had low energy density and cell voltages, and high internal resistance. A new class of solid-state electrolyte, developed by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the 1990s, was later incorporated into certain thin film lithium-ion batteries.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42601555',
'title': 'Research in lithium-ion batteries',
'section': 'Section::::Electrolyte.:Solid-state.\n',
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'passage_text': 'While no solid-state batteries have reached the market, multiple groups are researching this alternative. The notion is that solid-state designs are safer because they prevent dendrites from causing short circuits. They also have the potential to substantially increase energy density because their solid nature prevents dendrite formation and allows the use of pure metallic lithium anodes. They may have other benefits such as lower temperature operation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14199',
'title': 'Handheld game console',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Beginnings.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Modern game systems such as the Nintendo DS and PlayStation Portable have rechargeable Lithium-Ion batteries with proprietary shapes. Other seventh-generation consoles such as the GP2X use standard alkaline batteries. Because the mAh rating of alkaline batteries has increased since the 1990s, the power needed for handhelds like the GP2X may be supplied by relatively few batteries.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1611987',
'title': 'Plug-in hybrid',
'section': 'Section::::Technology.:Electric power storage.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 53,
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'passage_text': 'Nickel–metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries can be recycled; Toyota, for example, has a recycling program in place under which dealers are paid a US$200 credit for each battery returned. However, plug-in hybrids typically use larger battery packs than comparable conventional hybrids, and thus require more resources. Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) has suggested that utilities could purchase used batteries for backup and load leveling purposes. They state that while these used batteries may be no longer usable in vehicles, their residual capacity still has significant value. More recently, General Motors (GM) has said it has been "approached by utilities interested in using recycled Volt batteries as a power storage system, a secondary market that could bring down the cost of the Volt and other plug-in vehicles for consumers".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29009444',
'title': 'N battery',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Rechargeable N-size batteries are also available, in nickel-cadmium ("KR1") and nickel-metal hydride ("HR1") chemistries. However, these are far less common than other rechargeable sizes. Rechargeable N-Series batteries may be charged in an AA charger using a makeshift adapter (such as a small metal slug or a spring). Some universal battery chargers (with spring-loaded contacts) are also able to charge N size batteries.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24429024',
'title': 'Lithium–air battery',
'section': 'Section::::Design and operation.:Electrolyte.:Solid state.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A solid-state battery design is attractive for its safety, eliminating the chance of ignition from rupture. Current solid-state Li–air batteries use a lithium anode, a ceramic, glass, or glass-ceramic electrolyte, and a porous carbon cathode. The anode and cathode are typically separated from the electrolyte by polymer–ceramic composites that enhance charge transfer at the anode and electrochemically couple the cathode to the electrolyte. The polymer–ceramic composites reduce overall impedance. The main drawback of the solid-state battery design is the low conductivity of most glass-ceramic electrolytes. The ionic conductivity of current lithium fast ion conductors is lower than liquid electrolyte alternatives.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What are these new-age solid-state batteries? How are they different from conventional batteries?',
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'category': 'Technology',
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'answers': ["They're batteries that use solid electrodes or electrolytes instead of liquid.\n\nThey have potentially higher energy density, and are safer since they're not flammable. They also have longer lifespans and don't produce as much heat.\n\nI think the problem at the moment is that they're not ready to be mass produced and so they're expensive."],
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'query': 'what are these new-age solid-state batteries? how are they different from conventional batteries?',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '233740',
'title': 'Heat shield',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Spacecraft.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Spacecraft that land on a planet with an atmosphere, such as Earth, Mars, and Venus, currently do so by entering the atmosphere at high speeds, depending on air resistance rather than rocket power to slow them down. A side effect of this method of atmospheric re-entry is aerodynamic heating, which can be highly destructive to the structure of an unprotected or faulty spacecraft. An aerodynamic heat shield consists of a protective layer of special materials to dissipate the heat. Two basic types of aerodynamic heat shield have been used:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37913',
'title': 'Escape velocity',
'section': 'Section::::Scenarios.:Practical considerations.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In most situations it is impractical to achieve escape velocity almost instantly, because of the acceleration implied, and also because if there is an atmosphere, the hypersonic speeds involved (on Earth a speed of 11.2\xa0km/s, or 40,320\xa0km/h) would cause most objects to burn up due to aerodynamic heating or be torn apart by atmospheric drag. For an actual escape orbit, a spacecraft will accelerate steadily out of the atmosphere until it reaches the escape velocity appropriate for its altitude (which will be less than on the surface). In many cases, the spacecraft may be first placed in a parking orbit (e.g. a low Earth orbit at 160–2,000\xa0km) and then accelerated to the escape velocity at that altitude, which will be slightly lower (about 11.0\xa0km/s at a low Earth orbit of 200\xa0km). The required additional change in speed, however, is far less because the spacecraft already has significant orbital velocity (in low Earth orbit speed is approximately 7.8\xa0km/s, or 28,080\xa0km/h).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Sharp Edge Flight Experiment',
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'passage_text': "During re-entry of spacecraft into the earth's atmosphere, the high velocity of the spacecraft together with friction and displacement of air molecules leads to temperatures of over 2000\xa0°C. In order to not burn up, spaceships need very expensive and sometimes failing heat shields.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '738178',
'title': 'Orbital spaceflight',
'section': 'Section::::Deorbit and re-entry.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Intentional aerobraking is achieved by orienting the returning space craft so as to present the heat shields forward toward the atmosphere to protect against the high temperatures generated by atmospheric compression and friction caused by passing through the atmosphere at hypersonic speeds. The thermal energy is dissipated mainly by compression heating the air in a shockwave ahead of the vehicle using a blunt heat shield shape, with the aim of minimising the heat entering the vehicle.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '455201',
'title': 'Spaceplane',
'section': 'Section::::Challenges.:Atmospheric reentry.\n',
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'passage_text': "Orbital spacecraft reentering the Earth's atmosphere must shed significant velocity, resulting in extreme heating. For example, the Space Shuttle thermal protection system (TPS) protects the orbiter's interior structure from surface temperatures that reach as high as , well above the melting point of steel. Suborbital spaceplanes fly lower energy trajectories that do not put as much stress on the spacecraft thermal protection system.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '155758',
'title': 'Gravity assist',
'section': 'Section::::Limits.\n',
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'passage_text': "Another limitation is the atmosphere, if any, of the available planet. The closer the spacecraft can approach, the faster its periapsis speed as gravity accelerates the spacecraft, allowing for more kinetic energy to be gained from a rocket burn. However, if a spacecraft gets too deep into the atmosphere, the energy lost to drag can exceed that gained from the planet's gravity. On the other hand, the atmosphere can be used to accomplish aerobraking. There have also been theoretical proposals to use aerodynamic lift as the spacecraft flies through the atmosphere. This maneuver, called an aerogravity assist, could bend the trajectory through a larger angle than gravity alone, and hence increase the gain in energy.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45294',
'title': 'Atmospheric entry',
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'passage_text': 'Ballistic warheads and expendable vehicles do not require slowing at reentry, and in fact, are made streamlined so as to maintain their speed. Furthermore, slow-speed returns to Earth from near-space such as parachute jumps from balloons do not require heat shielding because the gravitational acceleration of an object starting at relative rest from within the atmosphere itself (or not far above it) cannot create enough velocity to cause significant atmospheric heating.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why do space craft enter the atmosphere at full velocity, requiring heat shields and risking burning up?',
'selftext': 'It seems like reverse thrusters could be used, at the expense of additional fuel, to control the entry of a space craft back into the atmosphere.',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Extra fuel is extra weight. Extra weight requires more fuel to lift it and slow it down. More economical to use the atmosphere as a brake',
'"at the expense of additional fuel"\n\nThat\'s a really big expense, both in cost and weight. Its just literally not economically viable right now to do it that way. Though things like space x are starting to work on it.\n\nRight now it makes most economic sense to just let it burn and crash and rebuild it, because thats how much more expensive that extra fuel is.',
'The reverse thrusters would increase the total fuel required for the trip by over 2x! You need the fuel to slow down from 8 km/s which is going to be almost your full starting fuel load, *AND* the fuel required to lift all that fuel into orbit and speed it up to 8 km/s\n\nAny additional weight results in a significant increase in fuel requirements which requires a bigger rocket. It took a Saturn V rocket to get the Apollo mission to the moon, to use retrorockets to slow the command module for reentry would likely have doubled the payload mass requiring an even bigger rocket, bigger than any rocket ever made by anyone ever! Its just not feasible, a heat shield works pretty damn good and is pretty reliable and light',
"A spacecraft like The Shuttle or The Soyuz cannot physically carry enough fuel to slow it down enough to where it will not require a heat shield when it enters the atmosphere. Think about how freakin big the rocket was just to get it up there in the first place. Now when in orbit, your speed is directly related to how high the craft flies over the planet. Add additional speed and your craft will fly higher and vice versa. If you slow your craft down too much, it will enter the atmosphere at a very steep angle, this is bad. Heat shields can only handle so much and diving through the thicker layers of the atmosphere at sub-orbital velocity is a great way to burst into flames. The easiest and cheapest way to land a spacecraft is to slow it down just enough to dip into the higher layers of the atmosphere. Then using these thin, upper layers to slow the craft down. That way the heat shield can take the heat and you don't have to spend so much fuel slowing down.",
"Everyone else here has given great explanations. If you want to see how fuel, weight, and all of that interact, go download a copy of Kerbal Space Program. You'll get to see what all it takes to get things into orbit and back down.",
"People are saying that it would take much more fuel, but I want to try to quantify that a little bit. This isn't exactly ELI5 but I feel that it's illustrative. You can skip the maths and just read the conclusion, if you want.\n\nThe relevant equation for changing the speed of a rocket is the imaginatively named [rocket equation](_URL_0_), which looks like this\n\nΔv = v_exhaust * ln((m_fuel + m_rocket)/m_rocket)\n\nwhere Δv (pronounced delta-v) is how much your rocket can change its velocity, v_exhaust is the exhaust velocity of your rocket engine, m_fuel is the mass of all the fuel you're starting with, and m_rocket is the weight of your rocket with no fuel in.\n\nRearranging a bit gives us \n\nm_fuel = m_rocket * (e^(Δv/v_exhaust) - 1)\n\nWe can plug some values in from a real rocket now to get a sense of how much more fuel we'd have to carry to completely slow down before entering the atmosphere.\n\nThe Space Shuttle weighs about 69 tons empty, and its engines have an exhaust velocity of about 4.4 kilometres per second. If it were coming back from, say, the International Space Station, and we wanted to completely slow down then it would need about 7.7 kilometres per second of delta-v. Plugging these values for v_exhaust, m_rocket and Δv into our equation gives us \n\nm_fuel = 69 tons * (e^(7.7/4.4) - 1)\n\nYou work that out, and you'll find it's almost 330 tons of fuel. That's almost *5 times* the weight of the Space Shuttle itself. You can clearly see that this is a wildly unrealistic amount of fuel. Conversely, slowing down just enough to be able to use the atmosphere for aerobraking takes only on the order of 100 m/s of Δv, which is easily achievable."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '71tztk',
'query': 'why do space craft enter the atmosphere at full velocity, requiring heat shields and risking burning up?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '49256',
'title': 'Age of the Earth',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "The age of the Earth is estimated to be 4.54 ± 0.05 billion years This age may represent the age of the Earth's accretion, of core formation, or of the material from which the Earth formed. This dating is based on evidence from radiometric age-dating of meteorite material and is consistent with the radiometric ages of the oldest-known terrestrial and lunar samples.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40836275',
'title': 'Cosmic age problem',
'section': 'Section::::1950–1970.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'The age of the Earth (actually the Solar System) was first accurately measured around 1955 by Clair Patterson at 4.55 billion years, essentially identical to the modern value. For H ~ 75\xa0(km/s)/Mpc, the inverse of H is 13.0 billion years; so after 1958 the Big Bang model age was comfortably older than the Earth.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34558',
'title': '20th century',
'section': 'Section::::Science.:Astronomy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 104,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The age of the solar system, including Earth, was determined, and it turned out to be much older than believed earlier: more than 4\xa0billion years, rather than the 20 million years suggested by Lord Kelvin in 1862.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56516812',
'title': '20th century in science',
'section': 'Section::::Astronomy and space exploration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'end_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The age of the solar system, including Earth, was determined, and it turned out to be much older than believed earlier: more than 4\xa0billion years, rather than the 20 million years suggested by Lord Kelvin in 1862.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12967',
'title': 'Geologic time scale',
'section': 'Section::::Rationale.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'Evidence from radiometric dating indicates that Earth is about 4.54 billion years old. The geology or "deep time" of Earth\'s past has been organized into various units according to events which took place. Different spans of time on the GTS are usually marked by corresponding changes in the composition of strata which indicate major geological or paleontological events, such as mass extinctions. For example, the boundary between the Cretaceous period and the Paleogene period is defined by the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which marked the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs and many other groups of life. Older time spans, which predate the reliable fossil record (before the Proterozoic eon), are defined by their absolute age.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9228',
'title': 'Earth',
'section': 'Section::::Cultural and historical viewpoint.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 126,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 126,
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'passage_text': "Lord Kelvin used thermodynamics to estimate the age of Earth to be between 20 million and 400\xa0million years in 1864, sparking a vigorous debate on the subject; it was only when radioactivity and radioactive dating were discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that a reliable mechanism for determining Earth's age was established, proving the planet to be billions of years old. The perception of Earth shifted again in the 20th century when humans first viewed it from orbit, and especially with photographs of Earth returned by the Apollo program.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12207',
'title': 'Geology',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 164,
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'passage_text': "Much of 19th-century geology revolved around the question of the Earth's exact age. Estimates varied from a few hundred thousand to billions of years. By the early 20th century, radiometric dating allowed the Earth's age to be estimated at two billion years. The awareness of this vast amount of time opened the door to new theories about the processes that shaped the planet.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "The earth is about 4.5 billion years old, but at what physical point do scientists classify a planet's age as 0?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['When it started to be a planet.\n\nTo be a planet, it needs to fit three criteria:\n\nA planet is an object in orbit around the Sun with a diameter greater than 2000 km.\n\nA planet is an object in orbit around the Sun whose shape is stable due to its own gravity.\n\nA planet is an object in orbit around the Sun that is dominant in its immediate neighbourhood.\n\nSo, basically, it needed to coalesce into a stable shape and clear out the immediate neighbourhood.\n\nThere\'s no hard-and-fast answer of when it "became" a planet. There\'s no point where you can say "Before this instant, it was not a planet, but now it is."\n\nJust like how if you have a pile of seeds, and then take one seed away at a time, you can\'t say there\'s a specific time when taking away a single seed made it from a pile into something that isn\'t a pile anymore. Obviously if you have only one seed, it isn\'t a pile. Is two seeds a pile of seeds? Probably not.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6dksc3',
'query': "the earth is about 4.5 billion years old, but at what physical point do scientists classify a planet's age as 0?",
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '251399',
'title': 'Observable universe',
'section': 'Section::::The universe versus the observable universe.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 1892,
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'passage_text': 'Some parts of the universe are too far away for the light emitted since the Big Bang to have had enough time to reach Earth or its scientific space-based instruments, and so lie outside the observable universe. In the future, light from distant galaxies will have had more time to travel, so additional regions will become observable. However, due to Hubble\'s law, regions sufficiently distant from the Earth are expanding away from it faster than the speed of light (special relativity prevents nearby objects in the same local region from moving faster than the speed of light with respect to each other, but there is no such constraint for distant objects when the space between them is expanding; see uses of the proper distance for a discussion) and furthermore the expansion rate appears to be accelerating due to dark energy. Assuming dark energy remains constant (an unchanging cosmological constant), so that the expansion rate of the universe continues to accelerate, there is a "future visibility limit" beyond which objects will "never" enter our observable universe at any time in the infinite future, because light emitted by objects outside that limit would never reach the Earth. (A subtlety is that, because the Hubble parameter is decreasing with time, there can be cases where a galaxy that is receding from the Earth just a bit faster than light does emit a signal that reaches the Earth eventually.) This future visibility limit is calculated at a comoving distance of 19 billion parsecs (62 billion light-years), assuming the universe will keep expanding forever, which implies the number of galaxies that we can ever theoretically observe in the infinite future (leaving aside the issue that some may be impossible to observe in practice due to redshift, as discussed in the following paragraph) is only larger than the number currently observable by a factor of 2.36.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '894139',
'title': 'Causal contact',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'The only objects not in causal contact are those for which there is no event in the history of the universe that could have sent a beam of light to both. For example, if the universe were not expanding and had existed for 10 billion years, anything more than 20 billion light-years away from the earth would not be in causal contact with it. Anything less than 20 billion light-years away "would" because an event occurring 10 billion years in the past that was 10 billion light-years away from both the earth and the object under question could have affected both. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16786863',
'title': 'Ant on a rubber rope',
'section': 'Section::::Metric expansion of space.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
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'passage_text': 'By thinking of photons of light as ants crawling along the rubber rope of space between the galaxy and us, we can see that just as the ant can eventually reach the end of the rope, so light from distant galaxies, even some that appear to be receding at a speed greater than the speed of light, can eventually reach Earth, given sufficient time.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16786863',
'title': 'Ant on a rubber rope',
'section': 'Section::::Metric expansion of space.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
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'passage_text': 'This puzzle has a bearing on the question of whether light from distant galaxies can ever reach us given the metric expansion of space. The universe is expanding, which leads to increasing distances to other galaxies, and galaxies that are far enough away from us will have an apparent relative motion greater than the speed of light. It might seem that light leaving such a distant galaxy could never reach us.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19167840',
'title': 'Chronology of the universe',
'section': 'Section::::Early universe.:Recombination, photon decoupling, and the cosmic microwave background (CMB).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 81,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 81,
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'passage_text': 'Just before recombination, the baryonic matter in the universe was at a temperature where it formed a hot ionized plasma. Most of the photons in the universe interacted with electrons and protons, and could not travel significant distances without interacting with ionized particles. As a result, the universe was opaque or "foggy". Although there was light, it was not possible to see, nor can we observe that light through telescopes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1411100',
'title': 'Introduction to general relativity',
'section': 'Section::::Astrophysical applications.:Gravitational lensing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 64,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 64,
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'passage_text': 'Since light is deflected in a gravitational field, it is possible for the light of a distant object to reach an observer along two or more paths. For instance, light of a very distant object such as a quasar can pass along one side of a massive galaxy and be deflected slightly so as to reach an observer on Earth, while light passing along the opposite side of that same galaxy is deflected as well, reaching the same observer from a slightly different direction. As a result, that particular observer will see one astronomical object in two different places in the night sky. This kind of focussing is well known when it comes to optical lenses, and hence the corresponding gravitational effect is called gravitational lensing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34107810',
'title': 'Original Goodness (book)',
'section': 'Section::::Topics covered.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': '"I have spoken at times of a light in the soul, a light that is uncreated and uncreatable... to the extent that we can deny ourselves and turn away from created things, we shall find our unity and blessing in that little spark in the soul, which neither space nor time touches."\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How is it possible for light to not have reached us from parts of the universe yet?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The limit of Speed of Light only applies to particles moving through spacetime, it does not apply to spacetime itself. Two points in spacetime can be pushed apart by the expansion of the universe faster than the speed of light. The further any two points in spacetime are from each other, the faster they move apart based on the expansion of the universe, so for every point in the universe, there is horizon beyond which all points are moving away from it faster than the speed of light, and no light emitted from those points over the horizon will ever reach the former.',
" > Now if all observable mass blew apart from this singularity, any objects whose relative velocity vectors were less than the speed of light would be able to observe eachother from the start\n\nYou are fundamentally misunderstanding the Big Bang. It was not all mass exploding outward from a central point. Instead it was **space** expanding everywhere at once. All **places** were closer together during the singularity and when the Big Bang happened space itself began to expand causing all *locations* to become more distant from each other. Matter itself didn't obtain a velocity through space.\n\nThe speed of light then applies to things moving through space, it doesn't govern the rate at which new space can appear between two locations. In fact given a sufficient distance between two points then any expansion of space, however small, will eventually add up to exceeding the speed of light.",
'The Hubble Constant is about 74 km/second per megaparsec. That means that the comoving velocity of something 1 megaparsec away from us is about 74 km/s (pointed away from us) due to the expansion of space. \n\nAs an example, the most "distant galaxy" you\'ll see reported as 13.4 billion light years. What this really means is that the light we observed today was emitted from this galaxy when it was less than 13.4 billion light years away. However, due to the expansion of space, we expect this same galaxy is now actually over 50 billion light years from us. The universe simply isn\'t old enough for anything over ~13.4 billion light years of travel time to have reached us yet (the universe is ~13.8 billion years old, but for various reasons we would not expect galaxies to have formed during the early portion). \n\nFinally, it\'s worth noting that you shouldn\'t view the Big Bang as a singularity exploding from a central point. That simply isn\'t the model of it that\'s ever been proposed. Rather, the Big Bang refers to a point in time about 13.8 billion years ago where the energy density of the universe was infinite. One Planck time after the Big Bang, there is no evidence that the universe was not *infinite* in diameter. In other words, the expansion of space may be a change in the density of the universe, but in terms of actual size we\'re just going from infinite to ... well, infinite.',
"Imagine a big, flat rubber sheet. That'll be our universe. \n\nImagine a magical marble that moves forward all by itself, at a fixed speed of 1 inch per second. That'll be our light particle. \n\nIf you sit down anywhere on the sheet, and someone puts the marble down anywhere and aims it at you, it'll reach you eventually, right? Ok, cool.\n\nNow let's add a catch. You sat on the sheet, and someone put that marble down and aimed it at you again...but then people grabbed all the edges of the sheet and started pulling *it* at a speed of 6 inches per second. Now, even though that marble is still zooming towards you, the sheet itself it stretching out *faster* than the marble is moving, so the end result is that you and the marble are moving further and further *apart* even though it's still moving towards you."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'd2wszx',
'query': 'how is it possible for light to not have reached us from parts of the universe yet?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '403326',
'title': '66 (number)',
'section': 'Section::::In computing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
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'passage_text': '66 (more specifically 66.667) megahertz (MHz) is a common divisor for the front side bus (FSB) speed, overall central processing unit (CPU) speed, and base bus speed. On a Core 2 CPU, and a Core 2 motherboard, the FSB is 1066\xa0MHz (~16 × 66\xa0MHz), the memory speed is usually 666.67\xa0MHz (~10 × 66\xa0MHz), and the processor speed ranges from 1.86 gigahertz (GHz) (~66\xa0MHz × 28) to 2.93\xa0GHz (~66\xa0MHz × 44), in 266\xa0MHz (~66\xa0MHz × 4) increments.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4806958',
'title': 'CPU-Z',
'section': 'Section::::Features.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'CPU-Z has an ability to directly detect hardware features, such as the ability to access, read, and display the SPD data (including manufacturer, manufacture date, and part number) from memory modules, which can be invaluable to those looking to add or replace memory. The ability to document clock speed makes it a tool for motherboard overclockers, as a way of proving the CPU speeds achieved by various experiments.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8192994',
'title': 'ATI video card suffixes',
'section': 'Section::::Descriptions/Common Features.:HM (HyperMemory).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'The MHz of the core clock measures the rate at which the GPU processes, higher core clock in turn is a contributing factor to the clarity of the graphics due to faster processing, the loading of images, the differential of colors and shades, the sharpness, brightness, texture, motion, distance capture etc.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4120803',
'title': 'CDC 6000 series',
'section': 'Section::::Hardware.:Central processor.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
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'passage_text': 'Both the 6400 and 6600 CPUs had a cycle time of 100 ns (10MHz). Due to the serial nature of the 6400 CPU, its exact speed was heavily dependent on instruction mix, but generally around 1 MIPS. Floating-point additions were fairly fast at 11 clock cycles, however floating-point multiplication was very slow at 57 clock cycles. Thus its floating point speed would depend heavily on the mix of operations and could be under 200 kFLOPS. The 6600 was, of course, much faster. With good compiler instruction scheduling, the machine could approach its theoretical peak of 10 MIPS. Floating-point additions took four clock cycles, and floating-point multiplies took 10 clocks (but there were two multiply functional units, so two operations could be processing at the same time.) The 6600 could therefore have a peak floating point speed of 2-3 MFLOPS.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7593',
'title': 'Calculator',
'section': 'Section::::Internal workings.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
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'passage_text': 'Clock rate of a processor chip refers to the frequency at which the central processing unit (CPU) is running. It is used as an indicator of the processor\'s speed, and is measured in "clock cycles per second" or the SI unit hertz (Hz). For basic calculators, the speed can vary from a few hundred hertz to the kilohertz range.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14121',
'title': 'Hertz',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Computers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': "In computers, most central processing units (CPU) are labeled in terms of their clock rate expressed in megahertz (10 Hz) or gigahertz (10 Hz). This specification refers to the frequency of the CPU's master clock signal. This signal is a square wave, which is an electrical voltage that switches between low and high logic values at regular intervals. As the hertz has become the primary unit of measurement accepted by the general populace to determine the performance of a CPU, many experts have criticized this approach, which they claim is an easily manipulable benchmark. Some processors use multiple clock periods to perform a single operation, while others can perform multiple operations in a single cycle. For personal computers, CPU clock speeds have ranged from approximately 1\xa0MHz in the late 1970s (Atari, Commodore, Apple computers) to up to 6\xa0GHz in IBM POWER microprocessors.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13951',
'title': 'Hitachi 6309',
'section': 'Section::::Differences from the Motorola 6809.:Clock Speed.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'The 6309 has B (2\xa0MHz) versions as the 6809 does. However, a "C" speed rating was produced with either a 3.0 or 3.5\xa0MHz maximum clock rate, depending on which datasheet is referenced. (Several Japanese computers had 63C09 CPUs clocked at 3.58\xa0MHz, the NTSC colorburst frequency, so the 3.5 rating seems most likely). Anecdotal and individual reports indicate that the 63C09 variant can be clocked at 5\xa0MHz with no ill effects. Like the 6809, the Hitachi CPU comes in both internal and external clock versions (HD63B/C09 and HD63B/C09E respectively)\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What do we measure in MHz when we are talking about CPUs, does it have any moving parts like a Hard-Disk does?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['A CPU is essentially made from switches. Tiny areas on a piece of silicon - a microchip - can be created such that they allow electricity to pass from one place to another when there is electricity supplied at a third point and not otherwise; or the inverse, they prevent electricity from passing through when there is electricity applied to the control point and not otherwise. These are then wired together by making areas of the chip conductive, or by just layering metal on top of the chip. All logic is built out of these. (Good things to Google for are pnp / npn junctions, logic gates, flip flop, half adder, ALU, VLSI if you want to read more about this stuff).\n\nAt this level, electricity isn\'t always "fully on" or "fully off". The switches take time to switch. When the inputs change, the output takes a while to settle down to a stable level. When a bunch of switches are wired together into a circuit, the whole thing takes time to settle down.\n\nHuman programmers working with the CPU need to be able to reason about its behaviour as a whole. It is easiest to reason about a system that, as a whole, goes from one well-documented stable state to another in response to some input and has no unpredictable behaviours.\n\nFor this purpose we introduce the idea of a clock: something that regularly pulses electricity. \n\nWe design all the various circuits such that, when a clock pulse starts and only then, they latch onto their inputs and all the switching starts; this means that as all the switching happens and all of the various outputs fluctuate before settling into the resulting states, we can ignore this fluctuation since the things the outputs are wired to won\'t look at them before the next clock pulse. \n\nThe closer together we space the clock pulses, the faster we can go from one state to another, and so the faster we can do work. But we have to wait at least as long between them as it takes for the part of the CPU that takes the longest to settle to a new state when something changes to do that.\n\nThis rate at which we decide to run the clock - the clock speed, the number of pulses per second, or Hertz - is the MHz (megahertz, million hertz, million pulses per second) figure you are asking about.\n\nThere are alternative ways of designing a CPU; e.g. "dual rail logic" allows each circuit that makes up the CPU to individually tell the things reading its outputs when its outputs are ready, so no overall clock is needed and each part can potentially run at its own speed.\n\nThis makes the system as a whole much more complex and harder to reason about, and so is rarely done.',
'Anything that has a repeating cycle can be measured in Hertz. CPUs utilize a small crystal that creates an electric pulse billions of times a second to synchronize its various operations. The rate of that pulse is what we measure. For many years it would be somewhere in the MHz range, but these days many processors use a clock in the GHz range. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '6f81c2',
'query': 'what do we measure in mhz when we are talking about cpus, does it have any moving parts like a hard-disk does?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '7984',
'title': 'Drink',
'section': 'Section::::Biology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': "When the human body becomes dehydrated, it experiences thirst. This craving of fluids results in an instinctive need to drink. Thirst is regulated by the hypothalamus in response to subtle changes in the body's electrolyte levels, and also as a result of changes in the volume of blood circulating. The complete elimination of drinks, that is, water, from the body will result in death faster than the removal of any other substance. Water and milk have been basic drinks throughout history. As water is essential for life, it has also been the carrier of many diseases.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22331743',
'title': 'Water retention (medicine)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'The body uses a complex system of hormones and hormone-like substances called prostaglandins to keep its volume of fluid at a constant level. If one were to intake an excessive amount of fluid in one day, the amount of fluid would not be affected in the long term. This is because the kidneys quickly excrete the excess in the form of urine. Likewise, if one did not get enough to drink, the body would hold on to its fluids and urinate less than usual. Imbalances in this system can lead to water retention, which can range from mild and unnoticeable to symptomatic with swelling.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12274183',
'title': 'Hangover',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Vitamin and electrolyte loss.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 364,
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'passage_text': 'The metabolic processes required for alcohol elimination deplete essential vitamins and electrolytes. Furthermore, alcohol is a diuretic, causing excretion of electrolytes through urination. After a night of drinking, the resulting lack of key B and C vitamins, as well as potassium, magnesium, and zinc may cause fatigue, aching and other hangover-like symptoms.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56869905',
'title': 'Hangover drinks in South Korea',
'section': 'Section::::Summary.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 225,
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'passage_text': "Hangover drinks are consumed before a heavy drinking session and an ingredient in them is said to break down a toxin produced in our liver when drinking and also reduce the effect of alcohol on our brain's neurotransmitters.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20841332',
'title': 'Alpha-Naphthylthiourea',
'section': 'Section::::Toxicity.:Effects on animals.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 366,
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'passage_text': 'Animals with an empty stomach readily vomit after ingestion of this substance. However, when there is food in the stomach of the animals the stimulation to vomit decreases, so more quantities may be absorbed. It has been found that ANTU may cause death in some animals within 2–4 hours of ingestion, while animals that survive 12 hours may recover from the poison. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38238',
'title': 'Hepatitis',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Recommendations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 184,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 184,
'end_character': 468,
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'passage_text': 'Many people with hepatitis will prefer bed rest, though it is not necessary to avoid all physical activity while recovering. A high-calorie diet is recommended. Many people develop nausea and cannot tolerate food later in the day, so the bulk of intake may be concentrated in the earlier part of the day. In the acute phase of the disease, intravenous feeding may be needed if patients cannot tolerate food and have poor oral intake subsequent to nausea and vomiting.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58023262',
'title': 'Ricky Megee',
'section': 'Section::::Journey to Port Hedland and attack.:Journey across the desert.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'Megee said that he survived by eating leeches, insects, snakes, ants and lizards, and edible plants. He drank water from "various dams and waterholes" and scavenged in the bush every evening, eating "only one meal a day, just enough to stay alive". When water was unavailable, he drank his urine after chilling it to suppress the flavour.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does the human body tend to itself when you havent eaten for days? What about havent drank?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["There's a general rule of threes for your body's survival. 3 weeks without food, 3 days without water and 3 mins without air.\n\nWithout food, your body starts to consume its reserves. First to be consumed is the sugar reserve kept in your liver (about 500 grams). Then the body will try to breakdown the body's fat and muscle for energy and proteins necessary for your metabolism. But it can't break it down as fast as it needs it, thus eventually, you'll die\n\nHowever your body doesn't have water reserves in the same amounts. Without regular intake, your body has only so much water and it will try to conserve it as much as possible, but without water your body can't get rid of toxic metabolic byproducts like ammonia. These toxins will build in the body and eventually cellular activity will cease without water in which to dilute nutrients and toxins for transport.\n\nEdit: Grammar",
'Eaten: your liver converts stored fat to ketone bodies (a collection of chemicals that the brain can use for energy in a similar manner to sugar) and, if necessary, your body breaks down skeletal muscle to provide the protein needed to maintain internal organs such as the heart. \n\nDrank: you die. As a rule of thumb you can survive three days without water. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'b3of9a',
'query': 'how does the human body tend to itself when you havent eaten for days? what about havent drank?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '9028799',
'title': 'Bacteria',
'section': 'Section::::Behaviour.:Movement.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 54,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 54,
'end_character': 814,
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'passage_text': 'Bacteria can use flagella in different ways to generate different kinds of movement. Many bacteria (such as "E. coli") have two distinct modes of movement: forward movement (swimming) and tumbling. The tumbling allows them to reorient and makes their movement a three-dimensional random walk. Bacterial species differ in the number and arrangement of flagella on their surface; some have a single flagellum ("monotrichous"), a flagellum at each end ("amphitrichous"), clusters of flagella at the poles of the cell ("lophotrichous"), while others have flagella distributed over the entire surface of the cell ("peritrichous"). The flagella of a unique group of bacteria, the spirochaetes, are found between two membranes in the periplasmic space. They have a distinctive helical body that twists about as it moves.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21457419',
'title': 'Bacterial cellular morphologies',
'section': 'Section::::Spiral.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 452,
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'passage_text': 'Bacteria are known to evolve specific traits to survive in their ideal environment. Bacteria-caused illnesses hinge on the bacteria’s physiology and their ability to interact with their environment, including the ability to shapeshift. Researchers discovered a protein that allows the bacterium "Vibrio cholerae" to morph into a corkscrew shape that likely helps it twist into — and then escape — the protective mucus that lines the inside of the gut.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9028799',
'title': 'Bacteria',
'section': 'Section::::Significance in technology and industry.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 86,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Because of their ability to quickly grow and the relative ease with which they can be manipulated, bacteria are the workhorses for the fields of molecular biology, genetics and biochemistry. By making mutations in bacterial DNA and examining the resulting phenotypes, scientists can determine the function of genes, enzymes and metabolic pathways in bacteria, then apply this knowledge to more complex organisms. This aim of understanding the biochemistry of a cell reaches its most complex expression in the synthesis of huge amounts of enzyme kinetic and gene expression data into mathematical models of entire organisms. This is achievable in some well-studied bacteria, with models of "Escherichia coli" metabolism now being produced and tested. This understanding of bacterial metabolism and genetics allows the use of biotechnology to bioengineer bacteria for the production of therapeutic proteins, such as insulin, growth factors, or antibodies.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43183712',
'title': 'Bioluminescent bacteria',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Bioluminescent bacteria are light-producing bacteria that are predominantly present in sea water, marine sediments, the surface of decomposing fish and in the gut of marine animals. While not as common, bacterial bioluminescence is also found in terrestrial and freshwater bacteria. These bacteria may be free living (such as "Vibrio harveyi") or in symbiosis with animals such as the Hawaiian Bobtail squid ("Aliivibrio fischeri") or terrestrial nematodes ("Photorhabdus luminescens"). The host organisms provide these bacteria a safe home and sufficient nutrition. In exchange, the hosts use the light produced by the bacteria for camouflage, prey and/or mate attraction. Bioluminescent bacteria have evolved symbiotic relationships with other organisms in which both participants benefit close to equally. Another possible reason bacteria use luminescence reaction is for quorum sensing, an ability to regulate gene expression in response to bacterial cell density.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '53190588',
'title': 'Bacteria collective motion',
'section': 'Section::::Bacteria swimming.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 339,
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'passage_text': 'The patterns of bacteria collective motion are very different from the motion pattern of an individual bacterium. When flagellated bacteria are moving in bulk liquid, where the locomotion of one individual doesn’t affect the others, this movement is called swimming. single "Escherichia coli" bacterium swims in a ‘run-and-tumble’ motion.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9028799',
'title': 'Bacteria',
'section': 'Section::::Behaviour.:Movement.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 53,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 53,
'end_character': 484,
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'passage_text': 'Many bacteria are motile and can move using a variety of mechanisms. The best studied of these are flagella, long filaments that are turned by a motor at the base to generate propeller-like movement. The bacterial flagellum is made of about 20 proteins, with approximately another 30 proteins required for its regulation and assembly. The flagellum is a rotating structure driven by a reversible motor at the base that uses the electrochemical gradient across the membrane for power.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33153587',
'title': 'Paenibacillus dendritiformis',
'section': 'Section::::Pattern formation, self-organization and social behaviors.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 744,
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'passage_text': 'Communicating with each other using a variety of chemical signals, bacteria exchange information regarding population size, a myriad of individual environmental measurements at different locations, their internal states and their phenotypic and epigenetic adjustments. The bacteria collectively sense the environment and execute distributed information processing to glean and assess relevant information. The information is then used by the bacteria for reshaping the colony while redistributing tasks and cell epigenetic differentiations, for collective decision-making and for turning on and off defense and offense mechanisms needed to thrive in competitive environments, faculties that can be perceived as social intelligence of bacteria.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do bacteria think?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['There is a grievous, fundamental misunderstanding of biology here. I don\'t know what you think thoughts are, but they are really not at all related to the immune system, performing "actions," or bacteria. \n\nLet\'s start with a really simple chemical reaction. When you mix baking soda and vinegar, it makes the classic science fair volcano. Mixing these two chemicals causes foam to form. There are no thoughts related to this process. It just happens, like how ice melts or things fall down when you let go of them. \n\nLiving things are like that too, only *way* more complicated. Lots of bacteria have genes that, when they enter a potential host, are turned on. The genes can produce molecules that do things like help the bacteria stick to your own cells to infect them, or physically form a shield around it so your immune system can\'t reach them. There\'s no thought involved. ',
"They don't think in the way we do because they don't have nervous systems.\n\nThey hide from our immune cells because they have evolved the ability to do that because it helps them survive. They have also evolved the ability to sense when a good time to hide is, because they survive better when they hide at a good time. Their actions seem intelligent because they help them survive and can be quite complex, but they are just evolved mechanical responses to stimuli.\n\n(Some people think the same about our actions! But that's another discussion.)",
"Short answer: they don't. \n\nLong answer: They do it by what you might consider a very basic instinct, (far from a thought as you know it) - think a slug avoiding salt, but even dumber. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '77jb19',
'query': 'how do bacteria think?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '60825445',
'title': 'Dioscorea chouardii',
'section': 'Section::::Ecology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': '"Dioscorea chouardii" is related to the yam and grows from a tuber hidden in the rock fissure. From this it sends out a shoot each year which withers away in the autumn. The shoot leaves a scar on the tuber, which makes it possible to estimate the age of the plant from the number of scars; the oldest plants are calculated to have lived for three hundred years, and may be contenders for being the "slowest growing plants in the world". The plant reproduces by seed, pollination having been performed by ants. When fertilised, the flower-stem bends over to bury the resulting seedhead in the crack, the seeds being released when it dries. This would limit dispersal possibilities for the plant were it not for the fact that the seeds are transported by ants, which distributes them more widely.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17471519',
'title': 'Hylocomium splendens',
'section': 'Section::::Morphology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 771,
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'passage_text': 'It is generally olive green, yellowish or reddish green in colour, with reddish stems and branches. These often form branches up to 20\xa0cm long, with current year\'s growth starting from near the middle of the previous year\'s branch. This produces feathery fronds in steps. It is possible to estimate the age of a plant by counting the steps - a new level being produced each year. This form of growth enables the species to "climb" over other mosses and forest debris that falls on it. It is shade-loving, grows in soil and humus and on decaying wood and often forms mats with living parts growing on top of older, dead or dying sections. Further south, the plants are larger with several steps; further north, in the arctic tundra, the plants are smaller with few steps.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '57515326',
'title': 'Acacia carneorum',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 300,
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'passage_text': 'Carbon dating has found that these plants range from approximately 120–330 years of age and this research also found that populations are heavily skewed towards older plants, meaning there has been little or no replacement in these populations since the introduction of grazing animals in the 1860s.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2660950',
'title': 'Diapensia lapponica',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 214,
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'passage_text': 'It could be aged by counting growth-rings or clump diameter, and on this basis, many Canadian plants are thought to live to over a century or two. See also the thesis by R. Day at Memorial University Newfoundland.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '414958',
'title': 'Paleobotany',
'section': 'Section::::Plant fossils.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 321,
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'passage_text': 'A plant fossil is any preserved part of a plant that has long since died. Such fossils may be prehistoric impressions that are many millions of years old, or bits of charcoal that are only a few hundred years old. Prehistoric plants are various groups of plants that lived before recorded history (before about 3500 BC).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36292433',
'title': 'Trema lamarckiana',
'section': 'Section::::Growth and management.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 305,
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'passage_text': 'They grow slowly at early stage. Later, they grow 1 m/year and the growth rate declines as they become old. Its lifespan is 10 to 20 years. According to the record, the species is not weedy. Reproduction can be enhanced by disturbing the soil close to seed-bearing plants before the seasonal rain begins.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1780967',
'title': 'Heirloom plant',
'section': 'Section::::Requirements.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 669,
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'passage_text': 'One school of thought places an age or date point on the cultivars. For instance, one school says the cultivar must be over 100 years old, others 50 years, and others prefer the date of 1945, which marks the end of World War II and roughly the beginning of widespread hybrid use by growers and seed companies. Many gardeners consider 1951 to be the latest year a plant could have originated and still be called an heirloom, since that year marked the widespread introduction of the first hybrid varieties. It was in the 1970s that hybrid seeds began to proliferate in the commercial seed trade. Some heirloom varieties are much older; some are apparently pre-historic.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How does a plant 'know' how old it is?",
'selftext': "I'm currently propagating some fig trees from cuttings. Figs stop producing well after 15-20 years, but if I cut off a branch and get it to root, then that new tree will be producing fruit again in a couple of years. How does that branch 'know' that it's a new tree and can produce fruit, rather than still a part of the old tree that soon won't be able to?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It doesn't. Plants don't age the way animals do. They show symptoms of aging as their structure becomes too large and woody to carry out its functions, but their growing cells are no older now than they were when it first sprouted. There are plants that have been cloning themselves for tens if not hundreds of thousands of years, and other plants that could live forever unless something kills them."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6gzxh8',
'query': "how does a plant 'know' how old it is?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3206290',
'title': 'Check-in',
'section': 'Section::::Airport check-in.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'Many airlines have a deadline for passengers to check in before each flight. This is to allow the airline to offer unclaimed seats to stand-by passengers, to load luggage onto the plane and to finalize documentation for take-off. The passenger must also take into account the time that may be needed for them to clear the check-in line, to pass security and then to walk (sometimes also to ride) from the check-in area to the boarding area. This may take several hours at some airports or at some times of the year. On international flights, additional time would be required for immigration and customs clearance.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10321936',
'title': 'Airport check-in',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "Airport check-in is the process whereby passengers are accepted by an airline at the airport prior to travel. The airlines typically use service counters found at airports. The check-in is normally handled by an airline itself or a handling agent working on behalf of an airline. Passengers usually hand over any baggage that they do not wish or are not allowed to carry in to the aircraft's cabin and receive a boarding pass before they can proceed to board their aircraft.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10321936',
'title': 'Airport check-in',
'section': 'Section::::Baggage registration.:Self-service bag drop.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'Some airlines have a self-check-in process allowing passengers with bags to check-in at Self Bag Drop machines. Passengers then attach the baggage tag and drop the bag at the baggage drop belt. Passengers without checked luggage can go straight to the lounge (if entitled to lounge access) and check in at the kiosk there using their ePass (a small RFID device only for its premium customers) or proceed straight to the departure gate. Many airlines use electronic check-in such as ePass, mPass, or similar mobile apps, and these applications serve as the boarding pass.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3206290',
'title': 'Check-in',
'section': 'Section::::Airport check-in.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': "The check-in process at airports enables passengers to check in luggage onto a plane and to obtain a boarding pass. When presenting at the check-in counter, a passenger will provide evidence of the right to travel, such as a ticket, visa or electronic means. Each airline provides facilities for passengers to check in their luggage, except for their carry-on bags. This may be by way of airline-employed staff at check-in counters at airports or through an agency arrangement or by way of a self-service kiosk. The luggage is weighed and tagged, and then placed on a conveyor that usually feeds the luggage into the main baggage handling system. The luggage goes into the aircraft's cargo hold. The check-in staff then issues each passenger with a boarding pass.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1585406',
'title': 'Boarding pass',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': "Most airports and airlines have automatic readers that will verify the validity of the boarding pass at the jetway door or boarding gate. This also automatically updates the airline's database that shows the passenger has boarded and the seat is used, and that the checked baggage for that passenger may stay aboard. This speeds up the paperwork process at the gate, but requires passengers with paper tickets to check in, surrender the ticket, and receive the digitized boarding pass.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2451025',
'title': 'Hand luggage',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The term hand luggage or cabin baggage (also commonly referred to as carry-on in North America) refers to the type of luggage that passengers are allowed to carry along in the passenger compartment of a vehicle instead of moving to the cargo compartment. Passengers are allowed to carry a limited number of smaller bags with them in the vehicle and contain valuables and items needed during the journey. There is normally storage space provided for hand luggage, either under seating, or in overhead lockers. Trains usually have luggage racks above the seats and may also (especially in the case of trains travelling longer distances) have luggage space between the backs of seats facing opposite directions, or in extra luggage racks, for example, at the ends of the carriage near the doors.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10321936',
'title': 'Airport check-in',
'section': 'Section::::Online check-in.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': "This service is generally promoted by the airlines to passengers as being easier and faster because it reduces the time a passenger would normally spend at an airport check-in counter. Some airlines, however, would still require passengers to proceed to a check-in counter at the airport, regardless of preferred check-in method, for document verification (e.g., to travel to countries where a visa is required, or to ensure the credit card used to purchase is genuine and/or matches the identity of the person who made the purchase). If passengers need to continue the check-in process at the airport after performing an online check-in, a special lane is typically offered to them to reduce wait times unless all desks are designated as baggage drop-off points. Furthermore, online check-in for a flight is often available earlier than its in-person counterpart. The process then transfers to passengers' control over their check-in. Airlines may use the system because self-service is frequently more efficient to operate, with a greater ability to cope with surges in passenger numbers. It also lessens activity at the airport, saving airlines money and reducing passenger waiting times.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do airlines get your checked luggage on the right plane when there is a short layover?',
'selftext': 'I know they scan the barcode and that tells them what plane and stuff, but what is the process that happens that gets the bag from one plane to another, accurately and on time? And yes I know it’s not ALWAYS accurate. But it is very accurate.',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["If you fly a lot you notice the flight to LA on Spirit airlines always leaves from gate A2 for example. Most connections you make are with the same airline. The guys handling the bags at a landing sort the bags. Most are headed to the local baggage pickup. Most of the remaining ones are headed to a gate close by. A carrier truck runs those over to the gate where a flight is headed to your destination. If you are changing carriers along your route you are usually told to wait for your checked bag at the gate where you arrive and gate check onto your next flight as baggage handlers can't go driving clear across the airport to find the gate and flight on another airline, but you can.",
'They usually sort it at the departing gate. They know which luggage needs to be taken out first. That information is sent to arrive airport. They also compartmentalize the bags. Ie, belt, terminal 1, terminal 2, etc. So this way, its easy to put the bags in correct cart and take it to correct place. ',
"the bag comes off the arriving plane and is bar code scanned. the arriving airport systems know what the gate the connecting flight is. so the handlers just have to put it on a truck giong to that gate. \n\nbags that are for transfers can also loaded in last into the airplane cargo hold so they're near the airplane cargo door. those containers or bags are the first ones off ",
"There's sometimes a physical component here too. Your short connection is you running across a network of concourses, maybe terminals. The bag carts can often use tunnels to physically travel less distance than passengers for the same gate to gate trips",
'Depending on the airport, it’s a complex conveyor belt system that helps gets the bags from one area to another. Here’s a cool video of it.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nEdit: spelling of words.',
"Alright so here's my question, and I'm sure only someone in the industry will know.\n\nLet's say you have one of those hacker fares, where you're on one airline for the first flight, then another for the second. Since luggage is transported by the individual airlines, how does that work when the layover is short? Unlike flying with the same airline, the planes in the hacker's case could be on the other side of a space that's thousands of acres large.\n\nWould the connecting airline be waiting on the tarmac to transport the bag? The airline from the first flight? I doubt they could care less about one bag that won't be flying with them again.",
'As some one who works for a major airline this is something that I can answer, if you have a short layover our system is if it is less than an hour till departure the bag gets taken off the arriving plane it’s scanned and given to a runner who then takes it to the departure gate right from the plane. \nSorry about formatting am on mobile. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7v6gog',
'query': 'how do airlines get your checked luggage on the right plane when there is a short layover?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '74844',
'title': 'Glasses',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Later developments.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 92,
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'passage_text': 'Over time, the construction of frames for glasses also evolved. Early eyepieces were designed to be either held in place by hand or by exerting pressure on the nose ("pince-nez"). Girolamo Savonarola suggested that eyepieces could be held in place by a ribbon passed over the wearer\'s head, this in turn secured by the weight of a hat. The modern style of glasses, held by temples passing over the ears, was developed sometime before 1727, possibly by the British optician Edward Scarlett. These designs were not immediately successful, however, and various styles with attached handles such as "scissors-glasses" and lorgnettes were also fashionable from the second half of the 18th century and into the early 19th century.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '74844',
'title': 'Glasses',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Later developments.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 94,
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'passage_text': 'Despite the increasing popularity of contact lenses and laser corrective eye surgery, glasses remain very common, as their technology has improved. For instance, it is now possible to purchase frames made of special memory metal alloys that return to their correct shape after being bent. Other frames have spring-loaded hinges. Either of these designs offers dramatically better ability to withstand the stresses of daily wear and the occasional accident. Modern frames are also often made from strong, light-weight materials such as titanium alloys, which were not available in earlier times.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47640735',
'title': 'Shwood Eyewear',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'The prototype wooden glasses were developed by Eric Singer, the idea was then shared with Ryan Kirkpatrick, Daniel Genco, Taylor Murray and Philip Peterson. The prototype was made using madrone tree, a pair of rusty cabinet hinges and salvaged lenses from a thrift store.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '74844',
'title': 'Glasses',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Invention.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 84,
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'passage_text': 'Early frames for glasses consisted of two magnifying glasses riveted together by the handles so that they could grip the nose. These are referred to as "rivet spectacles". The earliest surviving examples were found under the floorboards at Kloster Wienhausen, a convent near Celle in Germany; they have been dated to "circa" 1400.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '543329',
'title': 'Optician',
'section': 'Section::::History of opticians and spectacle makers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'The first spectacles utilized quartz lenses since optical glass had not been developed. The lenses were set into bone, metal and leather mountings, frequently fashioned like two small magnifying glasses with handles riveted together and set in an inverted V shape that could be balanced on the bridge of the nose. The use of spectacles extended from Italy to Germany, Spain, France and Portugal.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13357912',
'title': 'Scissors-glasses',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'end_character': 304,
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'passage_text': 'The invention of scissors-glasses solved the problem of the single lensed monocle or "quizzing glass", thought to be tiresome to the eye, by providing two lenses on a "Y" shaped frame. They usually had a ring in the end of the handle so that they could be worn on a ribbon or gold chain around the neck.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '74845',
'title': 'Contact lens',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Materials.:Rigid lenses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 49,
'end_character': 560,
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'passage_text': 'Glass lenses were never comfortable enough to gain widespread popularity. The first lenses to do so were those made from polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA or Perspex/Plexiglas), now commonly referred to as "hard" lenses. Their main disadvantage is they do not allow oxygen to pass through to the cornea, which can cause a number of adverse, and often serious, clinical events. Starting in the late 1970s, improved rigid materials which were oxygen-permeable were developed. Contact lenses made from these materials are called rigid gas permeable lenses or \'RGPs\'.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How were prescription glasses made accurately before the invention of modern technology?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
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'answers': ["What modern technology do you envision? Spherical lenses were entirely within the abilities of technology 500 years ago. Prior to that we didn't really bother with glasses.\n\nAlso prescriptions sure didn't exist. Such glasses were fairly limited to the wealthy.",
'We\'ve been able to make relatively clear optical grade glass for a few hundred years (1400s I think). And the big/shrink factor of various curvatures has been well known and proven mathmatically for hundreds of years if not longer - the ancient greeks were describing the math around refraction of liquid in spheres. \nSo if you know the math of refraction and calculate some some sample rays of light you can easily make a test pattern that appears distorted without a correctly ground lens but appears undistorted with a correct lens. From there its a simple matter of grinding and polishing until the test pattern looks correct. \n\nAnd they didn\'t make lenses to order. Spectacle makers would make a bunch of lenses of perscription 10, 10.5, 11, 11.5 and so on. If your actual perscription fell in between one of these standard focal powers the optician would round up or down to the nearest. Thats essentially what your Optometrist is doing with that funky facemask thing called a photoroptor when he asks you "Which is better, A...? or B? Here\'s B... and here\'s A" - its a systemmatic way of rough and then fine stepping through differnt powered lenses until close enough you can\'t distinguish between them. In the olden days theyd\' literally have a box of little lenses and they\'d hold them up in front of your eyes and ask you to watch the test chart.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'eyx3o1',
'query': 'how were prescription glasses made accurately before the invention of modern technology?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '24044309',
'title': 'Sleep induction',
'section': 'Section::::Food and drink.:Warm milk.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
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'passage_text': 'A cup of warm milk or a milk-based drink is traditionally used for sleep induction. Hot chocolate is also a traditional bedtime drink but this contains high levels of xanthines (caffeine and theobromine), which are stimulants and therefore may be counterproductive. Also, a pinch of turmeric powder with warm milk reduces stress and induces sleep. The flavor of the milk can be improved by adding honey and/or vanilla.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1844136',
'title': 'Hong Kong-style milk tea',
'section': 'Section::::Criteria for quality milk tea.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'end_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'Another criterion for tasty milk tea (and also bubble tea) is some white frothy residue inside the lip of the cup after some of it has been drunk. This white froth means that the concentration of butterfat in the evaporated milk used is high enough.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '427924',
'title': 'Condensed milk',
'section': 'Section::::Current use.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 519,
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'passage_text': 'In parts of Asia and Europe, sweetened condensed milk is the preferred milk to be added to coffee or tea. Many countries in Southeast Asia, such as Vietnam and Cambodia, use condensed milk to flavor their hot or iced coffee. In Malaysia and Singapore, "teh tarik" is made from tea mixed with condensed milk, and condensed milk is an integral element in Hong Kong tea culture. In the Canary Islands, it is served as the bottom stripe in a glass of the local café cortado and, in Valencia, it is served as a café bombón.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21282070',
'title': 'Taste',
'section': 'Section::::Further sensations and transmission.:Coolness.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 68,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 68,
'end_character': 407,
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'passage_text': 'Some substances activate cold trigeminal receptors even when not at low temperatures. This "fresh" or "minty" sensation can be tasted in peppermint, spearmint, menthol, ethanol, and camphor. Caused by activation of the same mechanism that signals cold, TRPM8 ion channels on nerve cells, unlike the actual change in temperature described for sugar substitutes, this coolness is only a perceived phenomenon.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26731675',
'title': 'Coffee extraction',
'section': 'Section::::Extraction yield.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 211,
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'passage_text': 'Transient temperature is not very significant: if coffee is heated to boiling point only very briefly, the taste will be little affected; the longer it is kept at a high temperature the worse the taste becomes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19619306',
'title': 'List of coffee drinks',
'section': 'Section::::Infused.:Cold brew.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 430,
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'passage_text': 'The water is normally kept at room temperature, but chilled water is also used. The grounds are filtered out of the water after they have been steeped using a paper coffee filter, a fine metal sieve, a French press, or felt, in the case of the "Toddy" brewing system. The result is a coffee concentrate that is diluted with water or milk, and is served hot, over ice, or blended with ice and other ingredients such as chocolate. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1646753',
'title': 'Iced coffee',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Iced coffee is a type of coffee beverage served chilled, brewed variously with the fundamental division being cold brew – brewing the coffee cold, yielding a different flavour, and not requiring cooling – or brewing normally (hot) and then cooling, generally by simply pouring over ice or into ice cold milk. In hot brewing, sweeteners and flavourings are often mixed into the hot coffee before cooling, due to faster dissolution in hot water. Alternatively, syrup (sugar pre-dissolved in water) may be used, particularly gum syrup. \n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': '. Why does room temperature coffee taste ‘cold’ but room temperature milk tastes ‘warm’?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Because most coffee you drink is hotter than room temperature, so in comparison to what you expect the coffee to feel like, a coffee at room temperature would feel cold.\n\nBut we usually drink milk from the refrigerator so when it's a room temperature it's hotter than what you expect.\n\nAnd the reason why coffee is usually hot is because you need hot water to properly get the favour out of the grains and the reason why milk is usually cold is because you can keep it longer that way.",
'Similarly, if you get a 60 degree day in March, it’s god damn summer time. If you get a 60 degree day in September, it’s sweatshirts and hot chocolate(north east US).'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'aiayrb',
'query': '. why does room temperature coffee taste ‘cold’ but room temperature milk tastes ‘warm’?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '13995904',
'title': 'Social aspects of television',
'section': 'Section::::Negative effects.:Alleged dangers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
'end_character': 528,
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'passage_text': 'On July 26, 2000 the American Academy of Pediatrics, the American Medical Association, the American Psychological Association, the American Academy of Family Physicians, and the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry stated that "prolonged viewing of media violence can lead to emotional desensitization toward violence in real life." However, scholars have since analyzed several statements in this release, both about the number of studies conducted, and a comparison with medical effects, and found many errors.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5270402',
'title': 'Deinstitutionalisation',
'section': 'Section::::Consequences.:Misconceptions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 467,
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'passage_text': 'Findings on violence committed by those with mental disorders in the community have been inconsistent and related to numerous factors; a higher rate of more serious offences such as homicide have sometimes been found but, despite high-profile homicide cases, the evidence suggests this has not been increased by deinstitutionalisation. The aggression and violence that does occur, in either direction, is usually within family settings rather than between strangers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '49122154',
'title': 'Jeffrey Swanson',
'section': 'Section::::Views.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 404,
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'passage_text': 'Shortly after the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, Swanson told the "New York Times" that "Psychiatrists, using clinical judgment, are not much better than chance at predicting which individual patients will do something violent and which will not.” The following January, he told the "Washington Post" that “there’s a modest relative risk” for violence among people with a serious mental illness.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4190878',
'title': 'Research on the effects of violence in mass media',
'section': 'Section::::Criticisms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 645,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::5. "Failure to account for "third" variables." Some scholars contend that media violence studies regularly fail to account for other variables such as genetics, personality and exposure to family violence that may explain both why some people become violent and why those same people may choose to expose themselves to violent media. Several recent studies have found that, when factors such as mental health, family environment and personality are controlled, no predictive relationship between either video games or television violence and youth violence remain (Ferguson, San Miguel & Hartley, 2009; Ybarra et al., 2008, Figure 2).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19356',
'title': 'Mental disorder',
'section': 'Section::::Society and culture.:Perception and discrimination.:Violence.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 169,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 169,
'end_character': 716,
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'passage_text': 'Despite public or media opinion, national studies have indicated that severe mental illness does not independently predict future violent behavior, on average, and is not a leading cause of violence in society. There is a statistical association with various factors that do relate to violence (in anyone), such as substance abuse and various personal, social and economic factors. A 2015 review found that in the United States, about 4% of violence is attributable to people diagnosed with mental illness, and a 2014 study found that 7.5% of crimes committed by mentally ill people were directly related to the symptoms of their mental illness. The majority of people with serious mental illness are never violent.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9629286',
'title': 'Desensitization (psychology)',
'section': 'Section::::Effects on violence.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 886,
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'passage_text': 'It is hypothesized that initial exposure to violence in the media may produce a number of aversive responses such as increased heart rate, fear, discomfort, perspiration and disgust. However, prolonged and repeated exposure to violence in the media may reduce or habituate the initial psychological impact until violent images do not elicit these negative responses. Eventually the observer may become emotionally and cognitively desensitized to media violence. In one experiment, participants who played violent video games showed lower heart rate and galvanic skin response readings, which the authors interpreted as displaying a physiological desensitization to violence. However, other studies have failed to replicate this finding. Some scholars have questioned whether becoming desensitized to media violence specifically transfers to becoming desensitized to real-life violence.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '59628',
'title': 'School shooting',
'section': 'Section::::Profiling.:Mental illness.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 33,
'end_character': 1028,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Although the vast majority of mentally ill individuals are non-violent, some evidence has suggested that mental illness or mental health symptoms are nearly universal among school shooters. A 2002 report by the US Secret Service and US Department of Education found evidence that a majority of school shooters displayed evidence of mental health symptoms, often undiagnosed or untreated. Criminologists Fox and DeLateur note that mental illness is only part of the issue, however, and mass shooters tend to externalize their problems, blaming others and are unlikely to seek psychiatric help, even if available. Other scholars have concluded that mass murderers display a common constellation of chronic mental health symptoms, chronic anger or antisocial traits, and a tendency to blame others for problems. However, they note that attempting to "profile" school shooters with such a constellation of traits will likely result in many false positives as many individuals with such a profile do not engage in violent behaviors.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How does viewing violence affect people's mental health?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['I’m not sure there is really a correlation there. More likely people already predisposed to some kind of mental health problem can be affected by viewing violence.',
"It doesn't, slightly surprisingly. There is no correlation between the media you consume and mental health conditions.\n\nSome mental health conditions can change your interests so you watch more violent media (or sexual media, or indeed musical theatre - mental health is not exactly explicable). Media can't change your mental health. ",
'It doesn\'t. This is merely an adjunct myth to a bigger myth: "Violent video games cause people to be violent."\n\nIt\'s total BS.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9nfqv8',
'query': "how does viewing violence affect people's mental health?",
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '70980',
'title': 'Appendicitis',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.:Imaging.:Computed tomography.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
'end_character': 312,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Where it is readily available, computed tomography (CT) has become frequently used, especially in people whose diagnosis is not obvious on history and physical examination. Concerns about radiation tend to limit use of CT in pregnant women and children, especially with the increasingly widespread usage of MRI.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '59675887',
'title': 'Boston University CTE Center and Brain Bank',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 411,
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'passage_text': 'Symptoms from CTE do not typically appear in a subject until many years after the initial injuries, and a conclusive diagnosis of the disease can only be achieved through autopsy. In the years since its inception, the BU CTE Center and Brain Bank has devoted the majority of its time and effort into researching methods for diagnosing CTE in living subjects and developing potential treatments for the disease.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2166658',
'title': 'Hemothorax',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.:Other forms of imaging.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 395,
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'passage_text': 'Computed tomography (CT or CAT) scans may be useful for diagnosing retained hemothorax as this form of imaging can detect much smaller amounts of fluid than a plain chest X-ray. However, CT is less used as a primary means of diagnosis within the trauma setting, as these scans require a critically ill person to be transported to a scanner, are slower, and require the subject to remain supine.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16996257',
'title': 'Pulmonary contusion',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.:Computed tomography.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 35,
'end_character': 1083,
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'passage_text': 'Computed tomography (CT scanning) is a more sensitive test for pulmonary contusion, and it can identify abdominal, chest, or other injuries that accompany the contusion. In one study, chest X-ray detected pulmonary contusions in 16.3% of people with serious blunt trauma, while CT detected them in 31.2% of the same people. Unlike X-ray, CT scanning can detect the contusion almost immediately after the injury. However, in both X-ray and CT a contusion may become more visible over the first 24–48\xa0hours after trauma as bleeding and edema into lung tissues progress. CT scanning also helps determine the size of a contusion, which is useful in determining whether a patient needs mechanical ventilation; a larger volume of contused lung on CT scan is associated with an increased likelihood that ventilation will be needed. CT scans also help differentiate between contusion and pulmonary hematoma, which may be difficult to tell apart otherwise. However, pulmonary contusions that are visible on CT but not chest X-ray are usually not severe enough to affect outcome or treatment.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31954379',
'title': 'Computed tomography of the abdomen and pelvis',
'section': 'Section::::Conclusion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 724,
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'passage_text': 'Multiphase CT examinations are very important for the detection and characterization of certain clinical conditions, but should not be generalized for every patient undergoing CT of the abdomen and pelvis. A recent survey demonstrated that many physicians are routinely performing multiphase CT for the majority of patients in an attempt to prospectively characterize potential lesions detected during the scan. However, unindicated multiphase CT examinations are an important source of medical radiation that does not contribute to the care of patients. Adherence to published standards such as the ACR appropriateness criteria can both decrease medical radiation and optimize imaging for the specific clinical indication.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16806609',
'title': 'Circulating tumor cell',
'section': 'Section::::Frequency.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 276,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': ' The detection of CTCs may have important prognostic and therapeutic implications but because their numbers can be very small, these cells are not easily detected. It is estimated that among the cells that have detached from the primary tumor, only 0.01% can form metastases.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7251223',
'title': 'Chronic traumatic encephalopathy',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 357,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Currently, CTE can only be definitively diagnosed by direct tissue examination after death, including full and immunohistochemical brain analyses. Abnormal p-tau accumulation in "neurons, astrocytes, and cell processes in an irregular pattern at the depths of the cortical sulci" is the most specific feature of CTE and required for pathological diagnosis.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why can't doctors diagnose CTE in a living person?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Because the physical degeneration thought to be involved in CTE can only be observed in autopsies. It doesn't really show readily or conclusively is regular brain scans which look for neuron activity or chemical processes. Cracking open a living person's skull soley for research or diagnosis purposes in a very risky surgery is a rather tough sell for an ethical comittee.",
"It's not that it's impossible, it's just that doctors currently have no way to do it. There are apparently some promising leads towards testing for it non-invasively through blood tests or brain scans, but those are still in the trial phase.\n\nUntil then, the only way to definitively diagnose it is to dissect the person's brain. Obviously that can't be done to a living person."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'd1io73',
'query': "why can't doctors diagnose cte in a living person?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '849508',
'title': 'Peak oil',
'section': 'Section::::Possible consequences.:Oil prices.:Historical oil prices.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 91,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 91,
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'passage_text': 'More recently, between 2011 and 2014 the price of crude oil was relatively stable, fluctuating around $US100 per barrel. It dropped sharply in late 2014 to below $US70 where it remained for most of 2015. In early 2016 it traded at a low of $US27. The price drop has been attributed to both oversupply and reduced demand as a result of the slowing global economy, OPEC reluctance to concede market share, and a stronger US dollar. These factors may be exacerbated by a combination of monetary policy and the increased debt of oil producers, who may increase production to maintain liquidity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1150532',
'title': 'Brent Crude',
'section': 'Section::::Futures market trading.:Pricing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'The US Energy Information Administration attributes the price spread between WTI and Brent to an oversupply of crude oil in the interior of North America (WTI price is set at Cushing, Oklahoma) caused by rapidly increasing oil production from Canadian oil sands and tight oil formations such as the Bakken Formation, Niobrara Formation, and Eagle Ford Formation. Oil production in the interior of North America has exceeded the capacity of pipelines to carry it to markets on the Gulf Coast and east coast of North America; as a result, the oil price on the US and Canadian east coast and parts of the US Gulf Coast since 2011 has been set by the price of Brent Crude, while markets in the interior still follow the WTI price. Much US and Canadian crude oil from the interior is now shipped to the coast by railroad, which is much more expensive than pipeline.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '212685',
'title': 'Ralph Klein',
'section': "Section::::Premier.:The Alberta Advantage: Klein's austerity campaign.\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': 'From the mid-1980s to September 2003, the inflation adjusted price of a barrel of crude oil on NYMEX was generally under $25/barrel. A rebound in the price of oil worldwide led to big provincial surpluses in Alberta since the mid-1990. During 2004, the price of oil rose above $40, and then $50. A series of events led the price to exceed $60 by August 11, 2005, leading to a record-speed hike that reached $75 by the middle of 2006.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6230797',
'title': 'Connacher Oil and Gas',
'section': 'Section::::OPEC, Fracking put pressure on small bitumen production players.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'In late 2014, as the global demand for oil slows down, and production of crude oil remains high in the United States, Canada and in Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, the oil market collapsed into a bear market. While the decision by OPEC to "hold their production steady at 30 million bpd" contributed to the continued price decline of oil, there was a rebound in oil futures on 1 December 2014. The price of West Texas Intermediate (WTI), the benchmark for North American crude dropped to $US68.93 and to the decline in the price of Western Canadian Select, which is the benchmark for emerging heavy, high TAN (acidic) crudes to US$51.93. By early December 2014, Connacher was one of several oilsands bitumen-focused producers to struggle financially due to the drop in the price of oil and a tightening of capital markets. Others include OPTI Canada Inc., Southern Pacific Resources Corp., and Sunshine Oilsands Ltd.. On 1 December Connacher which is $1.05 billion in debt hired BMO Capital Markets advisors to undertake a review process of its "liquidity and capital structure." If the price of WTI per barrel was US$75, the Connacher could generate $C70 million of EBITDA in 2015, but it has $90 million in debt payments.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1197343',
'title': '2000s energy crisis',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'From the mid-1980s to September 2003, the inflation-adjusted price of a barrel of crude oil on NYMEX was generally under US$25/barrel. During 2003, the price rose above $30, reached $60 by 11 August 2005, and peaked at $147.30 in July 2008. Commentators attributed these price increases to many factors, including Middle East tension, soaring demand from China, the falling value of the U.S. dollar, reports showing a decline in petroleum reserves, worries over peak oil, and financial speculation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '381465',
'title': 'National Energy Program',
'section': 'Section::::Price of oil.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 49,
'end_character': 511,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Throughout the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, the retail price of petroleum in Canada consistently remained close to the price of gasoline in the United States (and at oftentimes lower than prices seen in the U.S., especially during the price spikes of the 1970s). Following NEP (which raised the price of fuel in the West and coincided with a hike in provincial gas taxes in Ontario and Quebec), the retail price of gasoline in Canada became noticeably higher than in the U.S. (a trend which continues to this day).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21152128',
'title': '2001 world oil market chronology',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 387,
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'passage_text': "October 18 Crude Oil for November delivery falls to its lowest level since August 1999 on the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX). Light, sweet crude falls 50 cents per barrel to settle at $21.31 per barrel. Brent crude for. Poor economic prospects in the next few months, and OPEC's inability to respond so far are seen as factors contributing to the sliding prices of crude oil. (OD)\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is there such a significant price gap between Canadian Crude Oil Prices and US Crude Oil Prices?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["There isn't a price gap between the price of west texas crude this is what the stock market is looking at when saying the price of oil is xx per barrel.\n\n\nThe price gap is caused by a misnomer what you are calling canadian crude oil is not actual crude. It is bitumen. Now for Canada to ship it it needs to be diluted so that it flows better.\n\nBitumen is more costly to refine into petroleum products than crude oil. The current infrastructure in place for Canada to get this to market has minimal going to tide water (oceans) within Canada. This means that the only market that is purchasing the raw product from Canada is the u.s. and typically it's about 50 to 60 percent of the oil price. \n\nCanada would get a better price per barrel if more markets are available to sell to. This is why there is an importance to pipelines to tide water. Environmental concerns are the push back to this. But what is not looked at or ignored is oil is going to tide water by rail already. Just not in any capacity to affect market prices.",
"It's a function of both quality, cost to extract, and transportation cost. Not all crude oil is the same so you are not paying more for the same product.\n\nCheaper crudes tend to have more undesirable byproducts like sulfur or nitrogen compounds. Also when the crude oil is refined, different crudes have different conversion rates to final products like diesel and gasoline. So crudes that make more and higher quality final products are more expensive"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9fru76',
'query': 'why is there such a significant price gap between canadian crude oil prices and us crude oil prices?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '47926181',
'title': 'Nexus 6P',
'section': 'Section::::Reception.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'iFixit gave the phone a 2 out of 10 in terms of repairability, praising the solid construction which improved durability, but mentions that it is "very difficult" to open the device without damaging the glass camera cover due to the unibody design, and panned the difficulty in replacing the screen and the adhesive holding the rear cover panels and battery in place.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6929013',
'title': 'Lens cover',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 300,
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'passage_text': 'A lens cover or lens cap provides protection from scratches and minor collisions for camera and camcorder lenses. Lens covers come standard with most cameras and lenses. Some mobile camera phones include lens covers, such as the Sony Ericsson W800, the Sony Ericsson K750 and the Sony Ericsson K550.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1864909',
'title': 'Window film',
'section': 'Section::::Primary properties.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 1352,
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'passage_text': 'Security films are applied to glass so when the glass is broken it holds together, preventing dangerous shards from flying about, or to make it more difficult for an intruder to gain entry. Typically applied to commercial glass, these films are made of heavy-gauge plastic and are intended to maintain the integrity of glass when subject to heavy impact. The most robust security films are capable of preventing fragmentation and the production of hazardous glass shards from forces such as bomb blasts. Some companies have even experimented with bullet ballistics and multiple layers of security film. Another key application for security window films (safety window films) is on large areas of "flat glass" such as storefront windows, sliding glass doors, and larger windows that are prone to hurricane damage. These security films, if applied properly, can also provide protection for vehicles. These security films are often tinted and can be up to 400 micrometers (µm) thick, compared to less than 50\xa0µm for ordinary tint films. If anchored correctly, they can also provide protection for architectural glazing in the event of an explosion. A layer of film (of 100\xa0µm thickness or greater) can prevent the ejection of spall when a projectile impacts on its surface, which otherwise creates small dagger-like shards of glass that can cause injury.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37339282',
'title': 'Nexus 4',
'section': 'Section::::Reception.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 534,
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'passage_text': 'Some owners however complain that the all-glass construction leads to a phone that is fragile and easily broken. Additionally, if the earlier phones are left on a smooth surface, an alarm with vibration will cause the phone to "walk" off the surface and fall. The glass screen is also sensitive to breakage due to the thin plastic "surround" that leaves little margin if the edge of the phone is crushed in an impact or when dropped, making either the plastic "bumper" or better still, a well-made, impact-absorbing case a necessity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5162378',
'title': 'Screen protector',
'section': 'Section::::Materials.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 582,
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'passage_text': "Screen protectors are made of either plastics, such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET) or thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), or of tempered glass, similar to the device’s original screen they are meant to protect. Plastic screen protectors cost less than glass and are thinner, around thick, compared to for glass. At the same price, glass will resist scratches better than plastic, and feel more like the device's screen, though higher priced plastic protectors may be better than the cheapest tempered glass models, since glass will shatter or crack with sufficient impact force.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '667163',
'title': 'Camera phone',
'section': 'Section::::Laws.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 55,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 55,
'end_character': 801,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Camera phones, or more specifically, widespread use of such phones as cameras by the general public, has increased exposure to laws relating to public and private photography. The laws that relate to other types of cameras also apply to camera phones. There are no special laws for camera phones. Enforcing bans on camera phones has proven nearly impossible. They are small and numerous and their use is easy to hide or disguise, making it hard for law enforcement and security personnel to detect or stop use. Total bans on camera phones would also raise questions about freedom of speech and the freedom of the press, since camera phone ban would prevent a citizen or a journalist (or a citizen journalist) from communicating to others a newsworthy event that could be captured with a camera phone.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10347740',
'title': 'Safety and security window film',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 205,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Safety and security films are used where there is a potential for injury from broken glass (such as glass doors or overhead glazing). These films can be applied to toughened, annealed, or laminated glass.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why almost no smartphone protective case has a cover for the camera glass?',
'selftext': 'I mean it as a flap ([like dust covers]( URL_0 )), not a transparent layer.',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["A decent quality smartphone will have a hard protective layer (e.g. gorilla glass) over the lens so it doesn't get scratched. It will resist scratches pretty well. \n\nOn the other hand, smartphone cases are made of cheaper materials, usually some kind of plastic, and are much easier to scratch. So if you had a case over the lens, over time, there would be a bunch of scratches in front of the lens, all your pictures would come out blurry and terrible. \n\nAlso, even if the case is nice and clear with no scratches, it will tend to add distortion, extra glare, and so forth to your photos. \n\nSo bottom line is, they make a cut-out for the camera so your photos aren't potato quality. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7u6ttl',
'query': 'why almost no smartphone protective case has a cover for the camera glass?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '8221',
'title': 'Death',
'section': 'Section::::Reperfusion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 62,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 62,
'end_character': 446,
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'passage_text': '"One of medicine\'s new frontiers: treating the dead", recognizes that cells that have been without oxygen for more than five minutes die, not from lack of oxygen, but rather when their oxygen supply is resumed. Therefore, practitioners of this approach, e.g., at the Resuscitation Science institute at the University of Pennsylvania, "aim to reduce oxygen uptake, slow metabolism and adjust the blood chemistry for gradual and safe reperfusion."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1770',
'title': 'Apollo 13',
'section': 'Section::::Investigation and response.:Activities and report.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 77,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 77,
'end_character': 413,
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'passage_text': "Mechanical shock forced the oxygen valves closed on the number 1 and number 3 fuel cells, leaving them operating for only about three minutes on the oxygen in the feed lines. The shock also either partially ruptured a line from the number 1 oxygen tank, or caused its check or relief valve to leak, causing its contents to leak out into space over the next 130 minutes, entirely depleting the SM's oxygen supply.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11308093',
'title': 'The Destruction Factor',
'section': 'Section::::Plot.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'From measuring the oxygen buildup in the biodome the scientific task force (Exon\'s daughter Denise, her fiancé Howard Rogers, Nobel prize winning microbiologist Max Flinders, and a government-backed scientist named only as "Blowers",) discover that the oxygen output is so high that if unchecked within twenty years the oxygen balance of the planet will have been doubled to 40%, making current life all but extinct. Another emergency vent of the biodome is required, but a 747 Jumbo jet passes through the escaping oxygen bubble causing it to explode as the engines suck in pure oxygen.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '490305',
'title': 'Ischemia',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 438,
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'passage_text': 'Since oxygen is carried to tissues in the blood, insufficient blood supply causes tissue to become starved of oxygen. In the highly metabolically active tissues of the heart and brain, irreversible damage to tissues can occur in as little as 3–4 minutes at body temperature. The kidneys are also quickly damaged by loss of blood flow (renal ischemia). Tissues with slower metabolic rates may undergo irreversible damage after 20 minutes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50048517',
'title': 'Lance Becker',
'section': 'Section::::Research.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 384,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Becker discovered that re-introduction of oxygen, rather than loss of oxygen, was primarily responsible for cell death. Cell death can be delayed or stopped through the application of therapeutic hypothermia. In the case of Swedish skier Anna Bågenholm, who fell through ice into freezing water, the cold protected her from brain damage despite being without oxygen for over an hour.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '459471',
'title': 'Breathing gas',
'section': 'Section::::For diving and other hyperbaric use.:Individual component gases.:Oxygen.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
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'passage_text': "Oxygen (O) must be present in every breathing gas. This is because it is essential to the human body's metabolic process, which sustains life. The human body cannot store oxygen for later use as it does with food. If the body is deprived of oxygen for more than a few minutes, unconsciousness and death result. The tissues and organs within the body (notably the heart and brain) are damaged if deprived of oxygen for much longer than four minutes.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '261148',
'title': 'Apnea',
'section': 'Section::::Complications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'end_character': 527,
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'passage_text': 'Under normal conditions, humans cannot store much oxygen in the body. Prolonged apnea leads to severe lack of oxygen in the blood circulation. Permanent brain damage can occur after as little as three minutes and death will inevitably ensue after a few more minutes unless ventilation is restored. However, under special circumstances such as hypothermia, hyperbaric oxygenation, apneic oxygenation (see below), or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, much longer periods of apnea may be tolerated without severe consequences.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If your body, very slowly, began to not get the oxygen it needs, which systems would shut down first? (And last) and Why?',
'selftext': 'What bodily functions are top priority for oxygen use and what functions are the lowest tier and so on?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Im not aware of any published evidence on this so I will give my professional opinion.\n\nFirstly it depends on why are not getting the oxygen it needs. The two main reasons are because of a lack of oxygen in the air (rare) or your lungs not oxygenating blood properly (common). \n\nNot having enough oxygen in your blood (as measured by a blood test from your artery) is termed respiratory failure. There are two types, one is just not enough oxygen with low carbon dioxide caused by hyperventilating to try to get enough oxygen in. The second type is not enough oxygen AND too much carbon dioxide because the lungs are not moving air in and out efficiently enough. \n\nIf you're talking about lack of oxygen then that would typically show the first type of respiratory failure on the arterial blood test. We would still term it respiratory failure even though the lungs were working fine. Without any shadow of a doubt your brain would be the first thing to go. Most of your organs can survive a certain amount of hypoxia but you would go unconscious fairly rapidly. Your liver and kidneys would probably go next - the liver because it is the organ that carries out the most chemical reactions and needs oxygen for this and the kidneys because they require a lot of oxygenated blood flow to keep working. \n\nIf you removed the oxygen very very slowly (over days and weeks) then other mechanisms would kick in such as the blood production mechanisms to ensure there is more haemoglobin to mop up as much as possible of the scarce oxygen that you breathe in. This is why mountaineers have to spend time acclimatising and why people who live at high altitude in for example Chile have very high haemoglobin levels. If you kept removing the oxygen though, you'd eventually pass out. \n\nAfter you'd passed out the liver and kidneys would begin to shut down next and then probably your heart. You wouldn't live long after you'd passed out. The brain is obviously the top priority. After this the body will just keep trying to get as much oxygen as it can until the heart stops.\nTl;dr: The brain. \n\nSource: I am a doctor.\n\nEdit: Grammar"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5zqjaj',
'query': 'if your body, very slowly, began to not get the oxygen it needs, which systems would shut down first? (and last) and why?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '13863144',
'title': 'Fundus photography',
'section': 'Section::::Fundus camera.:Modes.:Resolve artifact in fundus photography.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 399,
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'passage_text': 'Blinking results in blurred and incomplete image of the fundus. It is imperative to instruct the patient not to blink when the fundus photo is taken.The patient may blink normally at any other time to prevent the excessive drying of the eye. A dry eye may also lead to a blurred fundus photo. When dry eye is suspected, ask the patient to blink several times to lubricate the eye before continuing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39464282',
'title': 'The Light That Failed (1939 film)',
'section': 'Section::::Plot.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'When his vision starts to blur, he goes to see a doctor (Halliwell Hobbes), who gives him a grim prognosis: as a result of his old war injury, he will go blind, in a year if he avoids strain, "not very long" if he does not.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7407460',
'title': 'Optic neuropathy',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Mitochondrial optic neuropathies.:Nutritional optic neuropathies.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
'end_character': 555,
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'passage_text': 'Patients who suffer from nutritional optic neuropathy may notice that colors are not as vivid or bright as before and that the color red is washed out. This normally occurs in both eyes at the same time and is not associated with any eye pain. They might initially notice a blur or fog, followed by a drop in vision. While vision loss may be rapid, progression to blindness is unusual. These patients tend to have blind spots in the center of their vision with preserved peripheral vision. In most cases, the pupils continue to respond normally to light.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58816250',
'title': 'Phacolytic glaucoma',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 327,
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'passage_text': 'Another symptom includes the fading of visual clarity. This symptom makes the eye create an image commonly described to appear as though looking through a waterfall. If the lens becomes completely opaque the individual will become blind, even though the photoreceptors are completely functional. Other common symptoms include;\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3132998',
'title': 'Lilac chaser',
'section': 'Section::::Explanation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 638,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::3. When a blurry stimulus is presented to a region of the visual field away from where we are fixating, and we keep our eyes still, that stimulus will disappear even though it is still physically presented. This is called Troxler\'s fading. It occurs because although our eyes move a little when we are fixating on a point, away from that point (in "peripheral vision") the movements are not large enough to shift the lilac discs to new neurons of the visual system. Their afterimages essentially cancel the original images, so that all one sees of the lilac discs is grey, except for the gap where the green afterimage appears.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '725992',
'title': 'Blinking',
'section': 'Section::::Blinking in everyday life.:Adults.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 479,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'When the eyes dry out or become fatigued due to reading on a computer screen, it can be an indication of Computer Vision Syndrome. Computer Vision Syndrome can be prevented by taking regular breaks, focusing on objects far from the screen, having a well-lit workplace, or using a blink reminder application such as EyeLeo or VisionProtect. Studies suggest that adults can learn to maintain a healthy blinking rate while reading or looking at a computer screen using biofeedback.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43568708',
'title': 'Mitochondrial optic neuropathies',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Nutritional optic neuropathies.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 846,
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'passage_text': 'Nutritional deficiency may be the cause of a genuine optic neuropathy, sometimes associated with involvement of the peripheral nervous system, called peripheral neuropathy. Loss of vision is usually bilateral, painless, chronic, insidious and slowly progressive. Most often, they present as a non-specific retrobulbar optic neuropathy. Patients may notice that colors are not as vivid or bright as before and that the color red is washed out. This normally occurs in both eyes at the same time and is not associated with any eye pain. They might initially notice a blur or fog, followed by a drop in vision. While vision loss may be rapid, progression to blindness is unusual. These patients tend to have blind spots in the center of their vision with preserved peripheral vision. In most cases, the pupils continue to respond normally to light.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'I have terrible vision, but sometimes if I blink hard enough, my vision goes crystal clear til I blink again. Why?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['As someone who\'s spent 4 years studying, researching and working clinically with eyeballs, here\'s my guess: \n\nYou\'re likely forcing your focusing system to focus through as much blur as it possibly can, assuming that while you "blink enough" you\'re concentrating your gaze, at a single object or direction. Both your cornea and your crystalline lens will change shape in order for you to be able to focus; younger people, especially kids, have a much greater dynamic range for focusing then do older folks, so if you\'re young, that\'s probably most of it. If you know you have terrible vision, meaning a high prescription in one and or both eyes, you definitely should not do this. In that case, you\'ll probably get headaches if you do it enough. Just use glasses. ',
'Could be that blinking hard, your eyelids are pressing on your cornea enough to flatten them, essentially making your nearsightedness less. The effect lasts until you blink again, and your cornea resumes its usual shape and the clarity in your vision disappears.',
'It is because you spread layer of sticky tears on your cornea. It just happens to be concave at the right spot ( assuming you are myopic ). \n\nUsually this layer is convex and just worsen the vision. I sometimes have flush my eyes to restore precise vision. I do not understand why the liquid is sometimes stickier causing these problems.',
'These answers are all over the board and everyone sounds 100% sure of themselves. You may want to find your way over to r/askscience and hopefully an ophthalmologist can chime in.'],
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'query': 'i have terrible vision, but sometimes if i blink hard enough, my vision goes crystal clear til i blink again. why?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
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'title': 'Scientific notation',
'section': 'Section::::E-notation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Most calculators and many computer programs present very large and very small results in scientific notation, typically invoked by a key labelled (for "exponent"), (for "enter exponent"), , , , or depending on vendor and model. Because superscripted exponents like 10 cannot always be conveniently displayed, the letter "E" (or "e") is often used to represent "times ten raised to the power of" (which would be written as "×\xa010") and is followed by the value of the exponent; in other words, for any two real numbers "m" and "n", the usage of ""m"E"n"" would indicate a value of "m" × 10. In this usage the character "e" is not related to the mathematical constant "e" or the exponential function "e" (a confusion that is unlikely if scientific notation is represented by a capital "E"). Although the "E" stands for "exponent", the notation is usually referred to as "(scientific) E-notation" rather than "(scientific) exponential notation". The use of E-notation facilitates data entry and readability in textual communication since it minimizes keystrokes, avoids reduced font sizes and provides a simpler and more concise display, but it is not encouraged in some publications.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4521681',
'title': 'Sinclair Sovereign',
'section': 'Section::::Design.:Functions.\n',
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'passage_text': 'As well as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, it had reciprocal and square-root functions, and the ability to multiply by a fixed constant. With an eight-digit display, the calculator could display positive numbers between 0.0000001 and 99,999,999, and negative numbers between -0.000001 and -9,999,999. Calculators of the time tended to have displays of between 3 and 12 digits, as reducing the number of digits was an effective way of reducing the cost of the calculator. A number outside that range leads to an overflow, and the screen flashes and all keys except the clear key are rendered inoperable to inform the user of the error. A independent memory register could read information from the screen, and information could only be taken from the memory onto the screen. Five keys were used for memory operations.\n',
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'title': 'Mental calculation',
'section': 'Section::::Methods and techniques.:Approximating common logs (log base 10).\n',
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'passage_text': 'The same process applies for numbers between 0 and 1. For example, 0.045 would be written as 4.5 × 10. The only difference is that b is now negative, so when adding you are really subtracting. This would yield the result 0.653\xa0−\xa02, or −1.347.\n',
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'title': 'Methods of computing square roots',
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'passage_text': 'where "a" is a bias for adjusting the approximation errors. For example, with "a" = 0 the results are accurate for even powers of 2 (e.g., 1.0), but for other numbers the results will be slightly too big (e.g.,1.5 for 2.0 instead of 1.414... with 6% error). With "a" = -0x4B0D2, the maximum relative error is minimized to ±3.5%.\n',
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'title': 'Binary-coded decimal',
'section': 'Section::::Subtraction with BCD.\n',
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'passage_text': "Thus the result of the subtraction is 1001 1001 0010 0101 (−925). To confirm the result, note that the first digit is 9, which means negative. This seems to be correct, since 357 − 432 should result in a negative number. The remaining nibbles are BCD, so 1001 0010 0101 is 925. The ten's complement of 925 is 1000 − 925 = 75, so the calculated answer is −75.\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '1352428',
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'passage_text': 'For example, the expression "5 mod 2" would evaluate to 1 because 5 divided by 2 has a quotient of 2 and a remainder of 1, while "9 mod 3" would evaluate to 0 because the division of 9 by 3 has a quotient of 3 and leaves a remainder of 0; there is nothing to subtract from 9 after multiplying 3 times 3. (Doing the division with a calculator will not show the result referred to here by this operation; the quotient will be expressed as a decimal fraction.)\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27918833',
'title': 'Numeric precision in Microsoft Excel',
'section': 'Section::::Accuracy and binary storage.\n',
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'passage_text': 'For "x"′s that are not simple powers of 2, a noticeable error in can occur even when "x" is quite large. For example, if "x" = 1/1000, then = 9.9999999999989 × 10, an error in the 13-th significant figure. In this case, if Excel simply added and subtracted the decimal numbers, avoiding the conversion to binary and back again to decimal, no round-off error would occur and accuracy actually would be better. Excel has the option to "Set precision as displayed". With this option, depending upon circumstance, accuracy may turn out to be better or worse, but you will know exactly what Excel is doing. (It should be noted, however, that only the selected precision is retained, and one cannot recover extra digits by reversing this option.) Some similar examples can be found at this link.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does a scientific calculator show "0" as a result if I add 1 to a really high number and then substract said high number although it should show "1"?',
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'category': 'Mathematics',
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'answers': ["Your calculator doesn't store all of the digits for 2^50, so the 1 at the very end gets removed from the memory. How many digits a calculator actually holds depends from calculator to calculator. ",
"For 32 bit floating point numbers in IEEE754 format there's something called precision error and rounding error and a whole bunch if other problems.\n\nA 32 bit integer number can store all numbers up to roughly 4 billion.\n\nBut a 32 bit float can store up to roughly 3x10^38 which is much higher than 4 billion.\n\nHow is that possible?\n\nIt's because after roughly 16 million, reals don't store every integer anymore. There start to be gaps in what integer can be stored accurately and the gaps keep getting larger.\n\nSo let's say if you're adding 1 to 17000000 the result is still 17000000 but if you add 2 then the result is 17000002.\n\nHowever at 20000000 you need to add 3 to get something larger because now neither 20000001 nor 20000002 can be represented.\n\nIf the magnitude difference between the two numbers you add is larger than roughly 10^7 you will have problems.\n\nIf variable X is s real and you perform X=X+1 over and over, X will increment roughly until 10^7 and then it will stop adding because the result of 1+10^7=10^7.\n",
"The floating point and rounding situation other people mention is true, but I think there is also an order of operation that is important here.\n\nLet's say your input is a + b - c, the calculator processes a + b first (which equals 2^50 due to said storage depth, the 1 is dropped) then it subtracts c (which equals zero since 2^50 - 2^50).\n\nWhat happens if you input 2^50 - 2^50 + 1?\n"],
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'query': 'why does a scientific calculator show "0" as a result if i add 1 to a really high number and then substract said high number although it should show "1"?',
'query_type': 'Mathematics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '55321500',
'title': 'Geochemistry of carbon',
'section': 'Section::::Core.\n',
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'passage_text': "Earth's core is believed to be mostly an alloy of iron and nickel. The density indicates that it also contains a significant amount of lighter elements. Elements such as hydrogen would be stable in the Earth's core, however the conditions at the formation of the core would not be suitable for its inclusion. Carbon is a very likely constituent of the core. Preferential partitioning of the carbon isotopeC into the metallic core, during its formation, may explain why there seems to be more C on the surface and mantle of the Earth compared to other solar system bodies (−5‰ compared to -20‰). The difference can also help to predict the value of the carbon proportion of the core.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37615833',
'title': '2013 in science',
'section': 'Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:July.\n',
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'passage_text': "BULLET::::- A radical new theory of the composition of the Earth's core is published. It proposes that the shape of the solid iron core is determined by the atomic structure of the different forms of iron of which it consists.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17468893',
'title': 'J. Marvin Herndon',
'section': 'Section::::Theories on Earth.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Herndon suggested that the composition of the inner core of Earth is nickel silicide; the conventional view is that it is iron–nickel alloy More recently, he has suggested "georeactor" planetocentric nuclear fission reactors as energy sources for the gas giant outer planets. \n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '2939202',
'title': "Earth's inner core",
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'passage_text': "There are no samples of the Earth's core available for direct measurement, as there are for the Earth's mantle. The information that we have about it mostly comes from analysis of seismic waves and the magnetic field. The inner core is believed to be composed of an iron–nickel alloy with some other elements. The temperature at the inner core's surface is estimated to be approximately or 9806\xa0°F, which is about the temperature at the surface of the Sun.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2939202',
'title': "Earth's inner core",
'section': 'Section::::Age.\n',
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'passage_text': "Theories about the age of the core are necessarily part of theories of the history of Earth as a whole. This has been a long debated topic and is still under discussion at the present time. It is widely believed that the Earth's solid inner core formed out of an initially completely liquid core as the Earth cooled down. However, there is still no firm evidence about the time when this process started.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2939202',
'title': "Earth's inner core",
'section': 'Section::::Discovery.\n',
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'passage_text': "The Earth was discovered to have a solid inner core distinct from its molten outer core in 1936, by the Danish seismologist Inge Lehmann, who deduced its presence by studying seismograms from earthquakes in New Zealand. She observed that the seismic waves reflect off the boundary of the inner core and can be detected by sensitive seismographs on the Earth's surface. She inferred a radius of 1400\xa0km for the inner core, not very far from the currently accepted value of 1221\xa0km. In 1938, B. Gutenberg and C. Richter analyzed a more extensive set of data and estimated the thickness of the outer core as 1950\xa0km with a steep but continuous 300\xa0km thick transition to the inner core; implying a radius between 1230 and 1530\xa0km for the inner core.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47503',
'title': 'Carbon cycle',
'section': 'Section::::Deep carbon cycle.:Carbon in the core.\n',
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'passage_text': "Although the presence of carbon in the Earth's core is well-constrained, recent studies suggest large inventories of carbon could be stored in this region. Shear (S) waves moving through the inner core travel at about fifty percent of the velocity expected for most iron-rich alloys. Because the core's composition is believed to be an alloy of crystalline iron and a small amount of nickel, this seismic anomaly indicates the presence of light elements, including carbon, in the core. In fact, studies using diamond anvil cells to replicate the conditions in the Earth's core indicate that iron carbide (FeC) matches the inner core's wave speed and density. Therefore, the iron carbide model could serve as an evidence that the core holds as much as 67% of the Earth's carbon. Furthermore, another study found that in the pressure and temperature condition of the Earth's inner core, carbon dissolved in iron and formed a stable phase with the same FeC composition—albeit with a different structure from the one previously mentioned. In summary, although the amount of carbon potentially stored in the Earth's core is not known, recent studies indicate that the presence of iron carbides can explain some of the geophysical observations.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': '"The core of the planet earth is made of iron and nickel": how scientists can determine that if no one has been in the core of the earth?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["We have a pretty good idea about what's on the inside of the Earth, based on the geologist's equivalent of a CAT scan or an MRI -- earthquake data. When an earthquake happens, it sends waves bouncing around the inside of the planet. These waves change direction and speed based on the kinds of materials they pass through. Geologists can detect the movement of these waves by taking measurements at different locations all across the planet, and in so doing, build a picture of how the inside of the planet is constructed.\n\nThat's how we know that the interior of the Earth is separated into four layers, that the innermost is made of something solid, and that at least one of them is an actual liquid. From here, scientists can use other information to get an idea of what elements the interior is actually composed of.\n\nBased on the estimated density of the solid inner core, we can guess that it's probably made of iron. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that iron appears to be exceedingly plentiful in the solar system. Given how plentiful it is, and given that we know it's a very dense element, and given what we know about how a dense metal like iron would behave in a still-molten Earth when it was forming, it makes sense that Iron is probably what our core is made of. \n\nWe can guess a few more things about how the inner and outer cores behave, based on the fact that the Earth has a magnetic field. We know that the inner core must be rotating, and that the outer core must be convecting, because without those two things, the Earth would not have a magnetic field. So the existence of some external factors can tell us a lot about the internal factors of our planet.",
'The truth is no one really know as direct measurements can be made. That said, the theoretical composition of the core of the earth has been estimated based on a few things:\n\n1. The earths magnetic filed could only be formed with a large iron mass at its core\n2. Iron and nickel are relatively dense and would tend have migrated towards the center of the earth when it was still a giant ball of liquid. \n3. An interesting theory exists that at the center of the core is a large mass of uranium which acts as a natural fission reactor. '],
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'query': '"the core of the planet earth is made of iron and nickel": how scientists can determine that if no one has been in the core of the earth?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '195193',
'title': 'Sky',
'section': 'Section::::During the night.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The term night sky refers to the sky as seen at night. The term is usually associated with skygazing and astronomy, with reference to views of celestial bodies such as stars, the Moon, and planets that become visible on a clear night after the Sun has set. Natural light sources in a night sky include moonlight, starlight, and airglow, depending on location and timing. The fact that the sky is not completely dark at night can be easily observed. Were the sky (in the absence of moon and city lights) absolutely dark, one would not be able to see the silhouette of an object against the sky.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Night sky',
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'passage_text': 'The fact that the sky is not completely dark at night, even in the absence of moonlight and city lights, can be easily observed, since if the sky were absolutely dark, one would not be able to see the silhouette of an object against the sky.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'National Dark-Sky Week',
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'passage_text': 'Jennifer Barlow states, "The night sky is a gift of such tremendous beauty that should not be hidden under a blanket of wasted light. It should be visible so that future generations do not lose touch with the wonder of our universe." Barlow explains, "It is my wish that people see the night sky in all of its glory, without excess light in the sky as our ancestors saw it hundreds of years ago."\n',
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'passage_text': 'Sky brightness refers to the visual perception of the sky and how it scatters and diffuses light. The fact that the sky is not completely dark at night is easily visible. If light sources (e.g. the Moon and light pollution) were removed from the night sky, only direct starlight would be visible. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'passage_text': 'During daylight, the sky appears to be blue because air scatters more blue sunlight than red. At night, the sky appears to be a mostly dark surface or region spangled with stars. During the day, the Sun can be seen in the sky unless obscured by clouds. In the night sky (and to some extent during the day) the Moon, planets and stars are visible in the sky. Some of the natural phenomena seen in the sky are clouds, rainbows, and aurorae. Lightning and precipitation can also be seen in the sky during storms. Birds, insects, aircraft, and kites are often considered to fly in the sky. Due to human activities, smog during the day and light pollution during the night are often seen above large cities.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '526237',
'title': 'Twilight',
'section': 'Section::::Astronomical twilight.:Astronomical dawn and dusk.:Definition.\n',
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'passage_text': 'However, in other places, especially those with skyglow, astronomical twilight may be almost indistinguishable from night. In the evening, even when astronomical twilight has yet to end and in the morning when astronomical twilight has already begun, most casual observers would consider the entire sky fully dark. Because of light pollution, observers in some localities, generally in large cities, may never have the opportunity to view even fourth-magnitude stars, irrespective of the presence of any twilight at all, and to experience truly dark skies.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'passage_text': 'The term night sky, usually associated with astronomy from Earth, refers to the nighttime appearance of celestial objects like stars, planets, and the Moon, which are visible in a clear sky between sunset and sunrise, when the Sun is below the horizon.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why isn't the night sky just one big light?",
'selftext': "Okay so I understand the title sounds like I'm on drugs but hear me out? The universe is infinite, so theoretically in every possible direction we look at some point there should be a star somewhere out there, right? So by that same logic, why are there so *few* stars in the sky? I get that during the day the sun outshines them and that light pollution makes it harder to see the stars at night, but even in the middle of the desert there is still an awful lot of black in the sky. Shouldn't most if not all of it be filled with starry lights? Does this make sense? Maybe I am high.",
'category': 'Physics',
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'answers': ["it's called olbers paradox and actually there is a lot of light. we just can't see it because it's out of out visible spectrum. this is because as galaxies move away the light changes and so we may not be able to see it anymore",
'Visible light is on a small portion of light we can observe but there are many types of light That we can’t observe',
"Two things:\n\n1) Regardless of how big the universe is, light still takes time to get places. The universe is 13.77 billion years old, so light has only had 13.77 billion years to get here. Because the universe is expanding, we can see stuff from much farther away than that, but there's still a limit on how far away stars can be and still have had time for the light to get to us.\n\n2) As the universe expands, it stretches light passing through it, causing the light to be redshifted, which means it lowers in wavelength. Visible light from the very edges of the visible universe can get redshifted out of the visible spectrum and into infrared or radio waves. That's why the Cosmic Microwave Background is, well, microwaves. It used to include a *lot* of visible light, but it's so old and it's been shifted so much that it's all microwaves, now.",
"But the observable universe isn't infinite. Because the universe is expanding everywhere at once, there is a distance where objects are moving away from us faster than the speed of light (important to note they aren't moving faster than light, but the expansion of the universe is causing the distance between is to grow faster than the speed of light) bc of this light from those objects will never reach us.\n\nSo when you stare out at the blackness between the stars, you're actually looking at the edge of the known universe and I think thats fucking cool",
'Another thing people haven’t said is your assumption is wrong \n\n > t he universe is infinite, so theoretically in every possible direction we look at some point there should be a star somewhere out there, right?\n\nThis isn’t true, just because it’s infinite doesn’t imply this. It could be infinite but there still be a space somewhere. Just because it goes on forever doesn’t mean the stars are evenly distributed.\n\nI think it’s simpler to think about it in terms of numbers. Pi is infinitely long, 3.1415... forever, but what if we took out every single 7? It would still be infinitely long, still be a unique number but just have no sevens.\n\nNow with that in mind what if we divided the sky into ten sections 0-9 and look at all the stars in the sky in order or how close they are to us. every time a star shows up we add it’s section to the end of a number. Say the first star in in 1 , then the next is in section 5 then 4 381289345etc. As in the example above a seven doesn’t have to show up which would mean 10% of the sky has no stars even though there are an infinite number is stars',
'1) Light diffuses rather significantly with distance. The sky is indeed awash with stars, but most of them are too far away to be even remotely visible.\n\n2) Because of universal expansion, light from far away sources gets redshifted to frequencies below that of human vision limits.\n\n3) Expanding on the above; the night sky, bluntly, **is** one big light. But most of that light is at relatively low frequencies below what the human eye can see, even before redshifting is taken into account.',
'If you draw a line on a balloon with a sharpie, then inflate the balloon, the line you drew will get stretched. What was one solid black stroke at the beginning is now a large faded line.\n\nNow imagine the balloon is the universe and the line is light from a far away object. Eventually it gets stretched so much that we can’t see it anymore.',
'Lots of nice comments, and several explain the physics in a way I\'ve forgotten since I studied it, so kudos.\n\nBut I\'d like to add that the night sky is really actually quite bright. If you can get somewhere without massive light pollution, there really isn\'t any direction which doesn\'t have light.\n\nIf you find a "dark patch" and look at it through a telescope you\'ll generally see stuff... And if there\'s a dark patch in that then you get a bigger telescope etc.\n\nEdit: cause apparently I can\'t English today',
'My favourite [minute physics video](_URL_0_) explains this exact thing really well!',
'Turn your radio on but not to a channel. Hear that static? That’s the one big light. \n\nSame for an analog tv that hasn’t been tuned.\n\nWe call it CMB. Cosmic microwave background.',
"1. We don't actually know the universe is infinite.\n2. The black patches might be the stars being too far away for enough light to make it to us to be visible to the naked eye\n3. There's a theory that this proves the universe is expanding because if it weren't the sky would be filled with stars.",
'It\'s called Olbers\' Paradox--"why is the sky dark at night?" \n\n[_URL_1_](_URL_0_)\n\nThe idea\'s been around a long time.'],
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'passage_text': 'All squamates and turtles have a three-chambered heart consisting of two atria, one variably partitioned ventricle, and two aortas that lead to the systemic circulation. The degree of mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the three-chambered heart varies depending on the species and physiological state. Under different conditions, deoxygenated blood can be shunted back to the body or oxygenated blood can be shunted back to the lungs. This variation in blood flow has been hypothesized to allow more effective thermoregulation and longer diving times for aquatic species, but has not been shown to be a fitness advantage.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23784574',
'title': 'Circulatory system of gastropods',
'section': 'Section::::Circulation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 434,
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'passage_text': 'The aorta is relatively short, and soon divides into two main vessels, one supplying the visceral mass, and the other supplying the head and foot. In some groups, these two vessels arise directly from the heart, so that the animal may be said to have two aortas. These two vessels in turn divide into many finer vessels throughout the body, and deliver haemolymph to open arterial sinuses where it bathes and oxygenates the tissues. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1852611',
'title': 'Biliverdin',
'section': 'Section::::In non-human animals.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 514,
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'passage_text': 'Along with its presence in avian egg shells, other studies have also shown that biliverdin is present in the blue-green blood of many marine fish, the blood of tobacco hornworm, the wings of moth and butterfly, the serum and eggs of frogs, and the placenta of dogs. With dogs this can lead, in extremely rare cases, to the birth of puppies with green fur; however, the green colour fades out soon after birth. In the garfish ("Belone belone") and related species, the bones are bright green because of biliverdin.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3445139',
'title': 'Rock cavy',
'section': 'Section::::Behavior.:Reproduction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 384,
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'passage_text': 'The placenta for a rock cavy is similar to other hystricomorph rodents. They have several lobes that are lined with blood vessels and undergo a counter-current blood flow. There are blood vessels running from the mother along the placenta and then vessels running from the fetus back over the mothers vessels. This allows for a better flow of oxygen between the mother and the fetus.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5596320',
'title': 'Equine anatomy',
'section': 'Section::::Reproductive system.:Mare.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 62,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 62,
'end_character': 1356,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The mare has two ovaries, usually in length and thick, that generally tend to decrease in size as the mare ages. In equine ovaries, unlike in humans, the vascular tissue is cortical to follicular tissue, so ovulation can only occur at an ovulation fossa near the infundibulum. The ovaries connect to the fallopian tubes (oviducts), which serve to move the ovum from the ovary to the uterus. To do so, the oviducts are lined with a layer of cilia, which produce a current that flows toward the uterus. Each oviduct attaches to one of the two horns of the uterus, which are approximately in length. These horns attach to the body of the uterus ( long). The equine uterus is bipartite, meaning the two uterine horns fuse into a relatively large uterine body (resembling a shortened bicornuate uterus or a stretched simplex uterus). Caudal to the uterus is the cervix, about long, which separates the uterus from the vagina. Usually in diameter with longitudinal folds on the interior surface, it can expand to allow the passage of the foal. The vagina of the mare is long, and is quite elastic, allowing it to expand. The vulva is the external opening of the vagina, and consists of the clitoris and two labia. It lies ventral to the rectum. The mare has two mammary glands, which are smaller in maiden mares. They have two ducts each, which open externally.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11331670',
'title': 'Neonatal isoerythrolysis',
'section': 'Section::::Neonatal isoerythrolysis in foals.:Blood groups associated with neonatal isoerythrolysis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'Some mares have natural alloantibodies, usually to the Ca blood group, without ever having a known exposure to that blood group. This is seen in 10% of Thoroughbred mares and 20% of Standardbred mares. In this case, Ca alloantibodies are thought to actually suppress a response against Aa blood groups, and therefore these mares do not make Aa alloantibodies if the foal has both Ca positive and Aa positive blood. These natural alloantibodies have not been shown to produce isoerythrolysis in foals, and are actually thought to help prevent NI by desensitization of the immune system and preventing the more harmful Aa alloantibodies from forming.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2486993',
'title': 'Foramen of Panizza',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Crocodilians have a completely separated ventricle with deoxygenated blood from the body, or systemic circulation, in the right ventricle and oxygenated blood from the lungs, or pulmonary circulation, in the left ventricle, as in birds and mammals. Two vessels, the left aorta and the pulmonary artery, exit the right ventricle. Blood from the right ventricle goes to the lungs through the pulmonary artery, as in mammals and birds. However, when a unique active valve leading to the pulmonary artery contracts, pressure in the right ventricle can increase and blood can leave the right ventricle, enter the left aortic arch, and therefore bypass the pulmonary circulation. The foramen of Panizza connects the left and right aorta. Deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle, sitting in the left aorta, can flow into the right aorta through the foramen of Panizza. When the heart is relaxed, some oxygenated blood from the left ventricle, sitting in the right aorta, can flow into the left aorta across the foramen of Panizza. However, some species of Crocodilians have regulatory sphincters that prevent unwanted flow of blood through the foramen of Panizza during non-diving.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Since blue whales have aortas large enough to swim in, do they have fewer issues with blood clots?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Or do they just have man-sized blood clots?',
'considering they have an extremely active lifestyle (swimming constantly all the time) and a relatively low cholesterol diet (mostly plankton and krill iirc) they are presumably at very low risk for blood clots in the first place. ',
"Also, humans don't tend to develop blood clots in our aortas. The aorta is susceptible to other things, like aneurysms, dissections and ruptures, while blood clots are typically found in much smaller arteries, for example the cerebral arteries or the cornary arteries.\n\nSource: me, I'm not a doctor.",
'They do have large vessels, but they also have small vessels. Not every artery in a blue whale is the size of their aorta, and those are the vessels that would be vulnerable to clots. \n\nThey would likely have decreased clot risk because they are less likely to have hemostasis (where your blood flow is poor or pools). '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5uezov',
'query': 'since blue whales have aortas large enough to swim in, do they have fewer issues with blood clots?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1133784',
'title': 'Mobile game',
'section': 'Section::::Distribution.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Many mobile games are distributed free to the end user, but carry paid advertising: examples are "Flappy Bird" and "Doodle Jump". The latter follows the "freemium" model, in which the base game is free but additional items for the game can be purchased separately.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1133784',
'title': 'Mobile game',
'section': 'Section::::Different platforms.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Typically, commercial mobile games use one of the following monetisation models: pay-per-download, subscription, free-to-play (\'freemium\') or advertising-supported. Until recently, the main option for generating revenues was a simple payment on downloading a game. Subscription business models also existed and had proven popular in some markets (notably Japan) but were rare in Europe. Today, a number of new business models have emerged which are often collectively referred to as "freemium". The game download itself is typically free and then revenue is generated after download either through in-app transactions or advertisements; this resulted in $34 billion spent on mobile games in 2013.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31384671',
'title': 'Spiral Knights',
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': "The entire game is free-to-play. There is no in-game advertising. Players can spend real-world money to purchase an in-game commodity called energy. Energy can be exchanged for other commodities and currency, to accelerate a knight's development. Real money can also buy certain costumes and promotional items.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1100430',
'title': 'Free-to-play',
'section': 'Section::::Game mechanics.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Free-to-play games are free to install and play, but once the player enters the game, the player is able to purchase content such as items, maps, and expanded customization options. Some games, such as id Software\'s "Quake Live", also use in-game advertising to provide income for free-to-play games. In addition to making in-game items available for purchase, EA integrates in-game advertising into its games. In August 2007, EA completed a deal with Massive Incorporated, which lets Massive update and change in-game advertising in real-time within EA games. Independent game developer Edmund McMillen has claimed that he makes most of his money from sponsors by placing advertisements into the introduction of a game and the game\'s title screen.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1100430',
'title': 'Free-to-play',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'In 2011, revenue from free-to-play games overtook revenue from premium games in the top 100 games in Apple\'s App Store. The number of people that spend money on in-game items in these games ranges from 0.5% to 6%, depending on a game\'s quality and mechanics. Even though this means that a large number of people will never spend money in a game, it also means that the people that do spend money could amount to a sizeable number due to the fact that the game was given away for free. Indeed a report from mobile advertising company firm SWRV stated that only 1.5 percent of players opted to pay for in-game items, and that 50 percent of the revenue for such games often came from just ten percent of players. Nevertheless "The Washington Post" noted that the developers of two such games, Supercell ("Clash of Clans") and Machine Zone (""), were able to afford Super Bowl spots in 2015 featuring big-name celebrities (respectively Liam Neeson and Kate Upton). The latter, "Game of War", was in fact, part of a roughly $40 million campaign starring Upton.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13065933',
'title': 'Earth Eternal',
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The game is free to play, with the option of players to purchase in-game content with real money; though everything that can be bought with real money can also be gotten for free by playing longer, essentially making payment a faster way to level up, obtain items and advance in the game.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5809564',
'title': 'In-game advertising',
'section': 'Section::::Advertising in online-only games.:Freemium and free-to-play.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'Freemium and free-to-play games are typically playable online and provide a free basic game with options for players to purchase advanced features or additional items. They operate under the theory that a gamer will pay for additional in-game features after investing enough time in the game. In freemium games like "Farmville", these transactions are typically one-time payments for specific in-game goods (micro-transactions). Free-to-play games like "Age of Conan" instead try to induce players to enter into a pay-to-play relationship for premium content. While typically generating income though these other revenue sources, freemium and free-to-play games often feature advertisements as well via splash advertisements or advertiser sponsorships of virtual-good giveaways as additional income.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do free mobile games make money when all the ads in the game are from other free mobile games?',
'selftext': 'Is it just a closed loop of game companies paying eachother or are they getting money from somewhere else?',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["In game purchases are the primary income stream for that kind of game. Advertising is a thing too - last quarter [Zynga reported 18% of revenue in advertising](_URL_1_) - but it's not what the business is built on. \n\nIt's worth remembering that a large portion of the income in this kind of in game purchase comes from a small portion of the player base, which is often [directly targeted with addictive mechanisms](_URL_0_).",
'Free mobile games make money primarily in three different ways: \n\n(1) offering in-app purchases usually used by their ‘whales’ (i.e - 20% of their customers who spend a significant amount of money on the game and keep it alive for the rest of the non paying users).\n\nEdit: Just wanted to clarify that the 20% isn’t supposed to be an exact figure, it’s a reference to the [Pareto principle](_URL_0_) also known as the law of the vital few. I’m aware that the actual amount of users who pay can be significantly fewer.\n\n(2) Is by running ads, usually bought as a advertising package (meaning you don’t have to you choose a specific game to advertise on you can just specify which customers you aim to target and how much your company is willing to spend on it and it is accordingly shown to such users. Alternatively, if your game if quite similar to another one in the App Store, you can specifically target that app as you might find a lot of users with the same interest all conveniently in one place) and shown to you based on your past user data and preferences from the App Store. They always make sure to give you the option to remove ads with a small fee - which appeals to our human need to remove a ‘pain point’ (an inbuilt aspect in many free to play mobile games that slows down the player or tries to push them towards making paid purchases - these include things like in-game wait timers). \n\n(3) That other major way they make money is buy selling your user data to other third parties (businesses) as user data is an extremely powerful tool for companies to have because it allows them to understand you and how to market and target you as a customer.',
"They get paid to host a bunch of third party SDKs on the backend and hidden away from users. There's an interesting article from the POV of a small-time app dev [here](_URL_0_)",
'What about games that only monetize with Ads ?',
"May I stop your scrolling to tell you about an amazing game? It's called Raid Shadow L...",
"They get money in various ways. Running ads of other games earns them ad revenue paid by the other game companies. The more popular a game gets the more likely people are to subscribe to them, get membership or premium features, which gets em even more income. And then there's other in-app purchases like currency to buy in-game items, to speed up in-game progress, unlock access to new areas or items or quests or characters, etc.",
'Some of these ads are so dumb....showing gameplay that has nothing to do with the advertised game. They should have rules and regulations for the dumb shit they’re allowed to show....I’m talking about you Homescapes',
'Just an fyi if anyone sees this. Disabling wifi and data before opening a game should disable adds especially if its one of those simple addictive games that have adds every level',
'Mobile game maker here, I\'ll try to explain to some extend (sorry for my english).\n\nFirst thing after you create your free mobile game is to find people downloading your game. Most common thing to do is to "buy" players, you pay money for the ads to appear on any other game or platform, and it will cost you money for each download you get, we will call this Cost per Install (CPI)\n\nBut each time an Ad appear in our game, we also got money from the Ad Network (Admob, Ironsource,...). The money, of course are from anyone who paid to get users. So basically it\'s a loop with Ad Network tries to improve their AI to be more effective (reach the right people), and game makers try to encourage player to watch more Ad (or IAP) so our revenue from each user higher than CPI\n\nWe game makers also use players data but not for sale, just to track and improve our game based on the data we have so our game will have better retention rate',
"Don't forget that _you're_ seeing game ads because you're being targeted. Not everyone sees all game ads",
'Even if this were the only way they could make money (it isn’t), the vast majority of game “companies” lose money buying ads for their games. They’re actively pumping money into the ecosystem while the top maybe 1% actually make money.',
'Oh I have some background here. Finally an area I can share some expertise on. \n\nGenerally speaking, every digital company is connected at this point in the advertising world. \n\nWhen you go to your local grocery store and buy some coke and use your “shoppers club” card, that is then sold to one of the thousands of companies interconnected to what is known as DMPs. These DMPs then hold a lot of this data to be resold in some sort of targeting tool. \n\nThe idea of “click through” for paid ads is old, and largely not used due to inaccuracy. They use impression methods for payouts on ads. Looking at one of these partnering networks to see if the ad was effective, then getting paid out on said ads. Effective as in you purchased the good they sold. Using one of the thousands of available IDs they use to tie you, to the marketing campaign. \n\nThe digital advertising world is a vast network of companies buying and selling data in the same method. One example of these networks is the \n\n_URL_0_\n\nSo as indicated earlier on ads, thats how some of the revenue is being generated.',
"I worked in the mobile free to play industry. The current answers I see don't reflect what I experienced.\n\nAds are nearly worthless. Usually 1 to 2 cents per view. So if we have a user base of 5000 active users a day and they each watch 5 ads it's $250. Which is not terrible but that number is basically the maximum many dev studios would see.\n\nAnd more importantly ads give resources without training purchasing behavior which is discouraged. You will often see limits on the number of ads you can volunteer to watch for instance. This is because it's not valuable to allow you to farm currency that way. It's a supplemental income, not the main focus.\n\nWhaling would be a great term for how free to play games actually make their money.\n\n99% of a studios income will be from a very small percentage of the userbase. These people are the whales, they spend literally thousands to tens of thousands of dollars on free to play games. They do this because free to play games focus on including every single mechanic they can to encourage addictive behavior. With many strategies pulled right out of casino textbooks.\n\nIt's very important to gate time. You can't have people burning through content. So time sinks need to be made. All resources are monitored to make sure that their are good gold/gem sinks. So that players are properly on the verge of just having enough to push them to buy more.\n\nAlso it is very important to encourage purchasing as early as possible to normalize the behavior. You'll be given premium currency as part of the FTUE (first time user experience) and this will maximize the likely hood that you will be tempted to purchase more premium currency.\n\nLots of people will spend a few dollars here or there. But all of the players that spend a reasonable amount combined likely do not add up to what the biggest whale is spending.\n\nSo when trying to understand these markets, remember they are whaling industries trying to land the big one. This is why so much of what they do seems so unappealing. They don't care about you shrimp, because the whales 'love' it. (Or at least they will drop their money endlessly and that's the important bit.)",
"Wow hey a topic I'm an expert at!\n\nWell, the basic idea is that when you show an ad for your game in another game, you're paying in CPM, or 'Cost Per Mile' which means 1000 views. \n\nOne ad can get millions of views per day or even hour if the budget is high enough.\n\nThe goal then, is to get the users to come to your game and filter through your business model--whether that be in game purchases, in game ads, subscriptions, rewarded ads, or offer walls.\n\nIf you run an action game called Ninja Attack and I have an RPG game called Ninja Hero Gaiden, chances are players of your game might want to play my game too. So I would contact an advertising company like Google, Facebook, Unity, or Ironsource to get advertising. \n\nThe key is the Business Model. Do I make my money from advertising or from in game purchases?\n\nIf it's from advertising, the goal is simple, make you play long enough to see more ads than I paid for. \n\nMore likely thought, it's to get you to come and play the game and spend money. \n\nOne user out of 100 coming and spending $1 will net me 10x what I spend. Worth it.",
'South Park season 18 episode 6 is about Freemium gaming.\n[Click here for the episode](_URL_0_)',
'For mobile games:\nGame companies spend most of their money on advertising and wages.\n\nThey get most of their money from in app purchases and from investors.\n\nNew mobile games spend a ton of money on advertising and get all their money from investment (can’t get IAP before releasing). So if there are 10 new mobile games all running ads for each other, you are seeing investment money being used to buy ads for games in other games.',
'In-game monetization, at least in some cases, you\'ll be surprised the amount of money some people can spend in this. One friend spent over $500 to pull an specific character in FE Heroes.\n\nI\'ve played Clash Royale, I\'m not proud of doing it but I have no regrets neither because I\'ve spent around $300 total during these 3.5 years playing it. However about 2 years ago when they released Graveyard (Or some other cards), there were reports of people cashing $20k or more for maxing out that card in Day 1, and I meant not only 1 or 2 people, but hundreds or more. This last week they released a "special pack" with some stuff, the stuff is kinda expensive IMO, because everything could be obtainable in the store for much cheaper or easier methods, but the lure is an exclusive "emote/emoji", and I\'ve seen dozens of people using it while playing against me, so basically they paid $50 for an emoji.',
"They advertise and then the advertisers advertise, when they run out of advertisements they have to buy more. Eventually they buy and circulate some Paddy's Dollars. The money keeps moving in a circle, thus creating a self-sustaining economy.",
"In actual ELI5:\n\nBecause ads cost money, any mobile game that can afford to make an ad must not actually be completely free. If it were really free, they could afford the ad. So they must make money some how, and usually it's by making the app free to try and then some parts of the game actually cost money later.\n\nIf you want a game, look for ones that cost money, ask me if I'll buy it for you, and if I approve, I'll get it for you. That way you get the entire game at once and also won't see ads for other games in your new favorite game!",
" > Is it just a closed loop of game companies paying eachother \n\nHow would this even be possible?\n\nMicro transactions is how freemium games make the most money.\n\nWhales get addicted to games and drop thousands of dollars per year on them. That's their main source of income. Its why you have obnoxious games where you pay 100 bucks for a mediocre skin on a bad mobile game.",
'And while it\'s not always true, there is a portion of this old adage that applies:\n\n"If you\'re not paying, YOU are the product"\n\nAs mentioned elsewhere, these games are often largely making money off of whales - a small percent of the userbase who make large purchases at the cash shop for overwhelming advantages in-game.\n\nTo keep the Whales playing, they need a never-ending supply of sheep for them to roll over. What good is buying an invincible army if you can\'t gank noobs? These people don\'t want to fight another whale\'s giant army, they want to embarass a free-to-play noob and crush them completely.\n\nSo you, the free-to-play player, goes through the tutorial, maybe gets one or two matches against other free-to-play people - then boom - they throw you at a whale or two in a matchup you literally cannot win.\n\nSo take these free-to-play mobile games with a grain of salt. The more pay-to-win they are, the less you need to invest emotionally into actually winning.',
'You greatly underestimate the amount of people literally addicted to pouring money into these games. They single-handedly keep those mobile game schemes running.',
'Good question. All roads eventually lead back to in app purchases. You may well get an ad for a game with no IAP (just more ads) but if you follow the chain it would eventually lead to IAP (or other real revenue apps/products like an item on Amazon, a credit card, online poker, etc).',
'To understand this, first you have to understand that these ads are managed by "Ad Networks". Google, Facebook, Apple, all have their own ad networks. These ad networks decide what ad to show where. And there are advertisers who just want people to know about their app/game. So, any games that show such ads have integrated one or more such networks.\n\nLet\'s say you\'re playing Subway surfer, and you see an ad for temple run, and if you install temple run using that ad, temple run guys pay some amount to the ad network because the network helped with a new install for their game. And in turn, subway surfer gets a share of the said amount.\n\nYou can actually integrate such networks in your own apps and start showing ads. If any of your app users found anything interesting for themselves in any ads your app shows, well, good for you.\n\nNow the question arises, what if no one ever clicks on any ads ever shown by your app? Well, whenever any ad is shown in an app, it\'s called an "impression". The ad networks also pay on the basis of per 1000 impressions. \nThis amount is very negligible and also depends on the region the impression was made. Also the rate of per 1000 impressions vary (like stock market). \n\nAnother way how games make money is In-app purchases. You pay real money to buy stuff in the game. It\'s just that simple. \n\nEven though, ad revenue seems promising at first, it\'s actually not. To generate a decent amount of revenue through ads would require millions of downloads and god knows how many impressions.',
'Even if the game that you are playing does not have microtransactions the games in the ads will most likely have some pay to win scheme.',
'Micro transactions. Extra loot boxes extra packs of cards extra weapons extra money for the in-game transactions. All of which make them a shit ton of money.',
"They barely make any money from ads - most income is from in-game purchases available. \n\nSpotify has a similar problem. You may notice on Free Spotify most the ads are just for premium spotify. They've always had trouble making the free version profitable due to low ad income, but premium is what makes spotify its money. Free mobile games with premium options / in game purchases work the same way.",
'Can anyone explain to me how the ad for gardenscapes, is completely different from the actual game?? I finally gave in and downloaded it because I thought man I love a good brain teaser, these look like fun puzzles and it’s all some repair game with a candy crush game??? Someone help me I’m baffled here'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'eukkeu',
'query': 'how do free mobile games make money when all the ads in the game are from other free mobile games?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '26521347',
'title': 'Intrauterine device',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism.\n',
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'passage_text': 'IUDs primarily work by preventing fertilization. The progestogen released from hormonal IUDs mainly works by thickening the cervical mucus, preventing sperm from reaching the fallopian tubes. IUDs may also function by preventing ovulation from occurring but this only occurs partially.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26521347',
'title': 'Intrauterine device',
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'passage_text': "An intrauterine device (IUD), also known as intrauterine contraceptive device (IUCD or ICD) or coil, is a small, often T-shaped birth control device that is inserted into a woman's uterus to prevent pregnancy. IUDs are one form of long-acting reversible birth control (LARC). Among birth control methods, IUDs, along with contraceptive implants, result in the greatest satisfaction among users. One study found that female family planning providers choose LARC methods more often (41.7%) than the general public (12.1%).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26521347',
'title': 'Intrauterine device',
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'passage_text': 'The use of IUDs has increased within the United States from 0.8% in 1995 to 7.2% from the period of 2006 to 2014. The use of IUDs as a form of birth control dates from the 1800s. A previous model known as the Dalkon shield was associated with an increased risk of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID). However, current models do not affect PID risk in women without sexually transmitted infections during the time of insertion.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26521347',
'title': 'Intrauterine device',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Hormonal.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Hormonal IUDs (brand names Mirena, Skyla, Kyleena, and Liletta; referred to as intrauterine systems in the UK) work by releasing a small amount of levonorgestrel, a progestin. Each type varies in size, amount of levonorgestrel released, and duration. For example, Mirena and Liletta measure 32x32mm while Skyla and Kyleena measure 28x30mm. The primary mechanism of action is making the inside of the uterus uninhabitable for sperm. They can also thin the endometrial lining and potentially impair implantation but this is not their usual function. Because they thin the endometrial lining, they can also reduce or even prevent menstrual bleeding. As a result, they are used to treat menorrhagia (heavy menses), once pathologic causes of menorrhagia (such as uterine polyps) have been ruled out.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18301326',
'title': 'Contraceptive implant',
'section': 'Section::::Women.:Intrauterine device.\n',
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'passage_text': "An intrauterine device (IUD) is a small contraceptive device, often 'T'-shaped and containing either copper or the hormone levonorgestrel, which is implanted into the uterus. They are long-acting, reversible, and the most effective types of reversible birth control. Failure rates with the copper IUD is about 0.8% while the levonorgestrel IUD has a failure rate of 0.2% in the first year of use. Among types of birth control they, along with birth control implants, result in the greatest satisfaction among users. As of 2011, IUDs are the most widely used form of reversible contraception worldwide. IUDs also tend to be one of the most cost-effective methods of contraception for women.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26521347',
'title': 'Intrauterine device',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Non-hormonal.:Inert.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Inert IUDs do not have a bioactive component. They are made of inert materials like stainless steel (such as the stainless steel ring (SSR), a flexible ring of steel coils that can deform to be inserted through the cervix) or plastic (such as the Lippes Loop, which can be inserted through the cervix in a cannula and takes a trapezoidal shape within the uterus). They are less effective than copper or hormonal IUDs, with a side effect profile similar to copper IUDs. Their primary mechanism of action is inducing a local foreign body reaction, which makes the uterine environment hostile both to sperm and to implantation of an embryo. They may have higher rates of preventing pregnancy after fertilization, instead of before fertilization, compared to copper or hormonal IUDs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '287180',
'title': 'Create, read, update and delete',
'section': 'Section::::User interface.\n',
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'passage_text': 'CRUD is also relevant at the user interface level of most applications. For example, in address book software, the basic storage unit is an individual "contact entry". As a bare minimum, the software must allow the user to\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does an IUD work?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['There\'s two basic versions of a an iud; one uses hormones while the other does not. \n\nThe non-hormonal one simply makes the uterus a non hospitable environment for the zygote, even if the egg gets fertilized. The hormonal one also acts as a physical deterrent, with the added bonus of super slow release hormones making the body think it\'s already pregnant. Or was just pregnant. Either way, the balance is off compared to a person\'s "fertile period."\n\nPregnancy takes a lot of pretty precise events to occur. If any of those are wrong, even if the sperm meets the egg the body will reject it. ',
"Yer not alone in askin', and kind strangers have explained:\n\n1. [ELI5: How does a IUD work? ](_URL_3_) ^(_18 comments_)\n1. [ELI5: How do hormonal IUDs release a reliable, steady stream of hormones for years? And do they taper off or just stop releasing hormones? ](_URL_0_) ^(_3 comments_)\n1. [How does a copper IUD work? (ParaGard or equivalent) ](_URL_2_) ^(_3 comments_)\n1. [ELI5: how do non-hormonal IUD's work? ](_URL_1_) ^(_2 comments_)\n1. [ELI5: How can IUDs prevent periods? Where does the uterine lining go? ](_URL_5_) ^(_3 comments_)\n1. [ELI5: What are IUDs? ](_URL_4_) ^(_4 comments_)\n",
"Well, lots of answers from previous threads to answer this, but I'll take a hit at it since I'm bored at work. \n\nThe IUD, intrauterine device, is a small, T or anchor like piece of plastic/metal/copper that is inserted into the uterus through the cervix. When not enlarging for the purpose of fetus holding, the uterus is actually pretty small, about the size of a fist. When you put an object in it, it makes the uterus a pretty shitty place to be.\n\nPregnancy itself, despite how much we talk about surprise pregnancies, and how much we as a society take it for granted, is a difficult process, and requires a lot of proper steps to take place in order to be successful. Throwing a big anchor, literally, in the way, makes the uterus a hostile environment, and far less likely to indicate to the body that pregnancy is the right move at this point in time. \n\nThe IUD, prior to insertion, has a long pair of strings attached to the ends of it that are cut down after insertion. Once the IUD is ready to be removed, the gyno reaches in with foreceps, and tugs on the strings. This causes the prongs on the IUD to collapse and then it can be pulled straight out! \n\nIf hormones are involved in the IUD, as others have mentioned, it essentially works in the same vein as any other same-type hormonal birth control, most commonly by making the uterus extra-mucuousy so it doesn't allow for the implantation of eggs on the lining.\n\nSource: Was a army medic and regularly assisted and performed Well Woman's Exams and Birth Control procedures for Mirena, ParaGard, and Nexplanon"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '7mx6gy',
'query': 'how does an iud work?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '38203',
'title': 'Menstruation',
'section': 'Section::::Ovulation suppression.:Birth control.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
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'passage_text': "Progestogen-only contraceptive pills (sometimes called the 'mini pill') are taken continuously without a 7-day span of using placebo pills, and therefore menstrual periods are less likely to occur than with the combined pill with placebo pills. However, disturbance of the menstrual cycle is common with the mini-pill; 1/3-1/2 of women taking it will experience prolonged periods, and up to 70% experience break-through bleeding (metrorrhagia). Irregular and prolonged bleeding is the most common reason that women discontinue using the mini pill.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22623',
'title': 'Combined oral contraceptive pill',
'section': 'Section::::Medical use.:Role of placebo pills.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
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'passage_text': 'The placebo, or hormone-free, week in the 28-day pill package simulates an average menstrual cycle, though the hormonal events during a pill cycle are significantly different from those of a normal ovulatory menstrual cycle. Because the pill suppresses ovulation (to be discussed more in the Mechanism of Action section), birth control users do not have true menstrual periods. Instead, it is the lack of hormones for a week that causes a withdrawal bleed. The withdrawal bleeding that occurs during the break from active pills has been thought to be reassuring, a physical confirmation of not being pregnant. The withdrawal bleeding is also predictable. Unexpected breakthrough bleeding can be a possible side effect of longer term active regimens.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '337453',
'title': 'Retrograde ejaculation',
'section': 'Section::::Treatments.:Medications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
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'passage_text': 'These medications tighten the bladder neck muscles and prevent semen from going backwards into the bladder. However, the medications do have many side effects and they have to be taken at least 1–2 hours prior to sexual intercourse. In many cases, the medications fail to work at the right time because most men are not able to predict when they will have an orgasm.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '235393',
'title': 'Amenorrhea',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.:Drug-induced.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Certain medications, particularly contraceptive medications, can induce amenorrhoea in a healthy woman. The lack of menstruation usually begins shortly after beginning the medication and can take up to a year to resume after stopping a medication. Hormonal contraceptives that contain only progestogen like the oral contraceptive Micronor, and especially higher-dose formulations like the injectable Depo Provera commonly induce this side effect. Extended cycle use of combined hormonal contraceptives also allow suppression of menstruation. Patients who use and then cease using contraceptives like the combined oral contraceptive pill (COCP) may experience secondary amenorrhoea as a withdrawal symptom. The link is not well understood, as studies have found no difference in hormone levels between women who develop amenorrhoea as a withdrawal symptom following the cessation of COCP use and women who experience secondary amenorrhoea because of other reasons. New contraceptive pills, like continuous oral contraceptive pills (OCPs) which do not have the normal 7 days of placebo pills in each cycle, have been shown to increase rates of amenorrhoea in women. Studies show that women are most likely to experience amenorrhoea after 1 year of treatment with continuous OCP use.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24303637',
'title': 'Ethinylestradiol/norethisterone',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Side effects can include nausea, headache, blood clots, breast pain, depression, and liver problems. Use is not recommended during pregnancy, the initial three weeks after childbirth, and in those at high risk of blood clots. It; however, may be started immediately after a miscarriage or abortion. Smoking while using combined birth control pills is not recommended. It works by stopping ovulation, making the uterus not suitable for implantation, and making the mucus at the opening to the cervix thick.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48743415',
'title': 'Ethinylestradiol/levonorgestrel',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Side effects can include nausea, headache, blood clots, breast pain, depression, and liver problems. Use is not recommended during pregnancy, the initial three weeks after childbirth, and in those at high risk of blood clots. However, it may be started immediately after a miscarriage or abortion. Smoking while using combined birth control pills is not recommended. It works by stopping ovulation, making the mucus at the opening to the cervix thick, and making the uterus not suitable for implantation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2432605',
'title': 'Extended cycle combined hormonal contraceptive',
'section': 'Section::::Usage.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'When a woman takes COCP, the hormones in the pills prevent both ovulation and shedding of the endometrium (menstruation). Traditionally, COCPs are packaged with 21 active (hormone-containing) pills and 7 placebo pills. During the week of placebo pills, withdrawal bleeding occurs and simulates an average 28-day menstrual cycle. The placebo pills are not required for pregnancy protection, and with any monophasic COCP the placebo pills may be discarded, and the next pack of active pills may be started to prevent the withdrawal bleeding. With bi- and tri-phasic pills, skipping the placebo week results in a sudden change in hormone levels, which may cause irregular spotting or flow.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "how can you get pregnant when not taking the pill every day at the same time/missing a day or when leaving the hormonal ring out for more than 3 hours? Doesn't hormonal bc have a longer-term effect on women's bodies?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["As I understand it (and I'm not an expert or anything close), hormonal birth control stops you from ovulating, and the part that it stops doesn't take very long. If it gets messed up, that little part will happen, then when whole process starts and you can be fertile.",
"No form of birth control is 100% effective, even when used correctly. Biologic processes have high variability and quality control isn't as precise as you might expect from mechanical or electronic systems.\n\nThe NuvaRing has the advantage of releasing hormones in the right place, as opposed to the systemic technique of a pill you swallow. With this advantage, lower doses can be used to reduce side effects.\n\nAll these hormones have clean-up mechanisms in the body that break them down, that's how the system works."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'eg0mdx',
'query': "how can you get pregnant when not taking the pill every day at the same time/missing a day or when leaving the hormonal ring out for more than 3 hours? doesn't hormonal bc have a longer-term effect on women's bodies?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '31638066',
'title': 'Media control symbols',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'In digital electronics, analogue electronics and entertainment, the user interface of media may include media controls or player controls, to enact and change or adjust the process of watching film or listening to audio. These widely known symbols can be found in a multitude of software products, exemplifying what is known as dominant design.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31638066',
'title': 'Media control symbols',
'section': 'Section::::Symbols.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'The main symbols date back to the 1960s, with the Pause symbol having reportedly been invented at Ampex during that decade for use on reel-to-reel audio recorder controls, due to the difficulty of translating the word "pause" into some languages used in foreign markets. The Pause symbol was designed as a variation on the existing square Stop symbol and was intended to evoke the concept of an interruption or "stutter stop".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '974664',
'title': 'Digital on-screen graphic',
'section': 'Section::::Usage.:Germany.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 45,
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'passage_text': 'In the 1980s, public broadcasters started to randomly show logos during programs to prevent video piracy, following the lead of Italian broadcasters RAI and Canale 5. After the first private stations emerged in 1984, permanently showing their logo most times, the public broadcasters soon followed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4164558',
'title': 'Power symbol',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'The well-known on/off power symbol was the result of the logical evolution in user interface design. Originally, most early power controls consisted of switches that were toggled between two states demarcated by the words "On" and "Off". As technology became more ubiquitous, these English words were replaced with the universal symbols line "|" and circle "o" (typically without serifs) to bypass language barriers. This standard is still used on toggle power switches.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2519121',
'title': 'Road signs in the United Kingdom',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'Following a review of national signage in 1921, a limited number of warning and hazard information plates also used symbols, rather than only text. Such symbols had been developed in continental Europe as early as 1909, but before this had been dismissed by the UK which favoured the use of text. The symbols were simple silhouettes which were easy to recognise at a distance. Some were unusual, such as \'SCHOOL\' (and later \'CHILDREN\') was depicted by the \'flaming torch of knowledge\'. The government made increasing efforts to standardise road signs in the Road Traffic Act 1930 (RTA) and regulations of 1933, being finally consolidated with the publication of the 1934 "Road Traffic Acts and Regulations" handbook. These saw the end of non-standard permanent signs being erected by motoring clubs, such as the black and yellow vitreous enamel AA signs (although this did not include temporary direction signs). While the RSAC had ceased erecting signs, the Royal Automobile Club (RAC) had begun to do so to RTA specifications (save for the inclusion of the RAC badge) and was very active in this respect in the late-1930s.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5298',
'title': 'Control character',
'section': 'Section::::The design purpose.:Printing and display control.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
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'end_paragraph_id': 44,
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'passage_text': 'Printing control characters were first used to control the physical mechanism of printers, the earliest output device. An early implementation of this idea was the out-of-band ASA carriage control characters. Later, control characters were integrated into the stream of data to be printed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31638066',
'title': 'Media control symbols',
'section': 'Section::::Use on appliances and other mechanical devices.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'In recent years, there has been a proliferation of devices that use media symbols in order to represent the Run/Stop/Pause functions. Likewise, user interface programing pertaining to these functions has also been influenced by that of media players. For example, some washers and dryers with a common illuminated play/pause button are programmed so that when the appliance is off, the play/pause light stays off. When the device is running the light stays on, and when the washer/dryer is in a paused state, the button flashes. This type of programing is similar to that of earlier CD players, which are also set to flash in this manner in the pause state.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How did media control symbols become standard (play, pause, fast forward, etc.)? Do other parts of the world use different symbols?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['_URL_0_\n\nThere is actually an international standard for all forms of icons.\nI\'m going off of personal knowledge here, so correct me if I\'m wrong, but during the 80s when electronics started to become more widespread globally and production switched from the west to the east, many of the manufacturers understood they would need a standardized way of denoting controls on electronics. They held a convention to draft up a list of virtually any kind of control one would need as a symbol that could be understood. There like a huge book of hundreds of symbols.\n\nTL;DR the symbols we used are arbitrary and standardized internationally.\n\nEDIT:removed the extra "d".',
'The media control symbols for play, fast forward and pause originate from tape players. \nThe play button pointed to where the direction the tape would go, pressing it would move the tape. \nThere used to be a button that was a triangle pointing the opposite direction that would cause the device to play backwards. \nThe fast forward button is just the play button repeated, meaning the tape would move faster than play. \nSince there was a backwards play button, it was repeated for fast rewind. \n(Also note the term "rewind" refers again to tapes being wound up again.) \nThe pause button just looked like the tape head (thing that read the tape) and would mean the tape head would do nothing. \n\nThe square stop symbol actually comes from musical notation, and means ["large rest"](_URL_0_)',
'They come from audio tape players. Audio tape used to be on a supply reel on the left, with a take-up reel on the right. So, to play it, the tape moved from left to right, in the direction of the arrow. Fast forward and fast rewind are just two arrows showing "double speed" and which direction the tape moves in. \n\nPause probably comes from a similar background: In order to keep the tape moving smoothly and precisely, there is a device called a pinch roller. The tape is pinched between a rubber roller and a vertical metal spindle called a capstan. On bi-directional tape players, there is a capstan/pinch roller on either side of the play head. When the pause button is pressed, the tape remains pinched between the pinch rollers and the capstans. The pause button is reminiscent of the two capstans holding the tape in place. On many decks, you couldn\'t fast-forward or rewind from pause because the tape was held in place by the pinch rollers. You had to disengage them to allow the tape to move. That\'s why the Stop button doesn\'t have the capstan images.\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '6epw9w',
'query': 'how did media control symbols become standard (play, pause, fast forward, etc.)? do other parts of the world use different symbols?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '5540528',
'title': 'AIDS service organization',
'section': 'Section::::Obstacles.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': "The AIDS crisis was shadowed by constant politicization which magnified the struggles of HIV/AIDS patients, as well as heavily hindered research and the search for treatment and/or a cure. The HIV virus wasn't discovered to be the cause of AIDS until 1984, and the first treatment, AZT, was not approved until 1987. So there were long periods of time following the emergence of HIV/AIDS in which there was no treatment, and community organizations could only focus on symptom management and social activism to push for a cure. Once treatment was discovered and approved, it was sold for an extraordinary price. In 1989, AZT was the most expensive prescription drug in history. Very few patients could afford to be treated or remain on the treatment for the long-term plan that was necessary to sufficiently lower patient's viral loads.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5069516',
'title': 'HIV/AIDS',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
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'passage_text': 'Ultimately, HIV causes AIDS by depleting CD4 T cells. This weakens the immune system and allows opportunistic infections. T cells are essential to the immune response and without them, the body cannot fight infections or kill cancerous cells. The mechanism of CD4 T cell depletion differs in the acute and chronic phases. During the acute phase, HIV-induced cell lysis and killing of infected cells by CD8 T cells accounts for CD4 T cell depletion, although apoptosis may also be a factor. During the chronic phase, the consequences of generalized immune activation coupled with the gradual loss of the ability of the immune system to generate new T cells appear to account for the slow decline in CD4 T cell numbers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40121688',
'title': 'Jacques Leibowitch',
'section': 'Section::::Scientific and medical contributions.:Discovery of the HIV retro-virus.\n',
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'passage_text': 'When in July 1982, the first cases of AIDS appear in hemophiliacs receiving highly filtered blood samples, the scientific community realized that AIDS was most likely caused by a virus. Jacques Leibowitch noticed some intriguing similarities between AIDS and the pathology linked to HTLV (Human T Cell Leukemia Lymphoma Virus), the only known human retro-virus at that time. Both situations affect CD4 T helper lymphocyte cells. HTLV induces the massive proliferation of one or several clones and their cancerization, whereas the other virus, the HIV virus tends to eradicate these cells without apparent discrimination. Otherwise, these two pathological descriptions are present in both Africa and the Caribbean (see. A Strange Virus of Unknown Origin Jacques Leibowitch, Ballantine Books, New York, 1985, translated from Un Virus Etrange Venu d’Ailleurs, Grasset Paris 1984 ). Indeed, in both Paris and Brussels, doctors had seen cases of patients having lived or spent time in Francophone Africa or in Haiti who suffered from a disease with an undeniable resemblance to that arising at the time in the United States in "immuno-deficient homosexuals". Leibowitch, informed by the Franco-American literary author Gilles Barbedette of the announcement by Robert Gallo in Medical World News (1 August 1982) that an HTLV type retro-virus could be at the cause of AIDS, found in that most succinct brief the profile matching his CD4-tropic exotic viral suspect (in Grasset, Ballantine Books, workS cited). The retro-viral inspiration was thus consolidated and opened between Bethesda (Gallo) and Paris (Leibowitch et al.) from August 1982 onwards. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5069516',
'title': 'HIV/AIDS',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome.\n',
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'passage_text': "People with AIDS have an increased risk of developing various viral-induced cancers, including Kaposi's sarcoma, Burkitt's lymphoma, primary central nervous system lymphoma, and cervical cancer. Kaposi's sarcoma is the most common cancer occurring in 10 to 20% of people with HIV. The second most common cancer is lymphoma, which is the cause of death of nearly 16% of people with AIDS and is the initial sign of AIDS in 3 to 4%. Both these cancers are associated with human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8). Cervical cancer occurs more frequently in those with AIDS because of its association with human papillomavirus (HPV). Conjunctival cancer (of the layer that lines the inner part of eyelids and the white part of the eye) is also more common in those with HIV.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17165444',
'title': 'Economic impact of HIV/AIDS',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'People living with HIV/AIDS will not only be unable to work, but will also require significant medical care. The forecast is that this will probably cause a collapse of babies and societies in countries with a significant AIDS population. In some heavily infected areas, the epidemic has left behind many orphans cared for by elderly grandparents.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30024957',
'title': 'Asociación Civil Impacta Salud y Educación',
'section': 'Section::::Prevention and Control of HIV/AIDS.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
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'passage_text': 'Although there still is no cure for AIDS, it is preventable and treatable. The majority of new HIV infections could be prevented if current prevention programs were expanded. Prevention initiatives could arrest the spread of HIV and important treatment advances could sustain the hope of a longer and better life for people that live with HIV. This area urgently needs the implementation and advancement of programs and projects in order to: prevent the sexual transmission of HIV/AIDS; prevent infection via breastfeeding and in children; break the links between HIV and other STI; provide voluntary testing and counseling; and reduce the health risks in infected persons as well as other approaches. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30778342',
'title': 'Infectious causes of cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Viruses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
'end_character': 607,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "HIV does not directly cause cancer, but it is associated with a number of malignancies, especially Kaposi's sarcoma, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, anal cancer and cervical cancer. Kaposi's sarcoma is caused by human herpesvirus 8. AIDS-related cases of anal cancer and cervical cancer are commonly caused by human papillomavirus. After HIV destroys the immune system, the body is no longer able to control these viruses, and the infections manifest as cancer. Certain other immune deficiency states (e.g. common variable immunodeficiency and IgA deficiency) are also associated with increased risk of malignancy.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'would HIV/AIDS cancel out leukemia?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Not really, HIV is a virus, AIDS is a deficiency of CD4 white blood cells, and leukemia is a cancer causing elevated abnormal nonfunctioning white blood cells (there are more types than just CD4) \nThat about as ELI5 as I can get, there is alot more science behind it, between the progenitor cell lines and such. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9ue6yk',
'query': 'would hiv/aids cancel out leukemia?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '39707665',
'title': 'Henry Ince',
'section': 'Section::::Construction of the Gibraltar siege tunnels.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'The task of excavating the tunnels began on 25 May 1782, carried out entirely by hand. The miners broke up the limestone rock using a variety of methods, including gunpowder blasting, fire-setting (building a fire against the face of the rock to heat it, then quenching it with cold water to cause it to shatter), quicklime (used to fill boreholes which were then slaked with water, causing it to expand and so shattering the surrounding rock) and hammering in wooden wedges which were expanded by soaking them with water, again causing the rock to shatter. The fragments were then removed with crowbars and sledgehammers. Progress was slow, advancing at a rate of only about per year, but the tunnels thus excavated have proved extremely stable and are still readily accessible today.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12475',
'title': 'Georgius Agricola',
'section': 'Section::::De re metallica.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': 'Agricola described mining methods which are now obsolete, such as fire-setting, which involved building fires against hard rock faces. The hot rock was quenched with water, and the thermal shock weakened it enough for easy removal. It was a dangerous method when used underground, and was made redundant by explosives.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12767015',
'title': 'Mines of Paris',
'section': 'Section::::Mining techniques.:Underground mining.:Hagues et bourrages.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
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'passage_text': 'Another technique appearing towards the early 18th century, "hagues et bourrages", was both more economically and structurally sound. Instead of tunnelling into the exploitable mineral, miners would begin at a central point and extract stone progressively outwards; when they had mined to a point that left a wide area of the ceiling unsupported, they would erect a line of "piliers à bras", continue their extraction beyond that line, then return to build a second parallel line of stone columns. The space along both lines of columns was then transformed into walls with stone blocks, or "hagues", and the space between filled with packed rubble and other mineral detritus (or "bourrage"). This technique allowed much more of the targeted mineral to be extracted, and provided a support that could both settle and shift with the mine ceiling it supported.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '984757',
'title': 'Dartmoor tin-mining',
'section': 'Section::::Mining methods.:Underground.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
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'passage_text': 'Although underground mining technology had been available for many centuries, it is likely that the joint problems of the hardness of the granite rock and the preponderance of underground water together with the relatively easy pickings from near the surface made deep mining unviable until the late 18th century.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32222131',
'title': 'Relief, California',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Early mining often involved digging a coyote hole, essentially sinking a hole into the ground, much like digging a well, and bringing up the dirt and rocks by hand or by a windlass, or tunneling into the side of the hill to follow the gold bearing gravel. Coyoteing and early tunneling were dangerous, since often the shaft was inadequately timbered, and cave-ins were not uncommon. A major one in Relief Hill in 1859 killed two miners and, coupled with a drought, caused the town to decline. By then, other mining camps were developing hydraulic mining, which involves blasting powerful streams of water against hillsides to dislodge gold.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5248022',
'title': 'Tunnel warfare',
'section': 'Section::::Modern warfare.:20th century.:World War I.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 48,
'end_character': 347,
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'passage_text': "Mining saw a brief resurgence as a military tactic during the First World War, when army engineers attempted to break the stalemate of trench warfare by tunneling under no man's land and laying large quantities of explosives beneath the enemy's trenches. As in siege warfare, tunnel warfare was possible due to the static nature of the fighting. \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22557513',
'title': 'Hallein Salt Mine',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'Early mining was done by hand and extracted salt rock crystals as a solid. To improve efficiency, fresh water would be pumped into a cavern. After several weeks of absorbing salt from the walls, the water was pumped out to a processing plant in Hallein.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How did mining work back in the day? Did people just picaxe long tunnels into the rock hoping they’ll find something useful?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Yes and no. Depending on what's being mined.\nTypically they'd find a vein and surface level evidence. (Think of gold washed down a creek, it comes from a vein somewhere)",
"Historically, prospecting involved thoroughly searching a wide area looking for mineral deposits on the surface. The best places to look were creeklines or ridges/hills, and any mineral deposits signified that there was likely more beneath the surface.\n\n\nThe Romans used aquaducts for hydrolic mining, where they'd basically use a ton of water to wash away the soil to expose the rock and any veins of metal.\n\nThe first mines were largely for stone, and required less precise methods to locate good areas to mine.",
'It depends a bit on how long ago "back in the day" is. For the mines I\'ve visited here in Norway that\'s around the 1600s. At that time, the mining was mostly accomplished with heat (wood fires) to make the rock brittle and manual picks or chisels. Using fires to heat the rock and then flash-cooling with water can also break rock faces apart. As chemistry advanced and explosives became cheaper and safer, they gradually took over. \nMining was a craft and geological experts were used to survey the mine and identify where to dig in what direction. Norway largely imported these experts from Germany and France, and you can still see some evidence of this foreign influence in for instance street names in [Røros](_URL_0_).',
"Before modern methods of geology, finding ore in the rock was often a matter of luck. The ore might have shown itself on the exposed surface, or it might wash out and deposit on the surface. If they found a large ore deposit, they could follow the ore veins deep into the rock.\n\nBy the way, pickaxes we know today aren't a typical mining tool, they're more for breaking heavy dirt and rock on the surface. Instead, they used hammers and chisels in order to be able to get highly precise strikes on the same spot over and over. That's why you can still see [this logo](_URL_0_) on the coat of arms of many historical mining towns in Europe."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'fdbhvi',
'query': 'how did mining work back in the day? did people just picaxe long tunnels into the rock hoping they’ll find something useful?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '22633377',
'title': 'Comparative foot morphology',
'section': 'Section::::Organization.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'Because of the wide variety in body types, scaling and morphology of the distal limbs of terrestrial vertebrates, there exists a degree of controversy concerning the nature and organization of foot structures. One organizational approach to understanding foot structures makes distinctions regarding their regional anatomy. The foot structures are divided into segments from proximal to distal and are grouped according to similarity in shape, dimension and function. In this approach, the foot may be described in three segments: as the hindfoot, midfoot and forefoot.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11492',
'title': 'Foot',
'section': 'Section::::Other animals.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 64,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The metatarsals are the bones that make up the main part of the foot in humans, and part of the leg in large animals or paw in smaller animals. The number of metatarsals are directly related to the mode of locomotion with many larger animals having their digits reduced to two (elk, cow, sheep) or one (horse). The metatarsal bones of feet and paws are tightly grouped compared to, most notably, the human hand where the thumb metacarpal diverges from the rest of the metacarpus.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22633377',
'title': 'Comparative foot morphology',
'section': 'Section::::Function.:Human foot.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
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'passage_text': 'The unique plantigrade alignment of the human foot results in a distal-limb structure that can adapt to a variety of conditions. The less mobile and more robust tarsal bones are shaped and aligned to accept and transmit large loads during the early phases of stance (initial contact and loading response phases of walking, and inadvertent heel strikes during running). The tarsals of the midfoot, which are smaller and shorter than the hindfoot tarsals, appear well oriented to transmit loads between the hindfoot and forefoot; this is necessary for load transfer and locking of the foot complex into a rigid lever for late stance phase. Conversely, the midfoot bones and joints also allow for the transmission of loads and inter-joint movement that unlocks the foot to create a loosely packed structure which renders the foot highly compliant over a variety of surfaces. In this configuration, the foot is able to absorb and damp the large loads encountered during heel strike and early weight acceptance. The forefoot, with its long metatarsal and relatively long phalanges, transmits loads during the end-of-stance phase that facilitate the push-off and transfer of forward momentum. The forefoot also serves as a lever to allow balance during standing and jumping. In addition, the arches of the foot that span the hindfoot, midfoot and forefoot play a critical role in the nature of transformation of the foot from a rigid lever to a flexible weight-accepting structure.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12401561',
'title': 'Bolitoglossa',
'section': 'Section::::Characteristics.:Hand and foot morphology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'Hand and foot morphology is strikingly diverse in an otherwise morphologically uniform group. While just under half of these species contain webbing between their fingers and toes, the remaining species experience little to no webbing and undergo elongation of their fingers and toes throughout development. Ultimately, the variation of foot morphology within this genus is primarily due to natural selection. Derived characteristics correspond to arboreal vs. terrestrial salamanders.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11492',
'title': 'Foot',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.:Arches.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 937,
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'passage_text': 'The human foot has two longitudinal arches and a transverse arch maintained by the interlocking shapes of the foot bones, strong ligaments, and pulling muscles during activity. The slight mobility of these arches when weight is applied to and removed from the foot makes walking and running more economical in terms of energy. As can be examined in a footprint, the medial longitudinal arch curves above the ground. This arch stretches from the heel bone over the "keystone" ankle bone to the three medial metatarsals. In contrast, the lateral longitudinal arch is very low. With the cuboid serving as its keystone, it redistributes part of the weight to the calcaneus and the distal end of the fifth metatarsal. The two longitudinal arches serve as pillars for the transverse arch which run obliquely across the tarsometatarsal joints. Excessive strain on the tendons and ligaments of the feet can result in fallen arches or flat feet.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22633377',
'title': 'Comparative foot morphology',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Comparative foot morphology involves comparing the form of distal limb structures of a variety of terrestrial vertebrates. Understanding the role that the foot plays for each type of organism must take account of the differences in body type, foot shape, arrangement of structures, loading conditions and other variables. However, similarities also exist among the feet of many different terrestrial vertebrates. The paw of the dog, the hoof of the horse, the "manus" (foot) and "pes" (foot) of the elephant, and the foot of the human all share some common features of structure, organization and function. Their foot structures function as the load-transmission platform which is essential to balance, standing and types of locomotion (such as walking, trotting, galloping and running).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22633377',
'title': 'Comparative foot morphology',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.:Columnar organization of limb structures.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'In the human and the elephant, the column orientation of the foot complex is replaced in humans by a plantigrade orientation, and in elephants by a semi-plantigrade alignment of the hind limb foot structure. This difference in orientation in the foot bones and joints of humans and elephants helps them to adapt to variations in the terrain.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is feet bone structure much more complex and composed of so many bones, while hands are much more simple?',
'selftext': 'Wouldn’t make sense for hands to be more complex than the foot due to the fact that hands are the much more used than feet are?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['There are 27 bones in each hand. There are 26 bones in each foot. Can you please explain what you are talking about?',
'What makes you say the structure of a foot is more complex than a hand?'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'atk6l6',
'query': 'why is feet bone structure much more complex and composed of so many bones, while hands are much more simple?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2817855',
'title': 'Larmor formula',
'section': 'Section::::Issues and implications.:Atomic physics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 61,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 61,
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'passage_text': 'A classical electron orbiting a nucleus experiences acceleration and should radiate. Consequently, the electron loses energy and the electron should eventually spiral into the nucleus. Atoms, according to classical mechanics, are consequently unstable. This classical prediction is violated by the observation of stable electron orbits. The problem is resolved with a quantum mechanical description of atomic physics, initially provided by the Bohr model. Classical solutions to the stability of electron orbitals can be demonstrated using Non-radiation conditions and in accordance with known physical laws.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '902',
'title': 'Atom',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The electrons of an atom are attracted to the protons in an atomic nucleus by the electromagnetic force. The protons and neutrons in the nucleus are attracted to each other by the nuclear force. This force is usually stronger than the electromagnetic force that repels the positively charged protons from one another. Under certain circumstances, the repelling electromagnetic force becomes stronger than the nuclear force. In this case, the nucleus shatters and leaves behind different elements. This is a kind of nuclear decay. All electrons, nucleons, and nuclei alike are subatomic particles. The behavior of electrons in atoms is closer to a wave than a particle.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3043836',
'title': 'Nuclear binding energy',
'section': 'Section::::Binding energy for atoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 75,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 75,
'end_character': 271,
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'passage_text': 'This is also evident from phenomena like electron capture. Theoretically, in orbital models of heavy atoms, the electron orbits partially inside the nucleus (it does not "orbit" in a strict sense, but has a non-vanishing probability of being located inside the nucleus).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2796131',
'title': 'Introduction to quantum mechanics',
'section': 'Section::::The quantization of matter: the Bohr model of the atom.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
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'passage_text': 'By the dawn of the 20th century, evidence required a model of the atom with a diffuse cloud of negatively charged [[electron]]s surrounding a small, dense, positively charged [[Atomic nucleus|nucleus]]. These properties suggested a model in which electrons circle around the nucleus like planets orbiting a sun. However, it was also known that the atom in this model would be unstable: according to classical theory, orbiting electrons are undergoing centripetal acceleration, and should therefore give off electromagnetic radiation, the loss of energy also causing them to spiral toward the nucleus, colliding with it in a fraction of a second.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '84400',
'title': 'Zero-point energy',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Second quantum theory.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'In 1913 Niels Bohr had proposed what is now called the Bohr model of the atom, but despite this it remained a mystery as to why electrons do not fall into their nuclei. According to classical ideas, the fact that an accelerating charge loses energy by radiating implied that an electron should spiral into the nucleus and that atoms should not be stable. This problem of classical mechanics was nicely summarized by James Hopwood Jeans in 1915: "There would be a very real difficulty in supposing that the (force) law held down to the zero values of . For the forces between two charges at zero distance would be infinite; we should have charges of opposite sign continually rushing together and, when once together, no force would tend to shrink into nothing or to diminish indefinitely in size" This resolution to this puzzle came in 1926 with Schrödinger\'s famous equation. This equation explained the new, non-classical, fact that as an electron moves close to a nucleus its kinetic energy necessarily increases in such a way that the minimum total energy (kinetic plus potential) occurs at some positive separation rather than at zero separation; in other words, that zero-point energy is essential for atomic stability.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14225',
'title': 'Hydrogen atom',
'section': 'Section::::Theoretical analysis.:Failed classical description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'Experiments by Ernest Rutherford in 1909 showed the structure of the atom to be a dense, positive nucleus with a tenuous negative charge cloud around it. This immediately raised questions about how such a system could be stable. Classical electromagnetism had shown that any accelerating charge radiates energy, as shown by the Larmor formula. If the electron is assumed to orbit in a perfect circle and radiates energy continuously, the electron would rapidly spiral into the nucleus with a fall time of:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3370908',
'title': 'Photoinduced charge separation',
'section': 'Section::::Rutherford model.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus orbited by electrons. The nucleus consists of uncharged neutrons and positively charged protons. Electrons are negatively charged. In the early part of the twentieth century Ernest Rutherford suggested that the electrons orbited the dense central nucleus in a manner analogous to planets orbiting the sun. The centripetal force required to keep the electrons in orbit was provided by the Coulomb force of the protons in the nucleus acting upon the electrons; just like the gravitational force of the sun acting on a planet provides the centripetal force necessary to keep the planet in orbit.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If atoms have a positive nucleus with electrons that orbit it, why don’t they collapse into themselves?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["There are 4 forces in an atom. Strong, weak, gravitational and electromagnetic. It's the electromagnetic force that's responsible for keeping the electron orbit stable. Think of a rope with a ball on the end and you're holding the other end. Your hand is the nucleus and the ball is the electron, now throw the ball around your hand. If you pull the rope the ball won't collide with your hand, instead, the ball continues to travel around your hand. The rope represents the electromagnetic force. \n\nAnother issue you can think about is that the nucleus has protons in it so how are they held together when they should repel? The strong force acts like glue to hold the protons together. \n\nTL;DR: The electromagnetic force and strong force hold an atom together.\n\n(Correct me if I got anything wrong)",
'There are many levels of understanding this.\nIn the simplest terms, one can think of the electrons as spinning around the nucleus in circles. In the same way as you feel pressed outwards on a carousel, the electrons don’t want to stay on circles but move outwards. This outwards force is cancelled by the attraction between the positive nuclei and negative electrons (opposite charges attract) so the electrons stay on their circular path. In fancy physicist terms, the electric attraction acts as the centripetal force to keep the electrons in their orbits but is not so strong as to make the electrons fall into the nucleus. \nLook up the Rutherford model of the atom for more detail. \n\nIf we want to be a bit more advanced (don’t worry if you don’t understand everything from here on, this is starting to get into university level physics), there is one problem with that description. We know from other fancy physics that when a charged particle moves in a circle, it loses energy and slows down, which would mean that the electron falls into the nucleus after all! The way we solve this problem is by saying that there are a certain group of distances between electron and nucleus where the electrons don’t lose energy after all, and the electrons are only ever allowed to be at these distances (this doesn’t seem like a good answer but it works well with the experiments - and since this idea we have gained a much better although much more complicated understanding of why some distances are special). \nThese different distances have different energies, just as an object has a higher energy when we lift it up (which increases the distance between earth and the object). The electrons can jump between those distances (or ‘levels’ as physicists call them) and can emit or absorb light (they emit light when jumping down and need to absorb light when jumping up to higher energy levels - you can’t get more energy out of nothing). This is what happens in neon lights, the electrons in the atoms jump to levels with lower energies and we see the light they emit. Look up the Bohr model of the atom if you want more details or mathematics. \n\nIf we want to get even more technical, we need some more hardcore quantum mechanics. Basically, the electrons aren’t really like billard balls but more like a diffuse electron mist, or electron cloud. The reason we often think of them as Billard balls is that when this cloud is very bunched up it looks like a solid ball from far away and it is easier to think and calculate with this image (even if it isn’t technically correct). The shape of this cloud that forms the electron (also called the save function of the electron) is determined by a certain equation, the Schrödinger equation (in fact, all matter and not just electrons work like this!). If we calculate the form of this cloud, we find that only certain energies are possible, for which the cloud has different form. And the distance where most of the cloud is turns out to be the Special distance that is allowed for the electron (nice when things work out). And none of these forms have any cloud right at the nucleus. If this last explanation feels a bit like “the maths says so, so it’s true”, that’s because it is - quantum mechanics is really weird and often the only insight one can get is to do the calculations and see that something must be true. ',
'Quantum mechanics is weird and quite counter-intuitive and there isn\'t really an ELI5 version of the physics behind it, but some explanations help more than others.\n\nWhile the "solar system" analogy of electrons as particles orbiting the nucleus in circular orbits persists, it\'s not really a good explanation of what\'s really going on at a quantum level.\n\nThe electrons are actually behaving in a more wave-like manner at an atomic level, smeared out over a certain distance - not so much that the electron is physically larger (it\'s not) - but that its state is described by a quantum mechanical wave function whose interpretation can be somewhat probabilistic.\n\nIn terms of position, the electron can be thought of as *probably* being where the wave function is strongest. In terms of momentum, though? It turns out that the more certain we are about the position (e.g. if we were to say the electron collapsed into the nucleus), we must accept a very high uncertainty of momentum. And as momentum is linked to kinetic energy, the total energy of an electron that is definitely "too" close to the nucleus is not only not certain, but almost certainly far larger than an electron that is further out but with a lower kinetic energy.\n\nIf you solve the wave equations, it turns out that the lowest possible energy state is a "smeared" cloud, and as you add electrons, they start filling the more complex orbital patterns you see in textbooks (as only one electron can be in the exact same state at once).',
'Gosh there are a lot of different ways to conceptualize this.\n\nThis is actually a pretty historically important question. Ernest Rutherford, the physicist who actually created the model of the atom we learn early in elementary school (Where there is a nucleus that has a positive charge and orbiting electrons with a negative charge) asked this question himself straight away. He personally believed that it was momentum that kept the electrons orbiting the nucleus, just like how the earth is kept in a steady orbit by it\'s momentum around the sun instead of just falling in.\n\nBut that conceptualization has some flaws. Namely, electrons routinely emit energy in the form of photons, so if it was only momentum keeping them orbiting the nucleus, that momentum should be radiated away in the form of light and the electron should still collapse into the nucleus.\n\nThe problem remained unsolved for a while, and actually helped spark others in the field of what became quantum physics. You see, that model of the atom isn\'t very accurate it turns out. The electron isn\'t just a particle in orbit around a nucleus, but rather it\'s a cloud of probabilities of being at specific places around the nucleus and with specific momentums. Note that the electron still does in fact have a much higher chance of being closer, or even INSIDE the nucleus because of the electromagnetic force!\n\nHowever, here\'s the thing. Heisenberg discovered that, for various reasons, you can\'t both know the position and the momentum of an electron. If we constrain the position of an electron to "closer to the nucleus", the probability density cloud shrinks in size and, as a result, the momentum of the electron increases. This increased momentum means it has a higher energy, and actually increases the probability density cloud, because it can suddenly "afford" to be further away! These two "forces" actually sort of balance each other out and create an equilibrium point where the electron is most likely to be that ISN\'T actually as close to the nucleus as possible. We call this the bohr radius, and it\'s where an electron in a hydrogen atom in ground state ends up "orbiting" in the traditional model. It\'s, of course, not so much that the electron orbits at that distance but rather, statistically, it is most likely to be right at that distance.\n\nBut like I said, there are several ways to conceptualize this, and that\'s just one. You can also learn about it in terms of potential energy vs kinetic energy for instance, but I\'ll leave that to someone else. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'a44r4v',
'query': 'if atoms have a positive nucleus with electrons that orbit it, why don’t they collapse into themselves?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '23116563',
'title': 'Low-rise building',
'section': 'Section::::Characteristics.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Low-rise apartments sometimes offer more privacy and negotiability of rent and utilities than high-rise apartments, although they may have fewer amenities and less flexibility with leases. It is also easier to put out fires in low-rise buildings.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '419900',
'title': 'Rent control in the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Arguments against.:Economic.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 45,
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'passage_text': 'Price ceilings can create shortages and reduce quality when they are less than the equilibrium price. By capping the price of housing, rent control can increase demand and reduce available supply, causing a shortage. It is argued that rent control also reduces the quality of available housing, deters investment, and raises rents on tenants who are excluded from its protections (for example, in jurisdictions with vacancy decontrol, tenants who move or arrive later). When property owners are restricted in the rents they can charge, they are less willing to construct more housing (a form of capital strike). Since supply is low, landlords worry less about tenants leaving and have little incentive to maintain the property. For example, unless owners can reasonably expect that punitive action will be taken against them, they might let building maintenance deteriorate in order to mitigate the lower rental income. People moving into the city have difficulty finding housing because of the shortage created by rent control.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '300425',
'title': 'Housing estate',
'section': 'Section::::Asia.:Hong Kong.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': 'Public housing provides affordable homes for those on low incomes, with rents which are heavily subsidised, financed by financial activities such as rents and charges collected from car parks and shops within or near the estates. They may vary in scale, and are usually located in the remote or less accessible parts of the territory, but urban expansion has put some of them in the heart of the urban area. Although some units are destined exclusively for rental, some of the flats within each development are earmarked for sale at prices which are lower than for private developments.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3187279',
'title': 'Housing Benefit',
'section': 'Section::::Non-LHA Housing Benefit claims.:Claim-related rent.:Exceptionally high rent.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 63,
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'passage_text': 'After having made these decisions, the rent officer decides if the lowest figure is still much higher than most rents for properties in the neighbourhood with the right number of rooms. This might be because of the property is in the luxury end of the market, or because of the services or amenities provided. If it is much higher, the rent officer will decide a figure that is in keeping with the general level of rents.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33824552',
'title': 'Development of non-profit housing in the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Operation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
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'passage_text': 'Maintaining stable revenue throughout the lifetime is challenging for a non-profit. Often, affordable housing exists in weak housing markets and in neighborhoods characterized by high crime rates, vacant and abandoned properties and low rent prices. Housing in these markets is generally unattractive and thus difficult to rent, therefore buildings lose money due to high vacancy. Projects in poor markets can also experience high costs associated with increased screening of renters and preparation of units due to high tenant turnover. Also, affordable projects frequently rely on government subsidies to cover the portion of rent that low-income tenants cannot afford (usually the difference between 30% of tenant income and market rents); projects are exposed to risk of losing future cash flows if governments cut tenant assistance programs. Furthermore, inadequate property management can affect operating income through the ineffectiveness of collecting rents or managing costs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20420275',
'title': 'Basement apartment',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Rent in basement apartments is usually much lower than it is in above-ground units, due to a number of deficiencies common to basement apartments. The apartments are usually cramped, and tend to be noisy, both from uninsulated building noises and from traffic on the adjacent street. They are also particularly vulnerable to burglary, especially those with windows at sidewalk level. In some instances, residential use of below-ground space is illegal, but is done anyway in order for the building owner to generate extra income.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48755595',
'title': 'Housing in the United Kingdom',
'section': 'Section::::Renting.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
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'passage_text': 'High rents have not just affected those in the lower half of the income distribution; who have always been lifelong renters. In the era of the Keynes–Beveridge consensus those in the upper half of the income distribution would typically rent a home while saving for a deposit to get onto the property ladder. This is no longer possible; money which would have been used in saving for a deposit now goes on rent. The majority of new households formed in the UK can now expect to rent from a private landlord for life. This phenomenon has been called "generation rent" and there is much debate about the social consequences of this change. See inequality for further information.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What makes rent so high in some areas for small apartments, and so low in others for relatively large apartments?',
'selftext': "I don't understand how rent prices change so drastically based on the area. Does it relate to taxes?",
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It can be largely based on surrounding areas income but it’s mostly just location. Are you in close proximity to a large employer (like a medical center?), close enough that people wouldn’t *have* to drive? Then it’s gonna be higher, marketed towards medical employees. It’s based on a lot of factors, but for most apartments that aren’t really near any significant employer but are surrounded by general urban sprawl, just check the average income for the surrounding neighborhoods and such. If it’s high, probably in a ‘better’ part of town. Low, ‘worse’ part of town and the rent reflects it',
"Supply and demand. Some people are willing to lay down more cash in congested urban areas, where that same amount would pay for much more of an apartment in rural towns with low populations that aren't as competitive with their rent money.",
'it boils down to: location, supply and demand mostly.\n\nthat tiny place near the beach from which you can walk to the city centre with the cool research lab where you work right next door will probably have more people willing to live there than the large appartement on the other side of the city, somewhere out in the suburbs, next to a sewage plant.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'g2dfxm',
'query': 'what makes rent so high in some areas for small apartments, and so low in others for relatively large apartments?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '195718',
'title': 'Cinematography',
'section': 'Section::::Aspects.:Depth of field and focus.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Focal length and diaphragm aperture affect the depth of field of a scene – that is, how much the background, mid-ground and foreground will be rendered in "acceptable focus" (only one exact plane of the image is in precise focus) on the film or video target. Depth of field (not to be confused with depth of focus) is determined by the aperture size and the focal distance. A large or deep depth of field is generated with a very small iris aperture and focusing on a point in the distance, whereas a shallow depth of field will be achieved with a large (open) iris aperture and focusing closer to the lens. Depth of field is also governed by the format size. If one considers the field of view and angle of view, the smaller the image is, the shorter the focal length should be, as to keep the same field of view. Then, the smaller the image is, the more depth of field is obtained, for the same field of view. Therefore, 70mm has less depth of field than 35mm for a given field of view, 16mm more than 35mm, and early video cameras, as well as most modern consumer level video cameras, even more depth of field than 16mm. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '86058',
'title': 'Binoculars',
'section': 'Section::::Optical designs.:Optical parameters.:Close focus distance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
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'passage_text': 'Close focus distance is the closest point that the binocular can focus on. This distance varies from about 0.5 m to 30 m, depending upon the design of the binoculars. If the close focus distance is short respect to the magnification, the binocular can be used also to see particulars not visible to the naked eye.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8210422',
'title': 'Stereo cameras',
'section': 'Section::::Calculation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'In this approach, two cameras with a known physical relationship (i.e. a common field of view the cameras can see, and how far apart their focal points sit in physical space) are correlated via software. By finding mappings of common pixel values, and calculating how far apart these common areas reside in pixel space, a rough depth map can be created. This is very similar to how the human brain uses stereoscopic information from the eyes to gain depth cue information, i.e. how far apart any given object in the scene is from the viewer.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27653752',
'title': 'Retina display',
'section': 'Section::::Rationale.\n',
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'passage_text': 'where formula_2 is the distance to the screen, formula_3 is the resolution of the screen in pixels per unit length, and formula_4 is the aperture of a cone having the apex on focus, height formula_2, and the base in the eye lens —the optical correspondent to a cone inside the eye having the same base and the apex in the other focus, the fovea. That aperture, which can be measured by visual field tests, varies widely among different human subjects.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '878311',
'title': 'Lenticular printing',
'section': 'Section::::Types of lenticular prints.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Animated prints: Here the distance between different angles of view is "medium", so that while both eyes usually see the same picture, moving a little bit switches to the next picture in the series. Two or more sequential images are used, with only small differences between each image and the next. This can be used to create an image that moves ("motion effect"), or can create a "zoom" or "morph" effect, in which part of the image expands in size or changes shape as the angle of view changes. The movie poster of the film Species II, shown in this article, is an example of this technique.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22510110',
'title': 'Optimum HDTV viewing distance',
'section': 'Section::::Background.:Visual angle.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': "The ideal optimum viewing distance is affected by the horizontal angle of the camera capturing the image. One concept of an ideal optimal viewing distance places the viewer where the horizontal angle subtended by the screen is the same as the horizontal angle captured by the camera. If this is the case, the angular relationships perceived by the viewer would be identical to those recorded by the camera. A mismatch in this regard is traditionally disregarded, but some rotating motions can make these distortions very noticeable as a pincushion effect. This is likely in 3d video games, so gamers are likely to adopt close viewing positions matched to a game's fixed field of view.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10750774',
'title': 'Tilted plane focus',
'section': 'Section::::Limits to focus in imaging.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Focus is relative to spatial depth. Selective focus in photography is usually associated with depth of field. A pinhole camera generates an image of infinite relative focus, from a point just outside the camera opening out to infinity. Lenses focus more selectively so that, for objects near the lens, the distance between lens and sensor or film is increased and is shortened for more distant objects, to a point beyond which all is in focus. In telephoto lenses this point may be tens or hundreds of metres from the camera. Wide-angle lenses distinguish differences in depth only up to a short distance, beyond which all is in focus.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'When watching a screen, do our eyes focus purely on to the distance of the screen or the percieved depth of the picture?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
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'answers': ["Purely on the screen. Same if you're looking at a photo: the depth isn't real and doesn't affect your focus."],
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'query_id': '6q6lu8',
'query': 'when watching a screen, do our eyes focus purely on to the distance of the screen or the percieved depth of the picture?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1149394',
'title': 'Cauliflower ear',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The most common cause of cauliflower ear is blunt trauma to the ear leading to a hematoma which, if left untreated, eventually heals to give the distinct appearance of cauliflower ear. The structure of the ear is supported by a cartilaginous scaffold consisting of the following distinct components: the helix, antihelix, concha, tragus, and antitragus. The skin that covers this cartilage is extremely thin with virtually no subcutaneous fat while also strongly attached to the perichondrium, which is richly vascularized to supply the avascular cartilage.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1149394',
'title': 'Cauliflower ear',
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'passage_text': 'Cauliflower ear is an irreversible condition that occurs when the external portion of the ear is hit and develops a blood clot or other collection of fluid under the perichondrium. This separates the cartilage from the overlying perichondrium that supplies its nutrients, causing it to die and resulting in the formation of fibrous tissue in the overlying skin. As a result, the outer ear becomes permanently swollen and deformed, resembling a cauliflower.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '622572',
'title': 'Collegiate wrestling',
'section': 'Section::::Injuries and infections.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
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'passage_text': 'Cauliflower ear is a blood clot that forms under the skin in the ear, causing there to be a large bump in the ear; the bump tends to be extremely hard. To develop cauliflower ear one must be hit in the ear many times or hit hard for it to form into a blood clot. When having cauliflower ear it is important to get the ear drained of liquid that has built up. Otherwise the ear will require surgery to return to normal shape and size. The best way to prevent cauliflower is to wear headgear. This will protect the ears from taking hard hits.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1149394',
'title': 'Cauliflower ear',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'The components of the ear involved in cauliflower ear are the outer skin, the perichondrium, and the cartilage. The outer ear skin is tightly adherent to the perichondrium because there is almost no subcutaneous fat on the anterior of the ear. This leaves the perichondrium relatively exposed to damage from direct trauma and shear forces, created by a force pushing across the ear like a punch, and increasing the risk of hematoma formation. In an auricular hematoma, blood accumulates between the perichondrium and cartilage. The hematoma mechanically obstructs blood flow from the perichondrium to the avascular cartilage. This lack of perfusion puts the cartilage at risk for becoming necrotic and/or infected. If left untreated, disorganized fibrosis and cartilage formation will occur around the aforementioned cartilaginous components.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '49604',
'title': 'Hearing loss',
'section': 'Section::::Research.:Stem cell transplant and gene therapy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 252,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'A 2005 study achieved successful regrowth of cochlea cells in guinea pigs. However, the regrowth of cochlear hair cells does not imply the restoration of hearing sensitivity, as the sensory cells may or may not make connections with neurons that carry the signals from hair cells to the brain. A 2008 study has shown that gene therapy targeting Atoh1 can cause hair cell growth and attract neuronal processes in embryonic mice. Some hope that a similar treatment will one day ameliorate hearing loss in humans.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1187487',
'title': 'Sensorineural hearing loss',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Genetic.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': 'Recessive, dominant, X-linked, or mitochondrial genetic mutations can affect the structure or metabolism of the inner ear. Some may be single point mutations, whereas others are due to chromosomal abnormalities. Some genetic causes give rise to a late onset hearing loss. Mitochondrial mutations can cause SNHL i.e. m.1555AG, which makes the individual sensitive to the ototoxic effects of aminoglycoside antibiotics.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18600477',
'title': 'Hiccup',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
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'passage_text': 'An anecdotal medical approach is to install lidocaine liniment 3% or gel 2% into the ear canal. Somehow this creates a vagus nerve-triggering reflex through its extensions to the external ear and tympanus (ear drum). The effect can be immediate, and also have lasting effect after the lidocaine effect expires after about two hours.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is happening when the body develops a cauliflower ear?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The ear fills with blood and fluid that calicifies and hardens over time if it isn't drained and taken care of right away.",
"From what I hear most people don't have it drained, because it's one of the msot painful things you can do. \n\n\nWhat I never understand: Does the blood just clot and stay there forever? Doesn't it break down or something at some point?",
"The question has been answered at this point, but I don't see anyone talking about how much it hurts when it's fresh. I had a bad bout with it my junior year of hs (drained 5 times over a several month period). At it's worst, it hurt my ear to walk, because it was so full of fluid that it bounced. I still sleep on my left side because of it, and woke myself up during the night rolling over."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'dfgrq7',
'query': 'what is happening when the body develops a cauliflower ear?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '558359',
'title': 'Metaclass',
'section': 'Section::::In Objective-C.\n',
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'passage_text': "Like Smalltalk, in Objective-C, class methods are simply methods called on the class object, hence a class's class methods must be defined as instance methods in its metaclass. Because different classes can have different sets of class methods, each class must have its own separate metaclass. Classes and metaclasses are always created as a pair: the runtime has functions codice_85 and codice_86 to create and register class-metaclass pairs, respectively.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8741',
'title': 'Dylan (programming language)',
'section': 'Section::::Modules vs. namespace.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In many object-oriented languages, classes are the main means of encapsulation and modularity; each class defines a namespace and controls which definitions are externally visible. Further, classes in many languages define an indivisible unit that must be used as a whole. For example, using a codice_23 concatenation function requires importing and compiling against all of codice_23.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7392',
'title': 'Class (computer programming)',
'section': 'Section::::Design and implementation.:The concept of class interface.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Every class "implements" (or "realizes") an interface by providing structure and behavior. Structure consists of data and state, and behavior consists of code that specifies how methods are implemented. There is a distinction between the definition of an interface and the implementation of that interface; however, this line is blurred in many programming languages because class declarations both define and implement an interface. Some languages, however, provide features that separate interface and implementation. For example, an abstract class can define an interface without providing implementation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '896657',
'title': 'Class-based programming',
'section': 'Section::::Critique of class-based models.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Class-based languages, or, to be more precise, typed languages, where subclassing is the only way of subtyping, have been criticized for mixing up implementations and interfaces—the essential principle in object-oriented programming. The critics say one might create a bag class that stores a collection of objects, then extend it to make a new class called a set class where the duplication of objects is eliminated. Now, a function that takes an object of the bag class may expect that adding two objects increases the size of a bag by two, yet if one passes an object of a set class, then adding two objects may or may not increase the size of a bag by two. The problem arises precisely because subclassing implies subtyping even in the instances where the principle of subtyping, known as the Liskov substitution principle, does not hold. Barbara Liskov and Jeannette Wing formulated the principle succinctly in a 1994 paper as follows:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1639470',
'title': 'Loose coupling',
'section': 'Section::::In programming.:Other forms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
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'passage_text': 'Computer programming languages having notions of either functions as the core module (see Functional programming) or functions as objects provide excellent examples of loosely coupled programming. Functional languages have patterns of Continuations, Closure, or generators. See Clojure and Lisp as examples of function programming languages. Object-oriented languages like Smalltalk and Ruby have code blocks, whereas Eiffel has agents. The basic idea is to objectify (encapsulate as an object) a function independent of any other enclosing concept (e.g. decoupling an object function from any direct knowledge of the enclosing object). See First-class function for further insight into functions as objects, which qualifies as one form of first-class function.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1163024',
'title': 'First-class function',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'In computer science, a programming language is said to have first-class functions if it treats functions as first-class citizens. This means the language supports passing functions as arguments to other functions, returning them as the values from other functions, and assigning them to variables or storing them in data structures. Some programming language theorists require support for anonymous functions (function literals) as well. In languages with first-class functions, the names of functions do not have any special status; they are treated like ordinary variables with a function type. The term was coined by Christopher Strachey in the context of "functions as first-class citizens" in the mid-1960s.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7392',
'title': 'Class (computer programming)',
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'passage_text': 'In object-oriented programming, a class is an extensible program-code-template for creating objects, providing initial values for state (member variables) and implementations of behavior (member functions or methods). In many languages, the class name is used as the name for the class (the template itself). The name for the default constructor of the class (a subroutine that creates objects), and as the type of objects generated by instantiating the class; these distinct concepts are easily conflated.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'The difference between functions, methods, objects, classes, and OOP languages.',
'selftext': "I can't wrap my head around when to use which, or why they are used. Also, what makes an object oriented language different from the other type. How does it go about doing the above?",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['A *function* is a block of code which runs some commands and can be called on from elsewhere in the code.\n\nexample:\n\n def function():\n print "I do something."\n\n # now we can call the function from other code, like this, and it will always print "I do something".\n function()\n\n\nA *class* represents an object. A thing. It can contain both *data* and *functions that operate on the data*.\n\nA function which is attached to a class is called a *method*. It can only be called through the class.\n\nSo, for example:\n\n class Car():\n def __init__(self):\n self.model = "Honda"\n self.color = "red"\n\n def drive(self, destination):\n # do something \n\n henry = Car()\n henry.drive()\n\n\nin this example, I have a "car" class with two attached methods. One of them, __init__, is something used by python to create the object. The other one, drive(), does something about driving.\n\nthen i created an *instance* of the car class, and called the method \'drive\' on the instance.\n\nSo: function() is a \'function\', meaning a block of code that can be called from elsewhere and run when it is called. \'Car\' is a *class*, which is a collection of data and functions that operate on that data; the functions contained within a class are called \'methods\'. So *drive* is a function contained within Car, meaning it is a method.',
"An object is almost anything - it's a conceptual term. Almost everything should be an object in OOP. A school, a room, a teacher, a pupil, an arm, a finger - all objects.\n\nClasses are a collection of stuff, usually to create an object (things like abstract classes are a bit different but if you don't know what a class is, you probably don't yet need to know what an abstract class is) that implement the behaviour of something. So you'd have a School class, a Room class, a Person class, a Pupil class that extends Person, a Teacher class that also extends Person, and so on.\n\nFor the sake of ELI5, methods and functions are basically the same thing."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'acznaz',
'query': 'the difference between functions, methods, objects, classes, and oop languages.',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '53855893',
'title': 'Electric shock drowning',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Besides boats and dockside power hookups, several other potential causes exist. Lightning strikes over or near water have caused electric shock drownings. Faulty hydroelectric generators or damaged underwater power lines can cause leakage currents, potentially creating a hazard. In general, anything electrically active that comes in contact with water has the potential to create leakage currents and contribute to this type of safety hazard.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '53855893',
'title': 'Electric shock drowning',
'section': 'Section::::Signs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'There is no visible warning to electrified water. Swimmers will be able to feel the electricity if the current is substantial. If the swimmers notice any unusual tingling feeling or symptoms of electrical shock, it is highly likely that stray currents exist and everyone needs to get out. Swimmers should always swim away from the suspected current source. In most cases this means swimming away from docks and boats and toward another safer portion of the shoreline.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11513302',
'title': 'Stray voltage',
'section': 'Section::::Effects.:Persons.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Potential differences between pool water and railings, or shower facilities and grounded drain pipes are not uncommon as a result of neutral to earth voltages (NEV), and can be a major nuisance, but are usually not life-threatening. However, contact voltage resulting from damaged insulation on a current carrying conductor can be very dangerous, and can lead to shock or electrocution. Such a condition can arise spontaneously from mechanical, thermal, or chemical stress on insulation materials, or from unintentional damage from digging activity, freeze-frost seizing, corrosion and collapse of conduit, or even workmanship issues.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '53855893',
'title': 'Electric shock drowning',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Electric shock drownings are most commonly caused by improper electrical connections on boats and docks. By law, all connections near water are required to have working ground fault circuit interruption technology, GFCI. These devices break the electrical circuit if any stray current fails to return to the source connection. If GFCI devices are missing or faulty, it is possible for current to leak into the water. If a system is leaking current into the water, appliances will likely function as normal without any indication of a problem. Correctly functioning GFCI and ELCI devices will instantaneously detect the problem and disconnect the power source. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34006224',
'title': 'Electrocommunication',
'section': 'Section::::Signals.:Physical properties of signals.:Active space.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
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'end_paragraph_id': 33,
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'passage_text': 'When transmitting electric signals in aquatic environment, the physical and chemical nature of the surroundings can make big differences to signal transmission. Environmental factors that might impose influences include solute concentration, temperature, and background electrical noise (lightning or artificial facilities), etc.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3581689',
'title': 'Kelvin water dropper',
'section': 'Section::::Details.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'The discussion above is in terms of charged droplets falling. The inductive charging effects occur while the water stream is continuous. This is because the flow and separation of charge occurs already when the streams of water approach the rings, so that when the water passes through the rings there is already net charge on the water. When drops form, some net charge is trapped on each drop as gravity pulls it toward the like-charged container.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1484457',
'title': 'Atmospheric focusing',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'This effect operates similarly to the patterns made by sunlight on the bottom of a pool, the difference is that the light is bent at the contact point with the water while the shock wave is distorted by density variations (e.g. due to temperature variations) in the atmosphere. Variations of wind can cause a similar effect. This will disperse the shock wave at some places and focus it at others. For powerful shock waves this can cause damage farther than expected; the shock wave energy density will decrease beyond expected values based on uniform geometry falloff for weak shock or acoustic waves, as expected at large distances).\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is it that If you drop something electrical into a pool it affects the whole pool, but if you drop something electrical into the ocean, it dosent electrocute the whole ocean',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The pool is ≠ the ocean, in any way.\n\nThe electrical thing you throw in the pool doesn't affect the whole pool either. Electricity is very, very good at finding the path of least resistance and following that. It's almost never through a human or a fish. Those metal drains and grounded lights are just a better path.",
"Simply - it does affect the whole ocean, but the effects at any distance from the device would be very small.\n\nWhen an electric device falls in water, electricity flows from the high-voltage live parts inside the device to the low voltage grounded parts. Now, most of it will flow almost straight across, because that is the shortest and easiest route. But the electricity will take all routes, including long, looping ones. But as it has to travel a long way, it is hard for the electricity to follow that path, so not much does.\n\nSo some of that power following a longer, looping path would reach a person swimming nearby, and as the insides of them are salty and conduct electricity more easily than fresh water would, it would then flow through them. And it doesn't take much electric current to kill a person, or stun a fish.\n\nBut the further the electricity would have to flow, the less electricity flows. By the time the loops are many meters long, the amount of power flowing is very small, and no longer has any effect."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9rfc82',
'query': 'why is it that if you drop something electrical into a pool it affects the whole pool, but if you drop something electrical into the ocean, it dosent electrocute the whole ocean',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1805',
'title': 'Antibiotic',
'section': 'Section::::Classes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
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'passage_text': 'Antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (rifamycins, lipiarmycins, quinolones, and sulfonamides) have bactericidal activities. Protein synthesis inhibitors (macrolides, lincosamides, and tetracyclines) are usually bacteriostatic (with the exception of bactericidal aminoglycosides). Further categorization is based on their target specificity. "Narrow-spectrum" antibiotics target specific types of bacteria, such as gram-negative or gram-positive, whereas broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wide range of bacteria. Following a 40-year break in discovering new classes of antibacterial compounds, four new classes of antibiotics have been brought into clinical use in the late 2000s and early 2010s: cyclic lipopeptides (such as daptomycin), glycylcyclines (such as tigecycline), oxazolidinones (such as linezolid), and lipiarmycins (such as fidaxomicin).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '142549',
'title': 'Peritonitis',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Antibiotics are usually administered intravenously, but they may also be infused directly into the peritoneum. The empiric choice of broad-spectrum antibiotics often consist of multiple drugs, and should be targeted against the most likely agents, depending on the cause of peritonitis (see above); once one or more agents grow in cultures isolated, therapy will be target against them.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18605046',
'title': 'List of antibiotics',
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'passage_text': 'The following is a list of antibiotics. The highest division is between antibiotics is bactericidal and bacteriostatic. Bactericidals kill bacteria directly, whereas bacteriostatics prevent them from dividing. However, these classifications are based on laboratory behavior. In practice, both can effectively treat a bacterial infection.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1805',
'title': 'Antibiotic',
'section': 'Section::::Medical uses.:Administration.\n',
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'passage_text': "There are many different routes of administration for antibiotic treatment. Antibiotics are usually taken by mouth. In more severe cases, particularly deep-seated systemic infections, antibiotics can be given intravenously or by injection. Where the site of infection is easily accessed, antibiotics may be given topically in the form of eye drops onto the conjunctiva for conjunctivitis or ear drops for ear infections and acute cases of swimmer's ear. Topical use is also one of the treatment options for some skin conditions including acne and cellulitis. Advantages of topical application include achieving high and sustained concentration of antibiotic at the site of infection; reducing the potential for systemic absorption and toxicity, and total volumes of antibiotic required are reduced, thereby also reducing the risk of antibiotic misuse. Topical antibiotics applied over certain types of surgical wounds have been reported to reduce the risk of surgical site infections. However, there are certain general causes for concern with topical administration of antibiotics. Some systemic absorption of the antibiotic may occur; the quantity of antibiotic applied is difficult to accurately dose, and there is also the possibility of local hypersensitivity reactions or contact dermatitis occurring.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9028799',
'title': 'Bacteria',
'section': 'Section::::Interactions with other organisms.:Pathogens.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Bacterial infections may be treated with antibiotics, which are classified as bacteriocidal if they kill bacteria, or bacteriostatic if they just prevent bacterial growth. There are many types of antibiotics and each class inhibits a process that is different in the pathogen from that found in the host. An example of how antibiotics produce selective toxicity are chloramphenicol and puromycin, which inhibit the bacterial ribosome, but not the structurally different eukaryotic ribosome. Antibiotics are used both in treating human disease and in intensive farming to promote animal growth, where they may be contributing to the rapid development of antibiotic resistance in bacterial populations. Infections can be prevented by antiseptic measures such as sterilising the skin prior to piercing it with the needle of a syringe, and by proper care of indwelling catheters. Surgical and dental instruments are also sterilised to prevent contamination by bacteria. Disinfectants such as bleach are used to kill bacteria or other pathogens on surfaces to prevent contamination and further reduce the risk of infection.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '305387',
'title': 'Cholecystitis',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Other.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 63,
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'passage_text': 'Antibiotics are often not needed. If used they should target enteric organisms (e.g. Enterobacteriaceae), such as "E. coli" and "Bacteroides". This may consist of a broad spectrum antibiotic; such as piperacillin-tazobactam, ampicillin-sulbactam, ticarcillin-clavulanate (Timentin), a third generation cephalosporin (e.g.ceftriaxone) or a quinolone antibiotic (such as ciprofloxacin) and anaerobic bacteria coverage, such as metronidazole. For penicillin allergic people, aztreonam or a quinolone with metronidazole may be used.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15464966',
'title': 'Pathogenic bacteria',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
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'passage_text': 'Bacterial infections may be treated with antibiotics, which are classified as bacteriocidal if they kill bacteria or bacteriostatic if they just prevent bacterial growth. There are many types of antibiotics and each class inhibits a process that is different in the pathogen from that found in the host. For example, the antibiotics chloramphenicol and tetracyclin inhibit the bacterial ribosome but not the structurally different eukaryotic ribosome, so they exhibit selective toxicity. Antibiotics are used both in treating human disease and in intensive farming to promote animal growth. Both uses may be contributing to the rapid development of antibiotic resistance in bacterial populations. Phage therapy can also be used to treat certain bacterial infections.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do different antibiotics target different parts of the body?',
'selftext': 'There are different antibiotics that seem to be used to target infection in different areas of the body, but mainly taken orally. Is it the type of antibiotic that targets a specific area or do we get the same infections in the same area of the body?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The thing about antibiotics is that they only effect bacteria, which are very different from your cells (if you’re 16:bacteria are prokaryotes and your cells are eukaryotes). So as previous reply said, the antibiotics disperse throughout your body and attack the bacteria... all of them. Including the good ones in your gut. That’s why a common side effect of antibiotics is the runs (the poops, the scoots, diarrhea, etc)',
'When you swallow an antibiotic tablet, it passes into your stomach and then your small intestine. At some point, depending on the drug, it is taken into the blood stream. The blood carries it to the liver and then throughout the body. \n\nAt this point it’s easiest to imagine that the drug then leaks out through the blood vessels into all the tissues of the body. Skin, muscle, bone, lungs etc. It acts on your entire body, hopefully killing (bactericidal antibiotic) or preventing growth of (bacteriostatic) the bacteria causing infection.\n\nIn the case of a kidney or bladder infection, after the antibiotic has gone all around the body, it is then excreted by the kidney and passes into the bladder. \n\nDifferent antibiotics have different chemical structures and characteristics. This makes the drug more likely to target certain areas. For example if you have a brain infection, you will need an antibiotic that can cross over from the blood into the brain through the “blood brain barrier”. If you have pneumonia, you will need a drug that is likely to spread into the fluid that lines the lungs. Certain areas of the body have different acidity levels, different protein concentrations and different blood flow arrangements, allowing them to be more accurately targeted rather than the shotgun approach I explained above. \n\nAn injection is just a way to get the antibiotic into the bloodstream, bypassing the digestive tract.',
"In general, oral antibiotics don't target different parts. But different parts of the body are prone to infection by different types of organisms, which respond to different antibiotics.\n\nThere are targeted antibiotics which are not oral, like ointments, eye drops, ear drops, wound-packing materials impregnated with antibiotics (I'm not sure how much clinical use this last one sees), etc. \n\nThere are also antibiotics that don't get absorbed when ingested, and are usually given by injection, but which can be given orally if the goal is to treat the gut itself."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'ak51x8',
'query': 'how do different antibiotics target different parts of the body?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '306900',
'title': 'Ulnar collateral ligament reconstruction',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "Ulnar collateral ligament reconstruction, also known as Tommy John surgery (TJS), is a surgical graft procedure where the ulnar collateral ligament in the medial elbow is replaced with either a tendon from elsewhere in the patient's body, or with one from a dead donor. The procedure is common among collegiate and professional athletes in several sports, particularly in baseball.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37576463',
'title': 'Ligament (bivalve)',
'section': 'Section::::Composition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'The ligament is an uncalcified elastic structure comprised in its most minimal state of two layers: a lamellar layer and a fibrous layer. The lamellar layer consists entirely of organic material (a protein and collagen matrix), is generally brown in color, and is elastic in response to both compressional and tensional stresses. The fibrous layer is made of aragonite fibers and organic material, is lighter in color and often iridescent, and is elastic only under compressional stress. The protein responsible for the elasticity of the ligament is abductin, which has enormous elastic resiliency: this resiliency is what causes the valves of the bivalve mollusk to open when the adductor muscles relax.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5596320',
'title': 'Equine anatomy',
'section': 'Section::::Ligaments and tendons.:Ligaments.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 76,
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'passage_text': 'Ligaments attach bone to bone or bone to tendon, and are vital in stabilizing joints as well as supporting structures. They are made up of fibrous material that is generally quite strong. Due to their relatively poor blood supply, ligament injuries generally take a long time to heal.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34609402',
'title': 'Ulnar collateral ligament injury of the elbow',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.:Classification.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'A slow and chronic deterioration of the ulnar collateral ligament can be due to repetitive stress acting on the ulna. At first, pain can be bearable and can worsen to an extent where it can terminate an athlete’s career. The repetitive stress placed on the ulna causes micro tears in the ligament resulting in the loss of structural integrity over time. The acute rupture is less common compared to the slow deterioration injury. The acute rupture occurs in collisions when the elbow is in flexion such as that in a wrestling match or a tackle in football. The ulnar collateral ligament distributes over fifty percent of the medial support of the elbow. This can result in an ulnar collateral ligament injury or a dislocated elbow causing severe damage to the elbow and the radioulnar joints.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12493167',
'title': 'Skeletal system of the horse',
'section': 'Section::::Ligaments.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'Ligaments attach bone to bone, and are vital in stabilizing joints as well as supporting structures. They are made up of fibrous material that is generally quite strong. Due to their relatively poor blood supply, ligament injuries generally take a long time to heal.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1263226',
'title': 'Rotator cuff tear',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Surgery.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 101,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 101,
'end_character': 650,
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'passage_text': 'Repair of a complete, full-thickness tear involves tissue suture. The method currently in favor is to place an anchor in the bone at the natural attachment site, with resuture of torn tendon to the anchor. If tissue quality is poor, mesh (collagen, Artelon, or other degradable material) may be used to reinforce the repair. Repair can be performed through an open incision, again requiring detachment of a portion of the deltoid, while a mini-open technique approaches the tear through a deltoid-splitting approach. The latter may cause less injury to muscle and produce better results. Contemporary techniques now use an all arthroscopic approach.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5877449',
'title': 'Coracoacromial ligament',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'The ligament is sometimes described as consisting of two marginal bands and a thinner intervening portion, the two bands being attached respectively to the apex and the base of the coracoid process, and joining together at the acromion.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do completely torn ligaments such as ATFL heal?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Fairly complicated, the simple answer is that cells communicate. A cell can tell other cells where is it, what type of cell it is, and if it’s in some kind of “distress”. There is also a 3 step response when tissue tears, and the first step is basically inflammation. In this step, a ton of different cell types (tissue, stem, blood, immune, etc.) rush to the site of trauma and they all have different jobs. This is where a lot of communicating occurs, and your body is essentially trying to figure out what happened and how it can best be fixed.\n\n\nCells that make up what’s left of the ligament will communicate, and with the help of other cell types, will slowly undergo mitosis and other cellular processes to repair the ligament.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'd4qwkd',
'query': 'how do completely torn ligaments such as atfl heal?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '18838119',
'title': 'Centre of Full Employment and Equity',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'CofFEE states that it seeks to undertake and promote research into the goals of full employment, price stability and achieving an economy that delivers equitable outcomes for all. Its main focus is on macroeconomics, labour economics, regional development and monetary economics.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30714509',
'title': 'Robert W. Thurston',
'section': 'Section::::Bibliography of books published.\n',
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'passage_text': '"Coffee: A Comprehensive Guide to the Bean, the Beverage, and the Industry", senior editor and contributor, Rowman and Littlefield, 2013. The book won a prize from Gourmand Magazine as the best published on coffee in the U.S. in 2013. Named by Library Journal as one of the best reference works of 2013.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7984',
'title': 'Drink',
'section': 'Section::::Types of drink.:Hot drinks.:Coffee.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from the roasted seeds of several species of an evergreen shrub of the genus "Coffea". The two most common sources of coffee beans are the highly regarded "Coffea arabica", and the "robusta" form of the hardier "Coffea canephora". Coffee plants are cultivated in more than 70 countries. Once ripe, coffee "berries" are picked, processed, and dried to yield the seeds inside. The seeds are then roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor, before being ground and brewed to create coffee.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25101599',
'title': 'The Birth of Coffee',
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'passage_text': "The Birth of Coffee is a transmedia project which includes a book of words and images, a photographic exhibit, and a website. It focuses on the people worldwide who grow and produce coffee. The project illustrates how coffee – combined with the volatile locations where it grows and labor-intensive growing processes – often shapes those people's lives.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25259078',
'title': 'The Image Expedition',
'section': 'Section::::Projects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'Research for their second project, The Birth of Coffee, began in 1996. The aim of this project is to help the average coffee-drinker to be aware of the difficult process that laborers must endure in order to grow and produce coffee. A book of their findings from this expedition, "The Birth of Coffee", was published by Random House in 2001.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41936356',
'title': 'List of coffee chemicals',
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'passage_text': 'There are more than 1,000 chemical compounds in coffee, and their molecular and physiological effects are areas of active research in food chemistry. There are a large number of ways to organize coffee compounds. The major texts in the area variously sort by effects on flavor, physiology, pre- and post-roasting effects, growing and processing effects, botanical variety differences, country of origin differences, and many others. Interactions between compounds also is a frequent area of taxonomy, as are the major organic chemistry categories (Protein, carbohydrate, lipid, etc.) that are relevant to the field. In the field of aroma and flavor alone, Flament gives a list of 300 contributing chemicals in green beans, and over 850 after roasting. He lists 16 major categories to cover those compounds related to aroma and flavor.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27403236',
'title': 'CoffeeScript',
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'passage_text': "CoffeeScript is a programming language that transcompiles to JavaScript. It adds syntactic sugar inspired by Ruby, Python and Haskell in an effort to enhance JavaScript's brevity and readability. Specific additional features include list comprehension and pattern matching.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'The Science of Coffee',
'selftext': "I love coffee but it kind of baffles me how just hot water and some ground up beans creates such a drink. What chemical process makes the drink from this? Why is it bad for my teeth if it's just hot water? Why do the grounds taste nothing like a good cup? Thank you!",
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Coffee is a solution - in the same way that mixing salt with water gives you salt water, coffee is bits of coffee mixed in with water.\n\nWhen you grind a coffee bean, there are some parts of the bean that can dissolve in hot water, and other parts that can't. What you're tasting, then, is the bits that *can* dissolve into water leaving the bits that can't dissolve behind in the filter.",
'Unroasted, "green" coffee beans look a bit like a pale green peanut. These beans can keep for years. Once roasted, though, the clock is ticking. Flavorful compounds are fragile and decompose, they\'re sensitive to heat and light, or they gas out with the copious amounts of CO2 the roasted beans produce. These compounds also readily oxidize, turning into bitter compounds. You can slow down the aging by storing your roasted coffee in a vacuum container, but you can\'t stop it - you\'ll even discover your vacuum is lost as the gassing process continues. Pre-grinding coffee only accelerates the process by creating a large surface area for light, heat, and oxygen to attack.\n\nCoffee peaks at 11 hours after roasting, and is dead after a week.\n\nThe soluble compounds also oxidize at an accelerated rate when introduced to hot water, so an extended steep will start turning flavorful compounds into bitter and sour compounds. This is falsely attributed to over extraction, which is also a real thing - after all the desirable compounds are extracted, a prolonged steep will start extracting undesirable compounds. This is why a proper coffee house will brew to order instead of preparing jugs ahead of time. Even if they have something like a large coffee urn, they\'ll change it out after an hour.\n\nTime. Time is your enemy. Time hates your coffee, and by extension hates you. Buy your coffee from a roaster. If your roaster can\'t tell you when your beans were roasted, if it\'s not on the bag, they\'re too old. Get whole beans. Store them in a cool, dry, dark, air-tight container. Grind before you brew, and brew small batches. Experiment with grind sizes appropriate for the brewing method - this is why bur grinders are popular - control will lead to a consistent cup, and dialing it in will help make a better cup. Too small or too large can lead to improper extraction. If you don\'t like "strong" coffee, error on the side of using too many beans, because over-extraction from too few will lead to a bitter cup. Regardless of your brewing method, it all starts with the beans. You can buy the fanciest, most expensive whatever you want, but if you started with stale beans, you\'re going to end with a bad cup. And you can\'t make espresso at home without spending $1k for an entry level machine. There are things that make something similar to espresso, but it isn\'t espresso. Go to a coffee house.'],
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'query': 'the science of coffee',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '29954',
'title': 'Topology',
'section': 'Section::::Concepts.:Manifolds.\n',
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'passage_text': 'While topological spaces can be extremely varied and exotic, many areas of topology focus on the more familiar class of spaces known as manifolds. A "manifold" is a topological space that resembles Euclidean space near each point. More precisely, each point of an -dimensional manifold has a neighborhood that is homeomorphic to the Euclidean space of dimension . Lines and circles, but not figure eights, are one-dimensional manifolds. Two-dimensional manifolds are also called surfaces, although not all surfaces are manifolds. Examples include the plane, the sphere, and the torus, which can all be realized without self-intersection in three dimensions, and the Klein bottle and real projective plane, which cannot (that is, all their realizations are surfaces that are not manifolds).\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '621774',
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'passage_text': 'In mathematics, low-dimensional topology is the branch of topology that studies manifolds, or more generally topological spaces, of four or fewer dimensions. Representative topics are the structure theory of 3-manifolds and 4-manifolds, knot theory, and braid groups. This can be regarded as a part of geometric topology. It may also be used to refer to the study of topological spaces of dimension 1, though this is more typically considered part of continuum theory.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29954',
'title': 'Topology',
'section': 'Section::::Topics.:Geometric topology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 59,
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'passage_text': 'Geometric topology is a branch of topology that primarily focuses on low-dimensional manifolds (i.e. spaces of dimensions 2, 3, and 4) and their interaction with geometry, but it also includes some higher-dimensional topology. Some examples of topics in geometric topology are orientability, handle decompositions, local flatness, crumpling and the planar and higher-dimensional Schönflies theorem.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2119193',
'title': 'Topological manifold',
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'passage_text': 'In topology, a branch of mathematics, a topological manifold is a topological space (which may also be a separated space) which locally resembles real "n"-dimensional space in a sense defined below. Topological manifolds form an important class of topological spaces with applications throughout mathematics. All manifolds are topological manifolds by definition, but many manifolds may be equipped with additional structure (e.g. differentiable manifolds are topological manifolds equipped with a differential structure). When the phrase "topological manifold" is used, it is usually done to emphasize that the manifold does not have any additional structure, or that only the "underlying" topological manifold is being considered. Every manifold has an "underlying" topological manifold, gotten by simply "forgetting" any additional structure the manifold has.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8562',
'title': 'Differential topology',
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'passage_text': 'In mathematics, differential topology is the field dealing with differentiable functions on differentiable manifolds. It is closely related to differential geometry and together they make up the geometric theory of differentiable manifolds.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30450',
'title': 'Topological space',
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'passage_text': 'In topology and related branches of mathematics, a topological space may be defined as a set of points, along with a set of neighbourhoods for each point, satisfying a set of axioms relating points and neighbourhoods. The definition of a topological space relies only upon set theory and is the most general notion of a mathematical space that allows for the definition of concepts such as continuity, connectedness, and convergence. Other spaces, such as manifolds and metric spaces, are specializations of topological spaces with extra structures or constraints. Being so general, topological spaces are a central unifying notion and appear in virtually every branch of modern mathematics. The branch of mathematics that studies topological spaces in their own right is called point-set topology or general topology.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18973446',
'title': 'Geometry',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Topology is the field concerned with the properties of geometric objects that are unchanged by continuous mappings. In practice, this often means dealing with large-scale properties of spaces, such as connectedness and compactness.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Topology/Topological Manifold',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Mathematics',
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'answers': ['Topology: the study of the geometric properties of a space/surface and which properties are affected by changing that shape/space through a continuous deformation (i.e. no rips/tears and no gluing); or the rules governing a specific topological space or manifold. \n\nTopological Manifold: A surface (or group of surfaces) with given properties (such as a metric, a specific number of holes/openings, etc.) \n\nFor example, a doughnut and a coffee mug belong to the same manifold (a solid with a single hole) which can be deformed from one to the other without changing some properties. A topologist would then look at what happens during the transformation to things like distance between points and any changes to a circle (does it get bigger smaller etc.)'],
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'query_id': 'ehqnmn',
'query': 'topology/topological manifold',
'query_type': 'Mathematics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '19236411',
'title': 'Thin film lithium-ion battery',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'Lithium-ion batteries store chemical energy in reactive chemicals at the anodes and cathodes of a cell. Typically, anodes and cathodes exchange lithium (Li+) ions through a fluid electrolyte that passes through a porous separator which prevents direct contact between the anode and cathode. Such contact would lead to an internal short circuit and a potentially hazardous uncontrolled reaction. Electric current is usually carried by conductive collectors at the anodes and cathodes to and from the negative and positive terminals of the cell (respectively).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '201485',
'title': 'Lithium-ion battery',
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'passage_text': 'A lithium-ion battery or Li-ion battery (abbreviated as LIB) is a type of rechargeable battery. Lithium-ion batteries are commonly used for portable electronics and electric vehicles and are growing in popularity for military and aerospace applications. It was developed by John Goodenough, Rachid Yazami and Akira Yoshino in the 1980s, building on a concept proposed by M Stanley Whittingham in the 1970s.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35508054',
'title': 'Aluminium-ion battery',
'section': 'Section::::Lithium-ion comparison.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
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'passage_text': 'Today’s lithium ion batteries have high power density (fast discharge) and high energy density (hold a lot of charge). It can also develop dendrites, similar to splinters, that can short-circuit a battery and lead to a fire. Aluminum also transfers energy more efficiently. Inside a battery, atoms of the element — lithium or aluminum — give up some of their electrons, which flow through external wires to power a device. Because of their atomic structure, lithium ions can only provide one electron at a time; aluminum can give three at a time. Aluminum is also more abundant than lithium, lowering material costs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19236411',
'title': 'Thin film lithium-ion battery',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Renewable energy storage devices.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
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'passage_text': 'The thin film lithium ion battery can serve as a storage device for the energy collected from renewable sources with a variable generation rate, such as a solar cell or wind turbine. These batteries can be made to have a low self discharge rate, which means that these batteries can be stored for long periods of time without a major loss of the energy that was used to charge it. These fully charged batteries could then be used to power some or all of the other potential applications listed below, or provide more reliable power to an electric grid for general use.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24429024',
'title': 'Lithium–air battery',
'section': 'Section::::Design and operation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'In general lithium ions move between the anode and the cathode across the electrolyte. Under discharge, electrons follow the external circuit to do electric work and the lithium ions migrate to the cathode. During charge the lithium metal plates onto the anode, freeing at the cathode. Both non-aqueous (with LiO or LiO as the discharge products) and aqueous (LiOH as the discharge product) Li-O batteries have been considered. The aqueous battery requires a protective layer on the negative electrode to keep the Li metal from reacting with water.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '201485',
'title': 'Lithium-ion battery',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'In the batteries lithium ions move from the negative electrode to the positive electrode during discharge and back when charging. Li-ion batteries use an intercalated lithium compound as one electrode material, compared to the metallic lithium used in a non-rechargeable lithium battery. The batteries have a high energy density, no memory effect (other than LFP cells) and low self-discharge. They can however be a safety hazard since they contain a flammable electrolyte, and if damaged or incorrectly charged can lead to explosions and fires. Samsung were forced to recall Galaxy Note 7 handsets following lithium-ion fires, and there have been several incidents involving batteries on Boeing 787s.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41476230',
'title': 'Lithium-ion flow battery',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'A lithium-ion flow battery is a flow battery that uses a form of lightweight lithium as its charge carrier. The flow battery stores energy separately from its system for discharging. The amount of energy it can store is determined by tank size; its power density is determined by the size of the reaction chamber.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do lithium ion batteries work?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['A lithium ion battery uses charged lithium particles (ions) to move electricity from one end of the battery to another. As energy leaves the battery, these lithium ions move from the negative side of the battery to the positive side, forming a conductive lithium layer that releases electricity. When all the ions are on the positive side of the battery, the battery is spent and no longer releases electricity. When the battery is put in a charger, the sides flip temporarily, and the addition of electrical energy to the lithium causes the ions to move back to the negative side of the battery, making the battery ready for use again.\n\nBecause of these properties, lithium ion batteries are among the more common rechargeable batteries for home electronic use. '],
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'query_id': '6ajfcq',
'query': 'how do lithium ion batteries work?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '33239102',
'title': 'South African contract law',
'section': 'Section::::Breach of contract.:Forms of breach.:"Mora".:"Mora creditoris".\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 599,
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'passage_text': 'Unless he cancels the contract, or obtains an order compelling the creditor to accept his performance, it is not clear how the debtor can discharge his debt without having to wait until the period of prescription has run, or until performance has become impossible. Consignation (payment into court with notice to the creditor) appears to have fallen into desuetude, and is in any event impossible or impracticable in many cases (as in the case where perishables are to be delivered). Whether the debtor may sell the goods for the account of the creditor is also uncertain.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1345821',
'title': 'Unsecured debt',
'section': 'Section::::National differences.:United States.\n',
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'end_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'Failure to make a payment on an unsecured debt may ultimately result in reporting the delinquent debt to a credit reporting agency or legal action. However, a nongovernmental unsecured creditor cannot seize any of your assets without a court judgment in the U.S.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '146738',
'title': 'Interest',
'section': 'Section::::Market interest rates.:Default interest.\n',
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'end_paragraph_id': 113,
'end_character': 269,
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'passage_text': "From the borrower's perspective, this means failure to make their regular payment for one or two payment periods or failure to pay taxes or insurance premiums for the loan collateral will lead to substantially higher interest for the entire remaining term of the loan.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '934442',
'title': 'Debtor',
'section': '',
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'end_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': "It is not a crime to fail to pay a debt. Except in certain bankruptcy situations, debtors can choose to pay debts in any priority they choose. But if one fails to pay a debt, they have broken a contract or agreement between them and a creditor. Generally, most oral and written agreements for the repayment of consumer debt - debts for personal, family or household purposes secured primarily by a person's residence - are enforceable.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '152835',
'title': 'Debt',
'section': 'Section::::Terms.:Default provisions.\n',
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'end_character': 203,
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'passage_text': 'If the debt was secured by specific collateral, such as a car or home, the creditor may seek to repossess the collateral. In more serious circumstances, individuals and companies may go into bankruptcy.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16345409',
'title': 'Mortgage Forgiveness Debt Relief Act of 2007',
'section': 'Section::::Meaning of “Cancellation of Debt”.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 573,
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'passage_text': 'If you’ve borrowed money and your lender cancels/terminates or forgives the outstanding loan balance owed to you at a later stage, then you, as per the Internal Revenue Service will be liable to file an income tax return on the forgiven debt amount with respect to the corresponding situations. At the time of loan origination, the loan money that you received weren’t considered as an income because you made an agreement to pay back the borrowed sum to the lender, i.e., it was your obligation to repay the loan amount as per the signed contract’s terms and conditions. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35683295',
'title': 'Civil procedure in South Africa',
'section': 'Section::::Post-litigation.:Debt collection.\n',
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'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 682,
'end_character': 399,
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'passage_text': 'As noted by Sachs J in "Coetzee", the small debtor without means will no longer be faced with imprisonment, from which he can only be rescued by family or friends. Further, creditors will no longer be able to extend credit on the basis that the debt can be exacted through fear of imprisonment. Credit should be extended only to those who are creditworthy, and to those who provide proper security.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What would happen to a person when they cannot afford payment to a loan/debt.',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['In the US, they may be able to file for bankruptcy protection, discharging the debt if the person has no way of paying the debt (except for selling off essential assets).',
'This varies widely by what state you live in and what kind of debt.. Business debt, mortgages and other standard loans can usually be handled through bankruptcy. Student loans will haunt you until you die and then dig you up and demand payment. Go murica.',
"They default on a loan which means they can't pay it back, they may have to declare bankruptcy. Their credit gets ruined and for most loans the credit bereau is told to basically just forget about the loan and take the loss. This is worst case\n\n\nIf you just miss a payment on a loan then you get a ding to your credit for non-payment however a single non-payment from a late payment won't be too damaging and can even potentially removed from your credit history in some circumstances.\n\n\nIn general, credit bereaus will try to work with people to have lower payments that they can afford because they would rather have a loan take longer to be repaid than to take the loss."],
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'query_id': 'dxl1yc',
'query': 'what would happen to a person when they cannot afford payment to a loan/debt.',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '46630',
'title': 'Embedded system',
'section': 'Section::::Characteristics.:User interface.\n',
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'end_character': 598,
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'passage_text': 'Some systems provide user interface remotely with the help of a serial (e.g. RS-232, USB, I²C, etc.) or network (e.g. Ethernet) connection. This approach gives several advantages: extends the capabilities of embedded system, avoids the cost of a display, simplifies BSP and allows one to build a rich user interface on the PC. A good example of this is the combination of an embedded web server running on an embedded device (such as an IP camera) or a network router. The user interface is displayed in a web browser on a PC connected to the device, therefore needing no software to be installed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2236556',
'title': 'Small form factor',
'section': 'Section::::SFF types.:Computer-on-module.\n',
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'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
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'passage_text': 'A computer-on-module (COM) is a complete computer built on a single circuit board. They are often used as embedded systems due to their small physical size and low power consumption. Gumstix is one manufacturer of COMs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '249402',
'title': 'Computer terminal',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Contemporary.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 43,
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'passage_text': 'Since the advent and subsequent popularization of the personal computer, few genuine hardware terminals are used to interface with computers today. Using the monitor and keyboard, modern operating systems like Linux and the BSD derivatives feature virtual consoles, which are mostly independent from the hardware used.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '746469',
'title': 'Phototypesetting',
'section': 'Section::::History.:1980s.:Transition to computers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
'end_character': 271,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Some companies, such as TeleTypesetting Co. created software and hardware interfaces between personal computers like the Apple II and IBM PS/2 and phototypesetting machines which provided computers equipped with it the capability to connect to phototypesetting machines.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33231878',
'title': 'Virtual Computer',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 708,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Founded by Alex Vasilevsky, Virtual Computer is a venture-backed software company in the Boston area that produces desktop virtualization products, which combine centralized management with local execution on a hypervisor running on PCs. Virtual Computer has developed a type-1 hypervisor that runs directly on end-user PCs, delivering native PC performance and mobility. By running the workload on the PC, Virtual Computer enables companies to have centralized management without servers, storage, and networking required for server-hosted VDI. The technology supports shared image management, enabling an IT professional to manage thousands of desktops and laptops the same way that they would manage one.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13856089',
'title': 'History of IBM mainframe operating systems',
'section': 'Section::::Technical notes.:Virtual machine.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 132,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 132,
'end_character': 403,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Virtual machine techniques enable several operating systems ("guest" operating systems) or other software to run on the same computer so that each thinks it has a whole computer to itself, and each of these simulated whole computers is called a "virtual machine". The operating system which really controls the computer is usually called a hypervisor. Two of the major components of the hypervisor are:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8031181',
'title': 'Computer-on-module',
'section': 'Section::::Design.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 382,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'COMs are complete embedded computers built on a single circuit board. The design is centered on a microprocessor with RAM, input/output controllers and all other features needed to be a functional computer on the one board. However, unlike a single-board computer, the COM usually lacks the standard connectors for any input/output peripherals to be attached directly to the board.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do some offices have a PC connected to a virtual machine?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["In my organization, we dealt with a large amount of sensitive data. SSNs, DOBs, Names, Addresses etc. We are laptop heavy and our rules stated that we were never allowed to work with that type of data on our local machine, and must be signed into a remote server.\n\nThe idea behind that is to ensure that no sensitive material is stored on the actual machine in case of theft or breach. The remote server machine is much more secure.\n\nAdditionally, it's two step credentialing. One log in for the local machine, a separate username and pw for the remote machine.",
'For my firm, working from a virtual server means that updates are significantly easier. Having to update a program individually on 600+ computers would be an IT nightmare (for obvious security reasons, workers do not have the rights to install programs themselves). Working on a virtual machine allows IT to update much more quickly and smoothly.',
"We have a certain number of licenses for very expensive software that only exist on virtual machines. We are a global company so folks on one side of the world are using the very expensive software while the other side of the world sleeps and then vice versa. We don't have to buy a license for everyone in the company to have this software locally, just enough to support the folks working at any given time.",
"When the user connects a VM is spun up using a copy of IT's VM template. IT can control the VM template, to patch it or whatever, without any pesky users. If something goes wrong, or some malware gets in the VM - poof it gets blown away when the user logs out and a new VM is made from the template when they log in again. This ends persistent malware.",
"Because you can use **any** PC to connect to that **same** VM.\n\nYou get the same desktop whether you are in your office, at home or at a remote worksite. If you spill coffee on your laptop, you don't have to worry about the last time you backed up, everything is backed up at once on the VM server. The *real* machines are locked up in a data center and babysat by experts, so you don't have to care so much about the other ones. You can also get away with giving everyone cheaper, less powerful hardware. \n\nThere are security and support advantages as well. Laptop get stolen? Stupid employees put malware on their machines? Need to install a crucial security patch **right now**? The VM acts as a firewall, giving the company complete control of the important parts will leaving the employees with a lot of flexibility."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '9e4h4l',
'query': 'why do some offices have a pc connected to a virtual machine?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '12773567',
'title': 'Arboreal locomotion',
'section': 'Section::::Climbing without trees.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 42,
'end_character': 282,
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'passage_text': 'Many animals climb in other habitats, such as in rock piles or mountains, and in those habitats, many of the same principles apply due to inclines, narrow ledges, and balance issues. However, less research has been conducted on the specific demands of locomotion in these habitats.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12773567',
'title': 'Arboreal locomotion',
'section': 'Section::::Climbing without trees.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 43,
'end_character': 672,
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'passage_text': 'Perhaps the most exceptional of the animals that move on steep or even near vertical rock faces by careful balancing and leaping are the various types of mountain dwelling caprid such as the Barbary sheep, markhor, yak, ibex, tahr, rocky mountain goat, and chamois. Their adaptations may include a soft rubbery pad between their hooves for grip, hooves with sharp keratin rims for lodging in small footholds, and prominent dew claws. The snow leopard, being a predator of such mountain caprids, also has spectacular balance and leaping abilities; being able to leap up to ≈17m (~50\xa0ft). Other balancers and leapers include the mountain zebra, mountain tapir, and hyraxes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '619020',
'title': 'Mountain goat',
'section': 'Section::::General appearance and characteristics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 338,
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'passage_text': "The mountain goat's feet are well-suited for climbing steep, rocky slopes with pitches exceeding 60°, with inner pads that provide traction and cloven hooves that can spread apart. The tips of their feet have sharp dewclaws that keep them from slipping. They have powerful shoulder and neck muscles that help propel them up steep slopes.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '219151',
'title': 'Highland cattle',
'section': 'Section::::Breed characteristics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 217,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Their skill in foraging for food allows them to survive in steep mountain areas where they both graze and eat plants that many other cattle avoid. They can dig through the snow with their horns to find buried plants.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1132756',
'title': 'Animal locomotion',
'section': 'Section::::Terrestrial.:Brachiation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 48,
'end_character': 535,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Some animals are specialized for moving on non-horizontal surfaces. One common habitat for such climbing animals is in trees, for example the gibbon is specialized for arboreal movement, traveling rapidly by brachiation. Another case is animals like the snow leopard living on steep rock faces such as are found in mountains. Some light animals are able to climb up smooth sheer surfaces or hang upside down by adhesion using suckers. Many insects can do this, though much larger animals such as geckos can also perform similar feats.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '79522',
'title': 'Himalayan tahr',
'section': 'Section::::Physiology.:General.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 583,
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'passage_text': 'As a member of the ungulate group of mammals, the Himalayan tahr possesses an even number of toes. They have adapted the unique ability to grasp both smooth and rough surfaces that are typical of the mountainous terrain on which they reside. This useful characteristic also helps their mobility. The hooves of the tahr have a rubber-like core which allows for gripping smooth rocks while keratin at the rim of their hooves allow increased hoof durability, which is important for traversing the rocky ground. This adaptation allows for confident and swift maneuvering of the terrain.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '427445',
'title': 'Hoof',
'section': 'Section::::Management.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 779,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Hooves grow continuously. In nature, wild animals are capable of wearing down the hoof as it continuously grows, but captive domesticated species often must undergo specific hoof care for a healthy, functional hoof. Proper care improves biomechanical efficiency and prevents lameness. If not worn down enough by use, such as in the dairy industry, hooves may need to be trimmed by a farrier. However, too much wear can result in damage of the hooves, and for this reason, horseshoes and oxshoes are used by animals that routinely walk on hard surfaces and carry heavy weight. Within the equine world, the expression, "no foot, no horse" emphasizes the importance of hoof health. Lameness, behind infertility and mastitis, is the biggest cause of economic loss to a dairy farmer.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do hooves make animals better at climbing mountains?',
'selftext': 'Wondering how mountain goats are so good a climbing. How to hooves help them?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Mountain goats have special hooves that are like a pirate's hook with soft padding to help adjust. They suck at running long distance running but are great at scaling verticle surfaces because of this.",
'From what I’ve read the two hooves in the front of each foot has a hard edge able to grip the rocks and a soft center pad. A sort of combo of a cats claw (gripping with sharp edge) and horse hoof (soft bottom for traction) the hooves can move independently to help it climb. _URL_0_',
"If climbing and you stand on a small edge (a bit of rock sticking out that's anything from a couple of inches wide down to a few millimetres), when you put weight on it in bare feet or trainers the sole will bend as its flaubert and your weight is distributed across the whole area, most of which is unsupported.\n\nClimbing shoes And, more relevant to hooves, mountaineering boots, have much more inflexible and solid soles. Mountaineering and walking boots even have a scale of hardness/inflexibility - b1 to b3 with b3 being totally inflexible. These allow you to put a tiny area of the boot on an edge and put your weight on it.\n\nHooves are the same as in they are far more solid and inflexible than eg paws."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'e1txf4',
'query': 'how do hooves make animals better at climbing mountains?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2061975',
'title': 'Stomatitis',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Angular stomatitis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 383,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Inflammation of the corners (angles) of the lips is termed angular stomatitis or angular cheilitis. In children a frequent cause is repeated lip-licking, and in adults it may be a sign of underlying iron deficiency anemia, or vitamin B deficiencies ("e.g.", B-riboflavin, B-folate, or B-cobalamin, which in turn may be evidence of poor diets or malnutrition such as celiac disease).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55794154',
'title': "Lip licker's dermatitis",
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 542,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Lip licker's dermatitis, popularly known as perioral dermatitis, is an irritant contact dermatitis on and around the lips due to saliva from repetitive lip licking. Involving children more than adults, the resulting papules, scaling, erythema and occasional fissures and crusting make a well-defined ring around the lips. The rash extends as far as the tongue can reach and frequently spares the angle of the mouth. Unlike periorificial dermatitis, the vermillion border of the lip is often involved and the treatment is simple moisturisers.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6703108',
'title': 'Cheilitis',
'section': 'Section::::Chapped lips.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 385,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Lip licking, biting, or rubbing habits are frequently involved. Counterintuitively, constant licking of the lips causes drying and irritation, and eventually the mucosa splits or cracks. The lips have a greater tendency to dry out in cold, dry weather. Digestive enzymes present in saliva may also irritate the lips, and the evaporation of the water in saliva saps moisture from them.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6703108',
'title': 'Cheilitis',
'section': 'Section::::Chapped lips.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 422,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Chapped lips (also cheilitis simplex or common cheilitis) are characterized by cracking, fissuring, and peeling of the skin of the lips, and are one of the most common types of cheilitis. While both lips may be affected, the lower lip is the most common site. There may also be burning or the formation of large, painful cracks when the lips are stretched. Chronic cheilitis simplex can progress to crusting and bleeding.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24815723',
'title': 'Mouth assessment',
'section': 'Section::::Lips.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 342,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The lips are normally symmetrical, pink, smooth, and moist. There should be no growths, lumps, or discoloration of the tissue. Abnormal findings are asymmetricality, cyanosis, a cherry-red or pale color or dryness. Diseases include mucocele, aphthous ulcer, angular stomatitis, carcinoma, cleft lip, leukoplakia, herpes simplex and chelitis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '74240',
'title': 'Anaphylaxis',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Skin.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 410,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Symptoms typically include generalized hives, itchiness, flushing, or swelling (angioedema) of the afflicted tissues. Those with angioedema may describe a burning sensation of the skin rather than itchiness. Swelling of the tongue or throat occurs in up to about 20% of cases. Other features may include a runny nose and swelling of the conjunctiva. The skin may also be blue tinged because of lack of oxygen.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '781661',
'title': 'Ketoconazole',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 474,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Common side effects when applied to the skin include redness. Common side effects when taken by mouth include nausea, headache, and liver problems. Liver problems may result in death or the need for a liver transplantation. Other severe side effect when taken by mouth include QT prolongation, adrenocortical insufficiency, and anaphylaxis. It is an imidazole and works by affecting the production of ergosterol required for the fungal cell membrane thereby slowing growth.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do your lips peel when you’re sick?',
'selftext': 'Currently sick and pissed because my lips hurt',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["lip skin is different than regular sin & doesn't make it's own lipid.\n\nIt comes from the skin around your lips & those pores could be clogged. As an experiment you could try AHA cream on that skin, or just get good chapstick.",
'I think it may be a combo of dehydration and breathing more through your mouth if your nose is stuffy. \n\nDo you have a good chap stick? Burts Bees or something similar can be a game changer. Olive oil could also help.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'a9p29l',
'query': 'why do your lips peel when you’re sick?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '5751925',
'title': '4-Aminophenol',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 294,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Reflecting its slightly hydrophilic character, the white powder is moderately soluble in alcohols and can be recrystallized from hot water. In the presence of a base, it oxidizes readily. The methylated derivatives "N"-methylaminophenol and "N","N"-dimethylaminophenol are of commercial value.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '263156',
'title': 'Ouzo',
'section': 'Section::::Appearance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 415,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Ouzo is a clear liquid. However, when water or ice is added, ouzo turns a milky-white colour. This is because anethole, the essential oil of anise, is completely soluble in alcohol at approximately 38% ABV and above, but not in water. Diluting the spirit causes it to separate creating an emulsion, whose fine droplets scatter the light. This process is called louching, and is also found while preparing absinthe.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6102',
'title': 'Cyan',
'section': 'Section::::In science and nature.:Color of water.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 286,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Pure water is nearly colorless. However, it does absorb slightly more red light than blue, giving large volumes of water a bluish tint; increased scattering of blue light due to fine particles in the water shifts the blue color toward green, for a typically cyan net color.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3419391',
'title': 'Purple-K',
'section': 'Section::::Characteristics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 478,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Purple-K powder has an acrid taste and odor, is free-flowing, floating on most liquids, non-abrasive, does not wet with water and is compatible with most foam concentrates. It has violet color, to distinguish it from other dry agents. Its principal component is potassium bicarbonate (78–82% by weight), with addition of sodium bicarbonate (12–15%), mica (1–3%), Fuller's earth (1–3%), amorphous silica (0.2–%), and is made hydrophobic by methyl hydrogen polysiloxane (0.2–1%).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18448384',
'title': 'Seidlitz powders',
'section': 'Section::::Composition and use.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 513,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The powders were often packaged in a small envelope containing two coloured paper wraps, one white and one blue. The white packets contained tartaric acid, and the blue packets contained a mixture of 75% w/w Rochelle salt (potassium sodium tartrate) and 25% baking soda (sodium bicarbonate). The powdery contents of both packets were stirred or dissolved separately in water and then mixed, giving off carbon dioxide with a characteristic fizzing sound. The drink was described as "a cooling, agreeable draught".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20107445',
'title': 'Taurolidine',
'section': 'Section::::Chemical properties.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 352,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'It is a white to off white odourless crystalline powder. It is practically insoluble in chloroform, slightly soluble in boiling acetone, ethanol, methanol, and ethyl acetate, sparingly soluble in water 8 at 20° and ethyl alcohol, soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid, and dilute sodium hydroxide, and freely soluble in N,N-dimethylformamide (at 60\xa0°C).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14952464',
'title': 'Alcohol thermometer',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 359,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The liquid used can be pure ethanol, toluene, kerosene or isoamyl acetate, depending on manufacturer and working temperature range. Since these are transparent, the liquid is made more visible by the addition of a red or blue dye. One half of the glass containing the capillary is usually enamelled white or yellow to give a background for reading the scale.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why are some drink powders white but then turn a bright/deep shade after adding water',
'selftext': "I noticed this happens with a lot or drink mixes mostly red ones. I'm curious how that works.",
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Artificial food coloring is extremely concentrated. A couple of granules, hidden among the white granules that make up most of the drink mix, are all it takes.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'dbk0mw',
'query': 'why are some drink powders white but then turn a bright/deep shade after adding water',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '38014779',
'title': 'Hooked: Muscle Women',
'section': 'Section::::Plot.:Colette Nelson.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 336,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Dr. Pope said that when individuals have a regular workout regimen, but sustain an injury, they can't wait to get back to working out and that it has a psychiatric protective effect for them. He also said their instincts are to get back to work and if they allow their working out to lapse too long then bad things may start to happen.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '622572',
'title': 'Collegiate wrestling',
'section': 'Section::::Injuries and infections.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 55,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 55,
'end_character': 231,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Is caused by overexerting. The body symptoms are fatigue, lack of motivation, losing body weight, decreased performance, depression, insomnia and immune system weakening. This can affect the athlete mentally as well as physically.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12646543',
'title': 'Long-term complications of standing',
'section': 'Section::::Complications.:Muscle fatigue.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 337,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Research has shown that the body experiences muscle fatigue after standing for five hours; this fatigue persists for more than 30 minutes after the end of the work day according to electronic measurements of fatigue. The perception of fatigue is subjective and does not necessarily correlate with the experimental indicators of fatigue.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43766599',
'title': 'Mallory Haldeman',
'section': 'Section::::Competitive philosophy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 838,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Haldeman stated in an article posted on Muscle Foods USA\'s website: "I found fitness more by circumstance than anything else. I had an injury (2009) that resulted in my inability to walk or run for quite some time. It was recommended to me that I try weight training during this time to keep in shape and help reduces my recovery time. At the time I had zero interest in lifting weights or making a daily trip to the gym. It didn’t take long, however, until I found that I loved what resistance training can do to your body. After only a few short weeks I was hooked and started to learn everything I could about sculpting and building my physique….and although a few years have passed since then I am just as excited learning about everything health and fitness related ! It is a life style that I have completely submerged myself in!" \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8784950',
'title': 'Shaunaka Rishi Das',
'section': 'Section::::Personal faith.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 223,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Over the next few years as I tried the ‘lose-weight-without-any-change’ method, as I wore ever tighter clothes, and weighed myself to depression, I felt doomed. My lowest point was the day I weighed myself after a haircut.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2530403',
'title': 'Message in a Bottle (novel)',
'section': 'Section::::Plot summary.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 370,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Even work does not take the pain away. I may be diving for my own pleasure or showing others how to do so, but when I return to the shop, it seems empty without you. I stock and order as I always did, but even now, I sometimes glance over my shoulder without thinking and call for you. As I write this note to you, I wonder when, or if, things like that will ever stop.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1633601',
'title': 'Cam Neely',
'section': 'Section::::Career.:Post-NHL.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 578,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "I wish that my lungs felt as good as my hip. If I last four days (of practice) in a row and my hip's barking at me, then that's all she wrote. I know how I felt when I had to retire and I know how I'm feeling now. It's not really how I want to feel. It was fun while I was out there but each day I skated, the pain just kind of lingered a lot longer than I would have liked. I was feeling really good and had started getting some different treatment. I practiced a few times with the Bruins but after some really hard practices, realized there was just no way I could continue.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How come after only a couple days of not working out, I feel and look like I'm not in good shape anymore?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It takes a lot of energy to maintain muscle mass. If you aren\'t using it your body thinks it\'s better off "eating" it. Bodies are built for survival, not peak performance.',
"It's honestly a mental thing. If you think you look/feel good, then you will (if you're pretty healthy). I know that I feel like I'm in a funk when I don't work out for a few days. It's all in my head, though. ",
"Endorphins post workout can help boost your self-esteem and may help you feel better about your body image. Those effects can wear off after some time if you don't continue to work out. Relatively to how you felt before, you may not feel as great. ",
"Our body gets used to stretching it's muscles and having blood flow at an increased rate. After a couple of days of not working out we may feel out of shape because our body is craving exercise. We may also look slightly less bulky since we aren't pumping blood at an increased rate, but it is mostly all in our head. ",
'Its all in your head, trust me. Thats the mentality with working out is you feel you havs to keep pushing and you should always go to bed with sore arms/legs/chest or whatever you just trained, otherwise youll miss out.\n\nIf youre training for mass, youll find your muscles do take a fair while to deteriorate due to inactivity. Like up to 2 months IIRC. But your strength will decrease faster no doubt. Rest is healthy for gains but you cant do it too much or else your body will get too comfortable and soften up.\n\nConsequently thinking you look worse for missing a week or so is a mental state you enter due to feeling lazy and sluggish.\n\nTl:dr its all in your head.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6rgvis',
'query': "how come after only a couple days of not working out, i feel and look like i'm not in good shape anymore?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1969542',
'title': 'Extraocular muscles',
'section': 'Section::::Function.:Movement coordination.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 457,
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'passage_text': 'Intermediate directions are controlled by simultaneous actions of multiple muscles. When one shifts the gaze horizontally, one eye will move laterally (toward the side) and the other will move medially (toward the midline). This may be neurally coordinated by the central nervous system, to make the eyes move together and almost involuntarily. This is a key factor in the study of strabismus, namely, the inability of the eyes to be directed to one point.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9170159',
'title': 'Binocular disparity',
'section': 'Section::::Definition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'Human eyes are horizontally separated by about 50–75\xa0mm (interpupillary distance) depending on each individual. Thus, each eye has a slightly different view of the world around. This can be easily seen when alternately closing one eye while looking at a vertical edge. The binocular disparity can be observed from apparent horizontal shift of the vertical edge between both views.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1894873',
'title': 'Eye movement',
'section': 'Section::::Physiology.:Vestibulo-ocular system.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 43,
'end_character': 472,
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'passage_text': 'The brain must point both eyes accurately enough that the object of regard falls on corresponding points of the two retinas to avoid the perception of double vision. In most vertebrates (humans, mammals, reptiles, birds), the movements of different body parts are controlled by striated muscles acting around joints. The movement of the eye is slightly different in that the eyes are not rigidly attached to anything, but are held in the orbit by six extraocular muscles.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20451156',
'title': 'Conjugate eye movement',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'One and a half syndrome: “One and a half syndrome” also affects horizontal gaze. One eye is completely incapable of horizontal movement, while the other eye is capable of horizontal movement only in one direction away from the midline.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '192280',
'title': 'Binocular vision',
'section': 'Section::::Disorders.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 40,
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'passage_text': "To maintain stereopsis and singleness of vision, the eyes need to be pointed accurately. The position of each eye in its orbit is controlled by six extraocular muscles. Slight differences in the length or insertion position or strength of the same muscles in the two eyes can lead to a tendency for one eye to drift to a different position in its orbit from the other, especially when one is tired. This is known as phoria. One way to reveal it is with the cover-uncover test. To do this test, look at a cooperative person's eyes. Cover one eye of that person with a card. Have the person look at your finger tip. Move the finger around; this is to break the reflex that normally holds a covered eye in the correct vergence position. Hold your finger steady and then uncover the person's eye. Look at the uncovered eye. You may see it flick quickly from being wall-eyed or cross-eyed to its correct position. If the uncovered eye moved from out to in, the person has esophoria. If it moved from in to out, the person has exophoria. If the eye did not move at all, the person has orthophoria. Most people have some amount of exophoria or esophoria; it is quite normal. If the uncovered eye also moved vertically, the person has hyperphoria (if the eye moved from down to up) or hypophoria (if the eye moved from up to down). Such vertical phorias are quite rare. It is also possible for the covered eye to rotate in its orbit. Such cyclophorias cannot be seen with the cover-uncover test; they are rarer than vertical phorias.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3407720',
'title': 'Exotropia',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 555,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The brain\'s ability to see three-dimensional objects depends on proper alignment of the eyes. When both eyes are properly aligned and aimed at the same target, the visual portion of the brain fuses the forms into a single image. When one eye turns inward, outward, upward, or downward, two different pictures are sent to the brain. This causes loss of depth perception and binocular vision. There have also been some reports of people that can "control" their afflicted eye. The term is from Greek "exo" meaning "outward" and "trope" meaning "a turning".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '192280',
'title': 'Binocular vision',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 626,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Other phenomena of binocular vision include utrocular discrimination (the ability to tell which of two eyes has been stimulated by light), eye dominance (the habit of using one eye when aiming something, even if both eyes are open), allelotropia (the averaging of the visual direction of objects viewed by each eye when both eyes are open), binocular fusion or singleness of vision (seeing one object with both eyes despite each eye's having its own image of the object), and binocular rivalry (seeing one eye's image alternating randomly with the other when each eye views images that are so different they cannot be fused).\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why can healthy eyes look in only one direction, i.e. why can’t our eyes look in different directions from each other?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Our eyes can look in different directions. When you look at the tip of your nose, your left eye is looking right, and your right eye is looking left.',
"They can be trained to look independently, but our body was evolutionarily selected for the two eyes to work together. It's hard to break the instinct to utilize them in tandem, and there is very little advantage to doing that.",
"Under normal conditions, there's these control centers in your brain that tell your eye muscles to move at the same time. Your brain has to receive the same image from both eyes so that it can paint the world around you. If the left eye is looking to the left and the right eye is looking to the right, then the images don't match up and it makes you feel sick.\n\nLonger, not ELI5:\nLight enters your eyes and the information goes to the optic nerve, optic chiasm, and ultimately to the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe (back of your head). Information is processed here and the output is sent to the muscles that control the eyes via cranial nerves (CN) 3, 4, and 6. CN 3 controls basically every eye muscle except for the superior oblique (CN 4) and the lateral rectus (CN 6). However, before the information from the primary visual cortex can be transmitted to the eye muscles, it has to go through certain control centers. One of which is the medial longitudinal fasciculus (MLF). The MLF is responsible for conjugate horizontal gaze which means it makes sure that the muscles for looking left and right contract at the same time so that your eyes are moving in sync. It does this by sending information to CN 3 (responsible for medial rectus) and CN 6 (responsible for lateral rectus). There's another area called the rostral interstitial nucleus that is responsible for conjugate vertical gaze, which is for looking up and down.",
'Some species have binocular vision, meaning two eyes pointed the same direction, and this gives them depth perception. You need two images to form a 3D picture. Predators tend to have this so they can target prey accurately.\n\nMeanwhile prey animals frequently have eyes on opposite sides of their head (which cannot physically look at the same object at the same time). For these animals, it’s more important to be able to look all around for danger so they can flee rapidly. Seeing the danger with great precision isn’t that important because the result will still be the same: they’ll just run away as fast as they can.\n\nWhichever system an animal’s eyes are set up for, its brain is also set up for. Brain matter is expensive in terms of maintenance calories and animals tend to have as much as they need and no more. There doesn’t seem to be an animal that got SO much use out of switching between binocular/dual monocular that it was worth the cost of the added brain structures. Either that or it just wasn’t useful enough that environment and natural selection drove any species toward it at all.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'eu7wxk',
'query': 'why can healthy eyes look in only one direction, i.e. why can’t our eyes look in different directions from each other?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3723097',
'title': 'Puddle',
'section': 'Section::::Puddles on roads.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'Puddles commonly form during rain, and can cause problems for transport. Due to the angle of the road, puddles tend to be forced by gravity to gather on the edges of the road. This can cause splashing as cars drive through the puddles, which causes water to be sprayed onto pedestrians on the pavement. Irresponsible drivers may do this deliberately, which, in some countries, can lead to prosecution for careless driving.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3723097',
'title': 'Puddle',
'section': 'Section::::Physics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': 'Due to the action of surface tension, small puddles can also form if a liquid is spilt on a level surface. Puddles like this are common on kitchen floors. Puddles tend to evaporate quickly due to the high surface-area-to-volume ratio and tend to be short lived. In cold conditions puddles can form patches of ice which are slippery and difficult to see and can be a hazard to road vehicles and pedestrians.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3723097',
'title': 'Puddle',
'section': 'Section::::Puddles on roads.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 268,
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'passage_text': 'Puddles commonly form in potholes in a dirt road, or in any other space with a shallow depression and dirt. In such cases, these are sometimes referred to as "mud puddles", because mud tends to form in the bottoms, resulting in dirtied wheels or boots when disturbed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3723097',
'title': 'Puddle',
'section': 'Section::::Puddles on roads.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 384,
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'passage_text': "In order to deal with puddles, roads and pavements are often built with a camber (technically called 'crowning'), being slightly convex in nature, to force puddles to drain into the gutter, which has storm drain grates to allow the water to drain into the sewers. In addition, some surfaces are made to be porous, allowing the water to drain through the surface to the aquifer below.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37208',
'title': 'Landslide',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Debris flow.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 1263,
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'passage_text': 'Muddy-debris flows can start as a result of slope-related factors and shallow landslides can dam stream beds, resulting in temporary water blockage. As the impoundments fail, a "domino effect" may be created, with a remarkable growth in the volume of the flowing mass, which takes up the debris in the stream channel. The solid–liquid mixture can reach densities of up to and velocities of up to (;). These processes normally cause the first severe road interruptions, due not only to deposits accumulated on the road (from several cubic metres to hundreds of cubic metres), but in some cases to the complete removal of bridges or roadways or railways crossing the stream channel. Damage usually derives from a common underestimation of mud-debris flows: in the alpine valleys, for example, bridges are frequently destroyed by the impact force of the flow because their span is usually calculated only for a water discharge. For a small basin in the Italian Alps (area ) affected by a debris flow, estimated a peak discharge of for a section located in the middle stretch of the main channel. At the same cross section, the maximum foreseeable water discharge (by HEC-1), was , a value about 40 times lower than that calculated for the debris flow that occurred.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26111059',
'title': 'Road debris',
'section': 'Section::::Popular culture.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 47,
'end_character': 587,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Some video games (particularly racing games) include road debris that damages vehicles or obstructs visibility. "Spy Hunter" (1983) features slippery, icy roads and puddles, oil slicks, and smoke screens. "MotorStorm" (2007) depicts air-borne mud that becomes accurately painted onto the body of each vehicle in real-time. Players can use this airborne debris strategically: a chunk of debris may be used to knock opponents off their motorcycles, and mud spatter on the wind-shields might temporarily blind them. "Fuel" (2009) features "crazy windstorms that kick up leaves and debris."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30432825',
'title': 'Ford (crossing)',
'section': 'Section::::Description.:Watersplash.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 430,
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'passage_text': 'A road running below the water level of a stream or river is often known as a "watersplash". It is a common name for a ford or stretch of wet road in some areas, and sometimes also used to describe tidal crossings. They have become a common feature in rallying courses. There are enthusiasts who seek out and drive through these water features, recording details (such as wave created, position and access) on dedicated websites.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What are those fake puddles of water that appear on the road and disappear as I drive closer?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Mirage. Optical illusion that form when light coming form critical angle bounce(reflection) off instead of refraction. As you approach closer you are no longer in the path of that bounced light, so it disappear'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '62u9lp',
'query': 'what are those fake puddles of water that appear on the road and disappear as i drive closer?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3177982',
'title': 'The Flesh Eaters (film)',
'section': 'Section::::Production.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 373,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The film has developed a cult following due to its gruesome, if primitive, special effects, including some memorably bloody death scenes. One character is eaten from the inside out by the titular monsters, resulting in a gushing fountain of intestinal matter. Another victim is stabbed with a wooden stake, then shot twice in the face, with resultant gaping bullet holes. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '57024462',
'title': 'Wounds (film)',
'section': 'Section::::Critical reception.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 509,
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'passage_text': '"Wounds" received mixed reviews from film critics. It holds a 55% approval rating on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 22 reviews, with a weighted average of 5.4/10. The site\'s critical consensus reads, "Wounds isn\'t without its creepy-crawly charms, but they -- and the efforts of a talented cast -- get squished by a story that never quite gets completely under the skin." On Metacritic, the film holds a rating of 50 out of 100, based on 7 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52375320',
'title': 'Detective Story (2007 film)',
'section': 'Section::::Reception.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 229,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Ben Sachs of Mubi called the film "satisfying as genre filmmaking. Many of the murder sequences are indeed scary—and they\'re scary because of their atmosphere and manipulation of suspense; they contain surprisingly little gore."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2546472',
'title': 'Friday the 13th Part VII: The New Blood',
'section': 'Section::::Production.:Post-production.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 38,
'end_character': 1253,
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'passage_text': 'Though one contemporary critic noted that the film is "nearly devoid of blood and gore by \'80s slasher standards," several explicit scenes of gore were cut in order to avoid an X rating. Among these were the murder sequences of Maddy, who originally had a sickle jammed through her neck; Ben\'s death, which showed Jason crushing his head into a bloody pulp; Kate\'s death revealed the gory aftermath of a party horn to her eyeball; we see Eddie\'s head hit the floor; a shot of Russell\'s face splitting open with a large blood spurt; Dan\'s original death had Jason ripping out his guts; Amanda Shepard\'s death originally showed Jason stabbing her from behind, with the resulting blade going through her chest and subsequent blood hitting Dr. Crews; Dr. Crews\'s death showed Jason\'s tree-trimming saw violently cutting into his stomach, sending a fountain of blood and guts in the air; Melissa\'s original death had Jason cleaving her head in half with an axe with a close-up of her eyes still wriggling in their sockets. The boxed set DVD release of all of the films and the single deluxe edition have all these scenes available as deleted scenes in rough workprint footage; however, the deluxe edition features more additional footage than the boxed set.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10725984',
'title': 'Gunshot wound',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 496,
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'passage_text': 'Trauma from a gunshot wound varies widely based on the bullet, velocity, entry point, trajectory, and affected anatomy. Gunshot wounds can be particularly devastating compared to other penetrating injuries because the trajectory and fragmentation of bullets can be unpredictable after entry. Additionally, gunshot wounds typically involve a large degree of nearby tissue disruption and destruction due to the physical effects of the projectile correlated with the bullet velocity classification.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33264696',
'title': 'Stab wound',
'section': 'Section::::Epidemiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 640,
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'passage_text': 'Stab wounds are one of the most common forms of penetrating trauma globally, but account for a lower mortality compared to blunt injuries due to their more focused impact on a person. Stab wounds can result from self-infliction, accidental nail gun injuries, and stingray injuries, however, most stab wounds are caused by intentional violence, as the weapons used to inflict such wounds are readily available compared to guns. Stabbings are a relatively common cause of homicide in Canada and the United States. Typically death from stab wounds is due to organ failure or blood loss. They are the mechanism of approximately 2% of suicides.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2482322',
'title': 'Hollywood Homicide',
'section': 'Section::::Reception.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 41,
'end_character': 539,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Michael O\'Sullivan of the "Washington Post" wrote, ""Hollywood Homicide" is a buddy film starring two people who, even as the closing credits roll, appear to have just met" and added "every scene between them, and that\'s most every scene, feels like a screen test or, at best, a rehearsal." One of the few major critics to give it a positive notice was Roger Ebert, who awarded the film 3 out of 4 stars and wrote "that it\'s more interested in its two goofy cops than in the murder plot; their dialogue redeems otherwise standard scenes."\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why stab wounds in movies appear to be deadlier than gunshot wounds (at least in movies)',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It's all about what's convenient for the story. Bad guys get shot and they are instantly dead. Good guys get shot and they can run a marathon.\n\nThere is no consistent logic even within the same movie. As long as it doesn't break the suspension if disbelief, writers and directors do what moves the story in the direction they like",
"They both obey the same laws:\n\nIf it hits an artery/heart, you're dead 99% of the time\n\nIf it hits a major organ, there's a high chance of death unless treated immediately. \n\nIt's just stabbing is more accurate than shooting.",
'Knife fights and stabbing are often more "personal" conflicts that are supposed to cause more tension emotional distress in the viewer. In keeping with this perception of raised stakes, they will often be depicted as fatal.',
"It depends on a lot of factors, but personally I'd MUCH rather take my chances getting stabbed than shot. Knives make much cleaner wounds with a lot less energy than bullets, are less likely to shatter bone and tear tissues beyond what you see with the entry wound, and have inherently limited depth depending on the blade. Others have commented how in film and TV, the relative deadliness of a knife vs gun wound has much more to do with the demands of the plot than what happens in real life. I find it very believable that gunshot wounds to the abdomen are deadlier than stab wounds - gunshots are more likely to damage one of the several huge arteries and veins in the abdomen, relative to a knife, and the damage they do is more difficult to repair in the trauma bay.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nIf YOU get stabbed, the absolute number 1 most important thing to do is STOP THE BLEEDING. Blood loss is the most common cause of immediate death from stab wounds, bar none - especially if the stab is in the gut. Cutting into intestines can kill from infection, but this takes days to weeks; dying from blood loss due to a major artery in the abdomen can take seconds. Other targets - the liver, pancreas, kidneys, stomach, spleen - all have really significant risks when damaged, but none as immediate and high-stakes as blood loss (and, for many of them - i.e. the spleen, kidneys and liver - blood loss IS one of those risks, as they bleed profusely when damaged). Find the hole where blood is coming out, and apply as much direct pressure to it as you can to stop it until EMTs get there. This is why one important rule is to never remove the object that caused the wound, if you can avoid it - the knife or whatever could be helping to stop blood coming out of the vein or artery it's stuck in.",
'I have been an ER nurse for 25 years and one thing I have learned in that time is that if a woman comes at you with a knife, run! She will kill you! \n\nI have seen far too many deaths from stab wounds compared to gun shots. The majority of them have severed aortas, pulmonary arteries, superior vena cava, etc. Most gun shot wounds tend to hit extremities or in the back (which causes other issues). \n\nAlmost every stabbing victim I have treated was attacked by a woman. I had a guy in the other day who was stabbed by a woman. She severed his pulmonary artery. He died in the trauma room. We got him back. He was in for a follow up because he thought his wound was infected. \n\nMaybe I should put this in /r/life tips but if you have pissed off a woman enough that she comes at you with a knife, run like hell, your life depends on it.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'c7aij8',
'query': 'why stab wounds in movies appear to be deadlier than gunshot wounds (at least in movies)',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '334821',
'title': 'Intramuscular injection',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Intramuscular injection, often abbreviated IM, is the injection of a substance directly into muscle. In medicine, it is one of several alternative methods for the administration of medications (see route of administration). Muscles have larger and more numerous blood vessels than subcutaneous tissue and injections here usually have faster rates of absorption than subcutaneous injections or intradermal injections. Depending on the injection site, an administration is limited to between 2 and 5 milliliters of fluid.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '665909',
'title': 'Injection (medicine)',
'section': 'Section::::Intravenous injection.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'Intravenous injections involve needle insertion directly into the vein and the substance is directly delivered into the bloodstream. In medicine and drug use, this route of administration is the fastest way to get the desired effects since the medication moves immediately into blood circulation and to the rest of the body. This type of injection is the most common and often associated with drug use.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '665909',
'title': 'Injection (medicine)',
'section': 'Section::::Subcutaneous injection.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'In a subcutaneous injection, the medication is delivered to the tissues between the skin and the muscle. Absorption of the medicine is slower than that of intramuscular injection. Since the needle does not need to reach the muscles, often a bigger gauge and shorter needle is used. Usual site of administration is fat tissues behind the arm. Certain intramuscular injection medicine such as EpiPen® can also be used subcutaneously. Insulin injection is a common type of subcutaneous injection medicine. Certain vaccines including MMR (Measles, Mumps, Rubella), Varicella (Chickenpox), Zoster (Shingles) are given subcutaneously.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1035470',
'title': 'Stroke recovery',
'section': 'Section::::Training of muscles affected by the upper motor neuron syndrome.:Injections.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 56,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 56,
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'passage_text': 'Injections are focal treatments administered directly into the spastic muscle. Drugs used include: Botulinum toxin (BTX), phenol, alcohol, and lidocaine. Phenol and alcohol cause local muscle damage by denaturing protein, and thus relaxing the muscle. Botulinum toxin is a neurotoxin and it relaxes the muscle by preventing the release of a neurotransmitter (acetylcholine). Many studies have shown the benefits of BTX and it has also been demonstrated that repeat injections of BTX show unchanged effectiveness.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2123234',
'title': 'Torsion dystonia',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'A more site-specific treatment is the injection of botulinum toxin. It is injected directly into the muscle and works much the same way the oral medications do—by blocking neurotransmitters. The injections are not a treatment for the disease, but are a means to control its symptoms. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '665909',
'title': 'Injection (medicine)',
'section': 'Section::::Intramuscular injection.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 512,
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'passage_text': 'Intramuscular injections (IM injections) deliver a substance deep into a muscle, where they are quickly absorbed by blood vessels. Common injections sites include the deltoid, vastus lateralis, and ventrogluteal muscles. Most inactivated vaccines, like influenza, are given by IM injection. Some medications are formulated for IM injection, like Epinephrine autoinjectors. Medical professionals are trained to give IM injections, but patients can also be trained to self-administer medications like epinephrine.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25949',
'title': 'Recreational drug use',
'section': 'Section::::Routes of administration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 52,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 52,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- intravenous injection (see also the article Drug injection): the user injects a solution of water and the drug into a vein, or less commonly, into the tissue. Drugs that are injected include morphine and heroin, less commonly other opioids. Stimulants like cocaine or methamphetamine may also be injected. In rare cases, users inject other drugs.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Is there any difference between getting injections(of vitamins,medicine etc.) directly into your veins or into your muscle(most commonly butt muscle)?',
'selftext': "Simply,I had the same stuff injected to me both ways and I wish to know what's the difference?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Some things, like vaccines, are best injected into muscles due to the way they are made and engineered to work.\n\nOthers are injected into veins for quick distribution. Because vaccines do not need to be so rapidly distributed they do not need to directly enter the bloodstream.\n\nAs to why they did both for you, it could be that you need some now and some long lasting treatment.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'b5w9aw',
'query': 'is there any difference between getting injections(of vitamins,medicine etc.) directly into your veins or into your muscle(most commonly butt muscle)?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '10115962',
'title': 'Catathrenia',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Common characteristics in reported cases.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 272,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Many took part in sports activities during teens and twenties some which required breath-holding which included many types of sports such as swimming and even weight lifting. They find a certain level of comfort in breath-holding, and often do it while awake.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '529870',
'title': 'Control of ventilation',
'section': 'Section::::Control of respiratory rhythm.:Control of ventilatory pattern.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
'end_character': 619,
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'passage_text': 'Ventilation is normally unconscious and automatic, but can be overridden by conscious alternative patterns. Thus the emotions can cause yawning, laughing, sighing (etc.), social communication causes speech, song and whistling, while entirely voluntary overrides are used to blow out candles, and breath holding (to swim, for instance, underwater). Hyperventilation may be entirely voluntary or in response to emotional agitation or anxiety, when it can cause the distressing hyperventilation syndrome. The voluntary control can also influence other functions such as the heart rate as in yoga practices and meditation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18209535',
'title': 'Vocal cord dysfunction',
'section': 'Section::::Treatments.:Behavioral approaches.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 44,
'end_character': 376,
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'passage_text': 'Breathing techniques can be taught to reduce tension in the throat, neck, and upper body and bring attention to the flow of air during respiration. Diaphragm support during breathing decreases muscle tension in the larynx. These techniques are meant to move awareness away from the act of breathing in and focus on the auditory feedback provided by the air moving in and out.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '366663',
'title': 'Body language',
'section': 'Section::::Physical expressions.:Breathing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
'end_character': 520,
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'passage_text': "Body language related to breathing and patterns of breathing can be indicative of a person's mood and state of mind; because of this, the relationship between body language and breathing is often considered in contexts such as business meetings and presentations. Generally, deeper breathing which uses the diaphragm and abdomen more is interpreted as conveying a relaxed and confident impression; by contrast, shallow, excessively rapid breathing is often interpreted as conveying a more nervous or anxious impression.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26644416',
'title': 'Relaxation (psychology)',
'section': 'Section::::Relaxation techniques.:Physical relaxation technique.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 353,
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'passage_text': 'Breathing techniques is one of the easiest ways to reduce stress. It requires little effort and can be done anywhere at any time. Proper breathing techniques that incorporate deep abdominal breathing have been shown to reduce the physical symptoms of depression, anxiety and hypertension as well as everyday emotional symptoms of anger and nervousness.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3167780',
'title': 'Diaphragmatic breathing',
'section': 'Section::::In complementary and alternative medicine.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'Deep breathing exercises are sometimes used as a form of relaxation, that, when practiced regularly, may lead to the relief or prevention of symptoms commonly associated with stress, which may include high blood pressure, headaches, stomach conditions, depression, anxiety, and others.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31183283',
'title': 'Nigamananda Paramahansa',
'section': 'Section::::Yoga, theories and techniques.:Yoga.:Dharana and dhyan.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 75,
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'passage_text': 'Nigamananda taught that the breathing system is closely connected with the intricate workings of the mind. Therefore, practice of pranayama leads to calmer breathing and thereby maintains tranquility of mind. Mind is subjected to forces of disturbed thoughts owing to irregular breathing. He said\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why have we developed to sometimes hold our breath during tense situations?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Put simply, your brain puts all it's resources to getting you out of that situation, including the bit that controls your subconscious breathing",
"I'm going to do my best here. Deep breathing activates certain neurons in the brain that tell your body to relax. Holding your breath heightens that response a little. It also provides proprioceptive input, meaning it activates your muscles through that feeling of tension in your chest/abdomin. Similar to swaddling a baby, putting a thunder vest on a dog, or how a nice good hug is calming. ",
'I always assumed it was to better avoid predators and allow us to listen more carefully. This thread has been enlightening.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '8chk2l',
'query': 'why have we developed to sometimes hold our breath during tense situations?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '875883',
'title': 'Hospital-acquired infection',
'section': 'Section::::Prevention.:Handwashing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
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'passage_text': 'Improving patient hand washing has also been shown to reduce the rate of nosocomial infection. Patients who are bed-bound often do not have as much access to clean their hands at mealtimes or after touching surfaces or handling waste such as tissues. By reinforcing the importance of handwashing and providing santizing gel or wipes within reach of the bed, nurses were directly able to reduce infection rates. A study published in 2017 demonstrated this by improving patient education on both proper hand-washing procedure and important times to use sanitizer and successfully reduced the rate of enterococci and "S. aureus".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16535',
'title': 'Joseph Lister',
'section': 'Section::::Early life and education.:Career and work.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'Before Lister\'s studies of surgery, most people believed that chemical damage from exposure to bad air was responsible for infections in wounds. Hospital wards were occasionally aired out at midday as a precaution against the spread of infection via miasma, but facilities for washing hands or a patient\'s wounds were not available. A surgeon was not required to wash his hands before seeing a patient; in the absence of any theory of bacterial infection, such practices were not considered necessary. Despite the work of Ignaz Semmelweis and Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr., hospitals practised surgery under unsanitary conditions. Surgeons of the time referred to the "good old surgical stink" and took pride in the stains on their unwashed operating gowns as a display of their experience.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '382316',
'title': 'Old Operating Theatre Museum and Herb Garret',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Usage.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': "The risk of death at the hands of a surgeon was greatly increased by the lack of understanding of the causes of infection. Although cleanliness was a moral virtue, descriptions suggest that a surgeon was as likely to wash his hands after an operation as before. The old frock coats worn by surgeons during operations were, according to a contemporary, 'stiff and stinking with pus and blood'. Beneath the table was a sawdust box for collecting blood. The death rate was further heightened by the shock of the operation, and because operations took place as a last resort, patients tended to have few reserves of strength.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '428502',
'title': 'Hand washing',
'section': 'Section::::Medical use.:Method.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 73,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 560,
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'passage_text': 'The purpose of hand-washing in the health-care setting is to remove pathogenic microorganisms ("germs") and avoid transmitting them. The "New England Journal of Medicine" reports that a lack of hand-washing remains at unacceptable levels in most medical environments, with large numbers of doctors and nurses routinely forgetting to wash their hands before touching patients, thus transmitting microorganisms. One study showed that proper hand-washing and other simple procedures can decrease the rate of catheter-related bloodstream infections by 66 percent.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15345560',
'title': 'Concordia Hospital',
'section': 'Section::::Hand Washing Audit.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
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'end_paragraph_id': 29,
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'passage_text': 'A hand-hygiene audit completed in February 2012 found that front-line staff in hospitals do not sufficiently wash their hands. Reports reviewed two wards, N2W and N2E, and found compliance rates of only 58% and 48%. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19574596',
'title': 'Global Handwashing Day',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
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'passage_text': 'The campaign was initiated to reduce childhood mortality rates and related respiratory and diarrheal diseases by introducing simple behavioral changes, such as handwashing with soap. This simple action can reduce the mortality rate of respiratory disease by 25%. Death from diarrheal diseases can be reduced by 50%. Across the world, more than 60 percent of health workers do not adhere to proper hand hygiene. According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, US health care providers, on average, wash their hands less than half of the time they should. On any given day, one in 25 US hospital patients has at least one health care-associated infection.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '172321',
'title': 'Hand, foot, and mouth disease',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Handwashing may prevent spread, and those infected should not go to work, daycare or school. No antiviral medication or vaccine is available, but development efforts are underway. Most cases require no specific treatment. Simple pain medication such as ibuprofen or numbing mouth gel may be used. Occasionally, intravenous fluids are given to children who are unable to drink enough. Rarely, viral meningitis or encephalitis may complicate the disease.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do surgeons need to wash their hands for an extend period of time when normal sanitizer already kill 99.9% of all bacteria',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["I believe it's usually to make sure they've got every last part of their hand. Between their fingers, under their nails etc. ",
"Most people don't thoroughly wash their hands, even when using hand sanitizer. Surgeons take their time to ensure that every nook and cranny is washed. ",
'From what I understand, sanitizer kills the organisms, but those dead "corpses" are all still there. The body reacts the same way to a dead virus as it does to a live one. Washing probably cleans all that dead stuff off too.',
'Sanitized dirt and feces and food are still dirt and feces and food. Stick any of those into a surgical site, the body will attack it. \n\nThen:\n\nImagine taking a steak and a bucket of white paint. Red is dirty, white is sanitized. Paint the steak. No matter how well you paint, if you bend or fold that steak enough times, you’ll eventually see more red.',
'I always thought that part of the length of the wash was drilling a routine into your head so you wash every nook and cranny of the hand (between fingers and such). I imagine that if someone wanted to there could be a cleaner or some sort of santizer (either soap or machine or both)) that could do things faster but would you really want a surgeon to do something fast or do something thoroughly?',
'The 99.9% comes from "ideal usage", not real world usage. Ideal usage looks a lot more like what surgeons do than what you do in the lobby of the DMV.\n\n99.9% is not enough, for surgery.\n\n99.9 applies to some types of germs. Again, \'some types\' is not enough for surgery.',
"Antibacterial hand soap only kills 99.9% of bacteria if you wash your hands for at least 30 seconds. Part of the issue with triclosan is that people don't wash their hands long enough, so the more resistant bacteria persist and reproduce. Also, the scrubbing is to make sure that all the oils on their hand are washed away to avoid bacteria avoiding the antibacterial agent by hiding within them.",
"There are approved surgical foams and gels that are alcohol-based which take the place of the First Scrub as an alternative to the 3-5 minute wash at the sink with medicated, antimicrobial soap. \n\nThe aim is to reduce the load of organisms on the skin and prevent regrowth during the surgical procedure. If hands are visibly soiled, of course it is recommended that the surgical team member wash the grime off first, preferably before entering the hospital.\n\nSterile gloves are not leak proof or puncture proof. They are known to fail during procedures and often leaks/punctures are undetected during cases, even with double gloving, they're not 100%. The more effective the antimicrobial activity of the pre-scrub, the better. Alcohol-based hand-rubs have many positive attributes and are readily found at the scrub sinks. \n\n[Bonus article on efficacy of both.](_URL_0_)",
"I couldn't see any comments about spores. Some nasty bugs produce spores that are immune to those antibacterial cleaners. They stay dried out like seeds until they're put somewhere they can grow, like a human body, where they'll germinate and infect.\n\nWashing your hands quite literally washes those things off.",
'At each facility I have worked, you do an initial first scrub which consists of water, nail cleaner, cleanser and scrub brush. You clean your nails, soap up your sponge and clean hands, fingers, nails and arms. I also do this coming back from lunch. Before every other surgery, we have alcohol based cleanser that we use on our hands, fingers, nails and arms. Basically there are only two times a day we use water unless we see blood or other bodily fluids on our hands/arms. Then we must wash. Any other time we use cleanser. This has changed since I became a surgical technician 26 years ago. We used to have to scrub before each case. When you are doing 30 cataracts a day it can really abuse your skin when you have to use water and soap. Thank goodness for alcohol based cleanser.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7wlq24',
'query': 'why do surgeons need to wash their hands for an extend period of time when normal sanitizer already kill 99.9% of all bacteria',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '16115172',
'title': 'List of Facebook features',
'section': 'Section::::Facebook structure.:Comments.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 326,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "To mark the 30th anniversary of the GIF, Facebook has introduced a new feature enabling users to add GIFs to comments. The eagerly-awaited feature can be accessed using the GIF button located beside the emoji picker. Users can choose from the available GIFs sourced from Facebook's GIF partners, but cannot upload other GIFs.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39000816',
'title': 'GifBoom',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'GifBoom is a free social networking mobile application that enables its users to upload animated GIFs and to share them on GifBoom as well as on Facebook, Twitter, and Tumblr, or via email or MMS. GifBoom is available in the App Store and in the Google Play Store too. On November 4, 2014, the application abruptly crashed. While unable to recover any data prior to the crash, GifBoom developers resorted to resetting the application.( \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41915053',
'title': 'Giphy',
'section': 'Section::::Partnerships.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 236,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Giphy partners with brands to host GIFs that can be shared as marketing promotions via social media channels. The company also created artist profiles on the website, which allow GIFs to be attributed to the artist(s) who created them.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37293007',
'title': 'Betaworks',
'section': 'Section::::Studio.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 418,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Giphy lets anyone search for animated gifs on the web. It was born out of an experiment by two hackers in residence, Alex Chung and Jace Cooke, who found it difficult to browse the best gifs on the web. It spread unexpectedly quickly, serving millions of results in the first few weeks. "We could tell it struck a nerve, so we swarmed it," said Paul Murphy, the head of product at Betaworks told The Verge\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39000816',
'title': 'GifBoom',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'The app no longer loads due to the domain name of GifBoom.com no longer being able to be resolved (as of 9/17/2017). The app simply tries to load, but cannot find a service to connect to. The GifBoom Twitter states: "We\'re having a service disruption. Working on resolving the issue and will provide an update as soon as possible." on 11/3/14.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2033759',
'title': 'Remix culture',
'section': 'Section::::Domains of remixing.:GIFs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 53,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 53,
'end_character': 611,
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'passage_text': 'GIFs are another example of remix culture. They are illustrations and small clips from films used for personal expressions in online conversations. GIFs are commonly taken from an online video form such as film, T.V. or YouTube videos. Each clip usually lasts for about 3 seconds and is "looped, extended and repeated." GIFs take a mass media sample and reimagines, or remixes, its meaning from the original context to use it as a form of personal expression in a different context. They are used throughout various media platforms but are most popular in Tumblr where they are used to articulate a punch line.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12702',
'title': 'GIF',
'section': 'Section::::Terminology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 449,
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'passage_text': 'As a noun, the word "GIF" is found in the newer editions of many dictionaries. In 2012, the American wing of the Oxford University Press recognized "GIF" as a verb as well, meaning "to create a GIF file", as in "GIFing was perfect medium for sharing scenes from the Summer Olympics". The press\'s lexicographers voted it their word of the year, saying that GIFs have evolved into "a tool with serious applications including research and journalism".\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why do some gifs load fine on the Reddit app but others won't?",
'selftext': "I've noticed it when swiping through pages, gifs will load fine, then one won't, then the next few will and one won't again, so I'm pretty sure it's not my internet connection. And it doesn't matter if I click into it or refresh the page. Am I missing something?",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["I don't know why either. Happens to maybe 20% of gifs. There is an easy fix though. If it doesn't load, click the word 'imgur' just above the post title. Works a treat.",
'Reddit sync is the best app i have on my phone, works so well i bought the ad free version. It is so smooth and one of the most detailed apps i ever used! Defo give it a try if your problemo persists :)'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6dsk72',
'query': "why do some gifs load fine on the reddit app but others won't?",
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2284563',
'title': 'Conditioned taste aversion',
'section': 'Section::::Notes.\n',
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'passage_text': 'If the flavor has been encountered before the subject becomes ill, the effect will not be as strong or will not be present. This quality is called latent inhibition. Conditioned taste aversion is often used in laboratories to study gustation and learning in rats.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2284563',
'title': 'Conditioned taste aversion',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Conditioned taste aversion occurs when an animal associates the taste of a certain food with symptoms caused by a toxic, spoiled, or poisonous substance. Generally, taste aversion is developed after ingestion of food that causes nausea, sickness, or vomiting. The ability to develop a taste aversion is considered an adaptive trait or survival mechanism that trains the body to avoid poisonous substances (e.g., poisonous berries) before they can cause harm. The association reduces the probability of consuming the same substance (or something that tastes similar) in the future, thus avoiding further poisoning. It is an example of classical or "Pavlovian" conditioning.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '328705',
'title': 'Taste (software)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'Taste is generally considered very complex. As a result, it is sometimes said to be temperamental, and users who make complex documents and edit them in major ways have learned to keep good backup files. Sometimes documents become corrupted and it becomes difficult or impossible to recover the data.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '232495',
'title': 'Motivation',
'section': 'Section::::Psychological theories.:Approach versus avoidance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 187,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 187,
'end_character': 758,
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'passage_text': 'Conditioned taste aversion is the only type of conditioning that only needs one exposure. It does not need to be the specific food or drinks that cause the taste. Conditioned taste aversion can also be attributed to extenuating circumstances. An example of this can be eating a rotten apple. Eating the apple then immediately throwing up. Now it is hard to even near an apple without feeling sick. Conditioned taste aversion can also come about by the mere associations of two stimuli. Eating a peanut butter and jelly sandwich, but also have the flu. Eating the sandwich makes one feel nauseous, so one throws up, now one cannot smell peanut butter without feeling queasy. Though eating the sandwich does not cause one to through up, they are still linked.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5476650',
'title': 'John Garcia (psychologist)',
'section': 'Section::::Research.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': "Garcia's discovery, conditioned taste aversion, is considered a survival mechanism because it allows an organism to recognize foods that have previously been determined to be poisonous, hopefully allowing said organism to avoid sickness.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2961628',
'title': 'Special senses',
'section': 'Section::::Taste.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 287,
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'passage_text': 'As taste senses both harmful and beneficial things, all basic tastes are classified as either aversive or appetitive, depending upon the effect the things they sense have on our bodies. Sweetness helps to identify energy-rich foods, while bitterness serves as a warning sign of poisons.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21282070',
'title': 'Taste',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'As taste senses both harmful and beneficial things, all basic tastes are classified as either aversive or appetitive, depending upon the effect the things they sense have on our bodies. Sweetness helps to identify energy-rich foods, while bitterness serves as a warning sign of poisons.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do some things only taste good after a few tries?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Your body automatically rejects new bitter flavors, as many poisons are bitter. But once you have tasted them several times and suffered zero ill effects, your nervous system (basically your brain) starts to adjust.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7gedwm',
'query': 'why do some things only taste good after a few tries?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2594',
'title': 'Ant',
'section': 'Section::::Morphology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'Like other insects, ants have an exoskeleton, an external covering that provides a protective casing around the body and a point of attachment for muscles, in contrast to the internal skeletons of humans and other vertebrates. Insects do not have lungs; oxygen and other gases, such as carbon dioxide, pass through their exoskeleton via tiny valves called spiracles. Insects also lack closed blood vessels; instead, they have a long, thin, perforated tube along the top of the body (called the "dorsal aorta") that functions like a heart, and pumps haemolymph toward the head, thus driving the circulation of the internal fluids. The nervous system consists of a ventral nerve cord that runs the length of the body, with several ganglia and branches along the way reaching into the extremities of the appendages.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40792319',
'title': 'Zigrasimecia',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Due to the highly specialized mandibles, scientists believe that the ants exhibited habits no longer seen in extant ants. The highly movable head suggests that mobility was an important factor for them (probably for feeding behavior), and the rugose projections may have played a major role in nest excavation because the mandibles would have prevented such activity. "Zigrasimecia" most likely interacted with the extinct ant genus "Gerontoformica" through conflict and probably shared some of their ecological niches. The mandibles of these ants were probably used for mechanical interactions with food, and they may also have served as traps for potential arthropod prey such as mites and small flies. "Zigrasimecia" was possibly a generalist predator.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16796904',
'title': 'Sphecomyrma',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': '"Sphecomyrma" ants can be distinguished from other ants by their extremely primitive body structure, small, narrow wasp-like mandibles, short scapes (the basal segment of the antenna) and the exceptionally long funiculus, which is four times longer than the scape. The suture (a pattern of shallow grooves on the head) is well developed and the trochantellus (the proximal end of the femur) is absent. The node (a segment between the mesosoma, the middle part of the body, and gaster) of the petiole is noticeably dome-shaped and is separated from the propodeum, the first abdominal segment, and parts of the metasoma, the posterior part of the body, by several constrictions. The cuticle (outer exoskeleton of the body) is not sculptured and is covered with either scattered or spare setae, which are different types of bristle or hair-like structures. The body structure shows that "Sphecomyrma" ants were medium-sized formicids. Workers are known to have stingers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '369232',
'title': 'Leafcutter ant',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': '"Acromyrmex" and "Atta" ants have much in common anatomically; however, the two can be identified by their external differences. "Atta" ants have three pairs of spines and a smooth exoskeleton on the upper surface of the thorax, while "Acromyrmex" ants have four pairs and a rough exoskeleton.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7954779',
'title': 'Odontomachus bauri',
'section': 'Section::::Evolution.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
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'passage_text': 'The mandibles of "O. bauri" are an exaggerated form of the sturdy and long mandibles found in many ant species. Additionally, the muscles found in the mandibles of "O. bauri" are found in other ants, although those found in "O. bauri" are large and look very similar to those found in cicadas.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '285708',
'title': 'Mutillidae',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 791,
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'passage_text': 'The exoskeleton of all velvet ants is unusually tough (to the point that some entomologists have reported difficulty piercing them with steel pins when attempting to mount them for display in cabinets). This characteristic allows them to successfully invade the nests of their prey and also helps them retain moisture. Mutillids exhibit extreme sexual dimorphism. Like some related families in the Vespoidea, males have wings, but females are wingless. The males and females are so distinct in their morphology that entomologists often find it very hard to determine whether a given male and female belong to the same species, unless they are captured while mating. In some species, the male carries the smaller female aloft while mating, which is also seen in the related family Thynnidae.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24104729',
'title': 'Insect morphology',
'section': 'Section::::Anatomy summary.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'Insects, like all arthropods, have no interior skeleton; instead, they have an exoskeleton, a hard outer layer made mostly of chitin which protects and supports the body. The insect body is divided into three parts: the head, thorax, and abdomen. The head is specialized for sensory input and food intake; the thorax, which is the anchor point for the legs and wings (if present), is specialized for locomotion; and the abdomen for digestion, respiration, excretion, and reproduction. Although the general function of the three body regions is the same across all insect species, there are major differences in basic structure, with wings, legs, antennae, and mouthparts being highly variable from group to group.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why did ants ( and other insects maybe idk) get an exoskeleton rather than a normal skeleton?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Because a hard outer shell doubles as protection from predators, as well as anchor points for muscles.\n\nEndoskeletons evolved to provide otherwise soft-bodied animals leverage to generate more power in their appendages without sacrificing as much flexibility as an exoskeleton.',
"Insects are part of a larger group of animals called Ecdysozoa, all of which have the ability to shed the outer layer of their skin, or cuticle. Though some members of the Ecdysozoa are still somewhat soft-bodied, like [roundworms](_URL_3_), one group developed a much harder and more inflexible outer cuticle with segments and jointed limbs to allow some movement. This group, the Arthropoda, contains most animals we think of as having exoskeletons, including the extinct [trilobites](_URL_0_), as well as the still living [chelicerates](_URL_4_) (most of which are arachnids), [myriapods](_URL_8_) (centipedes and millipedes), and pancrustacea (which consists of crustaceans as well as insects, which are [nested inside crustaceans](_URL_6_)).\n\nPresumably, the exoskeleton in arthropods developed as a form of protection against predators, but it's hard to be completely sure, since it first appeared in the ancestors of this group which lived over 500 million years ago. The benefits of this kind of protection are obvious, and importantly, the preexisting ability to shed their skins allowed them to continue to grow larger over their lives, and even regrow lost body parts. Having a tough outer covering also helped arthropods like [*Pneumodesmus*](_URL_5_) to become the first animals to colonize land, tens of millions of years before vertebrates would ([source](_URL_7_)). Interestingly, though earlier arthropods probably shed their skins regularly throughout their lives (as many still do today), the majority of insect species no longer do this, and instead have a finite number of moults they go through as they grow before reaching a final and permanent adult stage.\n\nAs opposed to arthropods and other ecdysozoans, the ancestors of vertebrates (the earliest of which lived around the same time as the first arthropods \\~500 million years ago, like [*Haikouichthys*](_URL_2_)) were relatively soft and did not shed their skins. However, they did have rigid internal structures like notochords made of cartilage-like materials, which allowed them to swim effectively using full body [movements from side to side](_URL_1_). Eventually, bones developed from cartilage in vertebrates, leading to the internal skeletons we have now."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'b9wwcw',
'query': 'why did ants ( and other insects maybe idk) get an exoskeleton rather than a normal skeleton?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '896467',
'title': 'Carrier oil',
'section': 'Section::::Safety aspects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
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'passage_text': 'Peanuts are legumes, not true nuts, but they share with true nuts the risk of causing allergic reactions, even in minute amounts. Pure peanut and nut-derived oils are not usually allergenic (as they do not typically contain the proteinaceous part of the plant), but avoiding them may be safer, as serious peanut and nut allergy is widespread, oil purity cannot be guaranteed, and other hypoallergenic oils are easily substituted.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55602',
'title': 'Peanut',
'section': 'Section::::Nutritional value.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 90,
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'passage_text': 'Some studies show that regular consumption of peanuts is associated with a lower specific risk of mortality from certain diseases. However, the study designs do not allow cause and effect to be inferred. According to the US Food and Drug Administration, "Scientific evidence suggests but does not prove that eating 1.5 ounces per day of most nuts (such as peanuts) as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol may reduce the risk of heart disease."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5178037',
'title': 'Mixed nuts',
'section': 'Section::::Composition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'Because they are relatively inexpensive, peanuts are typically a major ingredient in mixed nuts, although they are viewed as less fancy than other nuts; often "deluxe mixed nuts" are advertised as containing no peanuts. "Alrifai", a brand in the Middle East, Identifies the expensive nuts as kernels. In 2006, a batch of "deluxe" mixed nuts was recalled because peanuts had crept into the mix. The move was not to save face: peanuts are the ingredient of mixed nuts most commonly associated with life-threatening food allergies.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55602',
'title': 'Peanut',
'section': 'Section::::Health concerns.:Allergies.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 98,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Some people (0.6% of the United States population) report that they experience allergic reactions to peanut exposure; symptoms are specifically severe for this nut, and can range from watery eyes to anaphylactic shock, which is generally fatal if untreated. Eating a small amount of peanut can cause a reaction. Because of their widespread use in prepared and packaged foods, the avoidance of peanuts can be difficult. The reading of ingredients and warnings on product packaging is necessary to avoid this allergen. Foods that are processed in facilities which also handle peanuts on the same equipment as other foods are required to carry such warnings on their labels. Avoiding cross contamination with peanuts and peanut products, (along with other severe allergens like shellfish) is a promoted and common practice which chefs and restaurants worldwide are becoming aware of.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20167640',
'title': 'Indianapolis 500 traditions',
'section': 'Section::::Track lore.:Food.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 212,
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'passage_text': 'Peanuts are considered bad luck. An ambiguous, long-standing superstition against eating peanuts at the race track has dominated Indianapolis dating back to at least the 1940s. Legend says, though unconfirmed, that a crashed car was found with peanut shells in the cockpit. As of 2009, however, peanuts are sold at trackside concessions, and the myth has lost a lot of its following.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1024211',
'title': 'Bamba (snack)',
'section': 'Section::::Peanut allergy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 507,
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'passage_text': 'As Bamba is made with peanuts, people allergic to peanuts may be severely affected by it. However early peanut consumption is associated with less prevalence of peanut allergy. In fact, a 2008 study concluded that, due to the extensive consumption of Bamba by infants in Israel, peanut allergy is rare. A control group of Jewish children in the UK had ten times higher rates of allergy; the difference is not accounted for by differences in atopy, social class, genetic background, or peanut allergenicity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55602',
'title': 'Peanut',
'section': 'Section::::Health concerns.:Allergies.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 102,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Some school districts in the United States and elsewhere have banned peanuts. However, the efficacy of the bans in reducing allergic reactions is uncertain. A recent study in Canada has shown that there is no difference in the percentage of accidental exposures occurring in schools prohibiting peanuts than in schools allowing them.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "If peanuts aren't actually nuts why do people with a nut allergy die from them?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Because peanut allergies are different from nut allergies. I'm allergic to peanuts but not nuts. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'b15c9b',
'query': "if peanuts aren't actually nuts why do people with a nut allergy die from them?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '44503418',
'title': 'Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'A wide range of species perished in the K–Pg extinction, the best-known being the non-avian dinosaurs. It also destroyed a plethora of other terrestrial organisms, including some mammals, pterosaurs, birds, lizards, insects, and plants. In the oceans, the K–Pg extinction killed off plesiosaurs and the giant marine lizards (Mosasauridae) and devastated fish, sharks, mollusks (especially ammonites, which became extinct), and many species of plankton. It is estimated that 75% or more of all species on Earth vanished. Yet the extinction also provided evolutionary opportunities: in its wake, many groups underwent remarkable adaptive radiation—sudden and prolific divergence into new forms and species within the disrupted and emptied ecological niches. Mammals in particular diversified in the Paleogene, evolving new forms such as horses, whales, bats, and primates. Birds, fish, and perhaps lizards also radiated.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2221992',
'title': 'Lystrosaurus',
'section': 'Section::::Paleoecology.:Dominance of the Early Triassic.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The most specialized and the largest animals are at higher risk in mass extinctions; this may explain why the unspecialized "L. curvatus" survived while the larger and more specialized "L. maccaigi" perished along with all the other large Permian herbivores and carnivores. Although "Lystrosaurus" generally looks adapted to feed on plants similar to "Dicroidium", which dominated the Early Triassic, the larger size of "L. maccaigi" may have forced it to rely on the larger members of the "Glossopteris" flora, which did not survive the end-Permian extinction.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23948682',
'title': 'Guizhouichthyosaurus',
'section': 'Section::::Appearance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Following the Permian-Triassic extinction event (also colloquially known as The Great Dying), the decline and disappearance of eugeneodonts and giant nautiloids left an environmental niche empty that many marine reptiles began to fill. "Guizhouichthyosaurus" was one of the largest marine vertebrates of the time, whose only predators composed of large macro-predatory Ichthyosaurs (that of which preferred to hunt smaller ichthyosaurs). The rise of the shelled cephalopods (ammonites that survived the Permian-Triassic extinction event, along with the appearance of belemnites) gave ichthyosaurs an abundant food supply with little competition. "Guizhouichthyosaurus" and other ichthyosaurs began to adapt to hunting these cephalopods through larger eyes, and thick bodies, to handle the pressures of diving deep to hunt for their prey.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '70144',
'title': 'Cypriniformes',
'section': 'Section::::Relationship with humans.:Threats and extinction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
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'end_paragraph_id': 42,
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'passage_text': 'Habitat destruction, damming of upland rivers, pollution, and in some cases overfishing for food or the pet trade have driven some Cypriniformes to the brink of extinction or even beyond. In particular, Cyprinidae of southwestern North America have been severely affected; a considerable number went entirely extinct after settlement by Europeans. For example, in 1900 the thicktail chub ("Gila crassicauda") was the most common freshwater fish found in California; 70 years later, not a single living individual existed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45249020',
'title': 'Timeline of Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event research',
'section': 'Section::::20th century.:1990s.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 205,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 205,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Sheehan and Fastovsky found terrestrial vertebrates to be the primary victims of the end Cretaceous extinction event, with 88% of their biodiversity lost. Freshwater vertebrates only lost 10% of their biodiversity across the boundary and the researchers found this divide in habitat preference to be the single greatest source of variation in survivorship rates among the taxa they studied. They observed that the better survival rates among aquatic tetrapods as opposed to terrestrial ones was consistent with the idea of an extensive period of darkness following an asteroid impact. This is due to aquatic ecosystems being less dependent on primary productivity than terrestrial ones because many aquatic tetrapods would be able to subsist on detritus and scavenged remains until photosynthesis resumed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '305742',
'title': 'Squamata',
'section': 'Section::::Humans and squamates.:Conservation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 660,
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'passage_text': 'Though they survived the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, many squamate species are now endangered due to habitat loss, hunting and poaching, illegal wildlife trading, alien species being introduced to their habitats (which puts native creatures at risk through competition, disease, and predation), and other anthropogenic causes. Because of this, some squamate species have recently become extinct, with Africa having the most extinct species. However, breeding programs and wildlife parks are trying to save many endangered reptiles from extinction. Zoos, private hobbyists and breeders help educate people about the importance of snakes and lizards.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2646789',
'title': 'Procoptodon',
'section': 'Section::::"Procoptodon goliah".:Possible factors for extinction.:Environmental factors.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'There is evidence that supports both of the claims that the extinction of "P. goliah" may have been due to climate shifts during the Pleistocene or to human hunting. "P. goliah", depending heavily on free-standing water, was more vulnerable to drought. This can explain why the red kangaroo survived the increasing aridity and "Procoptodon goliah" did not. However, there is also evidence that suggests that humans could have a significant influence in the extinction of "P. goliah". "P. goliah\'s" need for a constant free-standing source of water, plus its height and its common habitat in open shrub lands, made the "P. goliah" more noticeable to the human hunters, thus making it vulnerable to humans who were also water-bound like the "Procoptodon".\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How come many fish were able to survive the great K–Pg extinction, but pretty much no sea reptiles (Mosasaurs, Plesiosaurs, etc) were able to?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It takes a LOT of food and a very balanced ecosystem to keep a giant alpha predator alive. If the food diminishes or the ecosystem shifts, alpha predators die out pretty easily.',
'Another additional reason. Reptiles are dependent on the surface for air. Fish down deeper might have survived and later expanded and speciated to fill the missing niches near the surface.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8h9hve',
'query': 'how come many fish were able to survive the great k–pg extinction, but pretty much no sea reptiles (mosasaurs, plesiosaurs, etc) were able to?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '82330',
'title': 'Electric generator',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'In electricity generation, a generator is a device that converts motive power (mechanical energy) into electrical power for use in an external circuit. Sources of mechanical energy include steam turbines, gas turbines, water turbines, internal combustion engines, wind turbines and even hand cranks. The first electromagnetic generator, the Faraday disk, was invented in 1831 by British scientist Michael Faraday. Generators provide nearly all of the power for electric power grids.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13764124',
'title': 'Electric machine',
'section': 'Section::::Generator.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'An electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. A generator forces electrons to flow through an external electrical circuit. It is somewhat analogous to a water pump, which creates a flow of water but does not create the water inside. The source of mechanical energy, the , may be a reciprocating or turbine steam engine, water falling through a turbine or waterwheel, an internal combustion engine, a wind turbine, a hand crank, compressed air or any other source of mechanical energy.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13764124',
'title': 'Electric machine',
'section': 'Section::::Generator.:DC generator.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
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'end_character': 335,
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'passage_text': 'An electric generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. An electric generator works based on the principle that whenever conductor cuts the magnetic field, an emf is induced which will cause the current to flow if conductor circuit is closed. Take the working of simple loop Generator as an example.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10457720',
'title': 'Engine-generator',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'An engine-generator or portable generator is the combination of an electrical generator and an engine (prime mover) mounted together to form a single piece of equipment. This combination is also called an "engine-generator set" or a "gen-set". In many contexts, the engine is taken for granted and the combined unit is simply called a "generator".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10457720',
'title': 'Engine-generator',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'Engine-generators are used to provide electrical power in areas where utility (central station) electricity is unavailable, or where electricity is only needed temporarily. Small generators are sometimes used to provide electricity to power tools at construction sites. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12185896',
'title': 'Vibration-powered generator',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'A vibration powered generator is a type of electric generator that converts the kinetic energy from vibration into electrical energy. The vibration may be from sound pressure waves or other ambient sources.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '246533',
'title': 'Small hydro',
'section': 'Section::::Generation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'Hydroelectric power is the generation of electric power from the movement of water. A hydroelectric facility requires a dependable flow of water and a reasonable height for the water to fall, called the head. In a typical installation, water is fed from a reservoir through a pipe into a turbine. The water flowing through the turbine causes a electrical generator to rotate, converting the motion into electrical energy.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is a generator in electricity?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It's like an *electron pump* that pushes electrons away from one end and toward the other end. This creates a *voltage* (electric pressure) which is then used to power the flow of electricity through wires and other things.",
'I majored in physics and it sounds like these answers are dancing around what is causing the current. \n\nFirst you need a wire. This supplies the electrons that will become a current. In order to make them move you need to have a moving magnetic field. A generator simply uses some fuel to turn a magnet. If the wire (electrons specifically inside the wire) is coiled and inside a continually changing magnetic field it creates an emf (or electromagnetic feild). And bam. Electricity.\n\nThese forces are always tethered. Moving charged partials will in turn create magnetic fields. Hope this helps.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9iywvj',
'query': 'what is a generator in electricity?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '188488',
'title': 'Zip (file format)',
'section': 'Section::::Design.\n',
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'passage_text': ' files are archives that store multiple files. ZIP allows contained files to be compressed using many different methods, as well as simply storing a file without compressing it. Each file is stored separately, allowing different files in the same archive to be compressed using different methods. Because the files in a ZIP archive are compressed individually it is possible to extract them, or add new ones, without applying compression or decompression to the entire archive. This contrasts with the format of compressed tar files, for which such random-access processing is not easily possible.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '322689',
'title': '7-Zip',
'section': 'Section::::File manager.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': "7-Zip comes with a file manager along with the standard archiver tools. The file manager has a toolbar with options to create an archive, extract an archive, test an archive to detect errors, copy, move, and delete files, and open a file properties menu exclusive to 7-Zip. The file manager, by default, displays hidden files because it does not follow Windows Explorer's policies. The tabs show name, modification time, original and compressed sizes, attributes, and comments (4DOS codice_3 format).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1888029',
'title': 'Solid compression',
'section': 'Section::::Rationale.:Costs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'On the other hand, getting a single file out of a solid archive originally required processing all the files before it, so modifying solid archives could be slow and inconvenient. Later versions of 7-zip use a variable solid block size, so that only a limited amount of data must be processed in order to extract one file. Parameters control the maximum solid block window size, the number of files in a block, and whether blocks are separated by file extension.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '322689',
'title': '7-Zip',
'section': 'Section::::Formats.:7z.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 324,
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'passage_text': 'By default, 7-Zip creates 7z-format archives with a codice_1 file extension. Each archive can contain multiple directories and files. As a "container" format, security or size reduction are achieved using a stacked combination of filters. These can consist of pre-processors, compression algorithms, and encryption filters.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6507929',
'title': 'Self-extracting archive',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'There are several functionally equivalent but incompatible archive file formats, including ZIP, RAR, 7z and many others. Some programs can manage (create, extract, or modify) only one type of archive whilst many others can handle multiple formats. There is additionally a distinction between the file format and compression algorithm used. A single file format, such as 7z, can support multiple different compression algorithms including LZMA, LZMA2, PPMd and BZip2. For a decompression utility to correctly expand an archive of either the self-extracting or standard variety, it must be able to operate on both the file format and algorithm used. The exact executable code placed at the beginning of a self-extracting archive may therefore need to be varied depending on what options were used to create the archive. The decompression routines will be different for a LZMA 7z archive when compared with a LZMA2 7z archive, for example.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12783',
'title': 'Gzip',
'section': 'Section::::File format.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 340,
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'passage_text': 'gzip is not to be confused with the ZIP archive format, which also uses DEFLATE. The ZIP format can hold collections of files without an external archiver, but is less compact than compressed tarballs holding the same data, because it compresses files individually and cannot take advantage of redundancy between files (solid compression).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '359396',
'title': '7z',
'section': 'Section::::Features and enhancements.:Limitations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The 7z format does not allow extraction of some "broken files"—that is (for example) if one has the first segment of a series of 7z files, 7z cannot give the start of the files within the archive—it must wait until all segments are downloaded. The 7z format also lacks recovery records, making it vulnerable to data degradation unless used in conjunction with external solutions, like parchives, or within filesystems with robust error-correction. By way of comparison, zip files also lack a recovery feature.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why can't you compress a RAR file with RAR or ZIP?",
'selftext': "Why can't you compress a RAR file,",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Compression is a technique for finding patterns in a file and writing it in a way that takes more space. For example instead of writing "aaaaaaaa" you may write 8*"a" which is much shorter. Or instead of writing "abcdefgh" you may write "a"-"h". However if you have already compressed a file and written it in the shortest way you can think of then another compression program will not have much luck trying to compress it further.\n\nIf you think of your file as a sponge. It consists of a sponge material and a lot of air. This is practical for cleaning but not very practical for transport. So you put in though a vacuum sealing machine to suck all the air out and put on a plastic seal to keep all the air out. Now the sponge is much smaller. But you read of another way to do it by using a vice. However when you put the already compressed sponge in the vice you can not get it much smaller. This is like trying to compress an already compressed file.',
'Software developer here,\n\nCompression works by reducing repetition. So if you\'re compressing "aaaaaaabbbb", it would look something like "7a4b", for example. There\'s not much else to reduce there. This is, of course, a simplistic example of compression. More sophisticated algorithms will perform a series of matrix transforms (arrange the data into rows and columns, then start rotating rows and columns like a rubix cube, or change the values in a mathematical way) in order to align the data into bigger sets of repeating sequences, and then reduce that similar to my example above. The output is the transformed and reduced data, and a matrix to transform the data back to it\'s original form. But in the end, there\'s just nothing more to reduce, and you end up with a larger file because you have to store the meta-data for the encompassing compression format.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5wo9y2',
'query': "why can't you compress a rar file with rar or zip?",
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '842953',
'title': 'Harry Dent',
'section': 'Section::::Forecasts and performance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': "BULLET::::- On December 10, 2016, Dent predicted that the Dow Jones Industrial average could fall 17,000 points as a result of Donald Trump's election win. Less than two weeks later, Dent reversed his opinion and thinks there is short term growth for the US stock market, but demographic forces will keep the economic growth stagnant in the longer term.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47361',
'title': 'Dow Jones Industrial Average',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Bull market of 2009–present.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 59,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 59,
'end_character': 395,
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'passage_text': 'Towards the latter half of 2009, the average rallied towards the 10,000 level amid optimism that the Late-2000s (decade) Recession, the United States Housing Bubble and the Global Financial Crisis of 2008–2009, were easing and possibly coming to an end. For the decade, the Dow saw a rather substantial pullback for a negative return from the 11,497 level to 10,428, a loss of a little over 9%.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '173354',
'title': 'Automation',
'section': 'Section::::Relationship to unemployment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 183,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 183,
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'passage_text': 'The Obama White House has pointed out that every 3 months "about 6 percent of jobs in the economy are destroyed by shrinking or closing businesses, while a slightly larger percentage of jobs are added". A recent MIT economics study of automation in the United States from 1990 to 2007 found that there may be a negative impact on employment and wages when robots are introduced to an industry. When one robot is added per one thousand workers, the employment to population ratio decreases between 0.18–0.34 percentages and wages are reduced by 0.25–0.5 percentage points. During the time period studied, the US did not have many robots in the economy which restricts the impact of automation. However, automation is expected to triple (conservative estimate) or quadruple (a generous estimate) leading these numbers to become substantially higher.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9797779',
'title': 'Chinese stock bubble of 2007',
'section': '',
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'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'After the Chinese market drop, the Dow Jones Industrial Average in the United States dropped 416 points, or 3.29% from 12,632 to 12,216 amid fears for growth prospects, then the biggest one-day slide since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. The S&P 500 saw a larger 3.45% slide. Sell orders were made so fast that an additional analysis computer had to be used, causing an instantaneous 200 point drop at one point in the Dow Industrials.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21870930',
'title': 'United States bear market of 2007–09',
'section': 'Section::::Opinions regarding the cause.:Blaming the Barack Obama administration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
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'passage_text': 'As of early March 2009, the Dow Jones Industrial Average had fallen 20% since the inauguration of President Barack Obama (less than two months earlier), the fastest drop under a newly elected president in at least 90 years. Editorials in the "Wall Street Journal" by the editorial staff and Michael Boskin, one of George H.W. Bush\'s Council of Economic Advisors, blamed this on Obama\'s economic policies.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15177467',
'title': '2008 in the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Events.:December.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 117,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 117,
'end_character': 266,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- December 1 – The Dow Jones Industrial Average drops 680 points, its fourth worst drop in its history, after the National Bureau of Economic Research declared on the same day that the United States economy officially entered a recession in December 2007.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9740633',
'title': 'Automated trading system',
'section': 'Section::::Market disruption and manipulation.:Notable examples.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 51,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 51,
'end_character': 478,
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'passage_text': "BULLET::::- On May 6, 2010, the Dow Jones Industrial Average declined about 1,000 points (about 9 percent) and recovered those losses within minutes. It was the second-largest point swing (1,010.14 points) and the largest one-day point decline (998.5 points) on an intraday basis in the Average's history. This market disruption became known as the Flash Crash and resulted in U.S. regulators issuing new regulations to control market access achieved through automated trading.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Clueless about economics. How will the DOW dropping 1,400+ points today and a potential recesssion/etc affect everday working people like me? Those who aren't wealthy.",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Jobs may begin to slow down due to worry or lack of funding. Because of this your employer may limit hours or lay people off.',
"Immediately, it won't, outside of any 401k you may have. If the market rebounds within a month or so, you probably won't see much impact overall. If the drop lingers, then you can see potential layoffs and reduced hours from employers."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'fh3muh',
'query': "clueless about economics. how will the dow dropping 1,400+ points today and a potential recesssion/etc affect everday working people like me? those who aren't wealthy.",
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '60226432',
'title': 'California Senate Bill 35',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'The state’s high rent prices have translated into increased homelessness, more households spending half their income on housing, and an exodus of low and middle income households leaving to states with lower cost of living. The housing shortage negatively impacts the Economy of California. A 2016 McKinsey & Company report on California’s housing market notes, “California loses more than $140 billion per year in output due to the housing shortage.”\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41258426',
'title': 'Rent regulation',
'section': 'Section::::Politics.:California.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
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'passage_text': 'A survey conducted in 2018 by the "Los Angeles Times" and the University of Southern California found that 28% of eligible California voters believed that the lack of rent control was the main contributing factor to California\'s housing affordability crisis. 24% of respondents believed that the most significant cause of the housing crisis was insufficient funding of low-income housing; only 13% believed it was insufficient new housing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60226432',
'title': 'California Senate Bill 35',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'California has been suffering from a housing shortage since 1970 and ranks 49th among 50 states for housing units per capita. The problem has worsened following the Great Recession as housing development fell to 40,000 units in 2009 and has not reached pre-recession levels. California needs approximately 180,000 units per year to match current growth. Slow housing development combined with high housing demand has increased housing costs in every city in California.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55688941',
'title': 'California housing shortage',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "Since about 1970, California has been experiencing an extended and increasing housing shortage, such that by 2018, California had the 49th lowest ratio of housing units per resident. The shortage has been estimated at 3-4 million housing units (20-30% of California's housing stock, 14 million as of 2017). Experts say that California needs to double its current rate of housing production (85,000 units per year) just to keep up with expected population growth and prevent prices from further increasing, and needs to quadruple the current rate of housing production over the next 7 years in order for prices and rents to decline.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55688941',
'title': 'California housing shortage',
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'passage_text': "The shortage is taking its toll on Californians in multiple ways: less than a third can afford a median priced home (whereas nationally, slightly more than half can), more than 20% of residents are in poverty (6% more than would be with lower housing costs), homelessness per capita is now the third highest in the nation, California's economy is suppressed by $150 - $400 billion annually (5-14%) (because of lost construction activity, and money that residents must spend on housing cannot be spent on other consumer goods), and the displacement and suburban sprawl caused by high housing costs in the urban centers (where jobs are located) has resulted in several of California's cities being home to the largest share of super commuters in the nation, as well as hindering California's ability to meet its CO2 emissions goals.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55688941',
'title': 'California housing shortage',
'section': 'Section::::Effects.:Economy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 58,
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'passage_text': 'A McKinsey Global Institute report estimates that the housing shortage is costing the California economy between 143 and 233 billion dollars per year, from lost construction activity (at least $85 billion annually), lower consumption of consumer goods because of high housing costs (at least $53 billion annually) and the costs of providing services to the increased number of homeless persons (at least $5 billion per year).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55688941',
'title': 'California housing shortage',
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'passage_text': "The cause is the imbalance between supply and demand; a result of strong economic growth creating hundreds of thousands of new jobs (which increases demand for housing) and the insufficient construction of new housing units to provide enough supply to meet the demand. The imbalance is such that in last half-decade, in the Bay Area, seven times as many jobs were created as housing units, while statewide, for every five new residents only one new housing unit was constructed. This has driven home prices and rents to extremely high levels, such that by 2017, the median price of a home across California was more than 2.5 times the median in the U.S. as a whole, and in California's coastal urban areas, (where the majority of job growth has occurred since the Great Recession), the shortages are even more dramatic. Several factors have together caused severe constraints on the construction of new housing: community involvement in the permitting process allows current residents who oppose new construction (often referred to as NIMBYs) to lobby their city council to deny new development; environmental laws are often abused by local residents and others to block or gain concessions from new development (making it more costly or too expensive to be profitable); greater local tax revenues from hotels, commercial, and retail development vs. residential incentivize cities to permit less residential; density restrictions (eg. single-family zoning) and high land cost conspire to keep land and housing prices high; and construction costs are greater because of high impact fees, and often developments are only approved if union labor is used.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "If California's housing market is already incredibly overpriced, why does it keep rising?",
'selftext': "The median cost of a home in Cali is now more than twice the national average and homelessness is rising, how is demand still surging? Aren't they running out of middle-class homebuyers? Are they used as income properties or other form of investment? Please explain.",
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Because the economy is still very strong, particularly in the Bay Area, people keep moving there. Home prices will drop once people stop wanting to move to California',
"The core places that have growing home prices (commute-ready homes in San Francisco, fashionable areas of LA, beach property) are limited in their supply and have a continuously growing number of wealthy people wanting to buy them.\n\nAs an example, lets look at San Francisco: The city has a fixed size because of the land it's on, and only a certain number of homes are within a reasonable commute time of the downtown core. S.F. also has very restrictive zoning laws, meaning new high rises are very difficult to build. With that, only a certain number of people can live within a comfortable commuting distance of their jobs.\n\nS.F. is also a hotbed of technology, a very high growth and lucrative field to be in. People are able to make a lot of money at it, and more people want to move to the area to join in on that business.\n\nMore money floods into the area, but there aren't homes for them. So, the people with money get into a bidding war driving up overall home cost.",
'Uneven distribution of income... there are a selection of the population doing very well, making high incomes, seeing their stocks/options appreciate in value. And high earners tend to marry other high earners, doubling down on their buying power. And they are willing and able to bid up prices for housing in the most in-demand areas. This has a snowball effect, as prices rise in SF and LA then it impacts everything further and cheaper as people have to move further away to afford anything. The issue is that there is still way less supply than there is demand so there are more buyers (or potential buyers) than there are homes being built. Thus people are often spending more than budget guidelines suggest one should spend on housing, cutting spending elsewhere or taking on additional debt.',
'Supply and demand. More people want to live there than there are places to live. \n\nThe two obvious next questions are "Why is the supply so low?" and "Why is the demand so high?". \n\n**Why is the Supply so low?**\n\nShort answer: Few people actually want it to rise. \n\nThe current homeowners don\'t, because their home price keeps going up with less competition. A lot of the "original" residents don\'t, because they want the city to retain it\'s quaint, artistic charm and not be dominated by skyscrapers. The will of these people is expressed in restrictive regulations, and because of them, the only new housing that makes money is luxury housing. (Because if a place is expensive to build, it will be expensive to rent.) People rebel against this, dragging it out in court for years or just torching the construction sites, so the supply is not keeping up with the demand. The root cause is frankly that a lot of people there don\'t understand or believe basic economics. There\'s actually no such thing as a "luxury house". (You can buy a mansion in Detroit for $1.) It\'s all just supply and demand, and by preventing new housing from being built, _every_ house is turning into a "luxury house." A normal-looking 1 bedroom, 900sqft single-family home in the city recently sold for $3 million.\n\n**Why is the Demand so high?**\n\nThe tech industry and foreign investors. \n\nTech pays big bucks and is still booming. The average starting salary is $90k and I personally know a guy who took a $400k pay CUT in order to work in a cooler part of the industry. People there are loaded. \n\nForeign investors have also jumped in, raising the demand even more. They see the problems with the supply of housing, so it\'s a no-brainer to invest. \n\nSo there\'s tons of demand and the supply can\'t keep up. This makes prices ridiculous.',
'Prop 13 also has distorted the market significantly. You can find dozens of articles about it, but it effectively freezes property taxes to time of purchase as opposed to annual assessment. This incentivizes home owners to not sell because a house bought many years ago is a huge tax shelter. This also causes shenanigans like creating shell companies so that no more than one party "owns" more than 50% of a property to keep the property tax bill low. \n\nMalcolm Gladwell gives a fun example of this regarding LA golf courses. They pay a tiny fraction of the taxes normally owed on the value of their property. Revisionist History - A Good Walk Spoiled: _URL_0_'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6o0xcl',
'query': "if california's housing market is already incredibly overpriced, why does it keep rising?",
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1751628',
'title': 'Late night television in the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Cable television.\n',
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'passage_text': "In the 1980s, it was more common to split one cable television feed into two separate channels – one that aired during the daytime and the other at night; this method was used in particular by cable systems to account for headend infrastructures that limited the number of channels that could be carried on a single system at the time (prior to upgrades that led to the advent of digital cable in the 1990s); however in those cases, providers switched between continuously-running channel feeds between dayparts. Prior to the launch of Nick at Nite, Nickelodeon carried The Movie Channel (from 1979 to 1981), BET (from 1980 to 1981), the Alpha Repertory Television Service (ARTS) (from 1981 to 1984) and ARTS' successor A&E (from 1984 to 1985) over its channel space; each one (except for ARTS, which merged with The Entertainment Channel to form A&E) eventually became its own separate channel.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3485890',
'title': 'Television system',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Television systems should not be confused with twinsticks, although some individual stations might be part of both types of operations simultaneously. Moreover, a single originating station serving multiple markets within the same province or region is neither a network nor a system; it is merely a station (although it might still be described as a system by its owner, as was the case with Toronto multicultural station CFMT during the 1990s, prior to the formation of Omni Television). For example, independent station CHCH-DT in Hamilton has rebroadcasters in various parts of Ontario but broadcasts the same newscasts, entertainment programming and advertising, which target Hamilton and surrounding areas in the Golden Horseshoe region, across all of these transmitters province-wide.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29840',
'title': 'Television channel',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "Preventing interference between terrestrial channels in the same area is accomplished by skipping at least one channel between two analog stations' frequency allocations. Where channel numbers are sequential, frequencies are not contiguous, such as channel 6 to 7 skip from VHF low to high band, and channel 13 to 14 jump to UHF. On cable TV, it is possible to use adjacent channels only because they are all at the same power, something which could only be done terrestrially if the two stations were transmitted at the same power and height from the same location. For DTT, selectivity is inherently better, therefore channels adjacent (either to analog or digital stations) can be used even in the same area.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41234',
'title': 'Heterodyne',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Up and down converters.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'For example, a coaxial cable used by a cable television system can carry 500 television channels at the same time because each one is given a different frequency, so they don\'t interfere with one another. At the cable source or headend, electronic upconverters convert each incoming television channel to a new, higher frequency. They do this by mixing the television signal frequency, "f" with a local oscillator at a much higher frequency , creating a heterodyne at the sum , which is added to the cable. At the consumer\'s home, the cable set top box has a downconverter that mixes the incoming signal at frequency with the same local oscillator frequency creating the difference heterodyne frequency, converting the television channel back to its original frequency: . Each channel is moved to a different higher frequency. The original lower basic frequency of the signal is called the baseband, while the higher channel it is moved to is called the passband.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '519148',
'title': 'Television in the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Regulation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 146,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Cable television is largely, but not entirely, unregulated. Cable providers must include local over-the-air stations in their offerings on each system (stations can opt to gain carriage by seeking a must-carry option) and give them low channel numbers, unless the stations decide to demand compensation of any sort (through retransmission consent). The systems cannot carry broadcast network affiliates from other parts of the country (this regulation has largely been openly ignored in recent years during carriage disputes), however cable systems can carry stations from nearby markets if there are no local stations affiliated with one of the major networks (though this is becoming far less common with the shift, particularly since 2006, towards over-the-air stations carrying one network affiliation on their main channel and an affiliation with another network on a digital subchannel, thus allowing these network-affiliated digital subchannels to be carried at least via digital cable).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7587',
'title': 'Cable television',
'section': 'Section::::Principle of operation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'In the most common system, multiple television channels (as many as 500, although this varies depending on the provider\'s available channel capacity) are distributed to subscriber residences through a coaxial cable, which comes from a trunkline supported on utility poles originating at the cable company\'s local distribution facility, called the "headend". Many channels can be transmitted through one coaxial cable by a technique called frequency division multiplexing. At the headend, each television channel is translated to a different frequency. By giving each channel a different frequency "slot" on the cable, the separate television signals do not interfere with each other. At an outdoor cable box on the subscriber\'s residence the company\'s service drop cable is connected to cables distributing the signal to different rooms in the building. At each television, the subscriber\'s television or a set-top box provided by the cable company translates the desired channel back to its original frequency (baseband), and it is displayed onscreen. Due to widespread cable theft in earlier analog systems, the signals are typically encrypted on modern digital cable systems, and the set-top box must be activated by an activation code sent by the cable company before it will function, which is only sent after the subscriber signs up. If the subscriber fails to pay their bill, the cable company can send a signal to deactivate the subscriber\'s box, preventing reception.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29840',
'title': 'Television channel',
'section': 'Section::::Other meanings.:Non-terrestrial television channels.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 421,
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'passage_text': 'Because some regions have had difficulty picking up terrestrial television signals (particularly in mountainous areas), alternative means of distribution such as direct-to-home satellite and cable television have been introduced. Television channels specifically built to run on cable or satellite blur the line between TV station and TV network. That fact led some early cable channels to call themselves superstations.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'When two TVs in TVs same house are run through the same cable service, why does one seem to always lag behind the other?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["A modern TV contains electronics which decode the digital HDMI signal and then turn it back into a picture and sound. Unfortunately these usually introduce a delay, and on some models it can be a notable fraction of a second, and it's not a standardized amount."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'e7wo35',
'query': 'when two tvs in tvs same house are run through the same cable service, why does one seem to always lag behind the other?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1525',
'title': 'Aspirin',
'section': 'Section::::Medical use.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'Aspirin is used in the treatment of a number of conditions, including fever, pain, rheumatic fever, and inflammatory conditions, such as rheumatoid arthritis, pericarditis, and Kawasaki disease. Lower doses of aspirin have also been shown to reduce the risk of death from a heart attack, or the risk of stroke in people who are at high risk or who have cardiovascular disease, but not in elderly people who are otherwise healthy. There is some evidence that aspirin is effective at preventing colorectal cancer, though the mechanisms of this effect are unclear. In the United States, low-dose aspirin is deemed reasonable in those between 50 and 70 years old who have a risk of cardiovascular disease over 10%, are not at an increased risk of bleeding, and are otherwise healthy.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1525',
'title': 'Aspirin',
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'passage_text': 'Aspirin, also known as acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is a medication used to treat pain, fever, or inflammation. Specific inflammatory conditions which aspirin is used to treat include Kawasaki disease, pericarditis, and rheumatic fever. Aspirin given shortly after a heart attack decreases the risk of death. Aspirin is also used long-term to help prevent further heart attacks, ischaemic strokes, and blood clots in people at high risk. It may also decrease the risk of certain types of cancer, particularly colorectal cancer. For pain or fever, effects typically begin within 30 minutes. Aspirin is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) and works similarly to other NSAIDs but also suppresses the normal functioning of platelets.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1525',
'title': 'Aspirin',
'section': 'Section::::Medical use.:Cancer prevention.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Aspirin is thought to reduce the overall risk of both getting cancer and dying from cancer. This effect is particularly beneficial for colorectal cancer (CRC) but must be taken for at least 10–20 years to see this benefit. It may also slightly reduce the risk of endometrial cancer, breast cancer, and prostate cancer.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16283254',
'title': 'History of aspirin',
'section': 'Section::::Revival as heart drug.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
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'passage_text': "The idea of using aspirin to prevent clotting diseases (such as heart attacks and strokes) was revived in the 1960s, when medical researcher Harvey Weiss found that aspirin had an anti-adhesive effect on blood platelets (and unlike other potential antiplatelet drugs, aspirin had low toxicity). Medical Research Council haematologist John O'Brien picked up on Weiss's finding and, in 1963, began working with epidemiologist Peter Elwood on aspirin's anti-thrombosis drug potential. Elwood began a large-scale trial of aspirin as a preventive drug for heart attacks. Nicholas Laboratories agreed to provide aspirin tablets, and Elwood enlisted heart attack survivors in a double-blind controlled study—heart attack survivors were statistically more likely to suffer a second attack, greatly reducing the number of patients necessary to reliably detect whether aspirin had an effect on heart attacks. The study began in February 1971, though the researchers soon had to break the double-blinding when a study by American epidemiologist Hershel Jick suggested that aspirin prevented heart attacks but suggested that the heart attacks were more deadly. Jick had found that fewer aspirin-takers were admitted to his hospital for heart attacks than non-aspirin-takers, and one possible explanation was that aspirin caused heart attack sufferers to die before reaching the hospital; Elwood's initial results ruled out that explanation. When the Elwood trial ended in 1973, it showed a modest but not statistically significant reduction in heart attacks among the group taking aspirin.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16985959',
'title': 'Mechanism of action of aspirin',
'section': 'Section::::Effects on prostaglandins and thromboxanes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'This antiplatelet property makes aspirin useful for reducing the incidence of heart attacks; heart attacks are primarily caused by blood clots, and their reduction with the introduction of small amounts of aspirin has been seen to be an effective medical intervention. A dose of 40\xa0mg of aspirin a day is able to inhibit a large proportion of maximum thromboxane A release provoked acutely, with the prostaglandin I2 synthesis being little affected; however, higher doses of aspirin are required to attain further inhibition.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1525',
'title': 'Aspirin',
'section': 'Section::::Medical use.:Heart attacks and strokes.:Lower risk.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Aspirin appears to offer little benefit to those at lower risk of heart attack or stroke—for instance, those without a history of these events or with pre-existing disease. Some studies recommend aspirin on a case-by-case basis, while others have suggested the risks of other events, such as gastrointestinal bleeding, were enough to outweigh any potential benefit, and recommended against using aspirin for primary prevention entirely. Aspirin has also been suggested as a component of a polypill for prevention of cardiovascular disease.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1525',
'title': 'Aspirin',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism of action.:Prostaglandins and thromboxanes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 86,
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'passage_text': 'Low-dose aspirin use irreversibly blocks the formation of thromboxane A in platelets, producing an inhibitory effect on platelet aggregation during the lifetime of the affected platelet (8–9 days). This antithrombotic property makes aspirin useful for reducing the incidence of heart attacks in people who have had a heart attack, unstable angina, ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack. 40mg of aspirin a day is able to inhibit a large proportion of maximum thromboxane A release provoked acutely, with the prostaglandin I2 synthesis being little affected; however, higher doses of aspirin are required to attain further inhibition.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What does aspirin do that helps prevent heart attacks, stroke and now cancer?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['One observation is that some cancers are linked to inflammation. Aspirin may reduce certain kinds of inflammation.',
'Chronic inflammation promotes cell proliferation, which increases the chances of DNA damage. Aspirin is an NSAID (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug) so taking it at low doses will help prevent inflammation, which decreases the probability of DNA damage occurring.',
'For the heart attacks and stroke risks: aspirin thins out your blood, lowering the stress on the veins and arteries.',
"Blood clots can cause blockages in the arteries that bring blood and oxygen to the heart and brain leading to either heart attacks or strokes. Aspirin can help in preventing this by thinning the blood and preventing the blood from even clotting. As for how it can prevent cancers i'm not entirely sure, maybe by preventing the clots from forming you can prevent chronic complication from even happening in the first place.",
"The theory is that it thins the blood, making arterial blockages less likely.\n\nBut most of the evidence for this is statistical. You have one group use aspirin, one that doesn't, and see who has the most heart attacks. That can show that aspirin is beneficial without us knowing exactly why it is beneficial."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '79w7et',
'query': 'what does aspirin do that helps prevent heart attacks, stroke and now cancer?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '12640115',
'title': 'Peter Eriksson (neuroscientist)',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Eriksson was a frequently cited scientist who made ground-breaking research on the neurogenesis in hippocampus in the adult human brain. He showed that new brain cells are created throughout the whole human lifespan, and that the integration of the new brain cells to the brain depended on the stimuli that the environment offered, thus offering an insight that could enhance the treatment of neuro damaged patients.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2777285',
'title': 'Adult stem cell',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Neural stem cells.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The existence of stem cells in the adult brain has been postulated following the discovery that the process of neurogenesis, the birth of new neurons, continues into adulthood in rats. The presence of stem cells in the mature primate brain was first reported in 1967. It has since been shown that new neurons are generated in adult mice, songbirds and primates, including humans. Normally, adult neurogenesis is restricted to two areas of the brain – the subventricular zone, which lines the lateral ventricles, and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampal formation. Although the generation of new neurons in the hippocampus is well established, the presence of true self-renewing stem cells there has been debated. Under certain circumstances, such as following tissue damage in ischemia, neurogenesis can be induced in other brain regions, including the neocortex.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '987320',
'title': 'Neurotechnology',
'section': 'Section::::Current technologies.:Cell therapy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': 'Researchers have begun looking at uses for stem cells in the brain, which recently have been found in a few loci. A large number of studies are being done to determine if this form of therapy could be used in a large scale. Experiments have successfully used stem cells in the brains of children who suffered from injuries in gestation and elderly people with degenerative diseases in order to induce the brain to produce new cells and to make more connections between neurons.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '987320',
'title': 'Neurotechnology',
'section': 'Section::::Future technologies.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
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'passage_text': 'Stem cell technologies are always salient both in the minds of the general public and scientists because of their large potential. Recent advances in stem cell research have allowed researchers to ethically pursue studies in nearly every facet of the body, which includes the brain. Research has shown that while most of the brain does not regenerate and is typically a very difficult environment to foster regeneration, there are portions of the brain with regenerative capabilities (specifically the hippocampus and the olfactory bulbs). Much of the research in central nervous system regeneration is how to overcome this poor regenerative quality of the brain. It is important to note that there are therapies that improve cognition and increase the amount of neural pathways, but this does not mean that there is a proliferation of neural cells in the brain. Rather, it is called a plastic rewiring of the brain ("plastic" because it indicates malleability) and is considered a vital part of growth. Nevertheless, many problems in patients stem from death of neurons in the brain, and researchers in the field are striving to produce technologies that enable regeneration in patients with stroke, Parkinson\'s diseases, severe trauma, and Alzheimer\'s disease, as well as many others. While still in fledgling stages of development, researchers have recently begun making very interesting progress in attempting to treat these diseases. Researchers have recently successfully produced dopaminergic neurons for transplant in patients with Parkinson\'s diseases with the hopes that they will be able to move again with a more steady supply of dopamine. Many researchers are building scaffolds that could be transplanted into a patient with spinal cord trauma to present an environment that promotes growth of axons (portions of the cell attributed with transmission of electrical signals) so that patients unable to move or feel might be able to do so again. The potentials are wide-ranging, but it is important to note that many of these therapies are still in the laboratory phase and are slowly being adapted in the clinic. Some scientists remain skeptical with the development of the field, and warn that there is a much larger chance that electrical prosthesis will be developed to solve clinical problems such as hearing loss or paralysis before cell therapy is used in a clinic.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7927678',
'title': 'Michael Kaplan (biologist)',
'section': 'Section::::Research Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': 'In addition, the concept that there may be brain stem cells that could proliferate, migrate, and then differentiate into new neurons had not yet been introduced. It was therefore thought that mature neurons would have to replicate, an idea that most researchers found incredible. Furthermore, the possible relevance of the findings for humans was underestimated because there was no evidence of neurogenesis in primates.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34068593',
'title': 'Halton Hills Christian School',
'section': 'Section::::Arrowsmith.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The Arrowsmith_Program is based on the theory of neuroplasticity. It is now a recognized fact that the brain is pliable and elastic, not fixed as we used to believe. Therefore, it is now possible to physically change the brain in response to stimuli and develop new neural pathways. The exercises created by Barbara Arrowsmith Young over the past 25 years now make it possible for the brains of children with certain learning dysfunctions to be strengthened to the point of average or above-average functionality.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40436381',
'title': 'Heinrich Reichert',
'section': 'Section::::Work.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'Reichert investigated the role of neural stem cells in the development of the brain using the fruit fly "Drosophila" as a model. He discovered a molecular production program followed by stem cells as they develop in the brain. A similar, evolutionary conserved developmental program also plays a role in the formation of the brain in vertebrates. If this program is disrupted by specific Gene mutations, an uncontrolled production of misprogrammed cells results, which divide in an uncontrolled manner, leading to the development of lethal brain tumors. How exactly such genetic aberrations in the formation of stem cells come about is subject of Reichert’s research. His goal was to find new strategies to prevent such brain tumors.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Does the brain stem ever learn anything new?',
'selftext': 'Does the brain stem learn anything over time to make it better at keeping body systems running? Or perhaps, are we born with all the software it’ll ever get - with no hope for “updates”? FYI - not high at all.',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Hmm good question. The short answer is not really. At the most basic level, the brain stem is a way for the nerves of the body (PNS) to communicate with the brain and a way to regulate autonomic functions without active thought (imagine how much of a pain in the ass it would be to have to think about breathing 24/7.) So directly, no the brain stem does not learn in that it forms new synaptic connections in response to stimuli that it can “remember” and change its function. But, the mid and forebrain can influence its behavior so long as this influence does not cause a more significant important system to fall out of “acceptable levels” like heart rate and respiration. \n\nSo the learning that takes place in these areas can influence its behavior. For example, hypothalamus of the midbrain regulates sleep cycles. This means that when the midbrain (hypothalamus) has learned it’s close to sleep, it lets the hindbrain know to trigger more parasympathetic responses (rest and digest). \n\nThis is grossly simplified and probably wrong as I’m still a student but it’s as much as I can remember from my neuro block. '],
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'query_id': '9sucfi',
'query': 'does the brain stem ever learn anything new?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '4459886',
'title': 'Password strength',
'section': 'Section::::Password guess validation.:Human-generated passwords.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The full strength associated with using the entire ASCII character set (numerals, mixed case letters and special characters) is only achieved if each possible password is equally likely. This seems to suggest that all passwords must contain characters from each of several character classes, perhaps upper and lower case letters, numbers, and non-alphanumeric characters. In fact, such a requirement is a pattern in password choice and can be expected to reduce an attacker\'s "work factor" (in Claude Shannon\'s terms). This is a reduction in password "strength". A better requirement would be to require a password NOT to contain any word in an online dictionary, or list of names, or any license plate pattern from any state (in the US) or country (as in the EU). If patterned choices are required, humans are likely to use them in predictable ways, such a capitalizing a letter, adding one or two numbers, and a special character. This predictability means that the increase in password strength is minor when compared to random passwords.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1228060',
'title': 'Internet privacy',
'section': 'Section::::Risks to Internet privacy.:Other potential Internet privacy risks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 121,
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'passage_text': "BULLET::::- Use of weak passwords that are short, consist of all numbers, all lowercase or all uppercase letters, or that can be easily guessed such as single words, common phrases, a person's name, a pet's name, the name of a place, an address, a phone number, a social security number, or a birth date.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '719388',
'title': 'Weak key',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'In cryptography, a weak key is a key, which, used with a specific cipher, makes the cipher behave in some undesirable way. Weak keys usually represent a very small fraction of the overall keyspace, which usually means that, if one generates a random key to encrypt a message, weak keys are very unlikely to give rise to a security problem. Nevertheless, it is considered desirable for a cipher to have no weak keys. A cipher with no weak keys is said to have a "flat", or "linear", key space.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4459886',
'title': 'Password strength',
'section': 'Section::::Guidelines for strong passwords.:Examples of weak passwords.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 70,
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'passage_text': 'There are many other ways a password can be weak, corresponding to the strengths of various attack schemes; the core principle is that a password should have high entropy (usually taken to be equivalent to randomness) and "not" be readily derivable by any "clever" pattern, nor should passwords be mixed with information identifying the user. On-line services often provide a restore password function that a hacker can figure out and by doing so bypass a password. Choosing hard-to-guess restore password questions can further secure the password.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1123994',
'title': 'LAN Manager',
'section': 'Section::::Cryptanalysis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::3. A 14-character password is broken into 7+7 characters and the hash is calculated for the two halves separately. This way of calculating the hash makes it exponentially easier to crack, as the attacker needs to brute force 7 characters twice instead of 14 characters. This makes the effective strength of a 14-characters password equal to only formula_1, or twice that of a 7-character password, which is significantly less complex than the formula_2 theoretical strength of a 14-character password.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5708700',
'title': 'Cracking of wireless networks',
'section': 'Section::::Prevention and Protection.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 174,
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'passage_text': "any pattern then the password will be essentially uncrackable. Just to give an example of this, let's just take the minimum of 8 characters for WPA2 and suppose we take upper case and lower case letters, digits from 0-9 and a small selection of symbols, we can avail of a hefty choice of 64 characters. In an 8 character length password this is a grand total of 64^8 \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4459886',
'title': 'Password strength',
'section': 'Section::::Guidelines for strong passwords.:Examples of weak passwords.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 59,
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'passage_text': 'As with any security measure, passwords vary in effectiveness (i.e., strength); some are weaker than others. For example, the difference in weakness between a dictionary word and a word with obfuscation (i.e., letters in the password are substituted by, say, numbers — a common approach) may cost a password cracking device a few more seconds; this adds little strength. The examples below illustrate various ways weak passwords might be constructed, all of which are based on simple patterns which result in extremely low entropy, allowing them to be tested automatically at high speeds.:\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How can a password not containing numbers or special characters be considered weak?',
'selftext': 'If I can pick ANY combination of characters for my password, isn’t a combination containing only letters equally hard to guess as one that doesn’t?',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Unless you're using a randomly generated chain of letters, most password cracking software have functions built in to use the most commonly used words in passwords.\n\nIf you set a limit to the length of the password (say 20 characters), you go from very predictable, and easily brute-forcible using numbers, to somewhat predictable, and not impossible to brute force, using the 26 letters of the alphabet, to impossible (unless you have lots of time and a supercomputer) if you combined all 3.",
"In theory an attacker who doesn't know you didn't use the numbers and special characters would need to consider that they might have been used, slowing their attempts on your password. But consider that an attacker might simply only decide to go for the easy targets and just try normal characters, leaving out numbers and special characters. That wouldn't ever get into accounts of the people who included them but it would happen to break yours since you didn't.\n\nBy expanding the possible characters to include the extra numbers and special symbols it presents a task too great for an attacker to solve, and to ensure it actually *is* too hard to solve they force you to include them in your password. Otherwise the attackers just solve the problems they can and the simple passwords get broken.",
'My point is: why is a password like ‘gsnnssijcbdbhduehvedbvpqqqqq’ considered weak by most services while something like ‘dopeHe4d1999’ is considered strong? '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'ammeek',
'query': 'how can a password not containing numbers or special characters be considered weak?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '19857818',
'title': 'Mandibular fracture',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:General considerations.:Fixation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 75,
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'passage_text': 'Open reduction with direct skeletal fixation allows the bones to be directly mandibulated through an incision so that the fractured ends meet, then they can be secured together either rigidly (with screws or plates and screws) or non-rigidly (with transosseous wires). There are a multitude of various plate and screw combinations including compression plates, non-compression plates, lag-screws, mini-plates and biodegradable plates.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9213410',
'title': 'Hematoma block',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'When a bone is fractured as a result of an injury, the two fragments may be displaced relative to each other. If they are not, usually no treatment is required other than immobilisation in an appropriate cast. If displacement does occur, then the space separating the fragments fills with blood shed by the damaged blood vessels within the bone. This collection, or pool, of blood is known as a hematoma. Injection of a suitable local anesthetic by needle and syringe through the skin into this hematoma produces relief of the pain caused by the fracture, allowing the bones to be painlessly manipulated.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23035006',
'title': 'Artificial bone',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Bone fracture, which is a complete or partial break in the bone, is a very common condition that has more than three million US cases per year. Human bones have the ability to regenerate themselves by cycle of bone resorption and bone formation. The cell responsible for bone resorption is osteoclast, while the cell responsible for bone formation is osteoblast. That being said, the human body can regenerate fractured bone. However, if damage to bone is caused by a disease or severe injury, it becomes difficult for the body to repair itself. When the human body is unable to regenerate the lost bone tissue, surgeons come in and replace the missing bone using autografts, allografts, and synthetic grafts (artificial bone). When compare artificial bone to autograft and allograft, it is less invasive and more biocompatible since it avoids the risk of unknown viral infections.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24358244',
'title': 'Child bone fracture',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': "On an everyday basis bones will support many kinds of forces naturally applied to them, but when the forces are too strong the bones will break. For example, when an adolescent jumps off of a trampoline and lands on his/her feet the bones and connective tissue in the adolescent's feet will usually absorb the force, flex, then return to their original shape. However, if the adolescent lands and the force is too strong, the bones and the connective tissue will not be able to support the force and will fracture.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1692549',
'title': 'Clavicle fracture',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'A clavicle fracture, also known as a broken collarbone, is a bone fracture of the clavicle. Symptoms typically include pain at the site of the break and a decreased ability to move the affected arm. Complications can include a collection of air in the pleural space surrounding the lung (pneumothorax), injury to the nerves or blood vessels in the area, and an unpleasant appearance.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6058',
'title': 'Collagen',
'section': 'Section::::Medical uses.:Bone grafts.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 523,
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'passage_text': 'As the skeleton forms the structure of the body, it is vital that it maintains its strength, even after breaks and injuries. Collagen is used in bone grafting as it has a triple helical structure, making it a very strong molecule. It is ideal for use in bones, as it does not compromise the structural integrity of the skeleton. The triple helical structure of collagen prevents it from being broken down by enzymes, it enables adhesiveness of cells and it is important for the proper assembly of the extracellular matrix.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1173689',
'title': 'Stress fracture',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'Bones are constantly attempting to remodel and repair themselves, especially during a sport where extraordinary stress is applied to the bone. Over time, if enough stress is placed on the bone that it exhausts the capacity of the bone to remodel, a weakened site—a stress fracture—may appear on the bone. The fracture does not appear suddenly. It occurs from repeated traumas, none of which is sufficient to cause a sudden break, but which, when added together, overwhelm the osteoblasts that remodel the bone.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do broken bones knit when they aren’t completely immobile?',
'selftext': 'ELI5: when you break a bone, especially one that can’t be casted, there’s still some relative motion between the pieces. I understand osteoblasts do their thing and generate new bone. But when the pieces start to touch and the new bone connects, why doesn’t the slightest movement cause it to disconnect?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["A lot of things actually heal better this way. For example, in hip fractures, the fixation depends on the bones being slightly mobile (look up a dynamic hip screw) as this reinforces repairs along areas of stress, making the overall repaired bone stronger. \n\nInitially a haematoma will form around the site. Then fibrous, but reasonably flexible tissue will be laid down, this is called a callous. This will hold the broken parts close together. Then the bone will fill itself in within this area. Small movements aren't too much of a problem but larger movements will break the connections as they start to form."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'f3j1i8',
'query': 'how do broken bones knit when they aren’t completely immobile?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3247450',
'title': 'Horn (acoustic)',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Horn loudspeakers.:Use of the surroundings as part of the horn.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'Large bass speakers often take advantage of the surroundings as part of the horn. For example, they can be put in the corners of a room, so the walls act as part of the horn. Even outdoors, the ground can form part of the horn surface, and thus a partial horn can help provide a good impedance match to ground, or one or more walls, even at very low frequencies.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19888583',
'title': 'Bookshelf speaker',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'Finally, most home theater and many musical home audio applications, began in the late 1990s to incorporate separately-enclosed subwoofers to handle deep bass. Human perception of low-frequency sound is relatively non-directional, so a single subwoofer cabinet placed anywhere in the room (even hidden behind a sofa) is usually sufficient and may be placed anywhere. This frees up the other speakers to omit the lower end of the frequency spectrum. Without the relatively heavy, bulky, and expensive low bass drivers and their large speaker enclosures, the speakers can be made smaller.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15520448',
'title': 'List of bass amplifier and loudspeaker manufacturers',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'This distinction affects the design of the loudspeakers, the cabinet, and the preamplifier and amplifier. Loudspeakers for bass instruments tend to be larger and more heavy-duty, and speaker cabinets have to be built more solidly to prevent unwanted rattling due to the low frequencies. Preamplifiers and amplifiers for bass instruments often have features designed for bass instruments, such as equalizers that go down to 40\xa0Hz or below or limiters to prevent speaker damage.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '816290',
'title': 'Horn loudspeaker',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Public address and concert use.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
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'passage_text': 'Concert venues often use large arrays of horn loudspeakers for high-volume bass reproduction ("bass bins" or subwoofers), in order to provide bass that concertgoers can not only hear but feel. Combining multiple horn loudspeakers in an array affords the same benefits as having a single horn with a greater mouth area: the low frequency cut-off extends lower as the horn mouth gets larger, and the array has the greater output power of multiple drivers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24471',
'title': 'Phonograph',
'section': 'Section::::Equalization.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 188,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Because bass sounds have a higher amplitude than high frequency sounds (for the same perceived loudness), the space taken in the groove by low frequency sounds needed to be large (limiting playback time per side of the record) to accommodate the bass notes, yet the high frequencies required only tiny variations in the groove, which were easily affected by noise from irregularities (wear, contaminates, etc.) in the disc itself.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1131409',
'title': 'Klipsch Audio Technologies',
'section': 'Section::::Products.:The Klipschorn.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': "Utilizing the room walls and floor boundaries as extensions of the bass horn helps extend the speaker's frequency response down into the 35\xa0Hz range, considerably lower than would be possible otherwise. Because of the folded horn, the woofer cone moves no more than a few millimeters.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '196048',
'title': 'Electrostatic loudspeaker',
'section': 'Section::::Disadvantages.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'Typical disadvantages include sensitivity to ambient humidity levels and a lack of bass response, due to phase cancellation from a lack of enclosure, but these are not shared by all designs. The bass rolloff 3db point occurs when the narrowest panel dimension equals a quarter wavelength of the radiated frequency for dipole radiators, so for a Quad ESL-63, which is 0.66 meters wide, this occurs at around 129\xa0Hz, comparable to many box speakers (calculated with the speed of sound taken as 343\xa0m/s). There is also the difficult physical challenge of reproducing low frequencies with a vibrating taut film with little excursion amplitude; however, as most diaphragms have a very large surface area compared to cone drivers, only small amplitude excursions are required to put relatively large amounts of energy out. While bass is lacking quantitatively (due to lower excursion than cone drivers) it can be of better quality (\'tighter\' and without \'booming\') than that of electrodynamic (cone) systems. Phase cancellation can be somewhat compensated for by electronic equalization (a so-called shelving circuit that boosts the region inside the audio band where the generated sound pressure drops because of phase cancellation). Nevertheless "maximum" bass levels cannot be augmented because they are ultimately limited by the membrane\'s maximum permissible excursion before it comes too close to the high-voltage stators, which may produce electrical arcing and burn holes through it. Recent, technically more advanced solutions for perceived lack of bass include the use of large, curved panels (Sound-Lab, MartinLogan CLS), electrostatic subwoofer panels (Audiostatic, Quad), and long-throw electrostatic elements allowing large diaphragm excursions (Audiostatic). Another trick often practiced is to step up the bass (20–80\xa0Hz) with a higher transformation ratio than the mid and treble.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do bass sounds seem to travel better through walls, when high pitched sounds usually carry better over distance?',
'selftext': "I have always had the impression that high pitched sounds carry better - for example a high pitched voice is often understandable from several rooms away while a bass voice often doesn't seem to carry. My personal experience is that often my girlfriend cannot hear me from the next room unless I deliberately speak in a falsetto, whereas I can always hear her. I have read before that women and children have higher pitched voices so if they get in trouble with a predator and scream, the males will hear them more easily and be able to come to the rescue. Screams by nature tend to be in a higher pitch than normal, presumably because higher pitches carry better over distance. But when it comes to certain bass sounds, like those created by car stereos and subwoofers, it seems they can carry through walls and be felt while the higher pitched sounds drop out. Often when driving I can feel somebody's bass from their car stereo while hearing no other elements from the music. Since I live in an apartment I am wondering what is more likely to annoy my neighbors: the high pitched chirping of my pet birds, or the pounding bass of my sound bar subwoofer when I watch an action movie.",
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["There are two effects at work.\n\nThe first is the physics of it. Any material will attenuate different frequencies at differing levels. For most solid materials, low frequencies will be slightly attenuated and high frequencies massively attenuated. Through free space, both attenuate over distance but by relatively similar amounts (high frequencies still don't travel as far, but low frequencies don't have the huge advantage they do passing through solid materials). This relationship is not strictly linear, but generally low frequencies penetrate/propagate better than high ones.\n\nThe second is the biology of it. Human beings hear high frequencies (relative to our range) significantly better than we hear low frequencies. What we think of as 'balanced' levels across the frequencies are actually incredibly loud low frequencies coupled with relatively quiet high frequencies. When you evenly attenuate across the frequency spectrum, this causes low frequencies to drop into the inaudible range much more quickly than high frequencies.\n\nThe combination of these two effects is what causes the phenomenon you're experiencing. If you've got a wall, low frequencies punch right through while high frequencies are almost completely blocked. If you're simply listening to a sound through free space, distance will cause both to attenuate - but your inability to hear low frequencies well will make everything turn 'tinny'.\n\nIn terms of your apartment, the walls likely block the sound from your birds entirely while the pounding bass of your subwoofer makes their furniture shake."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7cddyl',
'query': 'why do bass sounds seem to travel better through walls, when high pitched sounds usually carry better over distance?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '6249816',
'title': 'List of video hosting services',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Video hosting services are platforms which allow users to upload, share videos or live stream their own videos to the Internet. These can either be for the general public to watch, or particular users on a shared network. The most popular video hosting website is YouTube, with 1.8 billion logged-in users per month and the most extensive catalog of online videos. There are some countries in the world which place restrictions on YouTube, so some of these respective countries have their own regional video sharing websites.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41273427',
'title': 'Online video platform',
'section': 'Section::::Influence.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'In the 2010s, with the increasing prevalence of technology and the Internet in everyday life, video hosting services serve as a portal to different forms of entertainment (comedy, shows, games, or music), news, documentaries and educational videos. Content may be either both user-generated, amateur clips or commercial products. The entertainment industry uses this medium to release music and videos, movies and television shows directly to the public. Since many users do not have unlimited web space, either as a paid service, or through an ISP offering, video hosting services are becoming increasingly popular, especially with the explosion in popularity of blogs, internet forums and other interactive pages. The mass market for camera phones and smartphones has increased the supply of user-generated video. Traditional methods of personal video distribution, such as making a DVD to show to friends at home, are unsuited to the low resolution and high volume of camera phone clips. In contrast, current broadband Internet connections are well suited to serving the quality of video shot on mobile phones. Most people do not own web servers, and this has created demand for user-generated video content hosting.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4192777',
'title': 'History of the World Wide Web',
'section': 'Section::::2002–present: The Web becomes ubiquitous.:Web 2.0.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 46,
'end_character': 349,
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'passage_text': 'The popularity of YouTube, Facebook, etc., combined with the increasing availability and affordability of high-speed connections has made video content far more common on all kinds of websites. Many video-content hosting and creation sites provide an easy means for their videos to be embedded on third party websites without payment or permission.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41273427',
'title': 'Online video platform',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
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'passage_text': 'Before YouTube changed the way videos were hosted on the web, the first Internet video hosting site was shareyourworld.com. Just like the modern hosting services, it allowed users to upload clips or full videos in different file formats. It was founded in 1997 by Chase Norlin and it ran till 2001 where it closed due to budget and bandwidth problems.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6048839',
'title': 'Internet video',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'There are several online video hosting services, including YouTube, as well as Vimeo, Twitch, and Youku. In recent years, the platform of internet video has been used to stream live events. As a result of the popularity of online video, notable events like the 2012 U.S. presidential debates have been streamed live on the internet. Additionally, internet video has played an important role in the music industry as a medium to watch music videos and gain popularity for songs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1520208',
'title': 'Google Video',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Google Video was a free video hosting service from Google, similar to YouTube, that allowed video clips to be hosted on Google servers and embedded on to other websites. This allowed websites to host lots of video remotely without running into bandwidth or storage-capacity issues.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40505955',
'title': 'Viral phenomenon',
'section': 'Section::::Viral videos.:YouTube effect.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 1365,
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'passage_text': 'With the creation of YouTube, a video sharing website, there has been a huge surge in the number of viral videos on the Internet. This is primarily due to the ease of access to these videos and the ease of sharing them via social media websites. The ability to share videos from one person to another with ease means there are many cases of \'overnight\' viral videos. "YouTube, which makes it easy to embed its content elsewhere) have the freedom and mobility once ascribed to papyrus, enabling their rapid circulation across a range of social networks." YouTube has overtaken television in terms of the size of audience. As one example, "American Idol" was the most viewable TV show in 2009 in U.S. while "a video of Scottish woman Susan Boyle auditioning for "Britain\'s Got Talent" with her singing was viewed more than 77 million times on YouTube". The capacity to attract an enormous audience on a user-friendly platform is one the leading factor why YouTube generates viral videos. YouTube contribute to viral phenomenon spreadability since the idea of the platform is based on sharing and contribution. "Sites such as YouTube, eBay, Facebook, Flickr, Craigslist, and Wikipedia, only exist and have value because people use and contribute to them, and they are clearly better the more people are using and contributing to them. This is the essence of Web 2.0."\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why are other video hosting sites not as used/popular as YouTube?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Here is a [video](_URL_0_) that goes into the problems start up video sharing websites run into. Their audiences end up being the very same people that drive everyone else away. ',
'Popular among whom? In Japan, _URL_1_ is far more popular. For some *specific* vids, _URL_0_ is more popular as it usually cares about copyright far less than YT, etc.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'a4tjzt',
'query': 'why are other video hosting sites not as used/popular as youtube?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2166898',
'title': 'Papilio machaon',
'section': 'Section::::Breeding.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 70,
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'passage_text': 'Caterpillars are very fast eaters; they will spend their time eating or resting before they resume their eating again. Once a sufficient size has been attained, they will attach themselves to any available structure with their silky threads. They will then stay still until they become pupae. This will take about a day.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2120827',
'title': 'Junonia coenia',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Caterpillars of these butterflies appear to prefer plants that produce iridoid glycosides, which are bitter compounds that release a hormone called gastrin that activates the digestive system (i.e. hunger); therefore, iridoid glycoside producing plants stimulate and attract their appetites particularly when found in plants like "Plantago lanceolata". In fact, the presence of these metabolites may trigger oviposition behaviors in female butterflies so that descendant larval bodies may better incorporate iridoid glycosides. Iridoid glycolyside metabolites appear to have a growth-stimulating effect on caterpillars but a growth-reducing effect on predators. Predators like ants, wasps, birds, and small animals prefer to feed on iridoid glycoside poor caterpillars rather than iridoid glycoside rich larvae, potentially due to these effects. Therefore, immunity of "J. coenia" larvae to predators like ants appears to be strongly related to the concentration of iridoid glycosides sequestered in their bodies. However, too much iridoid glycosides in the diet can negatively affect the immune response of these larvae and lead to increased susceptibility to parasitism.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12547531',
'title': 'Phengaris rebeli',
'section': "Section::::Lifecycle.:Parasitism of ants.:Integration into host's life.\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
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'passage_text': 'On the other hand, "M. schencki" prefers to feed "P. rebeli" during times of food shortage. Thus, in periods of starvation, "P. rebeli" caterpillars overall exhibit a higher survival rate than those of the "M. schencki" larvae.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25647057',
'title': 'Aphrissa statira',
'section': 'Section::::Social behavior.:Caterpillars.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
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'end_paragraph_id': 22,
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'passage_text': 'Caterpillars often form very large populations, which then damages their host plants. They may cluster into dense populations along with other species to take advantage of the safety that comes with large numbers. The diversity of caterpillar species in the area can help divert predators to other species. Further, the excess of caterpillars can help prevent the majority from being eaten.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48337',
'title': 'Caterpillar',
'section': 'Section::::Behavior.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
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'passage_text': 'Caterpillars have been called "eating machines", and eat leaves voraciously. Most species shed their skin four or five times as their bodies grow, and they eventually enter a pupal stage before becoming adults. Caterpillars grow very quickly; for instance, a tobacco hornworm will increase its weight ten-thousandfold in less than twenty days. An adaptation that enables them to eat so much is a mechanism in a specialized midgut that quickly transports ions to the lumen (midgut cavity), to keep the potassium level higher in the midgut cavity than in the hemolymph.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13730906',
'title': 'Larval food plants of Lepidoptera',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Caterpillars (larvae) of Lepidoptera species (i.e. of butterflies and moths) are mostly (though not exclusively) herbivores, often oligophagous, i.e. feeding on a narrow variety of plant species (mostly on their leaves, but sometimes on fruit or other parts. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18676219',
'title': 'Ephestia elutella',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The caterpillars are often considered a pest, as they feed on dry plant produce, such as cocoa beans and tobacco, as well as cereals and dried fruit and nuts. Less usual foods include dried-out meat and animal carcasses, specimens in insect collections, and dry wood.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "what happens to caterpillars who haven't stored the usual amount of calories when they try to turn into butterflies?",
'selftext': "Do they make smaller butterflies? Do they not try to turn into butterflies? Do they try but then end up being a half goop thing because they didn't have enough energy to complete the process? Edit: u/PatrickShatner wanted to know: Are caterpillars aware of this transformation? Do they ever have the opportunity to be aware of themselves liquifying and reforming? Also for me: can they turn it on or off or is it strictly a hormonal response triggered by external/internal factors? Edit 2: how did butterflies and caterpillars get their names and why do they have nothing to do with each other? Thanks to all the bug enthusiasts out there!",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Edit: This is an incorrect answer to the original question and could be misleading. This is an example of what could happen if the caterpillar cocoons early due to disease or infection NOT say climate or environmental pressure. \n\nThey generally don't survive once they are out. The body will usually form but wings and legs and such don't come out so well. There are a number of different environmental pressures that would force a caterpillar to try early including food pressure or disease but I'm not aware of a mechanism internal to the pupae to regulate conservation of limited resources when transforming early. \n\nI raise Monarchs and had one go into chrysalis fairly early in its life cycle and come out earlier than expected. It made an attempt at being a butterfly but the second wing wasn't formed and not all of its legs worked. \n\nImagine you planned for a $100,000 house and hired your contractor but only gave them $75,000. With no adjustments to the original plan the contractor would build until they ran out of money and then quit leaving you with say a roof and walls but nothing on the inside. \n\n",
'Depends on just how much they are short... The way full metamorphosis works for things like butterflies.. almost the all of the internals of the caterpillar turns to goop and a butterfly starts forming just like it would as if the cocoon were an egg. So slightly /smaller caterpillars just end up becoming slightly smaller butterflies. However if its a huge deficit, then there just isnt enough material to form a functional adult and they dont make it',
'There are two hormones governing moulting and metamorphosis in insects. Ecdysone is a fat soluble hormone and increases towards the end of each instar (it accumulates in body fat). Once a threshold is crossed, a moult is triggered. Ecdysone levels drop immediately after the moult, then slowly build up again towards the next peak.\n\nJuvenile hormone (JH) shows declining expression with age. It tells the body what the next stage should be at the ecdysone peak when moulting is triggered. In a caterpillar, once JH levels drop below a predefined threshold, the next ecdysone peak initiates the pupal stage. If the caterpillar is underfed, this ecdysone peak (and hence the next moult) is delayed until sufficient energy reserves are available. \n\nTl;dr - Metamorphosis is delayed till the caterpillar has enough stored energy available',
'Or this happens.. there is a particular caterpillar found in arctic regions that may spend up to 14 years as a caterpillar due to the short summer season and extreme winters.. \n\n_URL_0_ ',
'Can there be an additional question added to this. \n\nAre caterpillars aware of this transformation? Do they ever have the opportunity to be aware of themselves liquifying and reforming?',
'Is it possible for a caterpillar to live out until its natural death as a caterpillar and never become a butterfly? Or is the likelihood of death too great in that form?',
"Caterpillars can and do fail to pupate. Have a look at this site:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nStress can cause them to pupate early, when they're not ready, and they'll simply die in the middle of pupating.",
"There are many good answers so far but I will add that sometimes they do in fact just end up tiny as adults if they do not get enough food or improper nutrition. I import 40,000+ butterflies a year in the chrysalis and can tell you that every year we see a few that are probably 75% smaller than they should be. \n\nI have personally raised an Atlas moth, the largest moth in the world, on palm fronds which are basically nutritionally void (it's mom picked the food, not me). It should have been the size of a dinner plate as an adult. Instead it was about 3 inches across. ",
"It's not really possible to answer your question about awareness, but the emergent butterfly does have some of the *memories* of the caterpillar. \n\nScientists tested this by making caterpillars averse to a particular smell. As a butterfly, it is also averse to the smell, despite its brain liquefying and re-forming. \n\nI'll try and find a cite. ",
'What happens to all the caterpillars I found eating my dam weed plants when I went to harvest yesterday? Do they turn into lazy video game playing butterflies?',
"I have a question that sort of relates to this. If we say that the caterpillar has a conciousness, after the whole process, is it still the same conciousness or is it a 'new' being?",
"Do butterflies still feel like they're caterpillars? Just like how former fat people still fell fat?",
'I’ve been raising caterpillars for years. \n\nOne year, they had eaten all of the host plant and there was none available in town. \n\nDue to lack of food, they absolutely skipped their 5th instar (stage of caterpillars in between when they shed their skin). \n\nThey pupated after their 4th molt, and all of them (probably about 100 or so) came out very deformed and unable to fly\n\nI didn’t let them suffer, but I feel a syringe with isopropyl is a much easier and humane to kill them. \n\nJust my two cents. ',
'I love how throughout twelve years of school, we were always told that caterpillars turned into butterflies, but I don’t remember them ever saying how.',
"My dads a high school biology teacher who had a student who gave him a caterpillar. My dad tried to refuse him but ended up with it anyways and told the student he better feed it cause he sure as hell wasnt gonna take care of it. Long story short, the caterpillar didn't eat enough and ended up with only four legs. \n\nOnly reason I found out about this story was because ironically, that student ended up being MY high school biology teacher. ",
'Can someone please explain how that goop turns into a butterfly and how life is sustained in the chrysalis?',
'What if you very very carefully and gently sliced open a chrysalis while its all liquid inside, and poured it into a tiny ice tray and resealed it with thin wax? would we have square butterflies?\n\nor if you added more super nutrients into the mix.... or added two butterflies worth of goo together... \n\nGiant butterfly or two headed butterfly with four wings?',
"Many things can happen depending on the species of lepidoptera (butterfly/moth). Host quality (their food) plays an important role in many kairmone, allomone, and pheromone production (these are chemicals used for self defense, mating, deterring, calling, etc.) If host quality is bad sometimes the larvae (caterpillars) don't make it to pupation (cocoons and chrysales). Sometimes the larvae develop to adults and lack the ability to lay eggs, adults are undersized, or malformed. Sometimes host quality can affect which females get mated first or not at all. It's complicated but can you imagine if eating steak all the time made you an attractive female? That would be cool",
'I read a study once that actually touched on your edit question. In it they produced negative outside stimulus on the cocoon i.e. electric shocks or high temperature if I remember correctly. And when they brought the stimulus near the adult butterflies they reacted negatively without the researchers actually doing anything to them. \n\nEdit. I am on my phone so sorry for any misspelling.\n\nAlso I could be wrong on the "stimulus" but suficit to say the result were conclusive enough to determine that yes indeed they are conscious of they\'re environment and themselves while in that state.',
"I raised a couple hundred monarch caterpillars this year. I had a few caterpillars that did not grow to their full size before pupating. Their chrysalis was smaller than usual and as a result the butterfly was also smaller than normal. \nThe very last caterpillar I had stopped growing around the 3rd instar. It stayed that size for a week or so before pupating. Its chrysalis was so tiny but didn't form right. ",
'The specific plant matters to the caterpillar, but most butterflies aren’t picky. Any nectar flower is usually good for them. \n\nNot all flowers have nectar, some have pollen. Butterflies and moths usually like to drink nectar. Bees however, like both. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '75gzoc',
'query': "what happens to caterpillars who haven't stored the usual amount of calories when they try to turn into butterflies?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '7617805',
'title': 'Starvation response',
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'passage_text': 'Equivalent or closely related terms include famine response, starvation mode, famine mode, starvation resistance, starvation tolerance, adapted starvation, adaptive thermogenesis, fat adaptation, and metabolic adaptation.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '215891',
'title': 'Starvation',
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'passage_text': 'Starvation is an imbalance between energy intake and energy expenditure. The body expends more energy than it takes in. This imbalance can arise from one or more medical conditions or circumstantial situations, which can include:\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '215891',
'title': 'Starvation',
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'passage_text': "Starvation is a severe deficiency in caloric energy intake, below the level needed to maintain an organism's life. It is the most extreme form of malnutrition. In humans, prolonged starvation can cause permanent organ damage and eventually, death. The term inanition refers to the symptoms and effects of starvation. Starvation may also be used as a means of torture or execution.\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '501591',
'title': 'Starvation (computer science)',
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'passage_text': 'In computer science, resource starvation is a problem encountered in concurrent computing where a process is perpetually denied necessary resources to process its work. Starvation may be caused by errors in a scheduling or mutual exclusion algorithm, but can also be caused by resource leaks, and can be intentionally caused via a denial-of-service attack such as a fork bomb.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '501591',
'title': 'Starvation (computer science)',
'section': 'Section::::Scheduling.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Starvation is usually caused by an overly simplistic scheduling algorithm. For example, if a (poorly designed) multi-tasking system always switches between the first two tasks while a third never gets to run, then the third task is being starved of CPU time. The scheduling algorithm, which is part of the kernel, is supposed to allocate resources equitably; that is, the algorithm should allocate resources so that no process perpetually lacks necessary resources.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '6300451',
'title': 'Very-low-calorie diet',
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'passage_text': 'Very low calorie diet (VLCD), or sometimes called starvation diet, is a diet with very or extremely low daily food energy consumption. It is defined as a diet of per day or less. VLCDs are formulated, nutritionally complete, liquid meals containing 800 kilocalories or less per day. VLCDs also contain the recommended daily requirements for vitamins, minerals, trace elements, fatty acids and protein. Carbohydrate may be entirely absent, or substituted for a portion of the protein; this choice has important metabolic effects. The VLCD products are usually a powder which is mixed with water or another low-food-energy liquid. The VLCD is prescribed on a case to case basis for rapid weight loss (about 1.5 to 2.5 kilograms or 3 to 5 pounds per week) in people with body mass index (BMI) of 30 and above. The health care provider can recommend the diet to a patient with a BMI between 27 and 30 if the medical complications the patient has due to being overweight present serious health risks. It results in 4% more weight loss over the short term as compared to control.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '497722',
'title': 'Hyperuricemia',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Mixed type.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Starvation causes the body to metabolize its own (purine-rich) tissues for energy. Thus, like a high purine diet, starvation increases the amount of purine converted to uric acid. A very low calorie diet without carbohydrate can induce extreme hyperuricemia; including some carbohydrate (and reducing the protein) reduces the level of hyperuricemia. Starvation also impairs the ability of the kidney to excrete uric acid, due to competition for transport between uric acid and ketones.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is "Starvation Mode", in terms of dieting?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
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'answers': ['It\'s a largely debunked idea based on a few poorly designed studies decades ago.\n\nThe idea is that if your body is deprived of calories for too long, it will start hoarding what calories it does have, thus increasing stored fat.\n\nThe main reason most people advocate not eating too little has more to do with sustainability of a dietary change rather than any sort of rebound effect. The other thing that goes into eating too little is the tendency many people have to "eat back" what they missed. \n\nFor example, if you don\'t eat for a day and your TDEE (total daily energy expenditure, or how many calories you burn in a day) is 2000 calories, you\'re 2000 calories ahead. However, if over the next week you "reward" yourself every day with an extra doughnut, then you can easily offset the calorie deficit. \n\nThis is what often leads people to say "I ate less and gained weight, it must be starvation mode." \n\nAt the end of the day, I highly reccomend both /r/loseit for good advice, and even cautiously recommend /r/fatlogic as a way to see what really works for people, as well as to hear all of the bunk science that repeatedly gets tossed around. If a point is made in /r/fatlogic it\'s inevitably backed up with science, and I actually tend to find most of the people there willing to actually discuss things. A lot of the other "dietary" advice I see on the internet seems to revolve around self-referential blogs, or people trying to sell you something, and rarely actual studies and reputable sources.\n\n/Edit to add the one true part of the starvation mode idea: the more weight you lose, the less you burn every day. For instance, if you weigh 300 lbs, your TDEE might be ~3000 calories. If you drop a hundred pounds, it may be closer to 2000. So the less you eat, the less you CAN eat and maintain the same weight. That is true, but it\'s because of the lost weight and your body not needing to fuel the extra fat, burn as much energy to get around etc. not because of starvation mode.\n\n/edit again to mention one of the things I like the most about /r/fatlogic. Most of the people there (myself included, though on a different account) have struggled with being fat, and many of the regulars include their heaviest weight as well as current weight in their flair. It\'s not a bunch of theory and echo chambering. It\'s people who used to believe a lot of the bunk science, but learned better and are now supporting themselves and the community by pointing out all of the logical/scientific flaws we tend to believe. It\'s NOT Fatpeoplehate, and I do see people get banned for inappropriate/hateful comments. '],
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'query_id': '6hfeb6',
'query': 'what is "starvation mode", in terms of dieting?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1872736',
'title': 'Apex predator',
'section': 'Section::::Evolutionary history.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Apex predators are thought to have existed since at least the Cambrian period, around 500 million years ago. Extinct species cannot be directly determined to be apex predators as their behaviour cannot be observed, and clues to ecological relationships, such as bite marks on bones or shells, do not form a complete picture. However, indirect evidence such as the absence of any discernible predator in an environment is suggestive. "Anomalocaris" was an aquatic apex predator, in the Cambrian. Its mouthparts are clearly predatory, and there were no larger animals in the seas at that time.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22644230',
'title': "Huffaker's mite experiment",
'section': 'Section::::Underlying theory.:Predator–prey interactions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
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'passage_text': 'The Russian ecologist Georgii Gause demonstrated the tendency toward extinction among predator–prey populations with a series of experiments in 1934. He found that in experiments with "Didinium nasutum" (predator) and "Paramecium caudatum" (prey), "D. nausatum" overexploited "P. caudatum" leading first to its extinction and subsequently to its own.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9438266',
'title': 'List of creatures in Primeval',
'section': 'Section::::T.:"Troodon".\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 289,
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'passage_text': 'Several are encountered in "Extinction Event", where they are described as being intelligent, ruthless predators. They were first encountered feasting on the carcass of a dead "Anatotitan", which had apparently been killed by shock, as a result of a meteor strike. Later, Jenny and Helen Cutter are in the Cretaceous period, and one of the SAS soldiers assigned to help them, Tim Jenkins, was dragged away by the Troodons, who ate him alive due to his crippling caused by a Dimetrodon. The rest of the team were too late to save him. Later in the present, a pack of Troodon showed up at the overturned car Jenny and Hemple were in. Jenny attempted to keep them at bay by using a large metal rod that she had found in the truck\'s wreck. However, one of the Troodon then knocked her down to the ground, and pinned her down, with its foot. Just as it was about to kill her, the car\'s ruptured fuel tank caught on fire, scaring the Troodons away.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '314510',
'title': 'Dire wolf',
'section': 'Section::::Extinction.\n',
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'passage_text': 'During the American megafaunal extinction event around 12,700YBP, 90genera of mammals weighing over became extinct. The extinction of the large carnivores and scavengers is thought to have been caused by the extinction of the megaherbivore prey upon which they depended. The cause of the extinction of the megafauna is debated but has been attributed to the impact of climate change, competition with other species including overexploitation by newly arrived human hunters, or a combination of both. One study proposes that several extinction models should be investigated because so little is known about the biogeography of the dire wolf and its potential competitors and prey, nor how all these species interacted and responded to the environmental changes that occurred at the time of extinction.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45521521',
'title': 'Mesopredator',
'section': 'Section::::The Mesopredator Release Effect.\n',
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'passage_text': 'When populations of apex predators decrease, populations of mesopredators often increase. This is the mesopredator release effect. "Mesopredator outbreaks often lead to declining prey populations, sometimes destabilizing communities and driving local extinctions". When apex predators are removed from the ecosystem, this gives the mesopredators less competition and conflict. They are able to catch more prey and have lower mortality rates. Often, mesopredators can take over the role of apex predators. This happens when new species are introduced into an ecosystem or when species leave or are killed off. When this happens, and the new apex predator or former mesopredator, becomes the new species on top of the food chain, it is important to remember that they are not ecologically identical to the former apex predator, and is likely a smaller species, which will have different effects on the structure and stability of the ecosystem. The mesopredators that become the new apex predators are the species that benefit from this mesopredator release. Apex predators reduce mesopredator populations, and change mesopredator behaviors and habitat choices, by preying on and intimidating mesopredators. This can occur in any ecosystem with any type of relationship between predator and prey. However, in the case of the relationship between apex predator and mesopredator, it could mean that the apex predator causes the mesopredator to leave the ecosystem, again, creating room for a new species to become mesopredator. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '162780',
'title': 'Megafauna',
'section': 'Section::::Megafaunal mass extinctions.:Timing and possible causes.\n',
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'passage_text': "The Holocene extinction (see also Quaternary extinction event), occurred at the end of the last ice age glacial period (a.k.a. the Würm glaciation) when many giant ice age mammals, such as woolly mammoths, went extinct in the Americas and northern Eurasia. An analysis of the extinction event in North America found it to be unique among Cenozoic extinction pulses in its selectivity for large animals. Various theories have attributed the wave of extinctions to human hunting, climate change, disease, a putative extraterrestrial impact, or other causes. However, this extinction near the end of the Pleistocene was just one of a series of megafaunal extinction pulses that have occurred during the last 50,000 years over much of the Earth's surface, with Africa and southern Asia (where the local megafauna had a chance to evolve alongside modern humans) being comparatively less affected. The latter areas did suffer a gradual attrition of megafauna, particularly of the slower-moving species (a class of vulnerable megafauna epitomized by giant tortoises), over the last several million years.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20718189',
'title': 'Bawean deer',
'section': 'Section::::Conservation threats.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Their past extinction was due to tigers—precisely, the Balinese tiger—and humans hunting them for their antlers and pelts. Their main predators now are humans, leopards, dholes (the Asiatic wild dog), pythons, and crocodiles.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How did apex predators that existed millions of years ago go extinct? (i.e Terror birds, Megalodon, Levyatan)',
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'category': 'Biology',
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'answers': ["It's hard to pinpoint the exact causes ~~of~~ for most prehistoric animals and plants, beyond trying to extrapolate data from the scarce info we have. We can look at extinction events nowadays for clues though. Overfeeding and loss of habitat from environmental changes are the two biggest causes.",
'Basically, the climate on earth changes constantly, always gradually, but sometimes dramatically. For massive predators, when the climate changed from what they evolved to fit, their adaptations stopped helping them in their environment. For example, Megalodon was an absolutely massive shark, needing a lot of food to keep it going. It likely feasted on large animals, so when those animals declined in number (say the ocean warmed, and they either left their habitat or went extinct), the Megalodon has nothing left to eat, so it died out too. Bigger isn’t always better.\n\nBasically, when talking about any animal that went extinct for natural, non-human reasons, it’s because a change in the environment made it uninhabitable for that species. They’re forced to either adapt as a species or die out. Apex predators (and humans) tend to be pretty genetically stable, so that adaptation often doesn’t happen fast enough to keep up with the environment.',
"Apex predators are especially prone to going extinct because they sit at the very top of the food chain. Thus they rely on a large chain of species below them to stay healthy in order for them to stay fed.\n\nGrass needs water, sun, and dirt, and a climate good for it. Deer needs lots of grass (and thus, indirectly, everything the grass needs), plus trees for a varied diet (and thus everything the trees need), plus a good climate for deer. Whatever _eats_ the deer needs deer (and thus everything the deer needs) plus other prey and whatever _they_ need, plus whatever environmental conditions the predator needs.\n\nSo top predators need a good, strong, healthy environment.\n\nComplicating things for them, there are a lot fewer predators. There's a huge amount of grass blades per 100 deer per 1 top predator. Top predators have small populations which makes it easier for them to die out"],
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'query': 'how did apex predators that existed millions of years ago go extinct? (i.e terror birds, megalodon, levyatan)',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '219202',
'title': 'Binary code',
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'passage_text': 'A binary code represents text, computer processor instructions, or any other data using a two-symbol system. The two-symbol system used is often "0" and "1" from the binary number system. The binary code assigns a pattern of binary digits, also known as bits, to each character, instruction, etc. For example, a binary string of eight bits can represent any of 256 possible values and can, therefore, represent a wide variety of different items.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '238686',
'title': 'Binary number',
'section': 'Section::::Conversion to and from other numeral systems.:Hexadecimal.\n',
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'passage_text': "To convert a binary number into its hexadecimal equivalent, divide it into groups of four bits. If the number of bits isn't a multiple of four, simply insert extra 0 bits at the left (called padding). For example:\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4533924',
'title': 'Binary multiplier',
'section': 'Section::::Signed numbers.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A binary computer does exactly the same multiplication as decimal numbers do, but with binary numbers. In binary encoding each long number is multiplied by one digit (either 0 or 1), and that is much easier than in decimal, as the product by 0 or 1 is just 0 or the same number. Therefore, the multiplication of two binary numbers comes down to calculating partial products (which are 0 or the first number), shifting them left, and then adding them together (a binary addition, of course):\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8214',
'title': 'Decimal',
'section': 'Section::::Decimal computation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'For most purposes, however, binary values are converted to or from the equivalent decimal values for presentation to or input from humans; computer programs express literals in decimal by default. (123.1, for example, is written as such in a computer program, even though many computer languages are unable to encode that number precisely.)\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1364506',
'title': 'Binary data',
'section': 'Section::::In computer science.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In modern computers, binary data refers to any data represented in binary form rather than interpreted on a higher level or converted into some other form. At the lowest level, bits are stored in a bistable device such as a flip-flop. While most binary data has symbolic meaning (except for don\'t cares) not all binary data is numeric. Some binary data corresponds to computer instructions, such as the data within processor registers decoded by the control unit along the fetch-decode-execute cycle. Computers rarely modify individual bits for performance reasons. Instead, data is aligned in groups of a fixed number of bits, usually 1 byte (8 bits). Hence, "binary data" in computers are actually sequences of bytes. On a higher level, data is accessed in groups of 1 word (4 bytes) for 32-bit systems and 2 words for 64-bit systems.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9898864',
'title': 'Berger code',
'section': 'Section::::Unidirectional error detection.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'For case 3, where bits have changed in both the information and the check sections, notice that the number of zeros in the information section has "gone up", as described for case 1, and the binary value stored in the check portion has "gone down", as described for case 2. Therefore, there is no chance that the two will end up mutating in such a way as to become a different valid code word.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '219202',
'title': 'Binary code',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'In computing and telecommunications, binary codes are used for various methods of encoding data, such as character strings, into bit strings. Those methods may use fixed-width or variable-width strings. In a fixed-width binary code, each letter, digit, or other character is represented by a bit string of the same length; that bit string, interpreted as a binary number, is usually displayed in code tables in octal, decimal or hexadecimal notation. There are many character sets and many character encodings for them.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Can every single thing a computer does be broken down into binary code?',
'selftext': "When I say every single thing, I am talking about what's displayed on the monitor. Obviously the electronic signals arent in binary.",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['...the signals going to the monitor are in binary. Once inside the monitor, the signals get reinterpreted by the controller ciruits, in binary and determine the brightness of each color pixel, whose data is in binary. The pixels themselves are sent binary signals. The brightness of the pixel is controlled by how long the pixel is pulsed at ON state vs OFF state. ',
"Yes. The computer only knows anything as ones and zeroes. Doesn't matter what it is. There is a very complicated process stuff goes through to be displayed as what you see, but it is all stored as binary and interpreted as binary when the computer does any operation on any data. Even the operations the computer does are stored as ones and zeroes. Code is broken down from the high level languages like C#/C++/C and Java and Python, into assembly instructions which are a series of simple statements like Add, Subtract, Move Data between two locations, skip to a specific instruction, etc. Each assembly instruction has a specific sequence of bits that denotes it so the CPU knows what operation to perform.\n\nAs such, there are hundreds of conventions set up as to how data/code is stored so a computer knows how to interpret it. I can try to give some examples but it might be difficult to understand or else pretty lengthy.",
'At the core of everything, a computer *computes*. This means that *everything it does* involves working with numbers. If you remember this, you can ignore "binary code" - that\'s just another way of storing numbers. If you add five and five together, you are always getting ten; even if you have to spell that as "101 + 101 = 1010", the math doesn\'t change.\n\nBinary is used **because** it\'s really easy to transmit as an electrical signal. All you need is two voltages (e.g. 0V and +3V) to move those numbers along unambiguously.',
"Desktop computers are all binary. They work only in the realm of base2 numbers, IE 1's and 0's. Anything they do that is analog, IE not 1's and 0's is converted from 1's and 0's to analog wave forms by DAC's, but internally to the computer it is purely a digital information. \n\ncomputers do have higher levels of organization which can be broken up into base 8 numbers or hexadecimal, but those are ultimately decoded back into bytes and bits of 1's and 0's. \n\nBefore HDMI, DVI, and Display port, video monitors were analog using VGA connectors which sent sync, red, green, and blue analog signals. The video card has a DAC which converts the digital equivalents for the image, into analog signals that the monitor can understand. \n\nModern displays though are digital. The display and color information is sent purely as a bitstream of 1's and 0's, converted by the monitor into a matrix of pixels, and the LCD drivers convert those values into electrical signals that rapidly cycle off and on, to get the different colors, and brightness of pixels. \n\nThere are 2 main exceptions to this though. Analog computers were some of the first computers in use before digital computers became prevalent. They didn't operate using binary digits, but instead used analog voltages. Instead of digital logic gates like AND, NAND, OR, NOR, they used a series of connected motors and rotary encoders to twist knobs and have the results of those value twist other knobs, to perform calculations. Think of it like a feedback loop where a small difference is amplified physically by the motion of groups of servos. Some of the Vietnam era flight simulators used by the Air Force, were based on analog servo computers. \n\nThe other one is quantum computers, which use Q-bits instead of binary bits. They are capable of storing values other than just 1's and 0's. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7rfyig',
'query': 'can every single thing a computer does be broken down into binary code?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '39579267',
'title': 'Atrial Fibrillation Association',
'section': 'Section::::Campaigns and activities.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'Know Your Pulse - Since 2009 the AF Association has been campaigning for manual pulse checks to be included in all routine medical checkups carried out by the NHS in England. A manual pulse check is one of the easiest ways to detect a cardiac arrhythmia, which otherwise often goes untreated until a stroke or other serious illness occurs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60916665',
'title': 'Pulse watch',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'A pulse watch, also known as a pulsometer or pulsograph, is an individual monitoring and measuring device with the ability to measure heart or pulse rate. Detection can occur in real time or can be saved and stored for later review. The pulse watch measures electrocardiography (ECG or EKG) data while the user is performing tasks, whether it be simple daily tasks or intense physical activity. The pulse watch functions without the use of wires and multiple sensors. This makes it useful in health and medical settings where wires and sensors may be an inconvenience. Use of the device is also common in sport and exercise environments where individuals are required to measure and monitor their biometric data.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60916665',
'title': 'Pulse watch',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'From this point onwards, physicians started to make medical observations based on the number of heart beats in a minute (bpm). The functions and mechanisms of the pulse watch were updated and redeveloped by many professionals throughout history. The use of pulse detecting devices have been implemented consistently by medical schools and facilities, as a form of medical technology, to accurately time the pulse and respiration of patients.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56406075',
'title': 'Samsung Health',
'section': 'Section::::Features.:Heart rate measurement.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 45,
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'passage_text': 'The application also supports heart sensors from other manufacturers. It is able to generate a graph as a function of time of the different frequencies reached during a sports session as well as other information such as the average and maximum heart rate reached.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '684716',
'title': 'Photoplethysmogram',
'section': 'Section::::Sites for measuring PPG.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'While pulse oximeters are a commonly used medical device, the PPG derived from them is rarely displayed and is nominally only processed to determine heart rate. PPGs can be obtained from transmissive absorption (as at the finger tip) or reflection (as on the forehead).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '656548',
'title': 'Treadmill',
'section': 'Section::::Exercise treadmills.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 333,
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'passage_text': 'Medical treadmills are also active measuring devices. When connected through an interface with ECG, ergospirometry, blood pressure monitor (BPM), or EMG, they become a new medical system (e.g., stress test system or cardiopulmonary rehabilitation system) and can also be equipped to measure VO2max and various other vital functions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60916665',
'title': 'Pulse watch',
'section': 'Section::::Current and future uses.:Current uses.\n',
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'passage_text': "Pulse watches are utilised on a daily basis by a wide range of people, this is due to the vast availability and accessibility to the device. Pulse watch devices are used in the medical industry where a transcript of user's heart rate data over a period of time can be stored and automatically sent to the user's physician. This is also the case where calorie intake and physical activity levels of users can be stored and sent to their physicians for the purpose of weight management. Wearable devices which use pulse watch mechanisms are also used in the management of patient health. The ability of these devices to efficiently monitor and store health data, provides a solution for patients who require ongoing self-management to monitor the progression of the illness. One study created a data recording system for participants with type-1 diabetes, using these wearable devices. Participants used the device to track their daily intake of carbohydrates, their insulin and blood glucose levels and their amount of physical activity. The results of the study found that the use of these wearable wrist devices provided a simple way for patients to monitor the requirements of their health challenges.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do treadmills and other machines track your hearts BPM by those silver things on the handle?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The basic concept to be aware of here is what makes the heart beat.\n\nOur heartbeat is driven by an electrical signal generated by a small group of cells (sometimes called pacemaker cells) located within our heart. The electric pulse generated by this group spreads through the heart, causing first one part, then the other to contract and relax. (As an aside, this is why electric shocks are so dangerous; they disrupt that group of cells and stop our hearts from effectively beating.)\n\n***However***, this pulse isn't confined to the heart; it spreads through the body, because our insides conduct electricity rather well. So, we constantly have an electrical pulse in our body as well.\n\nWhen we touch the silvery section of an exercise machine, the circuitry inside the machine can actually detect those minute changes in voltage caused by the pacemaker cells in our heart; from there, it can do some fancy math to separate one beat from the next, and arrive at an estimation of your heart rate.",
"The silver things on the handle are electrodes. Think like those little pads that you see taped on a patient in movies and TV that give the hospital a patient's vital signs. those pads run a low level current (being sweaty makes them contact better, which helps get the reading, too) that checks the resistance of your skin.\n\nWhen you have a heart beat, it causes the blood vessels in your hands to expand and contract. This causes the resistance between those two pads to change a little bit, and the machine is able to track those changes and count them as heartbeats.\n\nIt's worth noting that yes, there's a lot that can throw those readings off, and yes, they aren't always reliable- you wouldn't use them for something important like a life or death situation, but they are close enough for exercising to."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'cev5k2',
'query': 'how do treadmills and other machines track your hearts bpm by those silver things on the handle?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '300696',
'title': 'Syrup',
'section': 'Section::::For beverages.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'A variety of beverages call for sweetening to offset the tartness of some juices used in the drink recipes. Granulated sugar does not dissolve easily in cold drinks or ethyl alcohol. Since the following syrups are liquids, they are easily mixed with other liquids in mixed drinks, making them superior alternatives to granulated sugar.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '581712',
'title': 'Diet drink',
'section': 'Section::::Sweetening.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'Multiple artificial sweeteners can be used to give diet soft drinks a sweet taste without sugar. Sometimes two sweeteners are used in the same beverage. Opinion is mixed as to the taste of these beverages: some think they lack the taste of their sugar-sweetened counterparts, while others think the taste is similar. Some also note an unusual non-sugary aftertaste. Some feel the opposite—that diet drinks have no aftertaste and that drinks sweetened by high fructose corn syrup have a gritty, over-sweet aftertaste.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39164260',
'title': 'Sweetened beverage',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'A sweetened beverage is any beverage with added sugar. It has been described as "liquid candy". Consumption of sweetened beverages has been linked to weight gain, obesity, and associated health risks. According to the CDC, consumption of sweetened beverages is also associated with unhealthy behaviors like smoking, not getting enough sleep and exercise, and eating fast food often and not enough fruits regularly.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '562526',
'title': 'Sugar alcohol',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Sugar alcohols are used widely in the food industry as thickeners and sweeteners. In commercial foodstuffs, sugar alcohols are commonly used in place of table sugar (sucrose), often in combination with high intensity artificial sweeteners to counter the low sweetness. Xylitol and sorbitol are popular sugar alcohols in commercial foods.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '581712',
'title': 'Diet drink',
'section': 'Section::::Sweetening.:Sucralose and acesulfame potassium; "sugar-free" soft drinks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'Advocates say drinks employing these sweeteners have a more natural sugar-like taste than those made just with aspartame, and do not have a strong aftertaste. The newer aspartame-free drinks can also be safely consumed by phenylketonurics, because they do not contain phenylalanine. Critics say the taste is not better, merely different, or note that the long-term health risks of all or certain artificial sweeteners is unclear.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2948536',
'title': 'Rocket candy',
'section': 'Section::::Components.:Fuels.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'Many different sugars can be used as the fuel for rocket candy, including glucose, fructose, and sucrose; however, sucrose is the most common. Sorbitol, a sugar alcohol commonly used as a sweetener in food, produces a less brittle propellant with a slower burn rate. This reduces the risk of cracking propellant grains. Sugars with a double bonded oxygen, such as fructose and glucose, are less thermally stable and tend to caramelize when overheated, but have a lower melting point for ease of preparation. Sugars that only have alcohol groups, like sorbitol, are much less prone to this decomposition. Some other commonly used sugars include erythritol, xylitol, lactitol, maltitol, or mannitol.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17448605',
'title': 'Truvia',
'section': 'Section::::Safety and health effects.:Gastrointestinal side effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': "Most of Truvia's side effects are related to erythritol which is a sugar alcohol. Sugar alcohols are valuable as sweeteners since they cause little to no rise in blood glucose levels as sugar does. However, the downside to most sugar alcohols is their propensity to cause gastrointestinal side effects. Erythritol is unique in that among these compounds it has one of the most favorable nutritional profiles. Erythritol is almost as sweet as sucrose, is virtually non-caloric, and cannot be fermented by gut bacteria present in the small intestine. According to Truvia's website, up to 90% of erythritol is absorbed by the small intestine and excreted unchanged in the urine. Only a small amount of it will reach the large intestine where GI symptoms, like bloating, flatulence, and cramping usually originate. \n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is a sugary drink sticky when spilled, but an artificially sweetened one not?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Artificial sweeteners are much more concentrated. So, when they dry out, there is less leftover. ',
'Sugary drinks contain sugar, which is highly attracted to water. Even when the spilled drink "dries," it\'s not completely dry. The sugar in the liquid (which of course does not evaporate like water), is still holding onto a lot water molecules causing a sticky feeling. Essentially, a spilled sugary drink is a dilute syrup. Now, diet drinks have a far less concentration of sweetener, thus, they are much less sticky.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9b3z7w',
'query': 'why is a sugary drink sticky when spilled, but an artificially sweetened one not?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '22894823',
'title': 'Medicine in the American Civil War',
'section': 'Section::::Surgery and health outcomes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 758,
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'passage_text': 'Men were generally partially sedated with chloroform or alcohol before surgery. When properly done, the patient would feel no pain during their surgery, but would not be totally unconscious. Stonewall Jackson, for example, recalled the sound of the saw cutting through the bone of his arm, but recalled no pain. Infection was the most common cause of death of injured soldiers. Infection occurred for a variety of reasons. Surgeons would typically go from surgery to surgery without cleaning their equipment or their hands; surgeons would use sponges that they only rinsed in water on multiple patients. These practices caused bacteria to spread from patient to patient, from all surgical surfaces, and from the environment, which caused infections in many.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '320355',
'title': 'Blood-borne disease',
'section': 'Section::::Occupational exposure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 429,
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'passage_text': 'Blood poses the greatest threat to health in a laboratory or clinical setting due to needlestick injuries ("e.g.", lack of proper needle disposal techniques and/or safety syringes). These risks are greatest among healthcare workers, including: nurses, surgeons, laboratory assistants, doctors, phlebotomists, and laboratory technicians. These roles often require the use of syringes for blood draws or to administer medications.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '172321',
'title': 'Hand, foot, and mouth disease',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 332,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A minority of individuals with hand, foot and mouth disease may require hospital admission due to complications such as inflammation of the brain, inflammation of the meninges, or acute flaccid paralysis. Non-neurologic complications such as inflammation of the heart, fluid in the lungs, or bleeding into the lungs may also occur.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25897574',
'title': 'Hand injury',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 448,
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'passage_text': 'Nerve injuries occur as a result of trauma, compression or over-stretching. Nerves send impulses to the brain about sensation and also play an important role in finger movement. When nerves are injured, one can lose ability to move fingers, lose sensation and develop a contracture. Any nerve injury of the hand can be disabling and results in loss of hand function. Thus it is vital to seek medical help as soon as possible after any hand injury.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4518361',
'title': 'Subclavian steal syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 202,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- hands showing circulation problems (hands can have blotchy patches of red and white) (associated with other stigmata of vascular disease (e.g. vascular insufficiency ulcers of the Fingers).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29316473',
'title': 'Surgical positions',
'section': 'Section::::Risks to extremities.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': "The most common nerve injuries during surgery occur in the upper and lower extremities. Injuries to the nerves in the arm or shoulder can result in numbness, tingling, and decreased sensory or muscular use of the arm, wrist, or hand. Many operating room injuries could be solved by simply restraining the arms and legs. Other causes of nerve or muscular damage to the extremities is caused by pressure on the body by the surgical team leaning on the patient's arms and legs. The patient's arms can be protected from these risks by using an arm sled. Separation of the sternum during a heart procedure can also cause the first rib to put pressure on the nerves in the shoulder. The lithotomy position is also known to cause stress on the lower extremities.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '69279',
'title': 'Angioplasty',
'section': 'Section::::Recovery.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 33,
'end_character': 263,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Patients who experience swelling, bleeding or pain at the insertion site, develop fever, feel faint or weak, notice a change in temperature or color in the arm or leg that was used or have shortness of breath or chest pain should immediately seek medical advice.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do my hands feel weak after I watch doctors taking blood.',
'selftext': "It doesn't have to be blood, basically whenever I see someone injecting needle my hands suddenly feel weak and weird. I can't even clench the fist as good as usual.",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Likely because some part of the process makes you anxious and you experience a mini fight-or-flight reaction of blood being drained from your extremities to be pumped into things your body deems more important in the moment. Possibly resulting in your hands even becoming totally numb. \n\nSource: Am deathly afraid of needles and experienced what I described last trip to the doctor. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '9uqghw',
'query': 'why do my hands feel weak after i watch doctors taking blood.',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '4035',
'title': 'Black',
'section': 'Section::::Science.:Physics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 59,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 600,
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'passage_text': 'Absorption of light is contrasted by transmission, reflection and diffusion, where the light is only redirected, causing objects to appear transparent, reflective or white respectively. A material is said to be black if most incoming light is absorbed equally in the material. Light (electromagnetic radiation in the visible spectrum) interacts with the atoms and molecules, which causes the energy of the light to be converted into other forms of energy, usually heat. This means that black surfaces can act as thermal collectors, absorbing light and generating heat (see Solar thermal collector). \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4035',
'title': 'Black',
'section': 'Section::::Science.:Physics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 56,
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'passage_text': 'In the visible spectrum, black is the absorption of all colors. Black can be defined as the visual impression experienced when no visible light reaches the eye. Pigments or dyes that absorb light rather than reflect it back to the eye "look black". A black pigment can, however, result from a "combination" of several pigments that collectively absorb all colors. If appropriate proportions of three primary pigments are mixed, the result reflects so little light as to be called "black". This provides two superficially opposite but actually complementary descriptions of black. Black is the absorption of all colors of light, or an exhaustive combination of multiple colors of pigment.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18802785',
'title': 'Finishing (textiles)',
'section': 'Section::::Finishing of cotton.:Coloration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 451,
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'passage_text': 'Color is a sensation caused when white light from a source such as the sun is reflected off a pigment on the surface. The pigment selectively reflects certain wavelengths of light while absorbing others. A dye can be considered as a substance that can be fixed to a material that has these properties. The colour it reflects is defined by the structure of the molecule, and particular the parts of the chromogen molecule called the chromophore group.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44682',
'title': 'CMYK color model',
'section': 'Section::::Benefits of using black ink.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 381,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Although a combination of 100% cyan, magenta, and yellow inks should, in theory, completely absorb the entire visible spectrum of light and produce a perfect black, practical inks fall short of their ideal characteristics and the result is actually a dark muddy color that does not quite appear black. Adding black ink absorbs more light and yields much better blacks.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18500380',
'title': 'Dispersion staining',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Darkfield illumination dispersion staining.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'end_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': "The result is that the background is black. All of the features of objects in the field of view that don't match the refractive index of the mounting medium appear as bright white. When a particle is mounted in a liquid that matches its refractive index somewhere in the visible wavelengths then those wavelengths are not refracted by the particle and are not collected by the objective. The image of the object is formed by all of the wavelengths that remain. These wavelengths combine to produce a single color that can be used to indicate which band of wavelengths are missing (see Chart 2). Examples of this type of dispersion staining and the colors shown for different λo's can be seen at the microlabgallery.com site for Darkfield Dispersion Staining. This method is more difficult to interpret due to the single color rather than two bracketing colors but is relatively accurate near the center of the visible range.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '291338',
'title': 'Carmine',
'section': 'Section::::Properties and uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 213,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A reflectance spectroscopy study of one commercially available dye based on carminic acid found that it reflects mostly red light with wavelengths longer than about 603\xa0nm, which provides its saturated red color.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '238528',
'title': 'Nitrogen dioxide',
'section': 'Section::::Properties.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 432,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The reddish-brown color is a consequence of preferential absorption of light in the blue (400 – 500\xa0nm), although the absorption extends throughout the visible (at shorter wavelengths) and into the infrared (at longer wavelengths). Absorption of light at wavelengths shorter than about 400\xa0nm results in photolysis (to form NO + O, atomic oxygen); in the atmosphere the addition of O atom so formed to O results in ozone formation.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If black absorbs all colors on the visible spectrum, then how are there glossy black finishes that reflect light',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["There are more ways light interacts with a surface than by absorption. Reflection is a different mechanic where the light is bounced off the surface based mostly on the smoothness of the surface. This is only a surface effect.\n\nDifferent materials will have different reflectivity, the tendency for a material to reflect light.\n\nThere is also emissivity which is the tendency for a material to produce light from it's heat or absorbed light. A black material is as perfect an emitter as it is an absorber. Though it's emitted light is directly related to the temperature of the object, or the energy lost by absorbtion. Emitted light is usually in the infrared range, invisible to us but felt as heat.",
'Pure black would absorb all colours, however pure black doesn\'t exist. Glossy black reflects some of the light.\n\nThere is the nanotubes based black called Vantablack which reflects only 0.04% of the light. And that is the blackest black we have at this moment: People who see it for the first time go from "There is an empty hole in this".',
"I think it has more to do with how the surface interacts with light at. More microscopic level. When you have a glossy finish, the light hits and is generally reflected straight outwards, when you have a stain finish, the surface in more 'bumpy' which makes the light more prone to reflecting into another interaction with the material.",
'Ideal black paint would absorb all light. Regular black paint are not ideal and will reflect light black, it is easy to see the it is the case by pointing a flashlight on the object if you can see a difference in brightness then some light is reflected back.\n\nThere is not material that absorb all light the best is [Vantablack](_URL_0_) that absorb 99.96% of all visible light and regular object that you thing is black absorb a lot less light then that.\n\nWhite paint and a regular mirror reflect only 80-90% of all light that hits them so you might reflect a couple of percent of the light and we consider it black. For a mirror the aluminium coating reflect 90% ad a bit more is absorbed by the glass.\n\n\nGlossy is the amount of light that is reflected by specular reflection, that is when all light that is reflected bounce in one direction like a mirror. A matte/flat paint reflect light in all direction ie diffuse reflection. \n\nSo matte white paint and a mirror reflect the same amount of light. A mirror has almost only specular reflection and matte paint almost only diffuse reflection. So the glossy matte is how it reflect light not the amount.\n\n',
"A perfect black body would not be visible to the naked eye if it absorbed all colors on the visible spectrum. Black holes aren't even perfect black bodies since they reflect light, albeit an extremely small amount of it. The color black that we can see reflects a small amount of light, which makes it possible for us to view it."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'arg2iy',
'query': 'if black absorbs all colors on the visible spectrum, then how are there glossy black finishes that reflect light',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '306364',
'title': 'Liquid nitrogen',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Liquid nitrogen is a cryogenic fluid that can cause rapid freezing on contact with living tissue. When appropriately insulated from ambient heat, liquid nitrogen can be stored and transported, for example in vacuum flasks. The temperature is held constant at 77\xa0K by slow boiling of the liquid, resulting in the evolution of nitrogen gas. Depending on the size and design, the holding time of vacuum flasks ranges from a few hours to a few weeks. The development of pressurised super-insulated vacuum vessels has enabled liquefied nitrogen to be stored and transported over longer time periods with losses reduced to 2% per day or less.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '306364',
'title': 'Liquid nitrogen',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'Liquid nitrogen is a compact and readily transported source of dry nitrogen gas, as it does not require pressurization. Further, its ability to maintain temperatures far below the freezing point of water makes it extremely useful in a wide range of applications, primarily as an open-cycle refrigerant, including:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1588525',
'title': 'Fog machine',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Chilled.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'end_character': 456,
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'passage_text': 'Liquid nitrogen (N) is used to create low lying fog effects in a manner similar to dry ice. A machine heats water to at or near the boiling point, creating steam and increasing the humidity in a closed container. When liquid nitrogen is pumped into the container, the moisture rapidly condenses, creating a thick white fog. A fan placed at the output of the container directs the fog where it is needed, creating a rolling fog that lies low to the ground.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9292180',
'title': 'Theatrical smoke and fog',
'section': 'Section::::Types of effects.:Nitrogen.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
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'passage_text': 'Liquid nitrogen (N) is used to create low-lying fog effects in a manner similar to dry ice. A machine heats water to at or near the boiling point, creating steam and increasing the humidity in a closed container. When liquid nitrogen is pumped into the container, the moisture rapidly condenses, creating a thick white fog. A fan placed at the output of the container directs the fog where it is needed, creating a rolling fog that lies low to the ground. These types of machines are commonly referred to as "dry foggers" because the fog created by this method consists solely of water droplets, and as it dissipates there is little to no residue left on any surfaces. Dry Fogger is also a trademarked name for a particular brand of this style of fog machine.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '143689',
'title': 'Vacuum flask',
'section': 'Section::::Research and industry.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'In laboratories and industry, vacuum flasks are often used to hold liquefied gases (often LN2) for flash freezing, sample preparation and other processes where maintaining an extreme low temperature is desired. Larger vacuum flasks store liquids that become gaseous at well below ambient temperature, such as oxygen and nitrogen; in this case the leakage of heat into the extremely cold interior of the bottle results in a slow boiling-off of the liquid so that a narrow unstoppered opening, or a stoppered opening protected by a pressure relief valve, is necessary to prevent pressure from building up and eventually shattering the flask. The insulation of the vacuum flask results in a very slow "boil" and thus the contents remain liquid for long periods without refrigeration equipment.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '59156',
'title': 'Dry ice',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Commercial.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 288,
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'passage_text': 'It is occasionally used to freeze and remove warts. However, liquid nitrogen performs better in this role, since it is colder so requires less time to act, and less pressure. Dry ice has fewer problems with storage, since it can be generated from compressed carbon dioxide gas as needed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56563719',
'title': "Dragon's Breath (dessert)",
'section': 'Section::::Safety.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'Liquid nitrogen is used in several foods and drinks to quickly freeze them or for the vapors it produces. Its consumption poses several dangers to humans. The extreme cold temperature can cause damage to human tissue, and the displacement of oxygen by nitrogen can cause asphyxiation.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'how is liquid nitrogen kept cold? Can it be kept in a bottle for a long period and still be cold?',
'selftext': 'I understand the relation beetwen pressure, temperature and volume, so if I manage to keep liquid nitrogen under pressure for 20 years it will still be cold?',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["LN2 is stored in dewar's for smaller amounts or in cryogenic tanks for larger quantities. Dewar's are just high efficiency thermos tanks usually with a vented lid. Why the vent? Because no thermos is perfect at retaining temperature, so as temp goes up, the volume increases and there is a phase change from liquid to gas. \nThe cryo tanks usually have a mechanism for keeping the tanks chilled so as to keep the LN in a steady state.\n\nEdit: typo",
"Ok, so if you have a bit of water, and you blow on it, it gets cold. That's basically because you're encouraging it to evaporate. It's evaporation (the transition from liquid to gas) that makes it cold.\n\nIf you have liquid nitrogen in an open container at Sea level pressure, it will also evaporate, but at a much higher rate than water does. It will boil in that container, and that rapid evaporation is what makes liquid nitrogen cold under those conditions.\n\nBut if you have liquid nitrogen in a sealed container at room temperature, and at Sea level pressure when you seal it up, some of the liquid will evaporate inside that container. Since the gas has nowhere to escape, the pressure will build up. The container will get cold while this is happening.\n\nEventually, the pressure in the container will be so great that the nitrogen will reach an equilibrium between gas and liquid. For every molecule of nitrogen that escaped into the gas phase, one molecule will go from had to liquid phase.\n\nThe container will gradually warm to room temperature, even though there is liquid nitrogen inside it. If you put the container on a heater, the liquid nitrogen will boil, and the pressure in the container will increase, and the nitrogen will adjust to the new, warm temperature.\n\nThe container will largely stay at it's surrounding temperature, as long as the gas does not escape, so you cannot actually keep such a container cold forever. The number of nitrogen molecules, the volume of the container the pressure, and the temperature are in a constant balance that is largely described by the Ideal Gas Law\n\nPV = nRT\n\nPressure x Volume = (number of molecules) x (Ideal Gas Constant) x Temperature"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'cy4svt',
'query': 'how is liquid nitrogen kept cold? can it be kept in a bottle for a long period and still be cold?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '23371046',
'title': 'Complications of hypertension',
'section': 'Section::::Complications affecting the heart.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Hypertensive heart disease is the result of structural and functional adaptations leading to left ventricular hypertrophy, diastolic dysfunction, CHF, abnormalities of blood flow due to atherosclerotic coronary artery disease and microvascular disease, and cardiac arrhythmias. Individuals with left ventricular hypertrophy are at increased risk for, stroke, CHF, and sudden death. Aggressive control of hypertension can regress or reverse left ventricular hypertrophy and reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20254750',
'title': 'Syncope (medicine)',
'section': 'Section::::Differential diagnosis.:Cardiac.:Cardiac arrhythmias.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
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'passage_text': 'Two major groups of arrhythmias are bradycardia and tachycardia. Bradycardia can be caused by heart blocks. Tachycardias include SVT (supraventricular tachycardia) and VT (ventricular tachycardia). SVT does not cause syncope except in Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome. Ventricular tachycardia originate in the ventricles. VT causes syncope and can result in sudden death. Ventricular tachycardia, which describes a heart rate of over 100 beats per minute with at least three irregular heartbeats as a sequence of consecutive premature beats, can degenerate into ventricular fibrillation, which is rapidly fatal without cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and defibrillation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7013320',
'title': 'Lorcainide',
'section': 'Section::::Arrhythmia.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Cardiac dysrhythmia is a heart rate disorder that manifests as an altered cardiac rhythm. It results from either abnormal pacemaker activity or a disturbance in impulse propagation, or both. [6] Arrhythmias can be caused by various conditions including ischemia, hypoxia, pH disruptions, B adrenergic activation, drug interactions or the presence of diseased tissue. [5] These events can trigger the development of ectopic pacemaker in the heart, which emit abnormal impulses at random times during the cardiac cycle. An arrhythmia can present itself as either bradycardia or tachycardia. [5] Untreated arrhythmias may progress to atrial fibrillation or ventricular fibrillation. [5] Treatment is aimed at normalizing cardiac rhythm by altering ion flow across the membrane. Antiarrhythmic agents can reduce arrhythmia related symptoms such as palpitations or syncope; however, they often have a narrow therapeutic index and can also be proarrhythmic[6].\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '304942',
'title': 'Heart rate',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical significance.:Arrhythmia.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 153,
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'passage_text': 'Arrhythmias are abnormalities of the heart rate and rhythm (sometimes felt as palpitations). They can be divided into two broad categories: fast and slow heart rates. Some cause few or minimal symptoms. Others produce more serious symptoms of lightheadedness, dizziness and fainting.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '978149',
'title': "Eisenmenger's syndrome",
'section': 'Section::::Pathogenesis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
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'passage_text': "Eventually, due to increased resistance and decreased compliance of the pulmonary vessels, elevated pulmonary pressures cause the myocardium of the right heart to hypertrophy (RVH). The onset of Eisenmenger's syndrome begins when right ventricular hypertrophy causes right heart pressures to exceed that of the left heart, leading to reversal of blood flow through the shunt (i.e., blood moves from the right side of the heart to the left side). As a consequence, deoxygenated blood returning from the body bypasses the lungs through the reversed shunt and proceeds directly to systemic circulation, leading to cyanosis and resultant organ damage.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '262572',
'title': 'Ventricle (heart)',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical significance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
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'passage_text': 'Cardiac dysrhythmia is an irregular heartbeat that can occur in the ventricles or atria. Normally the heartbeat is initiated in the SA node of the atrium but initiation can also occur in the Purkinje fibres of the ventricles, giving rise to premature ventricular contractions, also called ventricular extra beats. When these beats become grouped the condition is known as ventricular tachycardia.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '869496',
'title': 'Mitral insufficiency',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.:Acute phase.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Acute MR (as may occur due to the sudden rupture of a chorda tendinae or papillary muscle) causes a sudden volume overload of both the left atrium and the left ventricle. The left ventricle develops volume overload because with every contraction it now has to pump out not only the volume of blood that goes into the aorta (the forward cardiac output or forward stroke volume) but also the blood that regurgitates into the left atrium (the regurgitant volume). The combination of the forward stroke volume and the regurgitant volume is known as the total stroke volume of the left ventricle.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'how does left-cardiac hypertrophy lead to cardiac arrhythmias?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['With left-sided hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, the left ventricle is very muscular and that leaves little room for blood to fill up in it between beats. As a result, you can get blood backing up into the left atrium. This stretching can cause electrical signals to get "messed up" (simple way to put it), resulting in the heart doing weird stuff as it tries to keep up with the blood flowing into it.\n\nThere\'s also the issue of that super muscular chamber contracting really hard, which can throw off the normal rhythm. ',
'It\'s less about size and blood perfusion than "disarray." Those who develop what you could call an "induced hypertrophy" (high blood pressure or tight valves leading muscle growth on response to resistance) aren\'t at the same risk as someone with Hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy (HOCM, \'the young athlete killer\'). \n\nThe cells in the heart of those with a primary hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (like HOCM) don\'t grow right, they align poorly, and they don\'t conduct right electrically. Those messy electrical pathways are where trouble happens... Extra signals, stacked signals, etc can lead to arrhythmias (total chaos). \n\nThat messy muscle cell growth can also happen somewhat in really bad heart disease from valves or high blood pressure, like I mentioned, but that\'s not generally the issue that leads those folks to medical attention (or death), but it does happen occasionally. \n\nDisclaimer: this is a major simplification \n(source: I\'m an internist) '],
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'query_id': '7iwdqw',
'query': 'how does left-cardiac hypertrophy lead to cardiac arrhythmias?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '62745',
'title': 'Lethal injection',
'section': 'Section::::Procedure.:Procedure in U.S. executions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': 'The drugs are not mixed externally because that can cause them to precipitate. Also, a sequential injection is key to achieve the desired effects in the appropriate order: administration of the pentobarbital essentially renders the person unconscious; the infusion of the pancuronium bromide induces complete paralysis, including that of the lungs and diaphragm rendering the person unable to breathe. If the person being executed were not already completely unconscious, the injection of a highly concentrated solution of potassium chloride could cause severe pain at the site of the IV line, as well as along the punctured vein, but it interrupts the electrical activity of the heart muscle and causes it to stop beating, bringing about the death of the person being executed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '501723',
'title': 'Takifugu',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'The poison paralyzes the muscles while the victim stays fully conscious, and eventually dies from asphyxiation. There is currently no antidote, and the standard medical approach is to try to support the respiratory and circulatory system until the effect of the poison wears off.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '62745',
'title': 'Lethal injection',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Lethal injection is the practice of injecting one or more drugs into a person (typically a barbiturate, paralytic, and potassium solution) for the express purpose of causing immediate death. The main application for this procedure is capital punishment, but the term may also be applied in a broader sense to include euthanasia and other forms of suicide. The drugs cause the person to become unconscious, stops their breathing, and causes a heart arrhythmia, in that order.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6447865',
'title': 'Drug injection',
'section': 'Section::::Recreational drugs.:Risks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
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'passage_text': "Of all the ways to ingest drugs, injection carries the most risks by far as it bypasses the body's natural filtering mechanisms against viruses, bacteria, and foreign objects. There will always be much less risk of overdose, disease, infections, and health problems with alternatives to injecting, such as smoking, insufflation (snorting or nasal ingestion), or swallowing.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6447865',
'title': 'Drug injection',
'section': 'Section::::Disadvantages.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Increased chance of overdose — Because IV injection delivers a dose of drug straight into the bloodstream, it is harder to gauge how much to use (as opposed to smoking or snorting, where the dose can be increased relatively incrementally until the desired effect is achieved; this gives a user who is in danger of overdosing a chance to seek medical treatment before respiratory arrest sets in). In addition, because of the rapid onset of intravenous drugs, overdose can occur very quickly, requiring immediate action. Another reason that overdose is a risk is because the purity of street drugs varies a great deal.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '334816',
'title': 'Route of administration',
'section': 'Section::::Choice of routes.:Parenteral.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 68,
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'end_paragraph_id': 68,
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'passage_text': 'Disadvantages of injections include potential pain or discomfort for the patient and the requirement of trained staff using aseptic techniques for administration. However, in some cases, patients are taught to self-inject, such as SC injection of insulin in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. As the drug is delivered to the site of action extremely rapidly with IV injection, there is a risk of overdose if the dose has been calculated incorrectly, and there is an increased risk of side effects if the drug is administered too rapidly.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14034',
'title': 'Heroin',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Common side effects include respiratory depression (decreased breathing), dry mouth, drowsiness, impaired mental function, constipation, and addiction. Side effects of use by injection can include abscesses, infected heart valves, blood-borne infections, and pneumonia. After a history of long-term use, opioid withdrawal symptoms can begin within hours of the last use. When given by injection into a vein, heroin has two to three times the effect of a similar dose of morphine. It typically comes as a white or brown powder.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why don’t you bleed out when you get an injection?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["There is about 50 processes that occur to act together to clot your blood and plug the hole.\nSome people could bleed out, they are called haemophiliacs, and their blood clotting system malfunctions in one way or another.\nBonus fun fact for you, if you take too many blood thinners, you can bleed out through your skin, don't even need a hole.",
"The needle hole you get from an injection is so tiny that the blood can't get out that much. Even when you get stung by a sowing needle, which is considerably larger, it doesn't bleed that much either. ",
"Depends on where the injection is.\n\nMost simple injections are intramuscular, given into the deltoid or quadriceps muscles in the upper arm or thigh, respectively.\n\nThese muscles are chosen because they don't have any major blood vessels running through them, only really really tiny ones that supply the local tissue. These get torn, but not enough to create significant amounts of blood. As these microscopic vessels are ruptured, tiny little cells in the blood called platelets come into contact with the muscle tissue. Usually, platelets are inside the blood, but when the vessels breaks they spill out.\n\nAs soon as the platelets recognise that they're not inside the blood vessel, they start to 'vomit' lots of 'glue' into the local area. This causes more platelets to stick, and vomit more glue. This glue is like an epoxy -- you need to mix it so that it sticks. Because the platelets are vomiting their part, it can now mix with the parts in the blood, causing more stickiness to happen.\n\nThe end result is that you get this big ball of platelets, red blood cells, and other stuff all stuck together. If you scrape your knee, you'd call this a scab, however it's happening hundreds of times inside your muscle after any injection. Sometimes, this glue doesn't form very well, and you get bruises where you got the injection. That's because the glue took too long to form and too much blood leaked out!",
'Your blood hates oxygen. When your blood touches oxygen, it turns into an Iron Snow Flake in order to stop it getting into your body. When the needle goes into your skin, some blood will come back out the hole when the needle leaves. The Iron Snow Flakes that your blood turns into lock together, and "freeze" in place. This "Frozen" blood blocks any more blood from escaping.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '9zus8o',
'query': 'why don’t you bleed out when you get an injection?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '863608',
'title': 'AN thread',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The AN thread is a particular type of fitting used to connect flexible hoses and rigid metal tubing that carry fluid. It is a US military-derived specification that dates back to World War II and stems from a joint standard agreed upon by the Army and Navy, hence AN.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47767',
'title': 'Threaded code',
'section': 'Section::::Threading models.:Direct threading.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Addresses in the thread are the addresses of machine language. This form is simple, but may have overheads because the thread consists only of machine addresses, so all further parameters must be loaded indirectly from memory. Some Forth systems produce direct-threaded code. On many machines direct-threading is faster than subroutine threading (see reference below).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4244144',
'title': 'Handel-C',
'section': 'Section::::Additional features.:Channels.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'A thread may simultaneously wait on multiple channels, synchronous or asynchronous, acting upon the first one available given a specified order of priority or optionally executing an alternate path if none is ready.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45634',
'title': 'Thread safety',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Thread safety is a computer programming concept applicable to multi-threaded code. Thread-safe code only manipulates shared data structures in a manner that ensures that all threads behave properly and fulfill their design specifications without unintended interaction. There are various strategies for making thread-safe data structures.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45303',
'title': 'Thread (computing)',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'In computer science, a thread of execution is the smallest sequence of programmed instructions that can be managed independently by a scheduler, which is typically a part of the operating system. The implementation of threads and processes differs between operating systems, but in most cases a thread is a component of a process. Multiple threads can exist within one process, executing concurrently and sharing resources such as memory, while different processes do not share these resources. In particular, the threads of a process share its executable code and the values of its dynamically allocated variables and non-thread-local global variables at any given time.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30830244',
'title': 'RT-Thread',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': "RT-Thread is an open source real-time operating system for embedded devices. It is distributed under the Apache 2.0+ licence. RT-Thread is developed by the RT-Thread Development Team based in China, after ten years' fully concentrated development. It is aimed to change the current situation in China that there is no well used open source real-time operating system in the microcontroller area.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2361143',
'title': 'ThreadX',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 660,
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'passage_text': 'The name ThreadX is derived from the fact that threads are used as the executable elements and the letter "X" represents context switching, i.e., it switches threads. ThreadX provides priority-based, preemptive scheduling, fast interrupt response, memory management, interthread communication, mutual exclusion, event notification, and thread synchronization features. Major distinguishing technology characteristics of ThreadX include preemption-threshold, priority inheritance, efficient timer management, picokernel design, event-chaining, fast software timers, and compact size. The minimal footprint of ThreadX on an ARM processor is on the order of 2KB.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is technical the difference between a thread and an async-operation?',
'selftext': 'I assume that two threads are working on a single cpu like this: | Thread1 | Thread2 | |---------|---------| | a1 | b1 | | a2 | b2 | | a3 | b3 | And are batched like this on the CPU a1-b1-a2-b2-a3-b3',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['A thread is a *long-lived* independent running part which is *initiated by the main program*, for example receiving traffic from a network device and once it has received enough, inform the main program that the data is there.\n\nAn asynchronous operation is a *short-lived* independent running *stub part* which can be initiated by anything, for example the writing of analysed data to disk.\n\nNow it is fair to say that asynchronous operations are threads also and could be implemented as threads by the coder too and that is 100% true. It is just that their purpose is different (Long lived versus long lived) and where they are started (main program versus at the end of some process).',
'A thread is when you ask the operating system to start running another part of the program at the same time. If there are more parts running than CPU cores, the operating system will switch between them. Threads have a bunch of features (like separate stacks) that make them relatively "expensive". A program shouldn\'t have thousands of threads because it will waste memory and time.\n\n"Async tasks" depend on the programming language, but they\'re generally things you can do in the background that are too short to be their own thread. The program will create one thread (or a few) and then that thread (or those threads) will do async tasks whenever they are ready to be done. This means a new thread doesn\'t need to be created for every task.\n\n"Async tasks" can also be things that don\'t use a thread at all, as long as the program can remember it\'s waiting for something to happen. For example, waiting for the user to type something could be an async task. The program won\'t use a thread to wait for the user to type something (because that\'s a waste of a thread) but it knows that when the user does type something, the task should be marked as completed.\n\n"Async tasks" got a big boost in popularity some time ago because: people wanted to do more things asynchronously (in the background), people realised that having a thread for every single thing is not efficient, and because JavaScript basically forces you to use them so people got used to them.',
"Here is an analogy that might help.\n\nLets say you're busy but you need to drop your car to the garage for a service then pick it up later. \n\nYou could delegate this to someone else: they bring your car to the garage, sit around until its fixed and drop it back. The upside is you can work away as normal. The downside is you need to find someone else, and they're wasting their time waiting for your car to be fixed.\n\nOr you could try to find 10 spare minutes in the morning to drop it down, and 10 minutes in the afternoon to collect it. The downside is its 20 minutes out of your day, and more work coordinating your time. The upside is you can do it all yourself and nobody is waiting around.\n\nThe first is kind of like a thread, the second is kind of like an async task."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'ezz0t4',
'query': 'what is technical the difference between a thread and an async-operation?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '234857',
'title': 'Yawn',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'During a yawn, the tensor tympani muscle in the middle ear contracts, creating a rumbling noise from within the head. Yawning is sometimes accompanied, in humans and other animals, by an instinctive act of stretching several parts of the body, including arms, neck, shoulders and back.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18568365',
'title': 'Growling (wind instruments)',
'section': 'Section::::Method.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 358,
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'passage_text': 'The most common and effective method of woodwind growling is to hum, sing, or even scream into the mouthpiece of the instrument. This method introduces interference within the instrument itself, breaking up the normal quality of sound waves produced. Furthermore, the vibration of the vocal note in the mouth and lips creates rustle noise in the instrument.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4207',
'title': 'Bassoon',
'section': 'Section::::Technique.:Embouchure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 67,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 67,
'end_character': 997,
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'passage_text': 'The bassoon embouchure is a very important aspect of producing a full, round, and dark bassoon tone. The bassoon embouchure is made by opening one\'s mouth, rolling lips inward to cover the teeth, and then dropping the jaw down as in a yawning motion (without actually yawning or opening the mouth). Both upper and lower teeth should be covered by the lips in order to protect the reed and control applied pressure. The reed is then placed in the mouth, with the lips and facial muscles maintaining an airtight seal around the reed. The upper lip will usually be farther forward on the reed than the lower lip, as in an "overbite" of the upper jaw. As with other orchestral double reeds, embouchure must be adjusted constantly for good intonation; this is achieved by adjusting the oral cavity with jaw movement. As with the oboe, it takes a great deal of experience to form an embouchure technique that will maintain sound quality and intonation at all pitches, volumes, and across various reeds.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18568365',
'title': 'Growling (wind instruments)',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "The growl gives the performer's sound a dark, guttural, gritty timbre resulting largely from the rustle noise and desirable consonance and dissonance effects produced. The technique of simultaneous playing a note and singing into an instrument is also known as horn chords or multiphonics.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2186011',
'title': 'Tensor tympani muscle',
'section': 'Section::::Function.:Voluntary control.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 283,
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'passage_text': 'Some individuals can voluntarily produce this rumbling sound by contracting the tensor tympani muscle of the middle ear. The rumbling sound can also be heard when the neck or jaw muscles are highly tensed as when yawning deeply. This phenomenon has been known since (at least) 1884.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30860600',
'title': 'Saxophone technique',
'section': 'Section::::Extended techniques.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 583,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- "Growling" is a technique used whereby the saxophonist sings, hums, or growls, using the back of the throat while playing. This causes a modulation of the sound, and results in a gruffness or coarseness of the sound. It is rarely found in classical or band music, but is often utilized in jazz, blues, rock \'n\' roll, and other popular genres. Some notable musicians who utilized this technique are Earl Bostic, Boots Randolph, Gato Barbieri, Ben Webster, Clarence Clemons, Nelson Rangell, David Sanborn, Greg Ham, Hank Carter, Bobby Keys, Keith Crossan, and King Curtis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18568365',
'title': 'Growling (wind instruments)',
'section': 'Section::::Alternate methods.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'A woodwind growl can also be produced by allowing air to escape from around the corners of the mouth, causing a vibration in the lips and mouthpiece. Although this method does not set up patterns of interference, it does produce the characteristic rustle noise of the growl.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does a yawn filter out any deep bass sounds?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The inner ear is normally sealed, air can’t get in or out. However there is a tube connecting it to the throat so that pressure can be equalised. When you yawn these tubes open. The same thing happens when you swallow and is why when your ears ‘pop’ , like in a plane, swallowing or yawning can fix it. It equalises the pressure.',
'if you are describing what I think you are, the "tingling" is most likely the tensing of a muscle in your ear, the tensor tympani. some people can voluntarily flex this muscle which is usually referred to as "ear rumbling". check out /r/earrumblersassemble for more info!'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'ew4ev5',
'query': 'why does a yawn filter out any deep bass sounds?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '5176305',
'title': 'Esophageal candidiasis',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 203,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The current first-line treatment is fluconazole, 200\xa0mg. on the first day, followed by daily dosing of 100\xa0mg. for at least 21 days total. Treatment should continue for 14 days after relief of symptoms.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22737230',
'title': 'Pinworm infection',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 408,
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'passage_text': 'Treatment is typically with two doses of the medications mebendazole, pyrantel pamoate, or albendazole two weeks apart. Everyone who lives with or takes care of an infected person should be treated at the same time. Washing personal items in hot water after each dose of medication is recommended. Good handwashing, daily bathing in the morning, and daily changing of underwear can help prevent reinfection.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5759935',
'title': 'Thiamine deficiency',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 227,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Treatment is by thiamine supplementation, either by mouth or by injection. With treatment symptoms generally resolve in a couple of weeks. The disease may be prevented at the population level through the fortification of food.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '61970',
'title': 'Trichuriasis',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 483,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Prevention is by properly cooking food and hand washing before cooking. Other measures include improving access to sanitation such as ensuring use of functional and clean toilets and access to clean water. In areas of the world where the infections are common, often entire groups of people will be treated all at once and on a regular basis. Treatment is with three days of the medication: albendazole, mebendazole or ivermectin. People often become infected again after treatment.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3485964',
'title': 'Allergic contact dermatitis',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 48,
'end_character': 237,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Commonly, the symptoms may resolve without treatment in 2 to 4 weeks but specific medication may hasten the healing as long as the trigger is avoided. Also, the condition might become chronic if the allergen is not detected and avoided.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1856289',
'title': 'Miliary tuberculosis',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 569,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The standard treatment recommended by the WHO is with isoniazid and rifampicin for six months, as well as ethambutol and pyrazinamide for the first two months. If there is evidence of meningitis, then treatment is extended to twelve months. The U.S. guidelines recommend nine months\' treatment. "Common medication side effects a patient may have such as inflammation of the liver if a patient is taking pyrazinamide, rifampin, and isoniazid. A patient may also have drug resistance to medication, relapse, respiratory failure, and adult respiratory distress syndrome."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18973869',
'title': 'Psychiatry',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Outpatient treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 73,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 73,
'end_character': 1021,
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'passage_text': "Outpatient treatment involves periodic visits to a psychiatrist for consultation in his or her office, or at a community-based outpatient clinic. Initial appointments, at which the psychiatrist conducts a psychiatric assessment or evaluation of the patient, are typically 45 to 75 minutes in length. Follow-up appointments are generally shorter in duration, i.e., 15 to 30 minutes, with a focus on making medication adjustments, reviewing potential medication interactions, considering the impact of other medical disorders on the patient's mental and emotional functioning, and counseling patients regarding changes they might make to facilitate healing and remission of symptoms (e.g., exercise, cognitive therapy techniques, sleep hygiene—to name just a few). The frequency with which a psychiatrist sees people in treatment varies widely, from once a week to twice a year, depending on the type, severity and stability of each person's condition, and depending on what the clinician and patient decide would be best.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How come when having a sickness that requires medicine, I have to do it in a span of a week or a few days?',
'selftext': "Why can't I ingest it as much as I can? Wouldn't the sickness be cured faster when doing so, following common sense?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Accomodating the poor English, are you asking why you can't take the whole course of medication at once?\n\nLet's use the antibiotic 'Gentamycin' for example. The drug is not easily filtered out by the kidneys, and an overdose would cause the kidneys to not work. That results in kidney failure and you'd potentially die.\n\nDoses are often set to what is safe. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '602s6d',
'query': 'how come when having a sickness that requires medicine, i have to do it in a span of a week or a few days?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '54888',
'title': 'Telomere',
'section': 'Section::::Nature and function.:Structure, function and evolutionary biology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 971,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Telomere shortening in humans can induce replicative senescence, which blocks cell division. This mechanism appears to prevent genomic instability and development of cancer in human aged cells by limiting the number of cell divisions. However, shortened telomeres impair immune function that might also increase cancer susceptibility. If telomeres become too short, they have the potential to unfold from their presumed closed structure. The cell may detect this uncapping as DNA damage and then either stop growing, enter cellular old age (senescence), or begin programmed cell self-destruction (apoptosis) depending on the cell's genetic background (p53 status). Uncapped telomeres also result in chromosomal fusions. Since this damage cannot be repaired in normal somatic cells, the cell may even go into apoptosis. Many aging-related diseases are linked to shortened telomeres. Organs deteriorate as more and more of their cells die off or enter cellular senescence.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '54888',
'title': 'Telomere',
'section': 'Section::::Lengthening.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 1147,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'It is becoming apparent that reversing shortening of telomeres through temporary activation of telomerase may be a potent means to slow aging. The reason that this would extend human life is because it would extend the Hayflick limit. Three routes have been proposed to reverse telomere shortening: drugs, gene therapy, or metabolic suppression, so-called, torpor/hibernation. So far these ideas have not been proven in humans, but it has been demonstrated that telomere shortening is reversed in hibernation and aging is slowed (Turbill, et al. 2012 & 2013) and that hibernation prolongs life-span (Lyman et al. 1981). It has also been demonstrated that telomere extension has successfully reversed some signs of aging in laboratory mice and the nematode worm species "Caenorhabditis elegans". It has been hypothesized that longer telomeres and especially telomerase activation might cause increased cancer (e.g. Weinstein and Ciszek, 2002). However, longer telomeres might also protect against cancer, because short telomeres are associated with cancer. It has also been suggested that longer telomeres might cause increased energy consumption.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15354795',
'title': 'Cellular senescence',
'section': 'Section::::Cellular mechanisms.:Role of telomeres.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 247,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The length of the telomere strand has senescent effects; telomere shortening activates extensive alterations in alternative RNA splicing that produce senescent toxins such as progerin, which degrades the tissue and makes it more prone to failure.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '273854',
'title': 'Telomerase',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical implications.:Cancer.:Drugs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 37,
'end_character': 291,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The lack of telomerase does not affect cell growth, until the telomeres are short enough to cause cells to “die or undergo growth arrest”. However, inhibiting telomerase alone is not enough to destroy large tumors. It must be combined with surgery, radiation, chemotherapy or immunotherapy.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12303321',
'title': 'Telomerase reverse transcriptase',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical significance.:Therapeutic potential.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 1451,
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'passage_text': 'If increased telomerase activity is associated with malignancy, then possible cancer treatments could involve inhibiting its catalytic component, hTERT, to reduce the enzyme’s activity and cause cell death. Since normal somatic cells do not express TERT, telomerase inhibition in cancer cells can cause senescence and apoptosis without affecting normal human cells. It has been found that dominant-negative mutants of hTERT could reduce telomerase activity within the cell. This led to apoptosis and cell death in cells with short telomere lengths, a promising result for cancer treatment. Although cells with long telomeres did not experience apoptosis, they developed mortal characteristics and underwent telomere shortening. Telomerase activity has also been found to be inhibited by phytochemicals such as isoprenoids, genistein, curcumin, etc. These chemicals play a role in inhibiting the mTOR pathway via down-regulation of phosphorylation. The mTOR pathway is very important in regulating protein synthesis and it interacts with telomerase to increase its expression. Several other chemicals have been found to inhibit telomerase activity and are currently being tested as potential clinical treatment options such as nucleoside analogues, retinoic acid derivatives, quinolone antibiotics, and catechin derivatives. There are also other molecular genetic-based methods of inhibiting telomerase, such as antisense therapy and RNA interference.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31596491',
'title': 'Gambogic acid',
'section': 'Section::::Research.:Effects on telomerase activity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 587,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Enhanced telomerase activity can be an indicator of abnormal cells. Most normal tissues have inactivated or repressed telomerase activity, but it becomes activated in germ cells and most malignant tumors. Treatment of SPC-A1 cells with gambogic acid resulted in a significant decline in telomerase activity when treated for 48 or 72 hours (detecting 80.7% and 84.9% reduction in activity, respectively). When treated with gambogic acid for only 24 hours, the decrease was only 25.9% which led researchers to believe there are at least two mechanisms responsible for slowing cell growth.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '273854',
'title': 'Telomerase',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 222,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "The existence of a compensatory mechanism for telomere shortening was first found by Soviet biologist Alexey Olovnikov in 1973, who also suggested the telomere hypothesis of aging and the telomere's connections to cancer.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If our body focused on preventing telomere reduction, what changes might our bodies experience?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["To prevent telomere reduction, your cells have to stop dividing. If you meant regenerating telomeres, I don't have the answer for that",
'Cancer. Cells continuing to divide with no limit is called cancer.\n\nIf you mean instead "what would happen to us if our bodies focused on sustaining cells /efficiency as long as possible before natural cell death what would happen?" Is a much more interesting question.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '76ij08',
'query': 'if our body focused on preventing telomere reduction, what changes might our bodies experience?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2851214',
'title': 'Absolute dating',
'section': 'Section::::Dendrochronology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
'end_character': 269,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Dendrochronology or tree-ring dating is the scientific method of dating based on the analysis of patterns of tree rings, also known as growth rings. Dendrochronology can date the time at which tree rings were formed, in many types of wood, to the exact calendar year. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3846180',
'title': 'Prometheus (tree)',
'section': 'Section::::About the tree.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 879,
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'passage_text': "Currey originally estimated the tree was at least 4844\xa0years old. A few years later, this was increased to 4862\xa0by Donald Graybill of the University of Arizona's Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research. These ring counts were done on a trunk cross-section taken about 2.5\xa0m (8\xa0feet) above the original germination point of the tree, because the innermost rings were missing below that point. Adjusting Graybill's figure by adding the estimated number of years required to reach that height, plus a correction for the estimated number of missing rings (not uncommon in trees at the tree line), it is probable that the tree was at least 5000\xa0years old when felled. That made it the oldest known unitary (i.e. non-clonal) organism at the time, exceeding even the Methuselah tree of the White Mountains' Schulman Grove, in California, though Methuselah was later redated to 4845 years old.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55723617',
'title': 'Fire history',
'section': 'Section::::Tree-ring data.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 615,
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'passage_text': 'Rings can be counted from dead trees as well as stumps left behind from logging. A sample can be collected from a living tree using tools like the increment borer. The increment borer is a hollow steel tube used to extract a core sample from a tree’s trunk. The growth rings in a core sample are counted to determine the age of that tree. Ages of stand-replacing fires may be determined by determining the cohort-age of trees that established after a fire. For example, tree-ring dating of large stands will show the age of the forest, and may provide an estimate of when the last large disturbance event occurred.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2226213',
'title': 'Dendroarchaeology',
'section': 'Section::::Methodology.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Crossdating, the skill of finding matching ring-width patterns between tree-ring samples, is used to assign the precise calendar year to every ring. This is affected by the climate that the timber was in. It is also important to have enough rings to actually confirm a date. Once the rings are dates, the chronology is measured. The last step is to compare the rings with that of ring-width patterns in sampled timbers and a master dating chronology.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '1491462',
'title': 'Library of Congress Control Number',
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'passage_text': 'In its most elementary form the number includes a year and a serial number. The year has two digits for 1898 to 2000, and four digits beginning in 2001. The three ambiguous years (1898, 1899, and 1900) are distinguished by the size of the serial number. There are also some peculiarities in numbers beginning with a "7" because of an experiment applied between 1969 and 1972 which added a check digit. \n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '26197',
'title': 'Radiocarbon dating',
'section': 'Section::::Measurement and results.:Calibration.\n',
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'passage_text': 'To produce a curve that can be used to relate calendar years to radiocarbon years, a sequence of securely dated samples is needed which can be tested to determine their radiocarbon age. The study of tree rings led to the first such sequence: individual pieces of wood show characteristic sequences of rings that vary in thickness because of environmental factors such as the amount of rainfall in a given year. These factors affect all trees in an area, so examining tree-ring sequences from old wood allows the identification of overlapping sequences. In this way, an uninterrupted sequence of tree rings can be extended far into the past. The first such published sequence, based on bristlecone pine tree rings, was created by Wesley Ferguson. Hans Suess used this data to publish the first calibration curve for radiocarbon dating in 1967. The curve showed two types of variation from the straight line: a long term fluctuation with a period of about 9,000 years, and a shorter term variation, often referred to as "wiggles", with a period of decades. Suess said he drew the line showing the wiggles by "cosmic "schwung"", by which he meant that the variations were caused by extraterrestrial forces. It was unclear for some time whether the wiggles were real or not, but they are now well-established. These short term fluctuations in the calibration curve are now known as de Vries effects, after Hessel de Vries.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '37800',
'title': 'Dendrochronology',
'section': 'Section::::Growth rings.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Direct reading of tree ring chronologies is a complex science, for several reasons. First, contrary to the single-ring-per-year paradigm, alternating poor and favorable conditions, such as mid-summer droughts, can result in several rings forming in a given year. In addition, particular tree-species may present "missing rings", and this influences the selection of trees for study of long time-spans. For instance, missing rings are rare in oak and elm trees.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do we know counting rings in a tree is a definitive "1 year"?',
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'answers': ["In places with seasons, trees go through a predictable growth-dormant cycle that produces the distinctive ring pattern.\n\nSince most of these seasonal trees go dormant regardless of what the actual winter temperature was that year (they're timing the day lengths, not responding to unpredictable temperature swings) a ring is produced even if the year's weather was very unusual.\n\nYou get big rings for years with optimal growing conditions and weak rings for drought years.\n\nRings are less pronounced and more difficult to count in trees that prefer more tropical climates, since they may grow all year instead of stopping entirely on a regular cycle.",
"A tree's growth rate changes in a predictable pattern throughout the year in response to seasonal climate changes, resulting in visible growth rings. Each ring marks a complete cycle of seasons, or one year, in the tree's life. So after seasons pass there will be a growth ring which would be close to or right at 1 year worth of growing.",
"It might be easier to understand if you think of it as a full cycle of seasons and not exactly a 365 day period.\xa0 The rings show more what happens during the growing season that makes up the most of the actual ring.\xa0 It grows quite a bit.\xa0 The cells appear different (darker in most cases) during the 'off season' and lighter during the time of quicker growth.\xa0 This is a cycle that is made up of a year growing quickly in the spring/summer and slowing toward Autumn to winter. Then repeating. The rings come as the the tree grows outward all around.",
"* rings are caused by alternating between growing during the warm season and dormancy during the winter...one winter per year = one ring per year\n* trees in the same area will show the same ring patterns, unlikely if there wasn't some external factor involved\n* ring thickness matches up with historical records...the Annals of Ulster tells us there was a drought in 748, and tree rings in Ireland match up\n* radiocarbon dating corresponds with tree-ring dating",
"If you have a look at a stump you'll see thick bands of a light shade where the tree got bigger fairly rapidly during the warmer months followed by thinner darker bands where it didnt really grow much in the winter. It makes the same pattern every year because the seasons are predictable.\n\nSome bands will be thicker where the tree has has a good long summer with plenty of nutrients where others may be thinner and harder to count but it always makes the same pattern.",
"Can't be hard.\n\n \n\n\nGrow it 5 years, cut it, 5 rings\n\n \n\n\nGrow it 10 years, oh look, 10 rings\n\n \n\n\nExtrapolate",
'Wood biologist here. The wood as we usually think about, is a tissue called xylem and is where the water travels to go from the roots to the leaves. In an incredibly simplified way, you can see it as a bunch vertical of pipes (called vessels) and fibers. The xylem is produced continuously during the growth season by another tissue (the cambium) located as a ring around it. \nSince one of the function of the xylem is to transport water, the cambium will produce bigger pipes when the season is rainy (typically during the spring) and smaller pipes when it is dryer (like in summer). If the winter is cold enough, the activity of the cambium will stop completely creating an abrupt change of vessels size as it pass directly from summer to spring. Those vessels size variations can be seen easily (or not for some species) because bigger pipes means more empty space in the wood and thus a lighter wood color.\n\nNow those growth ring usually follow the seasonal cycle as it is what determine the water availability. The trees have evolved to expect more or less water during the different seasons and can detect the day length and temperature changes to determine what season it is. That\'s why they can be called "annual rings" and used to know the age of a tree.\nBut this is true mostly for temperate region (where the seasonality is well defined). \nIn tropical region the growth rings are less visible (and even sometimes completely absent) as the season are less marked and the cambium activity never stops, and it can be hard (or impossible) to read them.\nAlso, abrupt changes in the water availability for the tree or in his environment can produce false annual rings. But it\'s not so common and usually not important as it is nothing compared to the tree lifespan.\n\nIt is important to note that this mechanism is basically the same for the gymnosperms trees (like conifers) except for one thing : there is only one type of cells, called tracheids that play both the role of vessels and of fibers.',
'The annual growth cycle in trees is easily observable because there are what is known as summer rings and winter rings. \n\n .\n\nThe summer rings are lighter in color and form when the tree experiences warmer temps that promote faster growth as well as longer days which expose them to more sunlight. They are also significantly thicker than the winter rings depending on how warm the summer was.\n\n.\n\nWinter rings are thinner and darker. These occur when the temperatures are much colder than summer temps and the sun is not visible for nearly as long as it is in the summer. Did you ever notice it getting darker much earlier in the winter and the sun doesn\'t seem to come up as early? This means the trees cant get as much sunlight and as a result, their growth slows down during these months.\n\n\n.\n\nThere are trees out there known as "old growth" from hundreds of years ago which have very thin summer and winter rings because temperatures we significantly cooler than they are now, so they grew very slowly. The summer and winter rings are very close together in old growth trees.',
'You could always plant a tree and cut it down in 30 years and count the rings, if you wanted to know --for sure-- that one tree ring is one year.',
"Let's say you live in Timbuktu and you have some knowledge of the weather patterns of the last 30 years. You know that 15 years ago, there was a really bad draught, and the growing season that year was particularly bad.\n\nIf you cut down a tree that you know is 30 years old, you will be able to see, clearly that the 15th ring from the outside, the ring that was created when the tree was 15 years old, looks different than the other rings. It may be a different color, and it will be thinner than the rings that grew in better years. If you find and older tree, you will be able to read the weather patterns from years so far back that you probably don't even have records for! This is why tree rings are so important; some trees can tell us about how the local weather was changing thousands of years ago, and there are even tree fossils that have been found that give us data about weather phenomenon millions of years ago! If you have enough trees you can compare them and build up a pretty accurate calendar, year by year, which you can then compare to the local geology. It's awesome!",
'When someone plants a tree and cuts it down say 30 years later, they can see the rings correspond with the age. What they can also see is that the rings correspond with the local weather. Now if they then cut down a 500 year old tree next to it, they can see that the outer 30 rings on the 500 years old tree correspond to the 30 year one. This is the basis for [dendrochronology](_URL_0_), or the science of dating stuff by tree rings. Depending on the location we have a complete tree ring based dating yard stick for centuries (if not millenia) back.',
'Plant tree. Wait some number of years. Cut down tree and count the rings. Do they match how many years passed since you planted it? Maybe. ',
'In the summer, a tree grows fast and in the winter, a tree grows slow. Growing fast leaves a light stripe and growing slow leaves a dark stripe, like how a balloon that is full of air seems to be lighter in color than one that is deflated. The pattern of winter and summer growth, or dark and light stripes, is what gives trees their rings.',
'Rings are caused by the seasons, rather than passage of time. So 40 winters would cause 40 rings. And since winter happens once every year, we know the tree is 40 years old.',
'All answers explained why the one tree rings represent 1 year in tree age. But I understand the question as "how it was discovered".\n\nAccording to most documents I have skim through, it seems it was credited to American Astronomre A E Douglass, who had a strong interest in studying the climate, developed the method around 1900.\n\nHowever according to wikipedia on [Dendrochronology](_URL_0_), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) was the first person to mention that trees form rings annually.\n\nAnyway, I think there was a lumberjack one day, looked at his work during a boring lunch and connected that: "Wait a minute, this forest was planted 10 years ago and this tree have 10 rings!", just like that. But his name was never recorded in history...',
'If you want a serious but readable source on this subject try Edmund Schulman book the Living Ruins. It discuses the biology of. tree rings and how they have been used in conjunction with Bristlecone Pines to refine radio carbon dating. The science is called dendrochronology.',
'Because you can use human records to pick the exact year a tree started growing. You can cut down a tree which someone a century ago recorded in their diary the exact date it was planted and count the rings. Match that with local weather records which we also have a few hundred years of and you see the result of hot summers and wet and dry periods. \n\nYou then build back a local chronology starting with the oldest tree you can find and then timbers from local buildings which overlap the periods you already have patterns from. \n\nExceptional events like the eruption of mount Tambora and the resultant _URL_0_ leave quite a distinctive mark in tree records. which help to calibrate things.',
"If some calamity caused a year to have two summer-winter cycles, that would create two rings. The rings reflect the seasonal growth cycles, not a 'calendar year'... but seasons do reflect years almost always."],
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'query': 'how do we know counting rings in a tree is a definitive "1 year"?',
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'title': 'Alcohol and health',
'section': 'Section::::Genetic differences.:Alcohol flush and respiratory reactions.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Alcohol flush reaction is a condition in which an individual\'s face or body experiences flushes or blotches as a result of an accumulation of acetaldehyde, a metabolic byproduct of the catabolic metabolism of alcohol. It is best known as a condition that is experienced by people of Asian descent. According to the analysis by HapMap Project, the rs671 allele of the ALDH2 gene responsible for the flush reaction is rare among Europeans and Africans, and it is very rare among Mexican-Americans. 30% to 50% of people of Chinese and Japanese ancestry have at least one ALDH*2 allele. The rs671 form of ALDH2, which accounts for most incidents of alcohol flush reaction worldwide, is native to East Asia and most common in southeastern China. It most likely originated among Han Chinese in central China, and it appears to have been positively selected in the past. Another analysis correlates the rise and spread of rice cultivation in Southern China with the spread of the allele. The reasons for this positive selection aren\'t known, but it\'s been hypothesized that elevated concentrations of acetaldehyde may have conferred protection against certain parasitic infections, such as "Entamoeba histolytica". The same SNP allele of ALDH2, also termed glu487lys, and the abnormal accumulation of acetaldehyde following the drinking of alcohol, is associated with the alcohol-induced respiratory reactions of rhinitis and asthma that occur in Eastern Asian populations.\n',
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'title': 'Alcohol flush reaction',
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'passage_text': 'Alcohol flush reaction is best known as a condition that is experienced by people of East Asian descent. According to the analysis by HapMap project, the rs671 (ALDH2*2) allele of the "ALDH2" responsible for the flush reaction is rare among Europeans and Sub-Saharan Africans. 30% to 50% of people of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean ancestry have at least one "ALDH2*2" allele. The rs671 form of ALDH2, which accounts for most incidents of alcohol flush reaction worldwide, is native to East Asia and most common in southeastern China. It most likely originated among Han Chinese in central China, Another analysis correlates the rise and spread of rice cultivation in Southern China with the spread of the allele. The reasons for this positive selection aren\'t known, but it\'s been hypothesized that elevated concentrations of acetaldehyde may have conferred protection against certain parasitic infections, such as "Entamoeba histolytica".\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '17508796',
'title': 'Laropiprant',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism of action.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Niacin in cholesterol lowering doses (500–2000\xa0mg per day) causes facial flushes by stimulating biosynthesis of prostaglandin D (PGD), especially in the skin. PGD dilates the blood vessels via activation of the prostaglandin D receptor subtype DP, increasing blood flow and thus leading to flushes. Laropiprant acts as a selective DP receptor antagonist to inhibit the vasodilation of prostaglandin D-induced activation of DP.\n',
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'title': 'Alcohol flush reaction',
'section': 'Section::::Similar conditions.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Rosacea, also known as gin blossoms, is a chronic facial skin condition in which capillaries are excessively reactive, leading to redness from flushing or telangiectasia. Rosacea has been mistakenly attributed to alcoholism because of its similar appearance to the temporary flushing of the face that often accompanies the ingestion of alcohol.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43574082',
'title': 'Daigou',
'section': 'Section::::Impacts.:United States.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Regular Asian customers often became subject to gratuitous suspicion and even outright discrimination due to the disruptive nature of the rampant purchases of luxury goods and other consumer goods made by "Daigou" hoarders and smugglers, who are mostly Asians. Asian-American sales associates at Macy\'s Herald Square sued Macy\'s for racial discrimination in September 2017, alleging that store managers instructed sales associates not to sell more than one unit to any single Asian customer, and that they were fired when they spoke up about the alleged discrimination.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '792524',
'title': 'Rosacea',
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'passage_text': 'The exact cause of rosacea is unknown. Triggers that cause episodes of flushing and blushing play a part in its development. Exposure to temperature extremes, strenuous exercise, heat from sunlight, severe sunburn, stress, anxiety, cold wind, and moving to a warm or hot environment from a cold one, such as heated shops and offices during the winter, can each cause the face to become flushed. Certain foods and drinks can also trigger flushing, such as alcohol, foods and beverages containing caffeine (especially hot tea and coffee), foods high in histamines, and spicy foods.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41847184',
'title': 'Chinese in New York City',
'section': 'Section::::Geography.:Chinatowns.:Queens (皇后華埠).\n',
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'passage_text': 'The Flushing Chinatown, in the Flushing area of the borough of Queens in New York City, is one of the largest and fastest growing ethnic Chinese enclaves outside Asia, as well as within New York City itself. Main Street and the area to its west, particularly along Roosevelt Avenue, have become the primary nexus of Flushing Chinatown. However, Flushing Chinatown continues to expand southeastward along Kissena Boulevard and northward beyond Northern Boulevard. In the 1970s, a Chinese community established a foothold in the neighborhood of Flushing, whose demographic constituency had been predominantly non-Hispanic white. Taiwanese began the surge of immigration. It originally started off as "Little Taipei" or "Little Taiwan" due to the large Taiwanese population. Due to the then dominance of working class Cantonese immigrants of Manhattan\'s Chinatown including its poor housing conditions, they could not relate to them and settled in Flushing.\n',
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'title': 'Asian Flush syndrome',
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'answers': ["Are you asking what causes it? It's caused by the buildup of a chemical called acetaldehyde, which is a natural product of the metabolism of alcohol. It's genetic, and fairly common among people of Asian decent. There are a couple of genes responsible. One gene is responsible for producing a chemical called alcohol dehydrogenase, which is what breaks down alcohol. People with a certain variant of this gene make more acetaledehyde. Another gene is one which makes the chemical that breaks down acetaldehyde itself, and people with a variant of this gene don't produce enough of the enzyme to break down the acetaldehyde, so it accumulates."],
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'query': 'asian flush syndrome',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '46182',
'title': 'White noise',
'section': 'Section::::Practical applications.:Work environment.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The effects of white noise upon cognitive function are mixed. Recently, a small study found that white noise background stimulation improves cognitive functioning among secondary students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), while decreasing performance of non-ADHD students. Other work indicates it is effective in improving the mood and performance of workers by masking background office noise, but decreases cognitive performance in complex card sorting tasks.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '1366807',
'title': 'Colors of noise',
'section': 'Section::::Technical definitions.:Grey noise.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Grey noise is random white noise subjected to a psychoacoustic equal loudness curve (such as an inverted A-weighting curve) over a given range of frequencies, giving the listener the perception that it is equally loud at all frequencies. This is in contrast to standard white noise which has equal strength over a linear scale of frequencies but is not perceived as being equally loud due to biases in the human equal-loudness contour.\n',
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'title': 'White noise (slang)',
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'passage_text': "The term white noise—the 'sh' noise produced by a signal containing all audible frequencies of vibration—is sometimes used as a colloquialism to describe a backdrop of ambient sound, creating an indistinct commotion, seamless in such way no specific sounds composing it as a continuum can be isolated as a veritable instance of some defined familiar sound so that masks or obliterates underlying information. e.g. chatter from multiple conversations within the acoustics of a confined place. The information itself may have characteristics that achieve this effect without the need to introduce a masking layer. A common example of this usage is a politician including more information than needed to mask a point they don't want noticed.\n",
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'title': 'White noise',
'section': 'Section::::Practical applications.:Music.\n',
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'passage_text': 'White noise is commonly used in the production of electronic music, usually either directly or as an input for a filter to create other types of noise signal. It is used extensively in audio synthesis, typically to recreate percussive instruments such as cymbals or snare drums which have high noise content in their frequency domain. A simple example of white noise is a nonexistent radio station (static).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47176228',
'title': 'Noiseless',
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'passage_text': 'Noiseless is an image noise reduction application by Macphun Software. The application is designed to reduce the noise found in digital photographs. The noise is often a result of snapping pictures in low light situations.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '87595',
'title': 'Noise music',
'section': 'Section::::Characteristics.\n',
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'passage_text': 'White noise is a random signal (or process) with a flat power spectral density. In other words, the signal contains equal power within a fixed bandwidth at any center frequency. White noise is considered analogous to white light which contains all frequencies.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '4319868',
'title': 'Blank Noise',
'section': 'Section::::Activities.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Though Blank Noise was founded in Bangalore, it has spread to other cities such as Mumbai, Delhi, Chennai, Calcutta, Chandigarh, Hyderabad, and Lucknow. It tackles the notion of shame and blame through campaigns such as "I never ask for it" (ask to be sexually harassed when on the streets). A major notion that it seeks to dispel is that women get harassed because of the clothing they wear. Through street actions and dialogue, Blank Noise hopes to achieve its aims of achieving a safe and free environment for women on the streets, and enable society to become more egalitarian towards women in general.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does white noise calm people down?',
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'answers': ['It distracts us from our own internal dialogue, which can be a little overwhelming after a while',
"As a new father, we use white noise to help put the baby to sleep. I'm told that the womb is actually a fairly loud place, with constant breathing & pulsations. I imagine that this subconscious feeling of womb-like comfort continues into adulthood.",
'The "shhhhhh" sound is very close to white noise. It supposedly replicates the womb sounds which we associate with warm comfortable, safe, hence a good place to sleep.',
'When it\'s quiet, your body reacts to every noise with a "what\'s that?" response which makes you perk up and be alert. By drowning out the sounds with white noise, you don\'t have that effect as often and your body has a chance to relax.',
'I have a white noise app that I run through a speaker when I sleep. The main draw to this app was the fact you could build your own mix from sounds other people uploaded including odd, but still soothing, sounds.\n\nYou find out that people have different tastes in "soothing". The one that I can give an example of myself is a PC running with the fans on. This is mainly because I ran my computer 24/7 in the same room I slept in for two years (dorms) that even then if had the option to not sleep in the same room, I would move it into my room.\n\nFrom the type of sounds I am about to list, some I could not sleep to but they all have at least one of the qualities I think are critical to a good sleep noise: personal familiarity(forced to sleep in), constant, soft regular beat comparatively to main noise (no bongo drums by themselves), droning, and perfected looping (the ones you could detect where the clip\'s end was KEPT you up and from other people\'s feedback, it was very noticable and downvoted because of the defect).\n\n-Urban city : people talking, loud taxis beeps, etc\n\n-Windchimes : Random dings. Some made with built in rain\n\n-Rains of various quantities - From a sprinkle to a downpour on a car roof.\n\n-Appliances - Clothes dryers, washers, dishwashers, and air conditioners, windows fans. One major similarity between them all is they all try to muffle the sound they generate to some degree.\n\n-Vehicles - Trains, random motorcycles. I can see the train thing working because I used to live in a small town that had a train whistle far in the distance because it was approaching another town.\n\n',
'I like to think of it as a sonic curtain between you and the rest of the world. The nature of white noise* is that it fills up the whole range of sound, so every other sound is blocked out a little by...well, essentially nothing. It gives us a chance to retreat into our own little worlds a little bit. \n\n*in my experience, “pink” or “brown” noise is actually slightly better. White noise involves the whole spectrum equally but other “shades” can fill up certain parts of the spectrum more than others. It’s been my experience that these other shades are better suited to actual life, where white noise is more a laboratory thing. ',
'is this true for everyone? i use a white noise generator to sleep, but are there people who are bothered by it?',
'I grew up in the Midwest on the wrong side of the tracks--we were too poor for AC, so we used box fans and such throughout the house. The drone is soporific, it lulls you to sleep. Several of my siblings, as well as myself, use fans to this day to get to sleep. I know a lot of people in the same boat. You can buy a fancy white noise generator, or you can buy a cheap box fan.\n\nI will say that when I lived in the Colorado high country, I spent a summer and fall living in a log cabin next to a small stream cascading down from a mountain gully above the cabin. That sang me to sleep at night, it was the best.'],
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'title': 'Monster Cable',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Origins.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Initial sales were slow, because at the time electronics retailers provided low-cost lamp cords to consumers for free or at low prices and audiophiles didn\'t believe audio cables made a difference in the sound. Monster is credited with creating the market for high-end audio cables in the 1980s through Lee\'s "marketing prowess". He did demonstrations comparing the audio of standard cables to Monster cables for retailers and trained their salespeople to do the same for customers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1208732',
'title': 'Dell XPS',
'section': 'Section::::Laptops.:Gen 1.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 272,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 272,
'end_character': 342,
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'passage_text': 'This model also suffers from a whine on the headphone and microphone jacks that are located on the left of the unit. This is because of shared space with the leftmost fan, and the spinning of said fan causes interference. There is no known fix than to otherwise use a USB, FireWire/1394 or PCMCIA-based audio device or card for sound output.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2099292',
'title': 'Chainsaw safety features',
'section': 'Section::::Exhaust.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 66,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 66,
'end_character': 506,
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'passage_text': 'The exhaust directs the hot and noxious gases coming from the engine away from the user. A faulty exhaust increases noise, decreases engine power, can expose the user to unsafe levels of exhaust gases, and can increase the chance that the user could accidentally touch extremely hot metal. Most models feature a spark screen which is integrated into the muffler. The spark screen prevents sparks from being discharged from the exhaust and potentially igniting sawdust. The spark screen also reduces noise.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44731820',
'title': 'AudioQuest',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 248,
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'passage_text': 'In his early days of selling high-end audio equipment, William E. Low discovered that the sound of an audio system was easily influenced by the quality of the cables connecting its various components. Hi-fi journalist, Richard Hardesty explained: \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3332449',
'title': 'Black Gate (capacitor)',
'section': 'Section::::Settling-in Period.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 697,
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'passage_text': "Many audiophiles believe it can take many hours before the maximum sonic benefits are heard in audio circuits that use Black Gates. This long settling-in procedure is often a controversial issue when auditioning such equipment, as the frequency response is said to tend to shift around greatly during this period, making the equipment sound different from one audition to another. Once completely 'burnt-in' however, the benefits are said to be heard clearly. This settling period or burn in period was most likely attributed to the aluminum layer completing its reaction to form a complete and stable oxide layer on its surface once current and voltage are applied to the capacitor in a circuit.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7186698',
'title': 'Gamate',
'section': 'Section::::Hardware.:Sound.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 260,
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'passage_text': "The Gamate's mono internal speaker is of poor quality, giving off sound that is quite distorted, particularly at low volumes. However, if a user plugs into the headphone jack, the sound is revealed to be programmed in stereo, and of a relatively high quality.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23699646',
'title': 'High tension leads',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 309,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'To reduce radio frequency interference (RFI) produced by the spark being radiated by the wires, which may cause malfunction of sensitive electronic systems in modern vehicles or interfere with the car radio, various means in the spark plug and associated lead have been used over time to reduce the nuisance:\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Does “burning in” brand new audio gears such as headphones and speakers actually work?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["First: The word 'gear' in this context is already plural. It's a group noun, like 'news' and 'furniture'. \n\nSecond: No. That idea comes from decades ago, when magnets were weaker and materials were worse. Even then, it had almost no impact on the sound. Only hard core audiophiles purported to hear a difference in sound quality. \n\nModern sound equipment uses materials that do not change physical characteristics over time. The diaphragm, if there is one, will not stretch. ",
"The important bit is the suspension of the cone, the [black rubber part](_URL_0_) in this drawing. This part of the speaker needs to be flexible in order to allow the membrane to move, but it also needs to be firm enough to keep it centered. Some speakers use materials which are a bit too stiff when they come from the factory, and soften up a little during use. \n\nBut this really only concerns people who test and review speakers. Before testing, they will play some music or just some noise for a few minutes before actually measuring the performance. For the average Joe who just has a pair of ears instead of a calibrated microphone, this doesn't really matter, our hearing sense is terrible at detecting stuff like that. If someone wants to sell you a special CD for burning in your stereo, they're a fraud trying to sell snake oil."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'b06yxr',
'query': 'does “burning in” brand new audio gears such as headphones and speakers actually work?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '19174720',
'title': 'Electric battery',
'section': 'Section::::Hazards.:Explosion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 85,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 85,
'end_character': 565,
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'passage_text': 'Car batteries are most likely to explode when a short-circuit generates very large currents. Such batteries produce hydrogen, which is very explosive, when they are overcharged (because of electrolysis of the water in the electrolyte). During normal use, the amount of overcharging is usually very small and generates little hydrogen, which dissipates quickly. However, when "jump starting" a car, the high current can cause the rapid release of large volumes of hydrogen, which can be ignited explosively by a nearby spark, e.g. when disconnecting a jumper cable.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19174720',
'title': 'Electric battery',
'section': 'Section::::Principle of operation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': 'Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. In many cases, the electrical energy released is the difference in the cohesive or bond energies of the metals, oxides, or molecules undergoing the electrochemical reaction. For instance, energy can be stored in Zn or Li, which are high-energy metals because they are not stabilized by d-electron bonding, unlike transition metals. Batteries are designed such that the energetically favorable redox reaction can occur only if electrons move through the external part of the circuit.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2885000',
'title': 'Battery charger',
'section': 'Section::::Type.:Motion-powered charger.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
'end_character': 327,
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'passage_text': 'Several companies have begun making devices that charge batteries based on human motions. One example, made by Tremont Electric, consists of a magnet held between two springs that can charge a battery as the device is moved up and down, such as when walking. Such products have not yet achieved significant commercial success.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '298814',
'title': 'Jump start (vehicle)',
'section': 'Section::::Limitations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "Operation of a lead-acid battery may, in case of overcharge, produce flammable hydrogen gas by electrolysis of water inside the battery. Jump start procedures are usually found in the vehicle owner's manual. The recommended sequence of connections is intended to reduce the chance of accidentally shorting the good battery or igniting hydrogen gas. Owner's manuals will show the preferred locations for connection of jumper cables; for example, some vehicles have the battery mounted under a seat, or may have a jumper terminal in the engine compartment.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2740328',
'title': "Peukert's law",
'section': 'Section::::Fire Safety.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
'end_character': 505,
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'passage_text': 'The primary fire-danger with lead-acid batteries occurs during over-charging when hydrogen gas is produced. This danger is easily controlled by limiting the available charge voltage, and ensuring ventilation is present during charging to vent any excess hydrogen gas. A secondary danger exists when broken plates inside the battery short out the battery, or reconnect inside the battery causing an internal spark, igniting the hydrogen and oxygen generated inside the battery during very fast discharge. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1277603',
'title': 'Mitsubishi Outlander',
'section': 'Section::::Third generation (GF/GG/ZJ/ZK; 2013–present).:Plug-in hybrid.:Specifications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 47,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Battery Charge Mode: when activating, whether the vehicle is in motion or at a standstill, the engine will generate electricity to be fed into the battery pack, forcing the vehicle to operate in hybrid mode. For example, if the engine is idling and the vehicle is not moving, selecting this mode will replenish a low energy level within the battery pack back up to 80% fully charged in approximately 40 minutes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '201495',
'title': 'Lead–acid battery',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 512,
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'passage_text': 'The electrical energy produced by a discharging lead–acid battery can be attributed to the energy released when the strong chemical bonds of water (HO) molecules are formed from H ions of the acid and O ions of PbO. Conversely, during charging the battery acts as a water-splitting device, and in the charged state the chemical energy of the battery is stored in the potential difference between the pure lead at the negative side and the PbO2 on the positive side, plus the Sulphuric Acid in aqueous condition.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How are car batteries able to be charged up with a jump start, if Car Batteries use chemicals for energy?',
'selftext': "I am confused about Car Batteries and how they get external charged by other electrical sources if a car battery's electricity is chemical based. Can you eli5?",
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['In a battery, you have electrons moving from one of these chemicals to the other (it\'s a one-way road), and that motion is the "electricity" we use.\n\nThink of the chemicals as workers : when they run out of energy (let\'s say they ran out of food), you do not need to get new workers, but could get them food instead. That\'s what the charging process is about : you are bringing electrons back to the part of the battery that has been losing electrons while you were using it.',
"The jump start doesn't charge the battery, it just starts the car.\n\nWhen the car is running, it charges the battery.",
'Not specific to car batteries but the chemical reaction in most batteries is a reversible process.\n\nBy putting an electrical charge back into the battery the chemicals slowly revert to their unreacted state by a process known as electrolysis.\n\nWhen you jump start a car it is too little time for the borrowed energy to have any effect on the depleted battery, you are simply allowing the starter motor to turn over and get the engine running. Once running it is self sustaining, and so long as the engine is not switched off it will slowly recharge the battery via the alternator.',
"Car batteries are always being constantly recharged by the alternator, which is in your engine. They are not one - time - use batteries. If you leave your headlights on overnight or something and drain your battery, you hook it up to another car's battery to charge up a bit. Once you have enough in there to start your car, the alternator will recharge it the rest of the way. \n\nWhat's really fun is when your alternator dies. Then you sit there with the jumper cables on for 10-20 minutes to get enough charge into the battery so you can drive home, or to the shop. Driving a car with a dying battery is interesting, the radio goes out, the headlights flicker, and the engine starts misfiring. Then when your engine dies at 45 mph, the power steering goes with it! "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '7aa9nz',
'query': 'how are car batteries able to be charged up with a jump start, if car batteries use chemicals for energy?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '65448',
'title': 'Invisible ink',
'section': 'Section::::Invisible ink types.:Disappearing inks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 80,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 80,
'end_character': 803,
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'passage_text': 'Inks that are visible for a period of time without the intention of being made visible again are called disappearing inks. Disappearing inks typically rely on the chemical reaction between thymolphthalein and a basic substance such as sodium hydroxide. Thymolphthalein, which is normally colorless, turns blue in solution with the base. As the base reacts with carbon dioxide (always present in the air), the pH drops below 10.5 and the color disappears. Pens are now also available that can be erased simply by swiping a special pen over the original text. Disappearing inks have been used in gag squirtguns, for limited-time secret messages, for security reasons on non-reusable passes, for fraudulent purposes, and for dress-making and other crafts where measurement marks are required to disappear.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17632077',
'title': 'Ink eraser',
'section': 'Section::::Chemical ink erasers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 379,
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'passage_text': 'Chemical ink erasers break down royal blue ink by disrupting the geometry of the dye molecules in ink so that light is no longer filtered. The molecules are disrupted by sulfite or hydroxide ions binding to the central carbon atoms of the dye. The ink is not destroyed by the erasing process, but is made invisible. It can be transformed back into a visible work with aldehydes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4098193',
'title': 'Blotting paper',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Writing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 276,
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'passage_text': 'When used to remove ink from writings, the writing may appear in reverse on the surface of the blotting paper, a phenomenon which has been used as a plot device in a number of detective stories, such as in the Sherlock Holmes story The Adventure of the Missing Three-Quarter.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17632077',
'title': 'Ink eraser',
'section': '',
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'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'An ink eraser is an instrument used to remove ink from a writing surface, more difficult than removing pencil markings. Older types are a metal scraper, which scrapes the ink off the surface, and an eraser similar to a rubber pencil eraser, but with additional abrasives, such as sand, incorporated. Fibreglass erasers also work by abrasion. These erasers physically remove the ink from the paper. There is some unavoidable damage with most types of paper and ink, where the paper absorbs some ink, but not all.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4098193',
'title': 'Blotting paper',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 448,
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'passage_text': 'Blotting paper, sometimes called bibulous paper, is a highly absorbent type of paper or other material. It is used to absorb an excess of liquid substances (such as ink or oil) from the surface of writing paper or objects. Blotting paper referred to as bibulous paper is mainly used in microscopy to remove excess liquids from the slide before viewing. Blotting paper has also been sold as a cosmetic to aid in the removal of skin oils and makeup.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12973803',
'title': 'Ink tag',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 688,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Ink tags are a form of retail loss prevention most commonly used by clothing retailers. Special equipment is required to remove the tags from the clothing. When the tags are forcibly removed, one or more glass vials containing permanent ink will break, causing it to spill over the clothing, effectively destroying it. Ink tags fall into the loss prevention category called benefit denial. As the name suggests, an ink tag denies the shoplifter any benefit for his or her efforts. Despite this, shoplifters have found ways around them. Ink tags are most effective if used together with another anti-shoplifting system so that the shoplifter can not use the product or remove the ink tag.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39783343',
'title': 'Klecksography',
'section': 'Section::::Method.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 399,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Spots of ink are dropped onto a piece of paper and the paper is folded in half, so that the ink will smudge and form a mirror reflection in the two halves. The piece of paper is then unfolded so that the ink can dry, after which someone can guess the resemblance of the print to other objects. The inkblots tend to resemble images because of apophenia, the human tendency to see patterns in nature.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does self-disappearing ink work?',
'selftext': "I got one of these pens for free with a calligraphy practice workbook. After about 5 minutes, the ink just vanishes as if nothing was written. I've tried it on multiple different papers and the same result occurs so it shouldn't have to do with a specific kind of paper. How does this happen?",
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Disappearing ink is usually reacting to carbon dioxide in the air around us, creating carbonic acid through an interaction with an agent in the ink, which causes it to "disappear" as sodium carbonate. Sometimes, the ink is photosensitive instead, which will cause it to disappear due to exposure to light.',
'there are some inks that are sensitive to temperature. wave a lighter underneath the paper, ink disappears. toss paper in a freezer, ink comes back',
'Would you be able to see whats written after the ink has "disappeared"? I wonder if you could see the contour of what was written or drawn?'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '94sbao',
'query': 'how does self-disappearing ink work?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '40387207',
'title': 'Goliath (Six Flags Great America)',
'section': 'Section::::Reception.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 258,
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'passage_text': 'Marcus Leshock of WGN-TV commended the uniqueness of the zero-g stall element, stating "it\'s something I\'ve never really felt on a coaster before". He describes hanging upside down as a "really nice, fun, exhilarating feeling" without feeling disorientated.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11578174',
'title': 'Air time (rides)',
'section': 'Section::::Physics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 586,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "As well as rollercoasters, drop towers can provide the feeling of weightlessness. For example, in the case of The Twilight Zone Tower of Terror at Disney's Hollywood Studios, Disney California Adventure, Tokyo DisneySea, and Disneyland Paris, the elevator drops riders faster than gravity normally would, causing them to rise off of their seats by several inches whilst being held down by only a seat belt, creating the sensation of zero-G. Most drop towers, however, have shoulder bars, preventing riders from rising significantly from their seats, even where negative Gs are present.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35411342',
'title': 'Roller coaster phobia',
'section': 'Section::::Contributing factors.:Acrophobia.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 341,
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'passage_text': 'Most roller coasters combine substantial heights with seemingly insignificant support, as well as free-falls and the illusion of uncontrolled drops. Because acrophobia involves an extreme fear of heights and falling, these conditions could cause someone who is an acrophobic to have an extremely negative reaction to riding roller coasters.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48476127',
'title': 'Sports et divertissements',
'section': 'Section::::Music and texts.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 49,
'end_character': 435,
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'passage_text': '"Graciously". To the strains of an innocuous waltz theme a pair of pleasure-seekers prepare to go on a water slide. The more reluctant of the two is persuaded with dubious reassurances ("You will feel as if you were falling off a scaffolding"). Following an expectant musical pause the ride itself is evoked with dizzying plunging scales. The squeamish one feels sick afterwards but is told, "That proves you needed to have some fun."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '672932',
'title': 'Roger Caillois',
'section': "Section::::Caillois' key ideas on play.\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 321,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Ilinx (Greek for "whirlpool"), or vertigo, in the sense of altering perception by experiencing a strong emotion (panic, fear, ecstasy) the stronger the emotion is, the stronger the sense of excitement and fun becomes. E.g. taking hallucinogens, riding roller coasters, children spinning until they fall down.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5815501',
'title': 'Phoenix (roller coaster)',
'section': 'Section::::Ride experience.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 201,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The Phoenix coaster routinely gives a fast ride with many spots where riders experience upwards acceleration, or negative gravity. This floating sensation is known to coaster enthusiasts as "airtime".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10267562',
'title': 'Acrophobia (ride)',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 402,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Acrophobia is the latest version in a long-running series of attractions designed by Intamin that create the sensation of free fall. The first free-fall towers were, in essence, vertical drop roller coaster rides, although many coaster fans do not classify them as such. One such example was Six Flags Over Georgia's own Free Fall, which was installed in the park in 1983 and removed in December 2006.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do we have a more intense "falling feeling" in amusement park rides than we do when we are actually free falling like in skydiving or high dives?',
'selftext': 'ELI5: That feeling around your navel region when you are on a rollercoaster drop. Why is it more intense than when you are just falling through the air as in skydiving?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['When you are freefalling you are not falling freely for long until you pick up enough speed for air resistance to matter and stop the feeling of freefall. In fact you have more freefall time by jumping on a trampoline then if you are skydiving since on the trampoline you are experiencing freefalling both going up and going down. Roller coasters on the other hand is designed to give you as much freefall as possible. In addition to letting you experience freefall on the way up over a crest or a loop as well as down from the top the carts are very heavy compared to their air resistance so the acceleration due to air resistance is much smaller then when you are falling by yourself and you are therefore freefalling for longer.',
'That feeling is the experience of G-force. Simply put, once out of the plane, you will eventually achieve terminal velocity. That\'s the speed at which you stop accelerating. When you\'re not accelerating, you\'re G-force is zero. \n\nRoller coasters are designed, essentially, to basically never achieve terminal velocity. Or, a better way of saying that is, roller coasters will likely never achieve terminal velocity simply because their weight, or mass, is too high and the drops too short to achieve them. Couple that with several twists and turns, and the rider is basically "always" experiencing some form of G-force. ',
"The feeling comes from acceleration. When going over the hill on a rollercoaster you are accelerating the whole time (it's designed like that). When sky diving, you reach terminal velocity pretty quickly and are no longer accelerating. For all of your senses except for sight, you are no longer moving, or at least moving quickly.",
'Many coasters pull negative Gs, so you are accelerating toward the ground faster than gravity would pull you - such that you would fly out if not restrained. \n\nEven if the train does follow a ballistic trajectory, the forces experienced in different parts of the train will differ, and those near the back may still experience negative Gs. It depends on the design of the ride.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6vd07i',
'query': 'why do we have a more intense "falling feeling" in amusement park rides than we do when we are actually free falling like in skydiving or high dives?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '428502',
'title': 'Hand washing',
'section': 'Section::::Substances used.:Hand antiseptics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
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'end_paragraph_id': 35,
'end_character': 528,
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'passage_text': 'A hand sanitizer or hand antiseptic is a non-water-based hand hygiene agent. In the late 1990s and early part of the 21st century, alcohol rub non-water-based hand hygiene agents (also known as alcohol-based hand rubs, antiseptic hand rubs, or hand sanitizers) began to gain popularity. Most are based on isopropyl alcohol or ethanol formulated together with a thickening agent such as Carbomer into a gel, or a humectant such as glycerin into a liquid, or foam for ease of use and to decrease the drying effect of the alcohol.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3829190',
'title': 'Hand sanitizer',
'section': '',
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'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Hand sanitizer is a liquid generally used to decrease infectious agents on the hands. Formulations of the alcohol-based type are preferable to hand washing with soap and water in most situations in the healthcare setting. It is generally more effective at killing microorganisms and better tolerated than soap and water. Hand washing should still be carried out if contamination can be seen or following the use of the toilet. The general use of non-alcohol based versions has no recommendations. Outside the health care setting evidence to support the use of hand sanitizer over hand washing is poor. They are available as liquids, gels, and foams.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '428502',
'title': 'Hand washing',
'section': 'Section::::Substances used.:Hand antiseptics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 37,
'end_character': 251,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Hand sanitizers are most effective against bacteria and less effective against some viruses. Alcohol-based hand sanitizers are almost entirely ineffective against norovirus or Norwalk type viruses, the most common cause of contagious gastroenteritis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '428502',
'title': 'Hand washing',
'section': 'Section::::Substances used.:Hand antiseptics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 40,
'end_character': 682,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Frequent use of alcohol-based hand sanitizers can cause dry skin unless emollients and/or skin moisturizers are added to the formula. The drying effect of alcohol can be reduced or eliminated by adding glycerin and/or other emollients to the formula. In clinical trials, alcohol-based hand sanitizers containing emollients caused substantially less skin irritation and dryness than soaps or antimicrobial detergents. Allergic contact dermatitis, contact urticaria syndrome or hypersensitivity to alcohol or additives present in alcohol hand rubs rarely occur. The lower tendency to induce irritant contact dermatitis became an attraction as compared to soap and water hand washing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3829190',
'title': 'Hand sanitizer',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Health care.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 344,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Alcohol-based hand sanitizer is more convenient compared to hand washing with soap and water in most situations in the healthcare setting. It is generally more effective at killing microorganisms and better tolerated than soap and water. Hand washing should still be carried out if contamination can be seen or following the use of the toilet.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '147020',
'title': 'Hygiene',
'section': 'Section::::Home and everyday hygiene.:Disinfectants and antibacterials in home hygiene.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 70,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 70,
'end_character': 288,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The term sanitizer has been used to define substances that both clean and disinfect. More recently this term has been applied to alcohol-based products that disinfect the hands (alcohol hand sanitizers). Alcohol hand sanitizers however are not considered to be effective on soiled hands.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3829190',
'title': 'Hand sanitizer',
'section': 'Section::::Safety.:Skin.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 303,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Research shows that alcohol hand sanitizers do not pose any risk by eliminating beneficial microorganisms that are naturally present on the skin. The body quickly replenishes the beneficial microbes on the hands, often moving them in from just up the arms where there are fewer harmful microorganisms. \n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does hand sanitizer feel so cold?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Hand sanitizers are made to be spread over the hands and then dry quickly. Usually this is done by dissolving the sanitizing agent in a highly volatile (means evaporates or vaporizes quickly) liquid, usually alchohol.\n\nSo it acts like sweat on steroids, it evaporates so fast, and so much at one time that it basically pulls all the heat from the surface of your hands.',
'The alcohol quickly evaporates from your skin. Faster than water would. As it does, it grabs a bit of heat from your hand. It’s the same as why water evaporating from your skin cools it off including sweat. Alcohol does it faster so it cools your skin quicker. ',
'Heat is atoms bouncing around like pool balls. Higher temperatures are faster balls. Sometimes 2 balls hit 1 ball and kick 2x the amount of energy into the single ball. That ball goes so fast it flies of the table... It evaporates into the air. Since that ball had lots of energy, and it took it with it when it flies away, the pool table with all the balls bouncing around now has less energy overall and gets cooler.',
'Evaporation is an endothermic reaction, and it evaporates so quickly that you easily notice it.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'atsgk4',
'query': 'why does hand sanitizer feel so cold?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '46310',
'title': 'Lobster',
'section': 'Section::::Description.:Coloring.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 836,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Typically, lobsters are dark colored, either bluish green or greenish brown as to blend in with the ocean floor, but they can be found in a multitude of colors. Lobsters with atypical coloring are extremely rare, accounting for only a few of the millions caught every year, and due to their rarity, they usually aren't eaten, instead released back into the wild or donated to aquariums. Often, in cases of atypical coloring, there is a genetic factor, such as albinism or hermaphroditism. Notably, the New England Aquarium has a collection of such lobsters, called the Lobster Rainbow, on public display. Special coloring doesn't appear to have an effect on the lobster's taste once cooked; with the exception of albinos, all lobsters possess astaxanthin, which is responsible for the bright red color lobsters turn after being cooked.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '377397',
'title': 'American lobster',
'section': 'Section::::Description.:Coloration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 558,
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'passage_text': 'The normal coloration of "Homarus americanus" is redder on the body and claws, and greener on the legs. This coloration is produced by mixing yellow, blue, and red pigments that occur naturally in the shell. Despite the rarity of strangely colored lobsters, many more of them are reported being caught. It is unclear as to whether this is an artifact of social media making reporting and sharing more accessible, or if it is due to a drop in predator populations. The lobsters mentioned below usually get media coverage due to their "rarity" and eye appeal.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36071458',
'title': 'Atya gabonensis',
'section': 'Section::::In aquaria.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 287,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Colouring of this species can vary from a creamy white to an almost rusty brown, and also a deep blue. It is believed that the water conditions will affect colouring and harder water causes the blue morph. These shrimp have been known to change colouring several times in the same year.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '662851',
'title': 'Homarus gammarus',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 322,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The exoskeleton is generally blue above, with spots that coalesce, and yellow below. The red colour associated with lobsters only appears after cooking. This occurs because, in life, the red pigment astaxanthin is bound to a protein complex, but the complex is broken up by the heat of cooking, releasing the red pigment.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3298595',
'title': 'Carcinus maenas',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 453,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The colour of "C.\xa0maenas" varies greatly, from green to brown, grey, or red. This variation has a genetic component, but is largely due to local environmental factors. In particular, individuals which delay moulting become red-coloured rather than green. Red individuals are stronger and more aggressive, but are less tolerant of environmental stresses, such as low salinity or hypoxia. Juvenile crabs on average display greater patterning than adults.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46310',
'title': 'Lobster',
'section': 'Section::::Description.:Body.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 322,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Lobsters, like snails and spiders, have blue blood due to the presence of hemocyanin, which contains copper. In contrast, vertebrates and many other animals have red blood from iron-rich hemoglobin. Lobsters possess a green hepatopancreas, called the tomalley by chefs, which functions as the animal's liver and pancreas.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47304829',
'title': 'Panulirus penicillatus',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 754,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Spiny lobsters differ from true lobsters in having large spiny antennae and lacking pincers on their front legs. "Panulirus penicillatus" grows to a maximum length of about , but a more normal length is , with males growing to larger sizes than females. There is a group of four strong spines joined at the base, attached to the plate immediately in front of the carapace to which the antennules are attached. The colour of this spiny lobster is variable, ranging from yellowish-green to rusty-brown or bluish-black. There are small white spots on the carapace and abdomen and a pair of larger white spots near the outer edge of the first abdominal segment. The legs are dark green or red with yellow longitudinal stripes. The antennules are not banded.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is it that lobsters have the possibility to be born with so many rare colorations?',
'selftext': 'I’ve seen blue lobsters, cotton candy lobsters, and yellow lobsters. If they all had equal chances of existing, I’d understand, but any coloration besides red seems to be one in a million. Why is this possible?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Short answer:\nEach lobster has color pigments (red, blue, yellow), that determine the color of the shell. \n\nSpecific mutations change the amount of pigment and thus the color.\n\nSome mutations that influence (for example) blue pigment naturally appear more often than others, that is why blue lobsters appear more often than yellow ones.\n\n\nSource & cool additional info and more accurate than my short description is here:\n_URL_0_'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'ein8rj',
'query': 'why is it that lobsters have the possibility to be born with so many rare colorations?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '67193',
'title': 'Testicle',
'section': 'Section::::Other animals.:Location.:External.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 86,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 86,
'end_character': 285,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Boreoeutherian land mammals, the large group of mammals that includes humans, have externalized testes. Their testes function best at temperatures lower than their core body temperature. Their testes are located outside of the body, suspended by the spermatic cord within the scrotum.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '67193',
'title': 'Testicle',
'section': 'Section::::Other animals.:Location.:External.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 89,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 89,
'end_character': 464,
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'passage_text': 'The early mammals had lower body temperatures and thus their testes worked efficiently within their body. However it is argued that boreotherian mammals have higher body temperatures than the other mammals and had to develop external testes to keep them cool. It is argued that those mammals with internal testes, such as the monotremes, armadillos, sloths, elephants, and rhinoceroses, have a lower core body temperatures than those mammals with external testes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '67193',
'title': 'Testicle',
'section': 'Section::::Other animals.:Location.:External.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 87,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 87,
'end_character': 380,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'There are several hypotheses why most boreotherian mammals have external testes which operate best at a temperature that is slightly less than the core body temperature, e.g. that it is stuck with enzymes evolved in a colder temperature due to external testes evolving for different reasons, that the lower temperature of the testes simply is more efficient for sperm production.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '67193',
'title': 'Testicle',
'section': 'Section::::Other animals.:Location.:Internal.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 84,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 84,
'end_character': 637,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The basal condition for mammals is to have internal testes. The testes of the non-boreotherian mammals, such as the monotremes, armadillos, sloths, and elephants, remain within the abdomen. There are also some marsupials with external testes and Boreoeutherian mammals with internal testes, such as the rhinoceros. Cetaceans such as whales and dolphins also have internal testes. As external testes would increase drag in the water they have internal testes which are kept cool by special circulatory systems that cool the arterial blood going to the testes by placing the arteries near veins bringing cooled venous blood from the skin.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18841931',
'title': 'Scrotum',
'section': 'Section::::Function.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 42,
'end_character': 773,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Having the scrotum and testicles situated outside the abdominal cavity may provide additional advantages. The external scrotum is not affected by abdominal pressure. This may prevent the emptying of the testes before the sperm were matured sufficiently for fertilization. Another advantage is it protects the testes from jolts and compressions associated with an active lifestyle. Animals that move at a steady pace – such as elephants, whales, and marsupial moles – have internal testes and no scrotum. Unlike placental mammals, some male marsupials have a scrotum that is anterior to the penis, although there are several marsupial species without an external scrotum. In humans, the scrotum may provide some friction during intercourse, helping to enhance the activity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4058774',
'title': 'Human reproduction',
'section': 'Section::::Anatomy.:Human male.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 941,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The male reproductive system contains two main divisions: the testes where sperm are produced, and the penis. In humans, both of these organs are outside the abdominal cavity. Having the testes outside the abdomen facilitates temperature regulation of the sperm, which require specific temperatures to survive about 2-3\xa0°C less than the normal body temperature i.e. 37\xa0°C. In particular, the extraperitoneal location of the testes may result in a 2-fold reduction in the heat-induced contribution to the spontaneous mutation rate in male germinal tissues compared to tissues at 37\xa0°C. If the testicles remain too close to the body, it is likely that the increase in temperature will harm the spermatozoa formation, making conception more difficult. This is why the testes are carried in an external pouch viz. scrotum rather than within the abdomen; they normally remain slightly cooler than body temperature, facilitating sperm production.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36695798',
'title': 'Mammalian reproduction',
'section': 'Section::::Reproductive system.:Placental mammals.:Male placental mammals.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 1093,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "The mammalian male reproductive system contains two main divisions, the penis and the testicles, the latter of which is where sperm are produced. In humans, both of these organs are outside the abdominal cavity, but they can be primarily housed within the abdomen in other animals. For instance, a dog's penis is covered by a penile sheath except when mating. Having the testicles outside the abdomen best facilitates temperature regulation of the sperm, which require specific temperatures to survive. The external location may also cause a reduction in the heat-induced contribution to the spontaneous mutation rate in male germinal tissue. Sperm are the smaller of the two gametes and are generally very short-lived, requiring males to produce them continuously from the time of sexual maturity until death. The produced sperm are stored in the epididymis until ejaculation. The sperm cells are motile and they swim using tail-like flagella to propel themselves towards the ovum. The sperm follows temperature gradients (thermotaxis) and chemical gradients (chemotaxis) to locate the ovum.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If the reason most mammals have testicles outside their bodies, what about sea-mammals (seals, whales etc)? How do they get around the issue of high body temperature affecting sperm?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Sea mammals keep their testicles in internal pouches surrounded by thick tendon-like tissues that keep the temperature lower than the surrounding muscles.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6i531w',
'query': 'if the reason most mammals have testicles outside their bodies, what about sea-mammals (seals, whales etc)? how do they get around the issue of high body temperature affecting sperm?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1173475',
'title': 'Drug metabolism',
'section': 'Section::::Sites.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 40,
'end_character': 283,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Factors responsible for the liver's contribution to drug metabolism include that it is a large organ, that it is the first organ perfused by chemicals absorbed in the gut, and that there are very high concentrations of most drug-metabolizing enzyme systems relative to other organs.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14902164',
'title': 'Hepatic arterial infusion',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 406,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The liver derives its blood supply from two sources – via the hepatic arterial circulation and the portal circulation. Liver metastases get most of their blood supply primarily from the hepatic artery, whereas the normal liver cells get their blood supply from the portal circulation. This allows for chemotherapeutic drugs to be delivered directly to the cancer cells if infused into the hepatic artery. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13885',
'title': 'High-density lipoprotein',
'section': 'Section::::Structure and function.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 264,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The cholesterol delivered to the liver is excreted into the bile and, hence, intestine either directly or indirectly after conversion into bile acids. Delivery of HDL cholesterol to adrenals, ovaries, and testes is important for the synthesis of steroid hormones.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '92512',
'title': 'Lipoprotein',
'section': 'Section::::Functions.:Metabolism.:Endogenous pathway.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 356,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The liver is the central platform for the handling of lipids: it is able to store glycerols and fats in its cells, the hepatocytes. Hepatocytes are also able to create triacylglycerols via de novo synthesis. They also produce the bile from cholesterol. The intestines are responsible for absorbing cholesterol. They transfer it over into the blood stream.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17384301',
'title': 'Liver',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 717,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "The liver is an accessory digestive gland that produces bile, an alkaline compound which helps the breakdown of fat. Bile aids in digestion via the emulsification of lipids. The gallbladder, a small pouch that sits just under the liver, stores bile produced by the liver which is afterwards moved to the small intestine to complete digestion. The liver's highly specialized tissue consisting of mostly hepatocytes regulates a wide variety of high-volume biochemical reactions, including the synthesis and breakdown of small and complex molecules, many of which are necessary for normal vital functions. Estimates regarding the organ's total number of functions vary, but textbooks generally cite it being around 500.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '511000',
'title': 'Phosphocreatine',
'section': 'Section::::Chemistry.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 971,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "In the kidneys, the enzyme catalyzes the conversion of two amino acids — arginine and glycine — into guanidinoacetate (also called glycocyamine or GAA), which is then transported in the blood to the liver. A methyl group is added to GAA from the amino acid methionine by the enzyme GAMT, forming non-phosphorylated creatine. This is then released into the blood by the liver where it travels mainly to the muscle cells (95% of the body's creatine is in muscles), and to a lesser extent the brain, heart, and pancreas. Once inside the cells it is transformed into phosphocreatine by the enzyme complex creatine kinase, which makes it able to donate its phosphate group to convert adenosine diphosphate (ADP) into adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This process is an important component of all vertebrates' bioenergetic systems. For instance, while the human body only produces 250g of ATP daily, it recycles its entire body weight in ATP each day through creatine phosphate. \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31534693',
'title': 'Slaframine',
'section': 'Section::::Metabolism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 284,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Liver is the major site of slaframine metabolism where it has been suggested that slaframine is metabolized in the liver by a microsomal flavoprotein oxidase to the ketoimine metabolite consisting of quaternary nitrogen separated from an acetate ester by two carbon atoms (Figure 2).\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How is it that some drugs are metabolised through the kidneys and others through the liver?',
'selftext': 'I always hear this but don’t understand how this can work? Why aren’t all drugs metabolised through the kidney or vice versa?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Metabolism of drugs means that a certain chemical in the body, typically an enzyme, does something to the drug. Obviously, those enzymes can't operate anywhere else than where they are; certain enzymes are present in the liver, while others are present in the kidneys. That determines where a drug will be metabolized.",
"Great question! \n\nDifferent drugs display a variety of metabolic pathways. Some are metabolized by the liver, while others are metabolized in the bloodstream or other tissues. Others are never metabolized at all. The **main factors that determine how a drug is metabolized (and eliminated from the body) are (1) the intrinsic chemical properties of the drug, (2) which enzymes the drug interacts with, and (3) where the drug actually goes**.\n\nWith respect to chemical properties: in broad terms, a drug that is too large, too negatively charged, or too fat-soluble (that is, hydrophobic or with a greater affinity for fatty or nonpolar substances) is difficult for the kidneys to get rid of in the urine. This is because the drug molecule cannot be filtered by the kidney (usually because it's too big or repelled electrostatically by the negatively charged filtering cells in the kidney)—or because, after the drug is filtered by the kidney from the blood, it can simply slip back into the bloodstream by crossing the membranes that line the tubules of the kidney. \n\nHow does the body remedy this? The answer is, in most circumstances, by allowing the drug to be metabolized—which can often make the drug molecule smaller, less fat-soluble, or simply more likely to be eliminated through the bile or the urine. Metabolism also allows certain drugs to become activated or deactivated.\n\nDrugs that are metabolized in the liver are therefore usually too fat-soluble, large, or negatively charged to be eliminated by the kidney. They are also typically drugs that are taken in through the gut (that is, in most cases, you swallow the drug) or otherwise end up circulating in the bloodstream. The liver has specialized enzymes that oxidize (take negatively charged electrons away from), hydrolyze (break down), and conjugate (bind other molecules together with) the drug in the body—and only certain drugs can interact with these enzymes.\n\nOther drugs have a higher affinity for enzymes that are present either in the blood or in other tissues around the body (like nerve or muscle). For example, the commonly used paralytic drug succinylcholine is broken down by the enzyme pseudocholinesterase, which circulates in the bloodstream.\n\nStill other drugs break down by themselves or don't need any metabolism at all. Lithium, which is most commonly used today to stabilize the mood in patients with subtypes of bipolar disorder, enters the body as a lithium salt (which becomes simple ionized lithium after getting dissolved in the blood) and exits the body in the urine as a lithium salt. No metabolism necessary! \n\nAs a final note, remember that many drugs that we use don't (or, rather, shouldn't) fully enter the bloodstream at all. Most creams or ointments applied to the skin, for instance, are not meant to be used in amounts that can actually make it to the rest of the body."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'fvyxti',
'query': 'how is it that some drugs are metabolised through the kidneys and others through the liver?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '53234879',
'title': 'Weather (Apple)',
'section': 'Section::::Functionality.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 347,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "The app allows the user to see the weather of a number of selected cities. Locations can be added by pressing the list icon and the plus icon which allows the user to type in the city's name, ZIP Code or postal code or airport code. Locations can be removed by tapping the list icon and swiping left on the location that the user wants to delete.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1179449',
'title': 'The Weather Network',
'section': 'Section::::Web and mobile services.:The Weather Network Mobile.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 55,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 55,
'end_character': 210,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The Weather Network Mobile (formerly WeatherEye Mobile) is an app available on most smartphones. The Weather Network Mobile is currently available on iPhone, BlackBerry, Windows Phone, and Android smartphones.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '185041',
'title': 'MSN',
'section': 'Section::::Apps.:Weather.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 48,
'end_character': 851,
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'passage_text': "MSN Weather (originally named Bing Weather) shows weather from a user's current location or any other location worldwide, and it allows users to define their favorite places, which will synchronize back to the web portal and across devices. Users can pin Weather tiles to the Start menu to see local weather conditions from multiple locations at a glance. It also offers satellite maps and has information regarding ski resorts. The app receives its weather conditions and forecasts from a variety of sources internationally. Weather uses weather conditions as the background, making it the only app that does not have a light/dark switch in Windows 10. Weather is not available for iOS; however, it comes preinstalled on the Nokia 215 phone from Microsoft Mobile that runs Series 30+; it is currently the only feature phone to have the app built-in.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1179449',
'title': 'The Weather Network',
'section': 'Section::::Programming.:Local forecast.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A notable feature of The Weather Network is its local forecast. On cable providers, a report for the nearest weather station to the cable headend is given, from current conditions to two-week forecasts. The local forecast occurs on the 10\'s (analogous to The Weather Channel\'s "Local on the 8\'s"). The segment is well known by frequent viewers for its background music. In January 2010, an online poll was held that allowed viewers to vote for their favorite Local Forecast music, which would play during the morning hours.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '77832',
'title': 'The Weather Channel',
'section': 'Section::::Related services.:Online services.\n',
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'passage_text': 'It also provided WAP access for mobile phone users, desktop widgets for quick reference by computer users, and customized weather feeds for individual websites. Cell phone customers could also receive local forecasts from TWC sent to their mobile handsets via SMS by sending a text message with their ZIP code to 42278 (which spells "4cast"). The Weather Channel also provided weather forecasts for other online services including Yahoo!.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1179449',
'title': 'The Weather Network',
'section': 'Section::::Web and mobile services.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 53,
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'passage_text': 'In addition to its website, The Weather Network runs an e-mail and text messaging service called WeatherDirect, that sends weather forecasts via e-mail. There is also an e-mail service for pollen conditions and road conditions. The Weather Network also operates a Twitter and Facebook account, which include Severe Weather alerts and Weather News. As of October 16, 2016 The Weather Network App still does not work on Mac OS Sierra.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2155542',
'title': 'Weatherzone',
'section': 'Section::::Services.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Weatherzones Apple iOS app includes iPhone, iPad and WatchOS apps, enabling users to view 7-day forecasts, rain radar and BOM warnings at a glance. The iOS apps also include WeatherPulse, a daily video magazine. The app offers both a free ad funded version and a paid for subscription.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does the weather get reported by each town to the weather app on my phone?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['There are organizations (large groups of people) who have satellites (giant cameras and sensors in outer space) which send the information they find to weather apps.\n\nThe satellites along with local meteorologists (weather analysts) provide information to weather apps, which show you the information they have and their predictions.',
'Meteorologists, either local and or national gather weather data to show the current weather and predict future weather for each town. Your phone then uses your location to find which town your in and pull the weather report for that town. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'a41luk',
'query': 'how does the weather get reported by each town to the weather app on my phone?',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '51436',
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'passage_text': 'In mathematics, the octonions are a normed division algebra over the real numbers, meaning it is a hypercomplex number system; Octonions are usually represented by the capital letter O, using boldface O or blackboard bold formula_1. Octonions have eight dimensions; twice the number of dimensions of the quaternions, of which they are an extension. They are noncommutative and nonassociative, but satisfy a weaker form of associativity; namely, they are alternative. They are also power associative.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25555117',
'title': 'Eight-dimensional space',
'section': 'Section::::Octonions.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The octonions are a normed division algebra over the real numbers, the largest such algebra. Mathematically they can be specified by 8-tuplets of real numbers, so form an 8-dimensional vector space over the reals, with addition of vectors being the addition in the algebra. A normed algebra is one with a product that satisfies \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '51436',
'title': 'Octonion',
'section': 'Section::::Integral octonions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 67,
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'passage_text': 'There are several natural ways to choose an integral form of the octonions. The simplest is just to take the octonions whose coordinates are integers. This gives a nonassociative algebra over the integers called the Gravesian octonions. However it is not a maximal order (in the sense of ring theory); there are exactly 7 maximal orders containing it. These 7 maximal orders are all equivalent under automorphisms. The phrase "integral octonions" usually refers to a fixed choice of one of these seven orders.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '51436',
'title': 'Octonion',
'section': 'Section::::Properties.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
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'passage_text': 'The octonions do satisfy a weaker form of associativity: they are alternative. This means that the subalgebra generated by any two elements is associative. Actually, one can show that the subalgebra generated by any two elements of O is isomorphic to R, C, or H, all of which are associative. Because of their non-associativity, octonions do not have matrix representations, unlike quaternions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '51436',
'title': 'Octonion',
'section': 'Section::::Properties.:Isotopies.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 61,
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'passage_text': 'The isotopy group of the octonions is the group Spin(R), with "a", "b", and "c" acting as the three 8-dimensional representations. The subgroup of elements where "c" fixes the identity is the subgroup Spin(R), and the subgroup where "a", "b", and "c" all fix the identity is the automorphism group "G".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22458',
'title': 'Octahedron',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'In geometry, an octahedron (plural: octahedra) is a polyhedron with eight faces, twelve edges, and six vertices. The term is most commonly used to refer to the regular octahedron, a Platonic solid composed of eight equilateral triangles, four of which meet at each vertex. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3861649',
'title': 'Split-octonion',
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'passage_text': 'In mathematics, the split-octonions are an 8-dimensional nonassociative algebra over the real numbers. Unlike the standard octonions, they contain non-zero elements which are non-invertible. Also the signatures of their quadratic forms differ: the split-octonions have a split-signature (4,4) whereas the octonions have a positive-definite signature (8,0).\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Octonions - what exactly are they?',
'selftext': 'I just saw Eric Weinstein talk about them on Joe Rogans podcast, but I couldn’t quite keep up. What exactly are they? Why are they significant?',
'category': 'Mathematics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The complex numbers are a sort of two-dimensional extension of the real number line, with an imaginary axis (i, 2i, 3i, ...) along with the ordinary real axis (1, 2, 3, ...). It turns out that you can extend this idea even farther to have four distinct axes ("quaternions"), or eight ("octonions"), or sixteen ("sedenions"), and so on for any power of 2. While a real number might just look like 3, and a complex number might look like 3+2i, a quaternion could look like 3+2i+4j+6k, where i, j, and k are distinct values with the property that i^2 = j^2 = k^2 = -1. Octonions would then have eight distinct components, one "real" component and seven distinct "imaginary" components.\n\nThe farther you go with this, the more nice properties about numbers you lose. When you go from the real numbers to the complex numbers, you lose the fact that numbers have a neat linear ordering. When you move from the complex numbers to the quaternions, you lose the fact that multiplication is commutative: for quaternions, it need not be the case that x\\*y = y\\*x. When you move from the quaternions to the octonions, you lose the fact that multiplication is associative: for octonions you aren\'t even guaranteed to have x\\*(y\\*z) = (x\\*y)\\*z.\n\nDespite the fact that the octonions are both rather abstract and lack many of the properties we expect number systems to have, they show up occasionally in theoretical physics.'],
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'query_id': 'cc674h',
'query': 'octonions - what exactly are they?',
'query_type': 'Mathematics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1568048',
'title': 'Eponychium',
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'passage_text': 'In human anatomy, the eponychium, or cuticle, is the thickened layer of skin surrounding fingernails and toenails. It can also be called the medial or proximal nail fold. Its function is to protect the area between the nail and epidermis from exposure to bacteria. The vascularization pattern is similar to that of perionychium.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3690642',
'title': 'Nail file',
'section': 'Section::::Materials.:Emery board.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'The nail can be smoothed and shaped accurately by taking light, even strokes in one direction across the top of the nail. Twenty to thirty easy strokes can typically shorten excessively long fingernails, while five to ten strokes are sufficient for shaping the nails.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43292313',
'title': 'Tavaborole',
'section': 'Section::::Pharmacokinetics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Tavaborole, when prepared with a 1:1 mixture of ethyl acetate and propylene glycol, has the ability to fully penetrate through the human nail. In studies with cadaver fingernails, a 5% solution of tavaborole penetrated the nail an average of 524.7\xa0mcg/cm after two weeks of daily use.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9611617',
'title': 'Landslide mitigation',
'section': 'Section::::Soil slopes.:Reinforcement measures.:Insertion of reinforcement elements into the ground.:Nailing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 115,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Another nailing system is the soil nail and root technology (SNART). Here, steel nails are inserted very rapidly into a slope by percussion, vibration or screw methods. Grid spacing is typically 0.8 to 1.5 m, nails are 25 to 50\xa0mm in diameter and may be as long as 20 m. Nails are installed perpendicular to and through the failure plane, and are designed to resist bending and shear (rather than tension) using geotechnical engineering principles. Potential failure surfaces less than 2 m deep normally require the nails to be wider near the top, which may be achieved with steel plates fastened at the nail heads. Plant roots often form an effective and aesthetic facing to prevent soil loss between the nails.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '59660',
'title': 'Integumentary system',
'section': 'Section::::Skin.:Epidermis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'The protein keratin stiffens epidermal tissue to form fingernails. Nails grow from a thin area called the nail matrix at an average of 1\xa0mm per week. The lunula is the crescent-shape area at the base of the nail, lighter in color as it mixes with the matrix cells. Also, the stratum corneum is the top part of the epidermis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13224821',
'title': 'Women in the United States Navy',
'section': 'Section::::Grooming standards.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Fingernails: Fingernails for women shall not exceed 1/4 inch beyond the end of the finger. They shall be kept clean. Nail polish may be worn, but colors shall be conservative and complement the skin tone.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '397986',
'title': 'Nail (anatomy)',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.:Parts of the nail.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The hyponychium (informally known as the "quick") is the epithelium located beneath the nail plate at the junction between the free edge and the skin of the fingertip. It forms a seal that protects the nail bed.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What holds fingernails in place? How far under the skin do they go?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Your fingernails and toenails are made up of cells that form into a hard surface called keratin. Keratin is also what makes up your hair and other parts of animals, like horse hooves and rhino horns. Underneath your fingernail is a soft surface called the nail bed. This is what produces the cells that harden and turn into keratin. The nail grows because it works kind of like the plates that make up the Earth’s crust: The nail bed forms new cells, which push on the older ones and make them grow outward. The whole structure inside your finger doesn’t extend much past the bottom of your visible fingernail. ',
"To add to this why don't fingernails hurt when they grow? Shouldn't they tug on the skin underneath? ",
"The nail is generated (grows from) the germinal matrix and grows over the sterile matrix (nail bed).\n\nIf the nail is crushed, injured, or removed, the germinal matrix and nail bed need to be protected . A defect to those structures can cause permanent nail deformities. \n\nSo after a crush injury, it's standard practice to remove the nail and inspect those structures. We use a freer elevator to gently lift it off. Once any repairs are made, the nail is slid back into place and sutured back to hold it as a splint. The nail regrows and pushes the old nail off. \n\nIf there is a nail deformity, we can either remove the nail and attempt to address the deformity, or remove the nail bed and matrix to eliminate the nail regrowth entirely."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query': 'what holds fingernails in place? how far under the skin do they go?',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '4052704',
'title': 'Shared graphics memory',
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'passage_text': 'In computer architecture, shared graphics memory refers to a design where the graphics chip does not have its own dedicated memory, and instead shares the main system RAM with the CPU and other components. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3301619',
'title': 'Graphics hardware',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Graphics Cards.:Parts of a Graphics Card.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Video Memory is built in RAM installed on the video card that provides the graphics card with its own RAM and allows it to run smoothly without having to take resources from the computer. However, if one uses an integrated graphics card, the chip will take resources from the computer as it does not have its own built in memory. That is how it is made.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32354',
'title': 'Virtual memory',
'section': 'Section::::Usage.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Virtual memory is an integral part of a modern computer architecture; implementations usually require hardware support, typically in the form of a memory management unit built into the CPU. While not necessary, emulators and virtual machines can employ hardware support to increase performance of their virtual memory implementations. Consequently, older operating systems, such as those for the mainframes of the 1960s, and those for personal computers of the early to mid-1980s (e.g., DOS), generally have no virtual memory functionality, though notable exceptions for mainframes of the 1960s include:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42310144',
'title': 'Pascal (microarchitecture)',
'section': 'Section::::Details.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Unified memory — a memory architecture, where the CPU and GPU can access both main system memory and memory on the graphics card with the help of a technology called "Page Migration Engine".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '148742',
'title': 'GeForce',
'section': 'Section::::Graphics processor generations.:GeForce 10 series.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Unified memory A memory architecture, where the CPU and GPU can access both main system memory and memory on the graphics card with the help of a technology called "Page Migration Engine".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '399520',
'title': 'List of interface bit rates',
'section': "Section::::Bandwidths.:Graphics processing units' RAM.\n",
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'passage_text': 'RAM memory modules are also utilised by graphics processing units; however, memory modules for those differ somewhat from standard computer memory, particularly with lower power requirements, and are specialised to serve GPUs: for example, GDDR3 was fundamentally based on DDR2. Every graphics memory chip is directly connected to the GPU (point-to-point). The total GPU memory bus width varies with the number of memory chips and the number of lanes per chip. For example, GDDR5 specifies either 16 or 32 lanes per "device" (chip), while GDDR5X specifies 64 lanes per chip. Over the years, bus widths rose from 64-bit to 512-bit and beyond: e.g. HBM is 1024 bits wide.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '390214',
'title': 'Graphics processing unit',
'section': 'Section::::GPU forms.:Integrated graphics processing unit.\n',
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'passage_text': '"Integrated graphics processing unit" (IGPU), "Integrated graphics", "shared graphics solutions", "integrated graphics processors" (IGP) or "unified memory architecture" (UMA) utilize a portion of a computer\'s system RAM rather than dedicated graphics memory. IGPs can be integrated onto the motherboard as part of the chipset, or on the same die with the CPU (like AMD APU or Intel HD Graphics). On certain motherboards AMD\'s IGPs can use dedicated sideport memory. This is a separate fixed block of high performance memory that is dedicated for use by the GPU. In early 2007, computers with integrated graphics account for about 90% of all PC shipments. They are less costly to implement than dedicated graphics processing, but tend to be less capable. Historically, integrated processing was often considered unfit to play 3D games or run graphically intensive programs but could run less intensive programs such as Adobe Flash. Examples of such IGPs would be offerings from SiS and VIA circa 2004. However, modern integrated graphics processors such as AMD Accelerated Processing Unit and Intel HD Graphics are more than capable of handling 2D graphics or low stress 3D graphics.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Normal "system" memory versus graphics memory',
'selftext': 'What is the difference between the DDR 3, 4 or 5 you install as system memory and the GDDR 4, 5, 5X or 6 used in graphics cards? What makes each of them better for their respective applications?',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Graphics memory is designed for ludicrous throughput and custom applications. Graphics cards need access to massive memory bandwidth to do their job, a single 4K frame is ~25 MB and the GPU will be expected to generate at least 60 of them per second requiring a minimum of 12 Gbps of memory bandwidth to achieve 60 FPS at 4k. If you want to run 8x FSAA(full scene anti-aliasing) then you need to generate each frame at 8x the resolution or 32K equivalent and then down sample it. This gives you 1.6 GB **per frame** and 768 Gbps of required memory bandwidth. The Graphics RAM on a GPU serves as its input buffer storing textures that it needs to reference during rendering and storing the finally rendered scene.\n\nBecause of this insane bandwidth requirement, GPUs often talk to several chips in parallel so they can have up to 512 bit wide memory buses so each clock edge can give them 512 bits of data and then they run at quite high frequencies. An nVidia 2080 TI has a memory bandwidth of 4,928 Gbps.\n\nStandard memory is designed to be compatible with every system, as such it has an agreed upon bus width (64 bits) and frequency set. While it will sometimes have lower latency than graphics ram and is generally significantly cheaper per GB, even the fastest stick of DDR4 can only give you 200 Gbps, but this is more than enough because your CPU isn't handling huge quantities of data generally. Its restricted on doing math on what it can fit in its L1 and L2 cache, everything else is a longggg wait for a CPU."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'fh5jjw',
'query': 'normal "system" memory versus graphics memory',
'query_type': 'Technology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '53466077',
'title': 'Brain Electrical Oscillation Signature Profiling',
'section': 'Section::::Principle.\n',
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'passage_text': 'It is found that when the brain of an individual is activated by a piece of information of an event in which he/she has taken part, the brain of the individual will respond differently from that of a person who has received the same information from secondary sources (non-experiential).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6331719',
'title': 'Mind-wandering',
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'passage_text': 'Mind-wandering (sometimes referred to as task unrelated thought, or, colloquially, autopilot) is the experience of thoughts not remaining on a single topic for a long period of time, particularly when people are engaged in an attention-demanding task.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28090107',
'title': 'Thought blocking',
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'passage_text': "Thought blocking (also known as ), a phenomenon that occurs in people with psychiatric illnesses (usually schizophrenia), occurs when a person's speech is suddenly interrupted by silences that may last a few seconds to a minute or longer. When the person begins speaking again, after the block, they will often speak about a subject unrelated to what was being discussed when blocking occurred. It is described as being experienced as an unanticipated, quick and total emptying of the mind. People with schizophrenia commonly experience thought blocking and may comprehend the experience in peculiar ways. For example a person with schizophrenia might remark that another person has removed their thoughts from their brain.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44509314',
'title': 'Sensory dysfunction disorder',
'section': 'Section::::Systems.:Visual system.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': '- Researched information for article through internet and medical booksde"/ They become unresponsive to any disciplinary actions that may typically be used. Their brain reaches a state of sensory overload and any new information, such as conversation to alter their current state of mind, becomes ineffective. They need to calm themselves and let their brains slow down.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2917198',
'title': 'Neuropsychopharmacology',
'section': 'Section::::Neurotransmission.\n',
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'passage_text': 'So far as we know, everything we perceive, feel, think, know, and do are a result of neurons firing and resetting. When a cell in the brain fires, small chemical and electrical swings called the action potential may affect the firing of as many as a thousand other neurons in a process called neurotransmission. In this way signals are generated and carried through networks of neurons, the bulk electrical effect of which can be measured directly on the scalp by an EEG device.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1530482',
'title': 'Anacoenosis',
'section': 'Section::::Discussion.\n',
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'passage_text': "If I am in an audience and the speaker uses anacoenosis and I do not agree yet do not speak up, then I may suffer cognitive dissonance between my thoughts and actions. As a result, I am likely to shift my thinking toward the speaker's views in order to reduce this tension.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1626279',
'title': 'Anne Treisman',
'section': 'Section::::Impact.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 520,
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'passage_text': 'William James discussed the connection between attention and mental processes, "Millions of items…are present to my senses which never properly enter my experience. Why? Because they have no interest for me. My experience is what I agree to attend to…Everyone knows what attention is. It is the taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought…. It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others."\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "What is happening in the brain when you are not paying attention to someone saying something and you hear what they said inside your head some minutes after they've said it?",
'selftext': 'This happens usually when I am engrossed with something else and not attentive to what someone said. It echoes in my head some time later and initially it is difficult to perceive that it was said some time before, and feels like it is happening now. Why does this happen? And how does this process work inside the brain?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['There are different levels of consciousness layered on top of each other that make up your reality. Some you are very aware of/in control of, others are kind of like "auto pilots" that let you do stuff like drive a car without really thinking about it, or wake up on time even though your alarm didn\'t go off, or hear someone say your name even though you weren\'t consciously listening to their conversation.\n\n What I think is happening here, is basically your "subconscious" is paying attention even when your "primary conscious" is not, and when your conscious mind is no longer focusing on a thing at hand, sometimes your subconscious is nice enough to be like "hey a thing happened while you weren\'t paying attention, here it is". I don\'t really experience the thing you\'re talking about, but I get a thing a lot where I will just be looking around not focusing on anything in particular, and all of a sudden word pops up in my head as if I had just read it, although I didn\'t consciously read it. If I examine my environment again, I often find that word somewhere, and obviously my brain read it extremely quickly while I wasn\'t even trying to read, then helpfully handed me the information moments later.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '708u85',
'query': "what is happening in the brain when you are not paying attention to someone saying something and you hear what they said inside your head some minutes after they've said it?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '9213410',
'title': 'Hematoma block',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'When a bone is fractured as a result of an injury, the two fragments may be displaced relative to each other. If they are not, usually no treatment is required other than immobilisation in an appropriate cast. If displacement does occur, then the space separating the fragments fills with blood shed by the damaged blood vessels within the bone. This collection, or pool, of blood is known as a hematoma. Injection of a suitable local anesthetic by needle and syringe through the skin into this hematoma produces relief of the pain caused by the fracture, allowing the bones to be painlessly manipulated.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24358244',
'title': 'Child bone fracture',
'section': 'Section::::Types of fractures.:Less common fractures.:Displaced fracture.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
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'passage_text': 'A fracture where the bone cracks completely in two or more pieces, and the pieces move out of alignment (this type of fracture might require surgery to make sure the pieces are aligned before casting).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19857818',
'title': 'Mandibular fracture',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:General considerations.:Fixation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 75,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 75,
'end_character': 435,
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'passage_text': 'Open reduction with direct skeletal fixation allows the bones to be directly mandibulated through an incision so that the fractured ends meet, then they can be secured together either rigidly (with screws or plates and screws) or non-rigidly (with transosseous wires). There are a multitude of various plate and screw combinations including compression plates, non-compression plates, lag-screws, mini-plates and biodegradable plates.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42862717',
'title': 'Garden classification',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical relevance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 611,
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'passage_text': 'Surgeons may treat these types of fracture by replacing the fractured bone with a prosthesis arthroplasty. Alternatively the treatment is to reduce the fracture (manipulate the fragments back into a good position) and fix them in place with metal screws. Common practice is to repair Garden 1 and 2 fractures with screws, and to replace Garden 3 and 4 fractures with arthroplasty, except in young patients in whom screw repair is attempted first, followed by arthroplasty if necessary. This is done in an effort to conserve the natural joint since prosthetic joints ultimately wear out and have to be replaced.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19857818',
'title': 'Mandibular fracture',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:General considerations.:Fixation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 76,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 76,
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'passage_text': 'External fixation, which can be used with either open or closed reduction uses a pin system, where long screws are passed through the skin and into either side of a fracture segment (typically 2 pins per side) then secured in place using an external fixator. This is a more common approach when the bone is heavily comminuted (shattered into small pieces, for instance in a bullet wound) and when the bone is infected (osteomyelitis).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3853380',
'title': 'Stem-cell therapy',
'section': 'Section::::Veterinary medicine.:Bone repair.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 71,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 71,
'end_character': 690,
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'passage_text': 'Bone has a unique and well documented natural healing process that normally is sufficient to repair fractures and other common injuries. Misaligned breaks due to severe trauma, as well as treatments like tumor resections of bone cancer, are prone to improper healing if left to the natural process alone. Scaffolds composed of natural and artificial components are seeded with mesenchymal stem cells and placed in the defect. Within four weeks of placing the scaffold, newly formed bone begins to integrate with the old bone and within 32 weeks, full union is achieved. Further studies are necessary to fully characterize the use of cell-based therapeutics for treatment of bone fractures.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32544756',
'title': 'Acetabular fracture',
'section': 'Section::::Principles of management.:Surgical management.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 50,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 50,
'end_character': 310,
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'passage_text': 'Innominate bone is a flat bone with many curves. In most part the bone is thick enough and has broad surfaces that are amenable to primary fixation using lag screw(s) and to neutralize forces across the bone one needs to add plate(s) on the surface of the fractured fragments for it to heal without deformity.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How are broken bones in non-castable areas fixed?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The cast is mostly to prevent further damage. It is not strictly necessary but is more comfortable. It is possible to cast a larger area in order to protect the fracture site from further injury but this will likely be less comfortable then just not putting on a cast. It is mostly the extremities that need extra protection during the healing process as this is where it is easiest to get damaged. So it is not as necessary to protect the core body. So if you for example go the the emergency room with a broken rib there is nothing the doctors can do except make sure there is nothing more serious. After the examinations and x-rays you just get sent home with orders to take it easy. However if the fracture is more serious they can operate and insert rods to join the bone back together again.',
"Well, if you break the neck of the femur, they drill a hole and install a screw bracket through the femur and into the head of the femur to hold it in place while it fuses back together. You can't put weight on that leg for 6-8 weeks. Then you get to learn how to walk again, as the muscles have all atrophied. If all that sounds incredibly painful, it is.",
'Fingers for example are taped or splinted and taped.\n\nPersonal experience more then once.\n\n',
'Many many ways. Depends on the fracture.\n\nThe function of a cast is to stop movement of the bone while it heals. There are other ways to do this if a cast won’t work.\n\nFor example: if the fracture isn’t that bad then the patient might be simply asked to not do ‘x’ movement for ‘x’ amount of time.\n\nOther examples: Slings can be used to minimize movement for collar bone fractures. External fixations which are like cages around the broken bones, can be used for more complicated fractures. Sometimes pins are put in place to keep a bone together while it heals and removed later like with certain finger fractures. \n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'abj0jz',
'query': 'how are broken bones in non-castable areas fixed?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '56641018',
'title': 'Deepfake',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Deepfake (a portmanteau of "deep learning" and "fake") is a technique for human image synthesis based on artificial intelligence. It is used to combine and superimpose existing images and videos onto source images or videos using a machine learning technique known as generative adversarial network. The phrase "deepfake" was coined in 2017.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60595691',
'title': 'Digital cloning',
'section': 'Section::::Concerns.:Personal use.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
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'passage_text': 'Another reason deepfakes can be used maliciously is for one to sabotage another on a personal level. With the increased accessibility of technologies to create deepfakes, blackmailers and thieves are able to easily extract personal information for financial gains and other reasons by creating videos of loved ones of the victim asking for help. Furthermore, voice cloning can be used maliciously for criminals to make fake phone calls to victims. The phone calls will have the exact voice and mannerism as the individual, which can trick the victim into giving private information to the criminal without knowing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60595691',
'title': 'Digital cloning',
'section': 'Section::::Technology.:Deepfakes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': 'As described earlier, deepfakes is a form of video manipulation where one can change the people present by feeding various images of a specific person they want. Furthermore, one can also change the voice and words the person in the video says by simply submitting series of voice recordings of the new person lasting about one or two minutes long. In 2018, a new app called FakeApp was released, allowing the public to easily access this technology to create videos. This app was also used to create the Buzzfeed video of former President Barack Obama. With deepfakes, industries can cut the cost of hiring actors or models for films and advertisements by creating videos and film efficiently at a low cost just by collecting a series of photos and audio recordings with the consent of the individual.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '54095619',
'title': 'Fake You Out',
'section': 'Section::::Composition.\n',
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'passage_text': '"Fake You Out" is a synth-pop and indie rock song with a length of three minutes and fifty-one seconds. Joseph composed the track in F-sharp, the first note he learned to play on piano while using the black keys, because he considered it easier than the C note.The song has a tempo of 115 beats per minute. Joseph stated that he was excited while writing the track, since he implemented on it many elements that he had not heard on music before. During the verses, he sings in falsetto; regarding this, he called this part one of his favorite melodies because he wanted to write a song that had verses as infectious as the chorus: "I feel like writers slack on verses when it comes to melody... I\'ve always felt like why not have the verses—the melody of the verses be just as infectious as the chorus? So I\'m proud of this song in that way". The vocalist also expressed that he tried to implement many musical genres in the song; he elaborated: "Also, it does the whole mash-up genre thing that everyone is freaking out about. Truly, I just didn\'t know that there were rules to songwriting and, you know, so I just worked on transitioning from one genre to the next. I wanted to hear a song that did that. I\'ve never heard a song do that before, I wanna hear that, so I made that". Concerning the meaning of the lyrics, Joseph stated: \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '53254445',
'title': 'Bogus (Ruby)',
'section': 'Section::::Features.:Fakes.\n',
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'passage_text': "Fakes are lightweight objects that mock actual objects' interface. In order to test a class in isolation, usually some test doubles or anonymous objects are used in place of integrated classes with required methods stubbed in it. But there is a problem with this approach, If the class is changed in between, those changes are not reflected in mock objects and tests run without any integration exceptions. Fakes resolve this problem as they will have exact interface of real collaborator and will raise an exception whenever the actual class is modified.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60595691',
'title': 'Digital cloning',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Modern artificial intelligence, has allowed for the creation of deepfakes. This involves manipulation of a video to the point where the person depicted in the video is saying or performing actions he or she may not have consented to. In April 2018, BuzzFeed released a deepfake video of Jordan Peele, which was manipulated to depict former President, Barack Obama, making statements he has previously not made in public to warn the public against the potential dangers of deepfakes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56641018',
'title': 'Deepfake',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Amateur development.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'The term deepfakes originated around the end of 2017 from a Reddit user named "deepfakes". He, as well as others in the Reddit community r/deepfakes, shared deepfakes they created; many videos involved celebrities’ faces swapped onto the bodies of actresses in pornographic videos, while non-pornographic content included many videos with actor Nicolas Cage’s face swapped into various movies. In December 2017, Samantha Cole published an article about r/deepfakes in "Vice" that drew the first mainstream attention to deepfakes being shared in online communities. Six weeks later, Cole wrote in a follow-up article about the large increase in AI-assisted fake pornography. In February 2018, r/deepfakes was banned by Reddit for sharing involuntary pornography, and other websites have also banned the use of deepfakes for involuntary pornography, including the social media platform Twitter and the pornography site Pornhub.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How the hell do Deep Fakes work?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Without going into the details of that actual technology - Computers have advanced to the point where we can create very realistic looking images using existing material. That has extended to speech as well, so for someone who is particularly well covered (like a politician) it isn't particularly surprising that a computer can create an image of them saying basically anything.",
'You take a picture of person A and you put it in a photo of person B. If you do this naively, just by copying the pixels, the image is discontinuous at the seam. This makes the fake obvious. So, to make a better fake you use a machine learning program to reprocess the pixels near the seam, to make the seam invisible. One such program, as far back as 1997, was called Video Rewrite. The most popular "brand" of these better fakes is called "deep fake", so named because or a reddit user names "deepfakes" who produced and distributed some high quality examples.',
"Honestly, I know it's probably against the rules of ELI5, but I would recommend Corridor's Crew video on their Keanu Reeves deepfake to fully understand everything that's behind this.\n\nIn short, you basically have to get an actor to play the body of the subject of deepfake, and train an algorithm to match the face of that celebrity you want in the scene to the body of the duble, you need to track the face of the celebrity trough interviews and movies though",
'Get lots and lots of pictures from different angles of someone, get some fancy AI that stitches those pictures onto the video depending on the angle of the face replacing it with the ones in the picture.',
'How Deep Fakes are generated is a system of machine learning called "Generative Adversarial Networking". It\'s a system which involves two networks that play a sort of "information game" against each other with a "generator" network and a "discriminator" network. The Generator Network is the one that maps out data patterns drawing from an information source (like drawing from a bunch of pictures of human faces and mapping the data to assemble a realistic human face of a person who does not exist) while the Discriminator network looks at the newly assembled data and attempts to figure out what it does right and wrong against the information source. It grades the Generator\'s attempt against the source and sends it back with new recommendations for it to incorporate into its next generative attempt. The Discriminator learns what a bad picture looks like and learns how to spot differences in order to offer better critique to the next generative attempt. The cycle continues until the discriminator network makes a certain percentage of error that it believes that the data is genuine and uniform (in other words, when the Generator "fools" the Discriminator enough to make it believe what it is seeing is a real image of a real person)',
"The algorithm takes an image of face(with added algorithm to identify face in question), and transforms it into some bit string basically(it's not quite that but it's close enough and I can't think of a way to explain the proper way easily. It's close enough anyway). The model is trained so that it builds this bit string representation and then undoes it. Like, you get face, turn it into bit string, and then try to build face from that bit string again.\n\nTo give an idea of how this training works, you basically score this result, and then change the algorithm so that it scores a little bit better next time. Which in this case is simple, because you just check if the result looks the same as the original image of the face. You can for example count how many pixels are the same.\n\nSo far so good. But now, we split this algorithm into three parts. First, the part A that takes face, and turns it into a bit string. This is called encoder. Next one that takes bit string and turns it back into face is called decoder. We use two separate decoders. Say you want to change face of Keanu into face of Nicholas Cage. You use one decoder, B, for Keanu, and decoder C for Nicholas. \n\nWe train it by taking A + B and feed it images of Keanu. We score results and tweak both A and B. We also use A + C and feed it images of Nicholas and tweak both A and C. As a result, A becomes capable of taking either Nicholas or Keanu face, and turn it into a bit string. B then is able to take that bit string and turn the bit string into Keanu face, and C would take that bit string and turn it into Nicholas face.\n\nSo now we take image of Keanu, and feed it to encoder A to get a bit string, and then use decoder C to turn that bit string into a face of Nicholas Cage.\n\nThis alone doesn't quite work that well, but we can use some mathematical trickery during training to force A to ignore all traits of faces it can see, if it can trust B or C can fill in the blanks. This works by adding extra scoring term during training, which gets kinda complicated, but the gist of it is simple, we want to make A not give B or C details of the face it sees that they should know just because they know the face belongs to Keanu(or Nicholas in case of C). Like, A shouldn't tell B how big a nose the face has, B should already know how big a nose Keanu has. What is the eye color of Nicholas? That's not information bit string should contain, because C learns that just by knowing who Nicholas Cage is.\n\nWith that, you get bit string that contains only things like, which way face is facing, what's the facial expression, where are they looking, etc, and B and C paint their own actors based on these details. So that makes it possible to get this algorithm take one face and replace it with another with pretty much the same position, orientation, expression etc."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'cf89tq',
'query': 'how the hell do deep fakes work?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '37694',
'title': 'Seed',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Many structures commonly referred to as "seeds" are actually dry fruits. Plants producing berries are called baccate. Sunflower seeds are sometimes sold commercially while still enclosed within the hard wall of the fruit, which must be split open to reach the seed. Different groups of plants have other modifications, the so-called stone fruits (such as the peach) have a hardened fruit layer (the endocarp) fused to and surrounding the actual seed. Nuts are the one-seeded, hard-shelled fruit of some plants with an indehiscent seed, such as an acorn or hazelnut.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30686855',
'title': 'Zeltnera namophila',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The fruit is a capsule containing about 50 seeds, and each plant can produce many capsules. It is thought to be a ruderal species, producing many tiny seeds that spread about and sprout up in disturbed habitat in a weedlike manner. The seeds probably also persist for a long time in the soil seed bank.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1509558',
'title': 'Onopordum',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'These plants propagate only by seed. The seed heads mature in mid-summer, releasing their seeds. The fruit is a glabrous achene, 4–6\xa0mm long and with 4-50 ribs. The pappus consists of many rows of simple, fine to minutely rough hairs, united in a circular base.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '59039',
'title': 'Melaleuca',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'The fruit are woody, cup-shaped, barrel-shaped, or almost spherical capsules, often arranged in clusters along the stems. The seeds are sometimes retained in the fruit for many years, only opening when the plant, or part of it, dies or is heated in a bushfire. In tropical areas, seeds are released annually in the wet season.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '53089250',
'title': 'Nuphar carlquistii',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'Seeds are also found preserved individually and as groupings or masses of seeds ranging between and . One of the specimens has several hundred seeds grouped closely together and enclosed in a thick matrix, thought to be the preserved jelly like matrix that the seeds first dispersed from the fruit in. Other masses show lesser amounts of matrix, and the ones showing little to no matrix are less grouped together. The individual seeds range between long with an oval to barrel shape and an operculum at one end. Each seed has a distinct raphe ridge running vertically down it from the base to the slightly asymmetrical operculum. While most of the seed coat structure is not preserved enough to identify, the outer cell layer is distinct, showing small pentagon shaped cells with straight walls, a feature seen in fossil and living "Nuphar".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '54198474',
'title': 'Lathraea clandestina',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'Mature fruits can project their 4 to 5 large seeds some distance into the surrounding area. The plant then disappears from the surface until the following spring. Seedlings grown from seed will take about ten years to produce their first flowers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10843',
'title': 'Fruit',
'section': 'Section::::Development.:Multiple fruits.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 51,
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'end_paragraph_id': 51,
'end_character': 226,
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'passage_text': 'A multiple fruit is one formed from a cluster of flowers (called an "inflorescence"). Each flower produces a fruit, but these mature into a single mass. Examples are the pineapple, fig, mulberry, osage-orange, and breadfruit.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do all these different fruit and plant seeds form?',
'selftext': "Where did the first apple seed or orange seed come from? Googling it doesn't come up with a straightforward answer. I'm assuming that just like the What came first he chicken or egg debate, the seed came first however, where did that first seed originate from?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["There wasn't an identifiable first apple or orange seed. They would have evolved from some preceding plant species slowly over time. So over thousands of generations the preceding plant becomes more and more like an apple or orange tree until eventually it matches what we would recognize as an apple or orange tree but there wasn't a single point where you could say one generation wasn't an apple or orange tree and the next was. Think of it like a person aging. Any given day they won't look any different than the day before but look at two pictures taken 20 years apart and you will see how they aged."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'brb4t7',
'query': 'how do all these different fruit and plant seeds form?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '478185',
'title': 'Disinfectant',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Alcohols.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 780,
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'passage_text': 'Alcohol and alcohol plus Quaternary ammonium cation based compounds comprise a class of proven surface sanitizers and disinfectants approved by the EPA and the Centers for Disease Control for use as a hospital grade disinfectant. Alcohols are most effective when combined with distilled water to facilitate diffusion through the cell membrane; 100% alcohol typically denatures only external membrane proteins. A mixture of 70% ethanol or isopropanol diluted in water is effective against a wide spectrum of bacteria, though higher concentrations are often needed to disinfect wet surfaces. Additionally, high-concentration mixtures (such as 80% ethanol + 5% isopropanol) are required to effectively inactivate lipid-enveloped viruses (such as HIV, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C). \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52835581',
'title': 'Alcohol (medicine)',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Side effects of alcohols include skin irritation. Care should be taken with electrocautery as ethanol is flammable. Types of alcohol used include ethanol, denatured ethanol, 1-propanol, and isopropyl alcohol. It is effective against a range of microorganisms though does not inactivate spores. Concentrations of 60 to 90% work best.\n',
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'passage_text': "Alcohol has been used as an antiseptic as early as 1363 with evidence to support its use becoming available in the late 1800s. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. The wholesale cost in the developing world is about US$1.80–9.50 per litre of 70% denatured ethanol. In the United Kingdom it costs the NHS about 3.90 GBP per liter of 99% denatured alcohol. Commercial formulations of alcohol based hand rub or with other agents such as chlorhexidine are available.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18653559',
'title': 'Surrogate alcohol',
'section': 'Section::::Dangers to health.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Besides alcohol, there are many other toxic substances in surrogate alcohol such as hydrogen peroxide, antiseptics, ketones, as well as alcohols other than ethanol (drinking alcohol) such as isopropanol and methanol. Methanol, and, to a far lesser extent isopropanol, is a poison. The effect of other chemicals on health has not been adequately studied, and so the health risks, while assumed, are unclear. However, observations in countries with high consumption of surrogate alcohols, such as Russia, indicate that the impurities in the consumed drink lead to high mortality rates.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Non-alcoholic drink',
'section': 'Section::::Scientific definition.:Low-alcoholic drink.\n',
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'passage_text': 'However alcoholic drinks cannot be further purified to 0.00% alcohol by volume by distillation. In fact, most drinks labeled non-alcoholic contain 0.5% ABV as it is more profitable than distilling it to 0.05% ABV often found in products sold by companies specializing in non-alcoholic drinks.\n',
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'title': 'Alcohol powder',
'section': 'Section::::Public health concerns.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Powdered alcohol would generally share the health risks that are associated with traditional liquid alcohol consumption, although there may be some differences in its effects related to differences in consumption potency, differences in characteristics for storage, concealability, and portability, lack of familiarity, and potentially novel delivery methods. Excessive consumption of alcohol can result in acute overdose, intoxication-related accidental injury, compromised judgment, and longer-term negative health consequences including liver disease, cancer, and physiologic dependence.\n',
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'title': 'Hand sanitizer',
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'passage_text': 'For health care settings like hospitals and clinics, optimum alcohol concentration to kill bacteria is 70% to 95%. Products with alcohol concentrations as low as 40% are available in American stores, according to researchers at East Tennessee State University.\n',
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'title': 'How is that Alcohol 70% is better than Alcohol 90% as disinfectant ?',
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'answers': ['70% alcohol has 30% water, and that water is necessary for the alcohol to interact at all with the cells it’s killing.\n\nIt’s like cooking pancakes. You know how when your pan is really hot and you put in pancake batter, it cooks the outside really fast? And then you can flip it, but it does the same thing to the other side and the middle doesn’t cook very well? 90% alcohol is like that. It doesn’t penetrate well into cells or clumps of microbes because it just fries everything it touches on the outside. The 70% alcohol is like cooking on medium heat with a moderately hot pan. It contacts the outside, too, but the water helps it penetrate to cook the inside (denature proteins deeper) as well. \n\nFrom _URL_2_\n\n > The presence of water is a crucial factor in destroying or inhibiting the growth of pathogenic microorganisms with isopropyl alcohol. Water acts as a catalyst and plays a key role in denaturing the proteins of vegetative cell membranes. 70% IPA solutions penetrate the cell wall more completely which permeates the entire cell, coagulates all proteins, and therefore the microorganism dies. Extra water content slows evaporation, therefore increasing surface contact time and enhancing effectiveness. Isopropyl alcohol concentrations over 91% coagulate proteins instantly. Consequently, a protective layer is created which protects other proteins from further coagulation.\n\n > Solutions > 91% IPA may kill some bacteria, but require longer contact times for disinfection, and enable spores to lie in a dormant state without being killed. A 50% isopropyl alcohol solution kills Staphylococcus Aureus in less than 10 seconds (pg. 238), yet a 90% solution with a contact time of over two hours is ineffective.\n\nEdit: Because there’s been some confusion, I’d like to add two points. First, higher concentrations of alcohol solutions (specifically isopropyl) may still be superior as solvents, for use on things like electronics for cleaning, because water is generally bad for electronics. Second, what we’re talking about above you should think of as referring only to ethanol and isopropyl alcohol (which is not safe to consume). There are other alcohols but we’re just sticking to the ones commonly used.\n\nEdit 2: Some people have questioned the source, which is good and part of science. The source offered a decent write-up of what numerous PhD mentors have taught me, and it’s consistent with the science. At the risk of making this too long, here’s what the CDC has to say, from _URL_0_ \n\nAdding water enhances effectiveness of isopropyl and ethyl alcohols: \n\n > The most feasible explanation for the antimicrobial action of alcohol is denaturation of proteins. This mechanism is supported by the observation that absolute ethyl alcohol, a dehydrating agent, is less bactericidal than mixtures of alcohol and water because proteins are denatured more quickly in the presence of water \n\nIsopropanol and ethanol effective bactericides\n\n > The bactericidal activity of various concentrations of ethyl alcohol (ethanol) was examined against a variety of microorganisms in exposure periods ranging from 10 seconds to 1 hour 483. Pseudomonas aeruginosa was killed in 10 seconds by all concentrations of ethanol from 30% to 100% (v/v), and Serratia marcescens, E, coli and Salmonella typhosa were killed in 10 seconds by all concentrations of ethanol from 40% to 100%. The gram-positive organisms Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes were slightly more resistant, being killed in 10 seconds by ethyl alcohol concentrations of 60%–95%. Isopropyl alcohol (isopropanol) was slightly more bactericidal than ethyl alcohol for E. coli and S. aureus 489.\n\nKills viruses at these concentrations \n > Ethyl alcohol, at concentrations of 60%–80%, is a potent virucidal agent inactivating all of the lipophilic viruses (e.g., herpes, vaccinia, and influenza virus) and many hydrophilic viruses (e.g., adenovirus, enterovirus, rhinovirus, and rotaviruses but not hepatitis A virus (HAV) 58 or poliovirus) 49. \n\nIsopropanol similar to chlorhexidine\n_URL_1_',
'When you put high concentrations of alcohol on a microbe, it immediately goes into defense mode. For some bacteria this means turning into spores. Then they wait until the offending agent is gone, and re-emerge from their spores. However, the lower concentrations aren’t recognized as quickly by the bacteria, giving it more time to kill the bacteria before it had the opportunity to raise its defenses.',
'As a pharmaceutical production technician,I use 70% Isopropyl alcohol daily. The 30% sterilized water allows it time to spread the alcohol over the surface without evaporating too fast. I believe it takes about 15 seconds of contact time for it to disinfect, but at 90% it would only last 5 seconds so not enough time to fully kill even half the bacteria/spores. \nPlus 70% IPA smells good as hell.',
"Kind of a follow up question. Which one should you use for evaporating water out of your ears?\n\nWhen I was a kid we would use 90% if we had stubborn water that we couldn't shake out but if you got to western with the alcohol it would hurt.",
"There are many responses already about 70% being a better disinfectant, but it's important to keep in mind that this is about being a disinfectant only. For instance, for cleaning residue off like if you want to prep a surface for glue application or any coating where you want a clean surface, 99% IPA may be better because it quickly evaporates. There's more more chance of dust and residue from slower evaporating products like 70% IPA, as well as water reacting with stuff (e.g. electronics), which is why I stick to using 90% or 99% IPA in those cases.",
"I didn't know it was better as a disinfectant. It's definitely not better as a detergent. Mixing salt and alcohol makes the most effective cleaning solution I am aware of, and 90% is absolutely better than 70% for that.\n\nInteresting.",
'To add to OP, why does alcohol this strong kill microbes yet humans can literally drink 70% ethanol and be fine? Why can we use it to clean our pores and oily skin without much harm but it seemingly instantly kills microbes?',
"It has to do with evaporation but to be clear alcohol isn't a very good disinfectant in the first place. It's more of a germicide.\n\nYou need a large contact time, if it evaporates you're not soaking. Soaking tools in it works well. In soaking you find the strongest stuff you can find (we use denatured alcohol so 100%) With surfaces it's almost always recommended to use bleach as a disinfectant, (which can still have a soak time of 10-15 min) and alcohol as the noncorrosive, sterile cleaner to wipe up the bleach residue.\n\nO and for most phenolic disinfectants like lysol, they need to dry on the surface. If you don't let them dry you're reducing their effectiveness. \n\nMy whole family is in this world. I work in medical device manufacturing where everything has to be kept sterile (we make alcohol swabs and we have to sterilize the alcohol tanks), my sister is the environmental and health manager for a hospital (she is directly responsible for any hospital born pathogens), my father managers the water treatment and supply for our town. \n\nAlso people at all your major colleges say the same thing. \n\n_URL_0_",
'I for one use it for athletes foot and jock itch.\nIt’s the only thing that really works.\nThis is all good info I didn’t know before.',
"The alcohol works by denaturing proteins and disrupting membranes. In order to do a good job of this it needs enough contact time to propagate along transmembrane proteins through to the other side, before it evaporates.\n\nFor proteins, it is disrupting the hydration shell of water and changing the shape of the protein, often making it clump together.\n\nFor membranes, it is disrupting a phospholipid bilayer so that the cell can't keep its insides inside or its outsides outside.\n\nBoth of these processes require a bit of time, which the water content of 70% isopropanol provides.\n\nEdit: I will add that laboratory testing confirms that 70% isopropanol is in fact better at killing bacteria than 90% isopropanol.",
"I've heard that if you take that 70% alcohol disinfectant and dilute it with 1 part 70% alchohol and 9 parts of water, then take one part of the resulting mixture and dilute it in another 9 parts of water and repeat this process a lot of times eventually you'll end up with a disinfectant that is so strong it will kill you on contact.",
'So should I clean my bong with 70% or 90%?',
'One of these things I learned on reddit a while ago.\n\nPS, Tip: Because I can only get 96% alcohol here:\n\n182ml alcohol (96%) + 68ml distilled (!) Water = 70% Alcohol.\n\nSo I am always mixing a batch of "good" alcohol. But the 96% I use like it is for cleaning stuff, electronics etc.',
'The water kills the cell barriers, and the water getting in is what kills the cells. +90% also evaporates too fast, which means the alcohol has less time to work.\n\n70% for disinfecting, 90% for cleaning PC parts (because of the lack of water content and how fast it evaporates).',
'70% alcohol “tricks” bacteria/microorganisms into thinking that it’s water, so the bacteria will open up its spores to take it in, which ends up killing it.',
'Similar-ish thing is observed in case of salt as well. Till 4% conc, salt actually helps bacteria to grow. Further increasing conc will kill them.\n(For most of the bacteria, not all of them)'],
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'title': 'Sonya Thomas',
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'passage_text': "BULLET::::- She had difficulty eating a hot dog in less than a minute when she first started training for her first contest, the 2003 Nathan's qualifier. After practicing, she was able to consume 18 hot dogs in 12 minutes.\n",
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'passage_text': "On May 16, 2009, Janus became the third person in the history of the world to eat 50 or more hot dogs and buns in a Nathan's Hot Dog Eating Contest, consuming exactly 50 in his qualifier in Hartford, Connecticut. In the finals on July 4, he ate 53 hot dogs.\n",
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'passage_text': 'In June 2012, Strahle consumed 25 hot dogs in 10 minutes at the Nathan’s Famous Hot Dog Eating Contest qualifier in Cleveland, Ohio. Though Strahle lost to eating veteran Crazy Legs Conti, he was beaten by only a quarter of a hot dog.\n',
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'passage_text': 'He suffered a heart attack on the Fourth of July, 2012, after detouring from his semi-vegan ways to eat a hotdog. He still met a deadline, filing a column three days later, but observed, “Life is full of little ironies, some of which will kill you.”\n',
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'passage_text': "On July 4, 2005 she ate 37 hot dogs in 12 minutes at Nathan's Hot Dog Eating Contest, setting a then-record for American competitors (which was also the female record). On August 8, 2005, she consumed 35 bratwursts in 10 minutes, beating the previous 10-minute record of 19.5 bratwursts, although her record was beaten in 2006 by Takeru Kobayashi.\n",
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'passage_text': 'In 2000, she, along with fellow Japanese eaters Arai and Misao Fujita, entered an annual Nathan\'s Hot Dog Eating Contest, where she became the first woman to do "The Deuce", eating more than 20 hot dogs with buns in 12 minutes. She finished at third place by eating 22 hot dogs, while Arai won the contest at 25, breaking the previous world record, and Fujita finished second at 24.\n',
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'passage_text': "Her women's world record for hot dog eating was bested by Sonya Thomas, a Korean-born American. Ms. Akasaka remains one of three women to have eaten more than 20 hot dogs at Nathan's (Carlene LeFevre is the other).\n",
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'title': 'How can someone physically consume 74 hot dogs and what is the "aftermath" like?',
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'answers': ['For the consumption, practice. They need to eat progressively larger amounts of food or liquids per a period of time so their stomach can (somewhat) comfortably stretch to hold it all and they can get used to eating/drinking way past their body’s ‘I feel full’ point. I don’t know about the rest, it isn’t talked about much.\n\n\nEdit: Liquids too.',
'It’s a process of gradually eating more and more food to help expand your stomach. Also being able to chew and break up the food is important as well. Smaller pieces of food will pack inside a stomach a lot more efficiently. Having strong monster jaws helps a lot. \n\nAll competitive eaters purge after these competitions. That’s the aftermath, lots of puke. \n\nEdit: most competitions don’t let you puke or make you hold it in for a certain amount of time. During training they will puke a lot. ',
"There was an episode of some TV show, I think it was MTV's True Life that followed competitive eaters preparing for the Nathan's hot dog competition in New York. The reigning champ was some tiny Japanese guy. He basically just worked out all day, and when he wasn't working out he was stretching his stomache by eating pounds of food. Obviously he worked up to that point, but that's the general idea.\n\nEat a ton of food every day and exercise enough to maintain your health.",
"In a way it's like a lot of other sports at a professional level. It takes an insane amount of time, commitment, and practice to be able to eat that much in ten minutes. It's not like you just get there. Chestnut had to gradually work his way up to being able to eat that many hot dogs in ten minutes.\n\nAKA Mr. Chestnut probably writes Oscar Meyer a lot of checks ",
'You can be genetically suited to eating more. It\'s dependent on how low your stomach is allowing it to expand more. There are records of professional eater\'s stating that they do not throw up. They train to eat more each time to increase their capacity. If they throw up, that attempt is a fail. The body didn\'t "improve".',
'Competitive eaters (at least, the successful ones) have expanded their stomachs over time, so they can fit way more inside. Instead of the stomach being a pouch, for them it’s more like a bag. There’s space in your abdomen, so that’s what it’s expanding into and using.',
'Mates a competitive eater. He trains regularly for it by eating lots of tough, filling food so that he can fit more in and chew easier. There’s a whole lot of strategy involved as well with how you eat the meal and what you eat first. Afterwards he usually just doesn’t eat for a day then is fine.',
"Furious Pete, a pretty well known Canadian competitive eater and one of the best iirc, said in one of his videos that most of the food he forces down his throat doesn't even get chewed up and digested properly, so his poop comes out with half digested food. I guess that's the aftermath. ",
'ELI5: Why would someone spend time learning how to eat 74 hot dogs? ',
'There are far worse things than "just" eating 74 hot dogs. Take this guy for example:\n\n[_URL_0_](_URL_0_)',
'If I eat one hot dog, I get diarrhea, so my guess would be that you would get 74 diarrheas.',
'Is this 8 seconds per hotdog for 10 minutes or is my math off?',
'I actually know a lot about this! \n\nTraining involves eating a high volume of low calorie foods and letting it pass naturally. A common thing would be eating an entire head of cabbage and drinking a gallon of water in an hour. This is a large volume that doesn’t put much into the body in terms of calories, so they can do it fairly often and maintain their health.\n\nOne reason that everyone up there was so skinny is because of the “fat belt” phenomenon. This is where the larger you are, the more your fat belt restricts the expansion of your stomach. Many of the gurgitators (the unofficial name of professional eaters) are pretty athletic people and go to the gym often.\n\nAs far as the aftermath, it’s somewhat of a pride point to not throw the food back up. It doesn’t disqualify you to do so after the time frame, but most of the top eaters pass it all naturally. \n\nIf you have continued interest in the topic, read “Eat This Book” published about 12 years ago. It talks about many of the famous eaters, how the circuit got started, and the other glorious adventures of professional eaters.',
'Those guys eat tons of lettuce and drink tons of water to expand their stomachs. They also dip bread in water to make it go down easier.',
'My husband put away a 12 pack of dogs in one day ONCE. Thank goodness, only once. Granted, he is not a competitive eater, but the aftermath was FOUL & SOCIALLY UNACCEPTABLE. Oh boy, it was bad. So bad. For about two or 3 days. ',
"I don't have an answer but at my job we had a contest of our own. Same rules, buns, dogs, 10 mins. Let me tell you, it isn't fun, but I won.\n\n\n\nWith 7....",
"Professional eating is just that, professional. It's a real sport that requires real training, that being gradual growing and stretching of the stomach, usually through drinking copious amounts of water, (like gallons a day), accompanied by a healthy diet and exercise regimen. As for the aftermath I've heard about stomach aches but unless they *really* Puch themselves that's about the and of it.",
"I take it this post was made with the thought of the Nathan hotdog eating competition today on tv. Probably explains why all Nathan's aside from the jumbo were sold out at my HEB. Won't lie though.. Bought the Jumbo's and they taste good but I could use a nap now. \n\nAnyone who watched it...did you hear the intro to the 70 year old man about coffee and dying? Lol",
'I’ve gone drinking with them after the big hot dog eating contest and Krystal burger contests a few years back. After the Nathan’s contest they go to a bar on Coney Island and drink... then go to another bar later that night and drink a whole lot more. ',
'Wow! A reddit thread that I can sorta relate too. I have witness and partaken In eating 16 of the 74 Hot dogs my friend bought at a cantine in Quebec, needless to say he got up to 35 before throwing up and then gave the rest to his dog which then puked after eating the rest',
'One time I let my dog eat 15 hot dogs in one sitting. Then he took a nap. That night he wet the bed. The next day his poop was normal. I was mostly boggled that his poop was normal.',
"They should have a competitive corn eating contest. There's some aftermath for ya, visualize that!",
'_URL_0_\n\nWatch this. It’s about mukbangs or people who eat a lot of food in front of the camera \nThis girl is kinoshita Yuka and shows you how her stomach expands to fit all the food ',
'ESPN has an interesting [article](_URL_0_) that highlights how Chestnut prepares for his competitions.',
'Joey chestnut fasts for 36 hours before this event. Then chugs a shit ton of water to stretch his stomach. It’s insane to eat 73 hotdogs in 10 mins but I guess there is always a strategy when your the best in the world at anything',
"I've always been curious how is competitors can eat 69 hot dogs in a row or 80 tacos and not gain any weight but I had a cheeseburger on Wednesday in a gain 5 pounds by Thursday."],
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3324299',
'title': 'Autotransplantation',
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'passage_text': 'In blood banking terminology, autologous blood donation refers to a blood donation marked for use by the donor, typically for a scheduled surgery. (Generally, the notion of "donation" does not refer to giving to oneself, though in this context it has become somewhat acceptably idiomatic.) They are commonly called "Autos" by blood bank personnel, and it is one major form of the more general concept of autotransfusion (the other being intraoperative blood salvage).\n',
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'passage_text': 'The first step in organising any blood drive is to contact the nearest blood bank or blood donation centre. A blood drive representative is assigned to help the person organising the drive. The representative assesses whether the organising company meets the requirements for the drive to proceed. The representative and organiser then plan the actual drive together, establishing mutual goals based on the size of the group and how many people are expected to donate.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Autologous blood is not routinely tested for infectious diseases markers such as HIV antibodies. In the United States, autologous blood is tested only if it is collected in one place and shipped to another.\n',
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'passage_text': "As a result, some in the global medical community have moved from allogenic blood (blood collected from another person) towards autologous transfusion, in which patients receive their own blood. Another impetus for autologous transfusion is the position of Jehovah's Witnesses on blood transfusions. For religious reasons, Jehovah's Witnesses may choose not to accept any allogeneic transfusions from a volunteer's blood donation, but may accept the use of autologous blood salvaged during surgery to restore their blood volume and homeostasis during the course of an operation, although not autologous blood donated beforehand. It must be noted that each Jehovah's Witness patient must be individually counseled as to all the possible blood products that are available as they may choose to accept some and not others (ie, some may accept products containing plasma, but not those containing red blood cells; others may accept platelets, etc); it is an individual choice for each patient.\n",
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'passage_text': 'In April 2007, an international team of researchers announced in the journal "Nature Biotechnology" an inexpensive and efficient way to convert types A, B, and AB blood into type O. This is done by using glycosidase enzymes from specific bacteria to strip the blood group antigens from red blood cells. The removal of A and B antigens still does not address the problem of the Rh blood group antigen on the blood cells of Rh positive individuals, and so blood from Rh negative donors must be used. The sort of blood is named "enzyme converted to O" (ECO) blood. Patient trials will be conducted before the method can be relied on in live situations. One such Phase II trial was done on B-to-O blood in 2002.\n',
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'title': 'Red blood cell',
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'passage_text': "Red blood cells may be given as part of a blood transfusion. Blood may be donated from another person, or stored by the recipient at an earlier date. Donated blood usually requires screening to ensure that donors do not contain risk factors for the presence of blood-borne diseases, or will not suffer themselves by giving blood. Blood is usually collected and tested for common or serious Blood-borne diseases including Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C and HIV. The blood type (A, B, AB, or O) or the blood product is identified. This relates to the presence of antigens on the cell's surface. After this process, the blood is stored, and within a short duration is used. Blood can be given as a whole product or the red blood cells separated as packed red blood cells.\n",
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'passage_text': 'Red blood cells are the limiting step for whole blood donations, and the frequency of donation varies widely depending on the type of donor and local policies. During whole blood donation, blood is drawn from the inner forearm venipuncture area from the right or left arm. The blood goes to the main collection bag located on the shaker which is next to the donor bed and this bag holds one pint of whole blood. After collection the blood bag along with three tubes of blood for testing and typing is sent to the laboratory. Here, the blood bag is separated into its different component parts in a centrifuge process (red cells, platelets, and plasma).\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do blood drives collect all types of blood, instead of prioritizing O- and O+ donors?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["If there were an unlimited supply, it would make sense to prioritize the donors whose blood is the most compatible. But that's not the case; donations generally keep pace with the demand for blood but in the United States, there's not a large surplus. So it's more practical to collect and use blood of the same type when possible, and to save the most compatible blood for when no other match is available. Why turn away a willing and eligible blood donor?",
"There isn't a massive supply of O donors, blood banks already have shortages. In an ideal world, they'd have an unlimited supply of type O blood from donors. So having a decent supply of the other types lets them save the O types for situations where they are unable to find sufficient A, B or AB. ",
"Not all blood goes into random accident victims. Those random victims are the ones you have to give O- blood to.\n\nIf you're going into a surgery why would you waste O- blood when you can just use another matching blood type? Even O+ blood (The most common type) doesn't go into everyone. So you'd much rather use those rarer blood types if you have them on hand.",
"There are more blood groups than ABO and the Rh groups as well. Some patients who receive transfusion to stay alive (transfusion dependant) will constantly be exposed to some of the smaller blood groups (eg K, M, S, Fya/b, Jka/b, Kpa) that they don't have.\n\nSometimes our bodies will recognise these as foreign and launch a full immune response against them, and they can't have that blood anymore. Anyone from a stab victim, pregnant lady, cancer patient can have this response.\n\nSo take an A Pos patient. They can have A Pos, A Neg, O Pos and O Neg blood. It is a great blood group to have. They have a 2 unit transfusion at some point in their life and are exposed to say the Kell (K) blood group antigen which they don't have. They develop an immune response to it.\n\nThey now can't have K+ blood..... and the second unit they got also has Fya antigen which they don't have - their immune system responds to that as well. They can't have that anymore either. \n\n3% of the population has K+ blood. Their available pool shrinks. \n87.4% of people are Fya+. Their available pool shrinks.\n\nSo now you have someone who requires a blood bag that is K-,Fya- in order to not hurt/kill them. Their ABO blood group already restricts the blood they can have (they can't have B or AB blood) and now these antibodies are there too.\n\nRed Cross (or whoever does it where you are) have no idea what they are getting every time they do a blood run (or even a new donor). Every person's donation is precious because it COULD be the only unit in the bank that is negative to seven different antigens that some poor chemo patient has an immune response to and they need that specific unit of blood to say alive. \n\nBlood banking can be a complex logic puzzle and you don't always have the pieces available on hand... banks need all the donations they can get which is why they don't block based on ABO group."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8138rh',
'query': 'why do blood drives collect all types of blood, instead of prioritizing o- and o+ donors?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1448709',
'title': 'Gas tungsten arc welding',
'section': 'Section::::Operation.:Safety.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Welders wear protective clothing, including light and thin leather gloves and protective long sleeve shirts with high collars, to avoid exposure to strong ultraviolet light. Due to the absence of smoke in GTAW, the electric arc light is not covered by fumes and particulate matter as in stick welding or shielded metal arc welding, and thus is a great deal brighter, subjecting operators to strong ultraviolet light. The welding arc has a different range and strength of UV light wavelengths from sunlight, but the welder is very close to the source and the light intensity is very strong. Potential arc light damage includes accidental flashes to the eye or arc eye and skin damage similar to strong sunburn. Operators wear opaque helmets with dark eye lenses and full head and neck coverage to prevent this exposure to UV light. Modern helmets often feature a liquid crystal-type face plate that self-darkens upon exposure to the bright light of the struck arc. Transparent welding curtains, made of a polyvinyl chloride plastic film, are often used to shield nearby workers and bystanders from exposure to the UV light from the electric arc.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6871841',
'title': 'Piping and plumbing fitting',
'section': 'Section::::Connection methods.:Welding.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 147,
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'passage_text': 'Adequate ventilation is essential to remove metal fumes from welding operations, and personal protective equipment must be worn. Because the high temperatures during welding can often generate intense ultraviolet light, dark goggles or full face shields must be used to protect the eyes. Precautions must also be taken to avoid starting fires caused by stray sparks and hot welding debris.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27490199',
'title': 'Welding goggles',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Welding goggles provide a degree of eye protection while some forms of welding and cutting are being done. They are intended to protect the eyes not only from the heat and optical radiation produced by the welding, such as the intense ultraviolet light produced by an electric arc, but also from sparks or debris. A full facemask may be required for arc welding.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '741823',
'title': 'Optical filter',
'section': 'Section::::Arc welding.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
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'passage_text': 'An arc source puts out visible light that may be harmful to human eyes. Therefore, optical filters on welding helmets must meet ANSI Z87:1 (a safety glasses specification) in order to protect human vision.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12414930',
'title': 'Oxy-fuel welding and cutting',
'section': 'Section::::Safety.:The importance of eye protection.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 109,
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'passage_text': 'Proper protection such as welding goggles should be worn at all times, including to protect the eyes against glare and flying sparks. Special safety eyewear must be used—both to protect the welder and to provide a clear view through the yellow-orange flare given off by the incandescing flux. In the 1940s cobalt melters’ glasses were borrowed from steel foundries and were still available until the 1980s. However, the lack of protection from impact, ultra-violet, infrared and blue light caused severe eyestrain and eye damage. Didymium eyewear, developed for glassblowers in the 1960s, was also borrowed—until many complained of eye problems from excessive infrared, blue light, and insufficient shading. Today very good eye protection can be found designed especially for gas-welding aluminum that cuts the sodium orange flare completely and provides the necessary protection from ultraviolet, infrared, blue light and impact, according to ANSI Z87-1989 safety standards for a Special Purpose Lens.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41098',
'title': 'Electromagnetic radiation and health',
'section': 'Section::::Effects by frequency.:Infrared.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
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'passage_text': 'Another important factor is the distance between the worker and the source of radiation. In the case of arc welding, infrared radiation decreases rapidly as a function of distance, so that farther than three feet away from where welding takes place, it does not pose an ocular hazard anymore but, ultraviolet radiation still does. This is why welders wear tinted glasses and surrounding workers only have to wear clear ones that filter UV.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1101848',
'title': 'Laser safety',
'section': 'Section::::Safety measures.:Protective eyewear.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 76,
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'passage_text': 'Protective eyewear in the form of appropriately filtering optics can protect the eyes from the reflected or scattered laser light with a hazardous beam power, as well as from direct exposure to a laser beam. Eyewear must be selected for the specific type of laser, to block or attenuate in the appropriate wavelength range. For example, eyewear absorbing 532\xa0nm typically has an orange appearance (although one should never rely solely on the lens color when selecting laser eye protection), transmitting wavelengths larger than 550\xa0nm. Such eyewear would be useless as protection against a laser emitting at 800\xa0nm. Furthermore, some lasers emit more than one wavelength of light, and this may be a particular problem with some less expensive frequency-doubled lasers, such as 532\xa0nm "green laser pointers" which are commonly pumped by 808\xa0nm infrared laser diodes, and also generate the fundamental 1064\xa0nm laser beam which is used to produce the final 532\xa0nm output. If the IR radiation is allowed into the beam, which happens in some green laser pointers, it will in general not be blocked by regular red or orange colored protective eyewear designed for pure green or already IR-filtered beam. Special YAG laser and dual-frequency eyewear is available for work with frequency-doubled YAG and other IR lasers which have a visible beam, but it is more expensive, and IR-pumped green laser products do not always specify whether such extra protection is needed.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why are you required to wear specialized eyewear when welding, and in what way the light emitted differs from another light source?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The quality and color of the light varies depending on the materials being welded and type of welding. However, almost all forms are so bright that they'd damage the eye and more practically so bright that they you can't actually see the weld area because all you see is a glowing orb around the work area.",
"The brightness of the arc form an arc welder is bright enough to cause damage to your retina if you looked directly at it. How it differs from other light sources, is intensity. Like the sun, the brightness is so intense that direct exposure will damage your vision. In fact, arc welders are brighter than the light from the sun entering your eye (of course it's travelling much shorter distance, and not through miles of atmosphere).\n\nExposure to the brightness of the weld area leads to a condition called arc eye in which ultraviolet light causes inflammation of the cornea and can burn the retinas of the eyes. Welding goggles and helmets with dark face plates—much darker than those in sunglasses or oxy-fuel goggles—are worn to prevent this exposure.",
"Welding arcs give off radiation over a broad range of wavelengths. The UV C and UV B are absorbed in the cornea of the eye while UV A passes through the cornea and is absorbed in the lens of the eye. Ultra violet light can produce an injury to the surface of the eye, also called arc flash or flashburn. I've had flashburn numerous times and it can be extremely painful for the eyes until it goes away.",
"As a welder I can tell you that the arc and puddle are so bright, you can't see anything with out filter. Now you instagram welders can come boast all uou want, but I can't, maybe I'm just weak and a coward because I wear my PPE.\n\nBut biggest issue is the UV radiation, how much you get depends on what and how you weld. TIG aluminium being the worst thing for you. Welder's eye is basically a sunburn, but on your eyes, it can even burn inside your eyes. It can cause harmful mutations. (which is why you should wear your PPE american instagram welders).\n\nOther thing is Infrared radiation. It will burn you a lot. \n\nRod welding is kinda like old school lime light, little UV, but really bright white light and lots of infrared. Imagine looking at a camera flash, but it is constant, or magnesium flare. \n\nWhile TIG, And Mig/mag cause this electric blue light, heavy in UV. Even reflections are really harmful to you, so the fact you can't see the arc, doesn't mean your are protected from it.\n\nOxyacetylene mean while is a bright gas flame. No UV. But powerful white light and lots of infrared. Imagine looking at a bright gas torch. For this you only need gas googles, DIN3, basically powerful sunglasses.",
'As everyone here has stated, you can obviously burn your eyes if you don’t wear your mask. I also wanted to point out how welding works a little bit. First and foremost, the “arc” in arc welding is essentially a tiny lightning bolt. This tiny lightning bolt heats the metal around it to a high enough temperature to literally melt it. When you are actively welding and have a mask on you can actually see this little melted pool of metal around it, which is commonly referred to as the “puddle”. The “welding” part is exactly what it sounds like. You are joining two pieces or parts of metal together, and you do this by making the little puddles on each piece of your metal combine into one puddle right in the middle of them. Then you add your filler metal by dipping it into that little puddle, move the puddle a little bit, then add more filler metal. This creates that overlapping circle pattern that you can see on pretty much any type of weld. In order to create a strong weld that’s not going to be porous or crack, you need to be able to see all of that clearly. Without the dark mask, you would just see a bright light, so even if you didn’t need eye protection somehow, you would still be working essentially blind, and have a poor product.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'dy67z6',
'query': 'why are you required to wear specialized eyewear when welding, and in what way the light emitted differs from another light source?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '53815147',
'title': 'Nuclear detonation detection system',
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'passage_text': 'There are many different ways to detect a nuclear detonation, these include seismic, hydroacoustic, and infrasound detection, air sampling, and satellites. Each have been used separately but at present the best results occur when data is used in tandem, since the energy caused by an explosion will transfer over to different mediums.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '53815147',
'title': 'Nuclear detonation detection system',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Another way of detecting a nuclear detonation is through air sampling; in nuclear explosions there are radioactive isotopes that get released into the air which can be collected by plane. Radionuclides include Americium-241, Iodine-131, caesium-137, krypton-85, strontium-90, plutonium - 239, tritium, and xenon. By sending planes over an area equipped with sensors they could reveal if there was a nuclear detonation but most air samples are taken at one of many radionuclide stations set throughout the world. Even underground detonations will eventually release radioactive gases most notably xenon to be detected. Although there are some flaws to this method; depending on where the explosion was air currents could move the gases or radionuclides in another direction. The process involves taking in air samples with a filter paper and the radioactive material is counted by a machine and analyzed by a computer. Which means if there is outside “noise” (other forms of radiation like some released from factories or nuclear plants) it can throw off the results.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18342427',
'title': 'Iron Dome',
'section': 'Section::::Specifications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
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'passage_text': "The system's radar is referred to as EL/M-2084. It detects the rocket's launch and tracks its trajectory. The BMC calculates the impact point according to the reported data, and uses this information to determine whether the target constitutes a threat to a designated area. Only when that threat is determined, is an interceptor missile fired to destroy the incoming rocket before it reaches the predicted impact area.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '630088',
'title': 'Vela (satellite)',
'section': 'Section::::Instruments.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The Advanced Vela satellites were additionally equipped with two non-imaging silicon photodiode sensors called "bhangmeters" which monitored light levels over sub-millisecond intervals. They could determine the location of a nuclear explosion to within about 3,000 miles. Atmospheric nuclear explosions produce a unique signature, often called a "double-humped curve": a short and intense flash lasting around 1 millisecond, followed by a second much more prolonged and less intense emission of light taking a fraction of a second to several seconds to build up. The effect occurs because the surface of the early fireball is quickly overtaken by the expanding atmospheric shock wave composed of ionised gas. Although it emits a considerable amount of light itself it is opaque and prevents the far brighter fireball from shining through. As the shock wave expands, it cools down becoming more transparent allowing the much hotter and brighter fireball to become visible again.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1350293',
'title': 'Vela Incident',
'section': 'Section::::Detection.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Other systems data, such as Sound Surveillance System (SOSUS) and Missile Impact Location System (MILS), that were established by the United States and NATO to detect Soviet submarines and the locations where used missile test warheads splashed down, respectively, was searched in an effort to gain more knowledge on the possibility of a nuclear detonation in the region. This data was found not to have enough substantial evidence of a detonation of a nuclear weapon. United States Air Force surveillance aircraft flew 25 sorties over that area of the Indian Ocean from 22 September to 29 October 1979 to carry out atmospheric sampling. Studies of wind patterns confirmed that fall-out from an explosion in the southern Indian Ocean could have been carried from there to southwestern Australia. It was reported that low levels of iodine-131 (a short-half-life product of nuclear fission) were detected in sheep in the southeastern Australian States of Victoria and Tasmania soon after the event. Sheep in New Zealand showed no such trace. The Arecibo ionospheric observatory and radio telescope in Puerto Rico detected an anomalous ionospheric wave during the morning of 22 September 1979, which moved from the southeast to the northwest, an event that had not been observed previously.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '191323',
'title': 'Corona (satellite)',
'section': 'Section::::Discoverer.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 46,
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'passage_text': 'At least two launches of "Discoverers" were used to test satellites for the Missile Defense Alarm System (MIDAS), an early missile-launch-detection program that used infrared cameras to detect the heat signature of rockets launching to orbit.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43298598',
'title': 'Eglin AFB Site C-6',
'section': 'Section::::Background and mission.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'We can launch nuclear missiles not only over the North Pole, but in the opposite direction too. Global rockets can fly from the oceans or other directions where warning facilities cannot be installed. Given global missiles, the warning system has lost its importance. Global missiles cannot be spotted in time to prepare any measures against them. \n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How can nuclear launches be detected and identified?',
'selftext': 'If Russia launches at The US, how does the US know that it was Russia?',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Between satellites and radar, it is pretty easy to track anything that flies like a rocket. Rocket exhaust is really hot, and infrared cameras in space can spot them launching. Once it is airborne, an ICBM flies up to the edge of space and then flies unpowered over to its target. During this phase, it is a large metal object sitting in the middle of a big empty area, and radar has no trouble spotting it. From here, we can extrapolate its target based on its current path, since its engine has turned off. It is difficult to figure out if the payload is nuclear or not, but usually if an ICBM is launched at anything other than a military base, it is probably going to be nuclear.',
'[Here is a rocket launch, seen from the International Space Station](_URL_0_). You can see it with the naked eye (or a regular camera, in this case) over something like 1000 kilometers. Sure, it was the night side of Earth, but you can imagine how easy it is for a network of specialized satellites to pick up such a launch. Radar works very well, too.',
"There's a few arrays of satellites in orbit watching for bright or hot spots on the ground.\n\nA rocket launch is this intensely bright and hot spot for about a minute, far far brighter than anything around which makes it easy to spot. All rocket launches and missile tests are publicized in advance because they'll trip this warning system\n\nThese same satellites can also detect a nuclear detonation on the surface. They work in conjunction with the seismographs around the world which are used to detect earthquakes but were initially installed to detect underground nuclear tests."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'crue9h',
'query': 'how can nuclear launches be detected and identified?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '566387',
'title': 'Piconet',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 243,
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'passage_text': 'Because the Bluetooth system hops over 79 channels, the probability of interfering with another Bluetooth system is less than 1.5%. This allows several Bluetooth piconets to operate in the same area at the same time with minimal interference.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3742',
'title': 'Bluetooth',
'section': 'Section::::Security.:Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 283,
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'passage_text': "Bluetooth v2.1\xa0– finalized in 2007 with consumer devices first appearing in 2009\xa0– makes significant changes to Bluetooth's security, including pairing. See the pairing mechanisms section for more about these changes.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3742',
'title': 'Bluetooth',
'section': 'Section::::Technical information.:Pairing and bonding.:Motivation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 247,
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'passage_text': 'Many services offered over Bluetooth can expose private data or let a connecting party control the Bluetooth device. Security reasons make it necessary to recognize specific devices, and thus enable control over which devices can connect to a given Bluetooth device. At the same time, it is useful for Bluetooth devices to be able to establish a connection without user intervention (for example, as soon as in range).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39726267',
'title': 'Control Center (iOS)',
'section': 'Section::::Reception.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'The iOS 11 update was criticized for changing the way the buttons for Wi-Fi and Bluetooth work; more specifically, the toggles would disconnect devices from Wi-Fi or Bluetooth, while leaving the radios on. The Electronic Frontier Foundation stated that this change not only hurt battery life, but was also bad for security, describing the buttons as turning Wi-Fi and Bluetooth "off-ish" (greyed out, but not crossed out, as it would appear if switched off directly from the Settings app), as well as further criticizing the connections resuming at 5:00 am everyday.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42637423',
'title': 'Ronald B. Herberman',
'section': 'Section::::Opinions on mobile telephones.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': '“It seems very likely that bluetooth headsets reduce exposure to radiofrequency radiation, since instead of the full strength of the radiation coming from the cell phone tower to the antenna on your phone, there is only much shorter distance radiation from the phone to the headset. However, bluetooth headsets can still carry health risks if one wears the headset, turned on, all day, since the lower level of such radiation is cumulative.”\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1263239',
'title': 'Bluesnarfing',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 844,
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'passage_text': 'Any device with its Bluetooth connection turned on and set to "discoverable" (able to be found by other Bluetooth devices in range) may be susceptible to Bluejacking and possibly to Bluesnarfing if there is a vulnerability in the vendor\'s software. By turning off this feature, the potential victim can be safer from the possibility of being Bluesnarfed; although a device that is set to "hidden" may be Bluesnarfable by guessing the device\'s MAC address via a brute force attack. As with all brute force attacks, the main obstacle to this approach is the sheer number of possible MAC addresses. Bluetooth uses a 48-bit unique MAC Address, of which the first 24 bits are common to a manufacturer. The remaining 24 bits have approximately 16.8 million possible combinations, requiring an average of 8.4 million attempts to guess by brute force.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '210476',
'title': 'SIM lock',
'section': 'Section::::Unlocking technology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 726,
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'passage_text': 'Most handsets have security measures built into their firmware that protects them from repeated attempts to guess the unlock code. After entering more than a certain number of incorrect codes the phone becomes "frozen". This is a state where the phone will display a security message that the phone needs service. Older phones could no longer be used at all at this point, however modern smartphones often keep working with the original SIM but require extra work to then unlock them correctly. In extreme situations physical access to internal hardware via in-circuit debugging may be utilised (for example, via JTAG headers on a circuit board). Such access may be required to modify initalization software used for booting.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is there a delay with connecting a Bluetooth device to a different device?',
'selftext': 'If you connect for example a speaker to a phone regularly. It will pair in 2-3 seconds. If you try and connect it to a laptop afterwards, the speaker will pair in 6-7 seconds. Now if you suddenly change and regularly connect the speaker to a laptop instead of the phone. Vice versa will happen. Why is this?',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["When a device changes Bluetooth association like you describe, two things are happening. It's terminating the connection to the first device, and performing the handshaking protocols to connect to the new one. If it isn't actively connected to a different device, there's nothing to disconnect from."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'dgz5w6',
'query': 'why is there a delay with connecting a bluetooth device to a different device?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '42674300',
'title': 'State machine (LabVIEW programming)',
'section': 'Section::::State machines in LabVIEW.:Simple vending-machine example.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The "end" case is a very simple case that works to simply delay the program to allow the user enough time to check that they have received their change and picked up their item. After 5000 milliseconds (5 seconds) the wait timer is used, up and the program continues back to the start page to wait for another user to come by to begin the process over again.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6539754',
'title': 'Exit (system call)',
'section': 'Section::::How it works.:Clean up.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 512,
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'passage_text': 'The exit operation typically performs clean-up operations within the process space before returning control back to the operating system. Some systems and programming languages allow user subroutines to be registered so that they are invoked at program termination before the process actually terminates for good. As the final step of termination, a primitive system exit call is invoked, informing the operating system that the process has terminated and allows it to reclaim the resources used by the process.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '88823',
'title': 'AmigaDOS',
'section': 'Section::::Syntax of AmigaDOS commands.:Breaking commands and pausing console output.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'A user can terminate a program by invoking the key combination or . Pressing or any printing character on the keyboard suspends the console output. Output may be resumed by pressing the key (to delete all of the input) or by pressing (which will cause the input to be processed as a command as soon as the current command stops running).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5256173',
'title': 'Job control (Unix)',
'section': 'Section::::Implementation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "A stopped job can be resumed as a background job with the codice_6 builtin, or as the foreground job with codice_7. In either case, the shell redirects I/O appropriately, and sends the SIGCONT signal to the process, which causes the operating system to resume its execution. In Bash, a program can be started as a background job by appending an ampersand (codice_8) to the command line; its output is directed to the terminal (potentially interleaved with other programs' output), but it cannot read from the terminal input.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1883536',
'title': 'Exit (command)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': "The command causes the shell or program to terminate. If performed within an interactive command shell, the user is logged out of their current session, and/or user's current console or terminal connection is disconnected. Typically an optional exit code can be specified, which is typically a simple integer value that is then returned to the parent process.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1117392',
'title': 'Exit status',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 264,
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'passage_text': 'The exit status of a process in computer programming is a small number passed from a child process (or callee) to a parent process (or caller) when it has finished executing a specific procedure or delegated task. In DOS, this may be referred to as an errorlevel.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1569732',
'title': 'Entry point',
'section': 'Section::::Exit point.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 503,
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'passage_text': 'Usually, there is not a single exit point specified in a program. However, in other cases runtimes ensure that programs always terminate in a structured way via a single exit point, which is guaranteed unless the runtime itself crashes; this allows cleanup code to be run, such as codice_13 handlers. This can be done by either requiring that programs terminate by returning from the main function, by calling a specific exit function, or by the runtime catching exceptions or operating system signals.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "What does the 'end task' command do differently than normally exiting out of a program?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Imagine you are in a restaurant. And then you're asked to leave. You pick up your shit and leave. That's closing a program normally. Now when you end task. They bring in some bouncers and kick your ass out before you get to pick up any of your shit.",
"Programs usually have various operations to do before they shutdown. If a program is frozen, it is unable to perform/finish these operations, and does not shutdown. 'End Task' closes it regardless.",
'There are three main ways to stop a program. \n\nYou can quit from inside the program. The program does whatever it\'s programmed to do when you click quit, saving data and closing files and such normally.\n\nYou can use End Task (on windows), this is the operating system sending a signal to the program that tells the program "Time to quit, finish what you\'re doing and then exit.". The program (hopefully) responds to the signal, finishes up what it\'s doing, saves data and such, then quits.\n\nYou can use End Process (also Windows). Windows just ends the program, and frees up any memory associated with it. There\'s no communication with the program.\n\nIn terms of the other guy\'s restaurant metaphor: Quitting is finishing your meal then paying up and leaving, end task is being told to pack your shit and leave, and end process is being thrown out. ',
'One of the main parts of a desktop application is called the "message loop." It is code that continually runs, checking for new messages from the operating system or other programs. Messages include things like user input (you clicked a mouse or pressed a key) as well as other notifications that an application is supposed to respond to.\n\nOne of the messages that you can receive is the Quit message. This is how the operating system tells an application that it should shut down. The application should respond to this message by trying to exit in as graceful a manner as possible - for example, giving the user a chance to save any unsaved work. This is generally the same flow as normally exiting out of the application.\n\nSelecting "End Task" from the Task Manager in Windows sends a quit message to the application and then relies on the application shutting itself down. Because it\'s up to the application to handle this, there is a valid response which is "No." For example, if you have an unsaved document the application might ask for confirmation if you want to quit and you could click no. So the OS does not actually enforce that the quit message results in the application terminating.\n\nHowever, if the application is in a bad state this message might not ever be received, or the application could still fail to shut itself down. In that case, the operating system can terminate the program by simply not running its code any more and unloading all of its code and data from memory, as well as cleaning up any shared resources it was using such as files or network ports. This means any saved work will be lost so it is the method of last resort. The OS will generally ask you if you want to terminate a process in this way if the message loop stops running for an extended period of time.\n\n',
"I've always heard it explained this way. Closing a program normally is akin to being in your car driving down the interstate @ 70MPH, taking the off ramp, braking slowly, coming to a complete stop, shutting the engine off and exiting the vehicle. \nEnding the task is like having someone throw a cinder block through the windshield while driving @ 70MPH. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6hmn3m',
'query': "what does the 'end task' command do differently than normally exiting out of a program?",
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '39256445',
'title': 'Uncle Grandpa',
'section': 'Section::::Characters.:Human children and adults.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 205,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Belly Kid (voiced by Zachary Gordon)\xa0– A kid who has a big belly. He was first ashamed of it, but Uncle Grandpa taught him the best features of having a big belly. He appeared in "Belly Bros".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12627364',
'title': 'List of Mr. Men',
'section': 'Section::::S.:Mr. Skinny.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 158,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 158,
'end_character': 472,
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'passage_text': 'Mr. Skinny is the 35th book in the "Mr. Men" series by Roger Hargreaves. Mr. Skinny lives in Fatland, where everything and everyone is big except for him. He has a small appetite, and sees Dr. Plump, who has him visit Mr. Greedy help increase Mr. Skinny\'s appetite for a month. Mr. Skinny gains a belly. Mr. Skinny appears under the titles Monsieur Maigre (French), 苗條先生 (Taiwan), 빼빼씨 (Korean), Ο Κύριος Κοκαλιάρης (Greek), Unser Herr Dünn (German), Fætter Pind (Danish).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11803048',
'title': "It's Superman!",
'section': 'Section::::Other characters.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 404,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Skinny Simon is a friend of Willi and Lois, and is ironically nicknamed Skinny because of her voluptuous figure. She works at a hospital in Manhattan and is the first to tell Lois when Willi is shot. Later, she and Willi meet in Hollywood where she is almost murdered by her husband. Despite these ordeals, she perseveres and eventually finds herself back in New York. She eventually marries Ben Jaeger.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '668035',
'title': 'Waist',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.:Waist measurement.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 394,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "The size of a person's waist or waist circumference, indicates abdominal obesity. Excess abdominal fat is a risk factor for developing heart disease and other obesity related diseases. The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) classifies the risk of obesity-related diseases as high if men have a waist circumference greater than and women have a waist circumference greater than .\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17234250',
'title': 'Peascod belly',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 275,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A peascod belly is a type of exaggeratedly padded stomach that was very popular in men\'s dress in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. The term is thought to have come from "peacock," or from the form of contemporary plate armour. Sometimes it was called a \'goose belly.\'\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31967887',
'title': 'The Summer I Turned Pretty (trilogy)',
'section': 'Section::::Characters.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 1173,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Taylor Jewel: Belly\'s best friend despite being her polar opposite. Unlike Belly, she is boy crazy and shallow, though by "We\'ll Always Have Summer", she grows up and has something wise to say for once. In the first book of the series, as seen in flashbacks, she is considered something of a slut. She goes for all three boys (Steven, Conrad and Jeremiah) almost at once, determined to hook up with one of them. She is seen desperately trying to pair Belly with boys, even though her friend endlessly protests. She and Belly have a falling out towards the climax of "It\'s Not Summer Without You" after Taylor accuses Belly of being "a crappy friend" when Belly does not want her to come to a party at the beach house. By "We\'ll Always Have Summer", they make peace, and Taylor can be seen throughout the course of the book supporting and helping Belly with her wedding. She confronts Conrad after suspecting he said something to Belly to upset her and warns him to leave her alone. Although she admits that Belly told her a part of her will always love Conrad, and knows he loves Belly too. She asks him to "be the good guy Belly says he is" by letting her go.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33375094',
'title': 'Effects of advertising on teen body image',
'section': 'Section::::Bad effect.:Effects on young women.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 314,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Unfortunately thin-idealized bodies are attributed with self control, success and discipline, and therefore proclaimed as being desirable and socially valued. “Being slim means resisting the temptations that surround consumers in countries of overabundance and wealth” (Thompson et al 1995: Halliwell et al 2004).\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How someone can have a big belly but is relatively skinny/normal?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Fat deposits vary from person to person and from source to source. A few of the hormones racing through your body affect the location of fat (cortisol directs it to the abdomen, for example) as well as your sex. (Women tend to have a 'donut' or bigger legs, men tend to have bigger bellies.) I don't know enough on the subject to give you a specific answer, sadly. On the bright side; as long as it's hanging in front or on the side of you, the dangers are relatively low. Fat between the organs or 'hard fat' is where you need to be scared.",
"In some cases this could be a sign of an underlying illness, such as celiac disease (which can cause a bloated belly on a skinny person). As to other cases, I can't say.",
"A swollen abdomen is also a sign of malnutrition. The boy needs to make proteins to circulate in the blood or osmosis pulls the water out of it, typically expanding the abdomen as it isn't constrained by bones like the chest or head.",
'Sometimes it can be caused by alcoholism causing a swollen liver although that looks a little different because the "belly" might seem a little high and off center.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6fp08l',
'query': 'how someone can have a big belly but is relatively skinny/normal?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '201952',
'title': 'CdmaOne',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'end_character': 606,
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'passage_text': 'CDMA or "code division multiple access" is a digital radio system that transmits streams of bits (PN codes). CDMA permits several radios to share the same frequencies. Unlike TDMA "time division multiple access", a competing system used in 2G GSM, all radios can be active all the time, because network capacity does not directly limit the number of active radios. Since larger numbers of phones can be served by smaller numbers of cell-sites, CDMA-based standards have a significant economic advantage over TDMA-based standards, or the oldest cellular standards that used frequency-division multiplexing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12808',
'title': 'GSM',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 422,
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'passage_text': '2G networks developed as a replacement for first generation (1G) analog cellular networks. The GSM standard originally described a digital, circuit-switched network optimized for full duplex voice telephony. This expanded over time to include data communications, first by circuit-switched transport, then by packet data transport via General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), and Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '145436',
'title': 'Network Rail',
'section': 'Section::::Assets.:Telecoms assets.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 67,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 67,
'end_character': 295,
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'passage_text': 'GSM-R radio systems are being introduced across Europe under EU legislation for interoperability. In the UK, as of March 2014, Network Rail is well underway in the UK implementation of GSM-R to replace its legacy National Radio Network (NRN) and Cab Secure Radio (CSR) systems currently in use.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20072368',
'title': 'British Rail Telecommunications',
'section': 'Section::::GSM-R.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 332,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "GSM-R radio systems are being introduced across Europe under EU legislation for interoperability. In the UK, Network Rail has established a stakeholder's board with cross industry representation to drive the UK implementation of GSM-R to replace the National Radio Network (NRN) and Cab Secure Radio (CSR) systems currently in use.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4385443',
'title': 'Generic Access Network',
'section': 'Section::::Similar technologies.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 57,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 57,
'end_character': 595,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'GAN/UMA is not the first system to allow the use of unlicensed spectrum to connect handsets to a GSM network. The GIP/IWP standard for DECT provides similar functionality, but requires a more direct connection to the GSM network from the base station. While dual-mode DECT/GSM phones have appeared, these have generally been functionally cordless phones with a GSM handset built-in (or vice versa, depending on your point of view), rather than phones implementing DECT/GIP, due to the lack of suitable infrastructure to hook DECT base-stations supporting GIP to GSM networks on an ad-hoc basis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2079785',
'title': 'Discontinuous transmission',
'section': 'Section::::Misconception.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 714,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A common misconception is that DTX improves capacity by freeing up TDMA time slots for use by other conversations. In practice, the unpredictable availability of time slots makes this difficult to implement. However, reducing interference is a significant component in how GSM and other TDMA based mobile phone systems make better use of the available spectrum compared to older analog systems such as AMPS and NMT. While older network types theoretically allocated two 25–30\xa0kHz channels per conversation, in practice some radios would cause interference on neighbouring channels making them unusable, and a single radio may broadcast too strong an oval signal pattern to let nearby cells reuse the same channel.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '483713',
'title': '3rd Generation Partnership Project 2',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 267,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'GSM/GPRS/EDGE/W-CDMA is the most widespread wireless standard in the world. A few countries (such as China, the United States, Canada, Ukraine, Trinidad and Tobago, India, South Korea and Japan) use both sets of standards, but most countries use only the GSM family.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why US Telecos still use CDMA technology, when majority of the world uses GSM for the communication?',
'selftext': "What's benefit of using CDMA in the US ?",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The main reasons are a matter of timing, corporate greed and legacy.\n\nBack when the US networks where starting to form, the switch from analogue to digital cellular technology was also happening and CDMA had some interesting advantages over GSM.\n\nOne of the most appealing features at the time (And still continues to be) was that it is easier to lock a CDMA user into the network that provides the phone than it is with GSM technology whose spec demands that they be interoperable between networks. CDMA makes it harder for a user to leave a network for another one and take the phone with them (In some cases it's impossible).\n\nThere where other benefits to CDMA as well such as greater capacity on the network, a questionable theory that call quality was better and so forth but GSM caught up very quickly and eventually leapfrogged CDMA in the quality and feature departments.\n\nNow of course, some of those network operators have folded into the big players you see today and frankly switching from CDMA to GSM is a BIG commitment those network operators don't really wish to undertake.\n\nCDMA as a technology outside of the USA and small parts of Russia is dead with the advent of 4G. GSM has been taken up by most of the world, mostly driven by Europe's mass uptake of it. Though 3G briefly was based on a variance of CDMA, 4G uses a technology called LTE which is a further refinement of GSM technology.",
"The selection of CDMA over GSM was mostly based on the distances and number of users supported by an antenna. CDMA was initially superior to GSM on both, therefore cellular networks could have better coverage with fewer macro cells (towers). However with the adoption of LTE, as well as refinements to 4G over GSM (contrary to popular belief, modifications to both CDMA and GSM were allowed to call themselves 4G without supporting LTE), and subsequent future migration to 5G, the differences have become moot.\n\nBut as the US was an early adopter of cellular technology, and Qualcomm was the leading provider of CDMA technology to both Verizon's predecessors and cell phone manufacturers."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5qufpa',
'query': 'why us telecos still use cdma technology, when majority of the world uses gsm for the communication?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '211889',
'title': 'Electrical injury',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 487,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The minimum current a human can feel depends on the current type (AC or DC) as well as frequency for AC. A person can feel at least 1 mA (rms) of AC at 60\xa0Hz, while at least 5 mA for DC. At around 10 mA, AC current passing through the arm of a human can cause powerful muscle contractions; the victim is unable to voluntarily control muscles and cannot release an electrified object. This is known as the "let go threshold" and is a criterion for shock hazard in electrical regulations.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '211889',
'title': 'Electrical injury',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 1129,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The current may, if it is high enough and is delivered at sufficient voltage, cause tissue damage or fibrillation which can cause cardiac arrest; of AC (rms, 60\xa0Hz) or of DC at high voltage can cause fibrillation. A sustained electric shock from AC at 120 V, 60\xa0Hz is an especially dangerous source of ventricular fibrillation because it usually exceeds the let-go threshold, while not delivering enough initial energy to propel the person away from the source. However, the potential seriousness of the shock depends on paths through the body that the currents take. If the voltage is less than 200\xa0V, then the human skin, more precisely the stratum corneum, is the main contributor to the impedance of the body in the case of a macroshock—the passing of current between two contact points on the skin. The characteristics of the skin are non-linear however. If the voltage is above 450–600\xa0V, then dielectric breakdown of the skin occurs. The protection offered by the skin is lowered by perspiration, and this is accelerated if electricity causes muscles to contract above the let-go threshold for a sustained period of time.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4027782',
'title': '1,1-Dichloroethene',
'section': 'Section::::Safety.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 420,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The health effects from exposure to 1,1-DCE are primarily on the central nervous system, including symptoms of sedation, inebriation, convulsions, spasms, and unconsciousness at high concentrations. 1,1-DCE is considered a potential occupational carcinogen by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health . It is also listed as a chemical known to the state of California to cause cancer and birth defects.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10809046',
'title': 'Para-Methoxy-N-ethylamphetamine',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 550,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': '"para"-Methoxyethylamphetamine (PMEA), is a stimulant drug related to PMA. PMEA reputedly produces similar effects to PMA, but is considerably less potent and seems to have slightly less tendency to produce severe hyperthermia, at least at low doses. At higher doses however the side effects and danger of death approach those of PMA itself, and PMEA should still be considered a potentially dangerous drug. Investigation of a drug-related death in Japan in 2005 showed PMEA to be present in the body and was thought to be responsible for the death.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1250286',
'title': 'Pentachlorophenol',
'section': 'Section::::Toxicity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 286,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Short-term exposure to large amounts of PCP can cause harmful effects on the liver, kidneys, blood, lungs, nervous system, immune system, and gastrointestinal tract. Elevated temperature, profuse sweating, uncoordinated movement, muscle twitching, and coma are additional side effects.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '57038447',
'title': 'Tolerogenic dendritic cell',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 341,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Tolerogenic DCs present a potential strategy for treatment of autoimmune diseases, allergic diseases and transplant rejections. Moreover, Ag-specific tolerance in humans can be induced "in vivo" via vaccination with Ag-pulsed "ex vivo" generated tolerogenic DCs. For that reason, tolerogenic DCs are an important promising therapeutic tool.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4498159',
'title': 'Estramustine phosphate',
'section': 'Section::::Side effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 1169,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Severe adverse effects of EMP are thromboembolic and cardiovascular complications including pulmonary embolism, deep vein thrombosis, stroke, thrombophlebitis, coronary artery disease (ischemic heart disease; e.g., myocardial infarction), thrombophlebitis, and congestive heart failure with fluid retention. EMP produces cardiovascular toxicity similarly to diethylstilbestrol, but to a lesser extent in comparison at low doses (e.g., 280\xa0mg/day oral EMP vs. 1\xa0mg/day oral diethylstilbestrol). The prostate cancer disease state also increases the risk of thromboembolism, and combination with docetaxel may exacerbate the risk of thromboembolism as well. Meta-analyses of clinical trials have found that the overall risk of thromboembolism with EMP is 4 to 7%, relative to 0.4% for chemotherapy regimens without EMP. Thromboembolism is the major toxicity-related cause of discontinuation of EMP. Anticoagulant therapy with medications such as aspirin, warfarin, unfractionated and low-molecular-weight heparin, and vitamin K antagonists can be useful for decreasing the risk of thromboembolism with EMP and other estrogens like diethylstilbestrol and ethinylestradiol.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'what is more dangerous for the human body. High ac or dc and why?',
'selftext': 'We had a Discussion in physics if high ac or dc is more dangerous since high frequent ac isnt as dangerous as low frequent so we were not sure',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The biggest advantage to AC is that it fluctuates the level, which gives you more of a chance of disconnecting from it. DC will lock your muscles and keep you from letting go.',
'Low-frequency AC is more likely to disrupt your heart rhythm than DC, but DC can still do that. High-frequency AC is extremely unlikely to stimulate nerves in a way that causes damage, which is why there are surgical tools that apply HF currents to body parts.',
'Well high AC will make you less likely be hit and avoid damage at all. But high DC is also hard to beat, especially if your saving throw is low and the failure can be critical.\n\n & #x200B;\n\n\\#Dndthings'],
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'query': 'what is more dangerous for the human body. high ac or dc and why?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
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'title': 'Life',
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'passage_text': "Although the number of Earth's catalogued species of lifeforms is between 1.2 million and 2 million, the total number of species in the planet is uncertain. Estimates range from 8 million to 100 million, with a more narrow range between 10 and 14 million, but it may be as high as 1 trillion (with only one-thousandth of one percent of the species described) according to studies realized in May 2016. The total number of related DNA base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0 x 10 and weighs 50 billion tonnes. In comparison, the total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 TtC (trillion tons of carbon). In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA) of all organisms living on Earth.\n",
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'title': 'Earliest known life forms',
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'passage_text': "Some estimates on the number of Earth's current species of life forms range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. However, a May 2016 scientific report estimates that 1 trillion species are currently on Earth, with only one-thousandth of one percent described. The total number of DNA base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0 x 10 with a weight of 50 billion tonnes. In comparison, the total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 trillion tons of carbon. In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) of all organisms living on Earth.\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '49417',
'title': 'Extinction',
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'passage_text': "More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to have died out. Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. In 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described.\n",
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'passage_text': "Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which only about 1.2 million have been documented. More than 99% of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived are estimated to be extinct. In 2016, a set of 355 genes from the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) of all organisms was identified.\n",
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The natural world contains about 8.7 million species, according to a new estimate described by scientists as the most accurate ever. However, the vast majority of these species have not been identified – cataloguing them all could take more than 1,000 years. (BBC)\n',
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'title': 'Lists of organisms by population',
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'passage_text': 'More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth\'s current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. According to another study, the number of described species has been estimated at 1,899,587. 2000–2009 saw approximately 17,000 species described per year. The total number of undescribed organisms is unknown, but marine microbial species alone could number 20,000,000. The number of quantified species will "ipso facto" always lag behind the number of described species, and species contained in these lists tend to be on the K side of the r/K selection continuum. More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described. The total number of related DNA base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0 x 10 and weighs 50 billion tonnes. In comparison, the total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 TtC (trillion [million million] tonnes of carbon). In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA) of all organisms living on Earth.\n',
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'title': 'Microorganism',
'section': 'Section::::Classification and structure.:Archaea.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The biodiversity of the prokaryotes is unknown, but may be very large. A May 2016 estimate, based on laws of scaling from known numbers of species against the size of organism, gives an estimate of perhaps 1 trillion species on the planet, of which most would be microorganisms. Currently, only one-thousandth of one percent of that total have been described.\n',
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'title': "According to data we have discovered 14% of all organisms on earth. Where does this number come from, if the other 86% of haven't been discovered yet (and therefore we don't know if they exist)?",
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'answers': ["Well it's a bit outside my area of expertise, but if I had to make such an estimate, I would look at the rate at which we're discovering new species, and how that rate has changed over time. That would allow me to estimate how many species we're likely to find in the future. If the number is much larger than the number of species we already know, that would get your 14%.",
"It's based on the difficulty of finding new species, if everywhere we looked we found a new species, then we must not have found very many. If we've looked for decades and nobody found any new species then it's likely because there aren't any more left to be found.\n\nObviously, we find new species at a fairly consistent rate, and there is a very large number known already. I'm sure someone has used these numbers to make a guess, I have no idea how accurate they are.",
"Not an exact answer but two that may help.\n\nMany of the worlds species are insects, and many of those are thought to be beetles.\n\nOne bit of information that supports this theory comes from an attempt to document the number of species within a, relatively, small forest encampment. The researchers found that with each tree that was shaken to gather the insects on them, that there were many unique beetle species. Almost a new species per tree.\n\nAditionally, and unrelated to beetles, is that fact that we havent explored our oceans all that much. And that means that we've yet to find all the species that inhabit the oceans.",
"A large chunk of it would come from barely explored / completely unexplored areas, i would be curious to see the source from which you got these 14/86 numbers and its age. \n\nBut back to the point, we barely understand the ocean and have trouble even fathoming the deep ocean. \n\nbased on the phrasing of organism this would include bacteria and other single cell organisms, which is where a vast majority of that percentage would be made up, as well as Extremophile {things that live in previously thought unlivable places, super cold/hot/acidic ect.}\n}\n\ni hope that helped, i'll try to get back to any replies \n \np.s. this is not my field of expertise just a thing i find interesting and have recently been refreshed on with a book and some youtube vids.",
"(Undergrad Marine Bio student here) From my understanding, organisms that we may see as a singular species because they look identical could be very genetically different, to the extent that what we thought one was one species 10/20 years ago could be 2 or 3 different examples. \nOfcourse there's going to be species we haven't discovered but I think atleast half of that number is down to misidentification or lack of technology to analyse DNA. \nThe term species has changed a lot over the century too, which doesn't help. \nHope this is alright; I can find some examples if you want. ",
"Statistics like this are created based on looking at what is identified within a group.\n\nPerhaps an easier example.\n\nLet's say people are inspecting defects in a product. Someone in charge intentionally adds 10 defects. Then they watch and see what comes through the line, what is discovered by the process. If people only find 3 of the defects, then they can estimate they're catching 30% of the defects overall, letting 70% of the defects go through. On the other hand, if all 10 defects are discovered, then they know they're catching all or nearly all of the defects. The percentage of things they know about should roughly match the percentage of things they don't know about.\n\nIt applies to other statistics as well, like crime stats. They can look at crimes they know happened but weren't reported through official channels, and look at crimes they know about and were reported. Looking at the difference shows about how many crimes go unreported. It is not exact, but if people are careful about how they create the stats they can be fairly accurate. \n\nFor counting species there are several ways it can be done. One way is like above, to have one group track the number of species in an area and another group figure out how many are new. Another method is a linear regression, figuring out an approximately how many species there should be based on estimates and comparing it to how many have actually been identified.\n\nAlso, most of the species that aren't discovered are small things. We're down to small numbers of new birds and mammals, often they are sub-species that get reclassified as a new species, or they're highly specialized species living in a remote and small geographic area. \n\nIt is mostly bugs, fungi, and other small organism that are being discovered in large numbers. These are things that are hard to spot and identify, many only identified because of genetic testing on tiny or microscopic organisms.\n",
'It wouldn\'t surprise me of 84% is bacteria, viruses, plants and minuscule animals and only 2% are "normal" animals.',
'At least in the microbial world, scientists have catalogued genes found in a random spoon of soil and found that only a minuscule percent of genes belonged to organisms they knew of, which led them to conclude that only 2% of microbes are classified based on percent of known and unknown genes, or something to that effect. \n\nEdit: ELI5: People have looked at DNA found in dirt and figured out we only have seen very small percent of it before and most of it is unknown. ',
"Assuming this includes microscopic organisms, such as bacteria, we may not even have methods available to detect some existing species. Some bacteria can't be differentiated from one another unless using genomic data or other molecular markers, and these methods weren't invented until recently. There could be millions of microorganism species left to discover.",
'So it\'s like in Pokémon where you only know the outline of the animal but have to actually see it to get the full picture/"discover" it.',
'Humans probably wrought their extinction. Just like half of the vertebrae we have annihilated in our timely progresión. ',
'Fun fact related to this:\n\n25% of all known organisims in the animal kingdom are beetles: come from the order, coleoptera.\n\nI learned that from visiting the insectarium, in Montreal.',
'You just make a grid, say 1 foot by 1 foot and you check and see how many species are known within that grid. ',
'All sounds good, next question do we Exist?',
'My knowledge of cryptids and inner earth beings as well as air beings suggest this number is accurate. ',
"An estimated 86% of species are undiscovered, but not 86% of organisms. Many many many of this 86% will either have teeny-tiny populations, or will be so similar to already-discovered species that only an expert could tell the difference. \n\nAnd don't forget boring stuff that's easy to overlook like all the different kinds of lichen and bacteria. \n\nI don’t want to be too much of a killjoy though, there's almost certainly a bunch of mad shit in the deep oceans we haven't discovered yet. When we develop the technology to properly explore them it's going to be a whole new age of discovery for biologists. ",
"Scientists look at the rate of new species discovery each year for the past however many years and fit it to what is called a Logistic Growth Curve. The simplest way to think about it is like this: every time someone encounters what they believe is a new species they do some work to verify if it's really new or not. If the rate at which this actually results in a new species discovery is 50% then we are at the 'inflection point' of the curve and we know we've identified about half of the species on the planet (with slight variance). This percentage is tracked every year for the scientific community as a whole and from millions of these data point we can predict both where we are on the curve right now and where the curve will eventually level off. We aren't anywhere near the inflection point yet so the rate keeps increasing every year. \n\nWhere we are right now tells use the percentage discovered and where it levels off is the scientific prediction for the total number of species on the planet. To the average person this might seem really uncertain but the statistical significance of a result with millions of data points would only be off by a tiny fraction of a percent 99.9...% of the time at which time scientists use the data to claim a high degree of certainty.",
'I think the number is a fraud. The number has been created by people looking for grants. The more research which can be paid for, the better, in their eyes.',
'First of all - I found this story shocking and disturbing when I first heard it and I certainly don\'t condone these actions....but they happened and were detailed in the video I saw.\n\nI remember a documentary in the 90s where a guy would take a large tarp of plastic or cloth and stretch it out underneath a large tree in the Amazon rain forest. They would then shoot some gas up into the air that would kill like 99% of all creatures it contacted....or maybe it was just insects, I can\'t remember but I think it only affected insects.\n\nAnyways, for the next several hours the jungle would "rain down" the carcasses of dead insects onto the tarp and these scientists would collect the insects and categorize them. \n\nThey said that every time they did this they would get something like 20,000 different insects but what was surprising to them was that ~~90%~~ (correction it\'s 80%) of what they found were "new to science" every time they did this experiment.\n\nIt didn\'t seem to matter where they went.....they repeated this many, many times and every time they did it, ~~90%~~ (correction it\'s 80%) of what they catalogued was new to science.\n\nIt literally blew the top off of the previously held estimates for the number of species on earth and at the end, the scientists had to conclude that they simply had no idea where it would end nor how many species of living things were on the earth anymore.\n\n**EDIT - Found The Vid but not the clip I was referring to. It\'s called "Web of Life: Exploring Biodiversity" and was produced by PBS back in the 90s.** \n[Here\'s a clip...but not the one I referenced](_URL_2_)\n\n\n**EDIT 2 - [The original clip I was talking about](_URL_1_)** \nThanks to /u/QuietLuck for finding this (_URL_0_)',
"Well the way you calculate it is with a bit of estimation.\n\nSay that we have a box with a hole, and the box has 1000 colored balls inside you can take out through the hole. What we don't know is which colors, or how many colors the balls are.\n\nSo we take out one ball, and it happens to be blue! So now we know there's blue balls in the box. Great!\n\nNow imagine that there's only blue balls coming out. You pull out 10 balls and they are all blue, you keep pulling out 100 balls and they are all blue. Now we've only seen 10% of all balls inside the box, but we can start guessing that the chance that we never got another color means that most, if not all, balls are blue. Maybe we got lucky and only found the 100 blue balls first, but the chance of that happening are really small, theres 5958926632240478155489389057946132722598279588777288866613428027720091866834339557556406953783393337191792337384343797137527180562707601151082428455887739138152983603695993602780124665235348032787297990137398327480690965409929969664334240631387010833309096272433060469800960000000000000000000000000 different permutations (that is groups of balls we would pull out in an order) of balls we could have had, but only 1 of them would be if all of the balls were blue.\n\nNow lets imagine what would happen if instead the second ball we pulled out was a red ball. This time we know there's more than just blue balls in the box. Now imagine that every time we pull a ball it comes out a different color, and after pulling out 100 they are all a different color each. Now there's a chance that there's 100 colors and nothing else, and we just happened to pull out one ball of each color with no repeats. The chance of this is a little bit higher than taking out all the balls of one color, but it still is very very very small. You'd have to be very lucky, it's a better guess to think there's still many colors we've yet to find. Maybe not 1000, but certainly more than 100.\n\nSo we can use the history of how many new colors we discovered as we saw each ball and create a good guess of how many colors probably exist in the box, and how many we know already.\n\nThe same thing can be done with organisms. We know more or less how many insects, fungi, plants, animals, bacteria etc. exist on earth by knowing how many resources they need, how much spaces is available, doing thermodynamic studies, etc. From there we notice that as we look at animals and see what species they are, we find new species every so much. Just like with the colors, we can guess how many species we probably haven't seen yet.",
'The vast majority of distinct living organisms on earth are single-celled bacteria and archaea. Greater than 90% of these cannot be cultured in laboratory conditions to enable their study and classification. Consequently, the majority of currently extant, distinct species on Earth have not been described.',
"Progress towards any achievement such as this can usually be found through the main menu, reached by pressing the 'start' button.",
'Scientists have estimated ranges for the number of organisms that have yet to be discovered. All of the methods involve extrapolation from known data. For example, some scientists have used size estimates. The bigger the creature, the more likely it is that we have found it. The opposite is true for smaller organisms. So scientists make estimates that there are x number of small creatures yet to find. Another example is to use discovery rates and types of organisms. We are discovering fewer and fewer new mammals but are still discovering new fungi or bugs. So therefore the amount of bugs yet to find is greater than mammals. Another way is to use symbiotic or close relationships. If we know that there are x types of trees in the forest and know that each type of tree is likely to be home to x number of unique bugs then we can estimate how many unknown trees may have x unknown bugs. ',
"It would help if you were to point us at where someone said that we have discovered 14%.\n\nAnyway, here's an example: you want to know how many tigers there are in a forest. You can't measure that directly, but you can do the following:\n\n* Capture some tigers (say 100) and tag them.\n* Come back later and capture more tigers (100 of them). See how many that you caught this time have tags (say 10).\n\nYou can use that to calculate how many tigers there are. The best estimate is that 10% (10/100) tigers have tags on them. If you have tagged 100 tigers and that is 10% of the tigers, then there are 1000 tigers in the forest. This is all approximate, and you can do statistics to determine the probability distribution of tiger numbers.\n\nYou would also tag the second set of tigers, so a total of 190 tigers would then have tags. The third time, you would expect that of your 100 tigers you catch that about 19 (190/1000) would have tags on them. \n\nYou can do the same thing with anything that you are sampling. Find an organism, see if we have found it before, and repeat. That will tell you how many of the things that you find are new and how many we have already discovered. \n\n",
"I do this! Woohoo!\n\nEducated guesses are how science works. When enough educated guesses are unable to be disproved, there's a consensus. In this case, a bunch of people came up with different statistical methods to estimate diversity (fancy examples include Chao1, Simpson diversity index and rarefaction). A pretty good estimate can be made when enough scientists approach it enough ways.\n\nMore advanced: Take a given sample or dataset (e.g. soil sale or ocean) and perform relatively standardized genetic similarity analysis to estimate species (known and unknown categories). Then do bootstrapped subsampling of species diversity per fraction of the sample (e.g.\n10 unique species at 0.1 of the total sample, 50 unique species at 0.2... Repeat a lot). Fit a regression (usually nonlinear) and estimate the total unique species, including those you never observed, in that sample with CIs. Do this for a bunch of different types of samples, build a final model and you get a good idea of what we're missing!",
'From a recent paper:\n\n > Global species richness, whether **estimated by taxon, habitat,\nor ecosystem**, is a key biodiversity metric. Yet, despite the\nglobal importance of biodiversity and increasing threats to\nit (e.g., [1–4]), we are no better able to estimate global species\nrichness now than we were six decades ago [5]. **Estimates of\nglobal species richness remain highly uncertain and are often\nlogically inconsistent** [5]. They are also difficult to validate\nbecause estimation of global species richness requires\nextrapolation beyond the number of species known [6–13].\nGiven that somewhere between 3% and > 96% of species on\nEarth may remain undiscovered [4], depending on the\nmethods used and the taxa considered, such extrapolations,\nespecially from small percentages of known species, are\nlikely to be highly uncertain [13, 14]. **An alternative approach\nis to estimate all species, the known and unknown, directly.\nUsing expert taxonomic knowledge of the species already\ndescribed and named, those already discovered but not yet\ndescribed and named, and those still awaiting discovery,** we\nestimate there to be 830,000 (95% credible limits: 550,000–\n1,330,000) multi-cellular species on coral reefs worldwide,\nexcluding fungi. Uncertainty surrounding this estimate and\nits components were often strongly skewed toward larger\nvalues, indicating that many more species on coral reefs is\nmore plausible than many fewer. The uncertainties revealed\nhere should guide future research toward achieving convergence\nin global species richness estimates for coral reefs\nand other ecosystems via adaptive learning protocols\nwhereby such estimates can be tested and improved, and\ntheir uncertainties reduced, as new knowledge is acquired\n\n > Current Biology\nVolume 25, Issue 4, 16 February 2015, Pages 500-505\nSpecies Richness on Coral Reefs and the Pursuit of Convergent Global Estimates\n_URL_0_',
'There\'s a lot of information that goes into this. For example, Charles Darwin once predicted the existence of a type of moth with an unusually long proboscis. He based this prediction on the existence of a flower, varieties of which were pollinated by moths elsewhere. This particular flower held its important bits at the bottom of a long, narrow shaft. \n \nDarwin was right; the moth was discovered years later. It could have been something else, but the point here is that *something* had to be pollinating that flower, and it was nothing that was known at the time he made his observations. \n \nSpecific niches, like the above, are one factor. Mathematical studies are another; "in this kind of environment elsewhere, with similar temperatures and other conditions, we see \'X\' in terms of diversity." It\'s never guaranteed: most of these factors are educated guesses, but when estimates are published they actually lean towards the conservative end of the range -- just to be safe. \n \nThis is why popular news often presents new discoveries as "surprising scientists" and "upsetting estimates" in terms of their diversity, range, etc. Science has to fight tooth and nail for recognition and funding as it is -- so, when scientists think there might be 4-12 of ABC, they\'ll say "we\'re expecting to find 4 ABC; even 3 would be remarkable, really." \n \nThey wind up finding 6-8 ABC, whereupon the public shakes its head and goes "Silly scientists don\'t know what they\'re talking about, but let\'s support more research, since there\'s obviously a lot more ABC out there than they thought."',
'Imagine you sample every organism in a 1m patch of grass, and find 25 species. Next, count all the species in a 5m patch, and you get 60 species, but 20 are the same as before (so 40 are new). Keep doing this over multiple habitats and habitat size, and you build a curve that describes how many new species you expect to find in a new area of size x. This is called rarefaction, and extrapolating over the area of earth gives a rough approximation of how many species we expect to find. \n\nMany ecologists have studied this statistical phenomenon. Search species - area curve, biogeography, or MacArthur to learn more. ',
"I think it's kinda like how we haven't discovered all the different types of sandwiches yet. Every time I go to the deli there's a couple new ones on the menu.\n\nYou're welcome.",
'I assume by "organisms" they mean "species".\n\nBut, what does it even mean to be a species? \n\nAn article in Science just demonstrated that all the Major Big Cats (lions, leopards, etc) have been interbreeding for millions of years.\n\nThey all have pretty much the same genes, just shuffled around.\n\nSo, every time you find a different combination or permutation, is it reasonable to call it a different "organism"?\n\nThe accident of infertility between certain combinations can hardly be taken anymore as the definition of a species.\n\nLife begins to look more like a multi-dimensional continuum, with some neighborhoods being more densely populated than others. \n',
'85% of statistics are made up on the spot. I know because my dad was a statistics professor at UGA. ',
"There are various methods of population estimation.\n\nA common method is as follows: \n* You spend a set interval catching the critters of interest. \n* You tag all of the critters you catch and release them. \n* A short while later, you do this again. \n* Some of the critters in the second round are _already tagged_.\n\nThe total catch per interval and the fraction of repeat catches can be plugged into some relatively straightforward statistical functions to estimate the total population.\n\nYou can do this for as many iterations as you like to get an arbitrarily accurate estimate. \n\nAnother method is to designate a certain amount of space and count _everything_. It might be all the fish in a cove, all the plants in a 2mx2m patch of field, all the bugs in a tree, etc. You do this a couple times, and then multiply your critters/unit number by the total number of units.\n\nThe figure you're quoting can be arrived at by a combination of the two. If you catalogued _everything_ in some space, and you'll consistently get about 14% previously-identified species and the other 86% would be new (and probably mostly beetles).",
"So there's hope for samquantch?",
"Earth scientists and biologists: What do they know, do they know things? Let's find out!",
"I have heard that most organisms are actually in the ocean, since the earth is mostly water, and we don't have the ability to explore the ocean that far beyond the surface. "],
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'query': "according to data we have discovered 14% of all organisms on earth. where does this number come from, if the other 86% of haven't been discovered yet (and therefore we don't know if they exist)?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
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'title': 'Ultra-high-definition television',
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'passage_text': 'On December 25, 2013, YouTube added a "2160p 4K" option to its videoplayer. Previously, a visitor had to select the "original" setting in the video quality menu to watch a video in 4K resolution. With the new setting, YouTube users can much more easily identify and play 4K videos.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Videos can be viewed by selecting the most discussed, the top rated, the most watched, featured videos (which are highlighted by the 4mations team) or the newest to be uploaded. Alternatively users can determine the category they wish to look at by channel or format.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Some view the videos and other material produced by the MOOC as the next form of the textbook. "MOOC is the new textbook", according to David Finegold of Rutgers University. A study of edX student habits found that certificate-earning students generally stop watching videos longer than 6 to 9 minutes. They viewed the first 4.4 minutes (median) of 12- to 15-minute videos. Some traditional schools blend online and offline learning, sometimes called flipped classrooms. Students watch lectures online at home and work on projects and interact with faculty while in class. Such hybrids can even improve student performance in traditional in-person classes. One fall 2012 test by San Jose State and edX found that incorporating content from an online course into a for-credit campus-based course increased pass rates to 91% from as low as 55% without the online component. "We do not recommend selecting an online-only experience over a blended learning experience", says Coursera\'s Andrew Ng.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1936304',
'title': 'VideoNow',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'However, at least one video has been posted on YouTube showing how VideoNow Color players can be easily modified to accept standard-sized CDs with a bit of cutting and gluing. Full-sized CDs can hold roughly 42\xa0minutes of total video, and play with no difference in the modified player.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8120244',
'title': 'Go!Cam',
'section': 'Section::::Video recording length.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Go!Edit videos can only be taken for a length of 15 seconds and then edited; however, accessing the camera through the XMB menu means the video recording length depends on the size of your Memory Stick. Also note that video quality can be changed, so the lower the quality, the longer the recording time and vice versa.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55851302',
'title': 'Elsagate',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Most videos in this category are either live action films or crude digital animations, although a few channels have been using more elaborate techniques such as clay animation. Despite YouTube\'s age restriction policies, these videos are sometimes tagged in such a way to circumvent the inbuilt child safety algorithms, even making their way into YouTube Kids, and are thus difficult to moderate due to the large scale of the platform. In order to capture search results and attract attention from users, their titles and descriptions feature names of famous characters, as well as keywords like "education," "learn colors," "nursery rhymes," etc. They also include automatically-placed ads, making them lucrative to their owners and YouTube. Despite the objectionable and often confusing nature of these videos, many attract millions of views.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42405565',
'title': 'Coub',
'section': 'Section::::Function.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': "Using Coub's web-based editor, users can extract a snippet up to 10 seconds long from a video already hosted on YouTube or Vimeo, or one that they've uploaded, and add a full-length audio track to play along with the clip. The video can be set to reverse.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How can people take old videos and upscale them to 4k?',
'selftext': "The video that made me ask this is this one [ URL_0 ]( URL_0 ) A-ha: Take on me in 4k. How is this possible when 4k didn't exist when the video was made?",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['That video was recorded in 1985 on film from my understanding.\n\nFilm itself has a resolution way beyond 4K depending on the grain size. As long as the film is preserved, it can be re-scanned using a higher resolution scanner.\n\nWe will probably get an 8K cut in a few years.',
"The video would have been recorded onto film given its era. Photographic film has really high resolution we just don't associate high resolution with the old analog TV era because the TVs didn't have much to work with, but movie film is somewhere in the 4k-16k range depending on the size and quality of film. If they had a good quality recording then its just a matter of scanning it in really nicely and you have a 4k music video.\n\nThis is why old movies can also be upscaled to 4k(but they often have film grain and anomalies from years in storage) but more recent movies that were shot and edited digitally cannot be. If the movie was captured on an early digital camera at 2k resolution (roughly 1920x1080 or 1080P) then you don't have the raw data to work with. You can fudge it in post processing(which your TV will do) but its not quite the same"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'fq5jqz',
'query': 'how can people take old videos and upscale them to 4k?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '5985207',
'title': 'Expansion of the universe',
'section': 'Section::::Understanding the expansion of the universe.:Measurement of expansion and change of rate of expansion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
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'passage_text': 'The Hubble parameter is not thought to be constant through time. There are dynamical forces acting on the particles in the universe which affect the expansion rate. It was earlier expected that the Hubble parameter would be decreasing as time went on due to the influence of gravitational interactions in the universe, and thus there is an additional observable quantity in the universe called the deceleration parameter which cosmologists expected to be directly related to the matter density of the universe. Surprisingly, the deceleration parameter was measured by two different groups to be less than zero (actually, consistent with −1) which implied that today the Hubble parameter is converging to a constant value as time goes on. Some cosmologists have whimsically called the effect associated with the "accelerating universe" the "cosmic jerk". The 2011 Nobel Prize in Physics was given for the discovery of this phenomenon.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1147994',
'title': 'Friedmann equations',
'section': 'Section::::Equations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': "The Hubble parameter can change over time if other parts of the equation are time dependent (in particular the mass density, the vacuum energy, or the spatial curvature). Evaluating the Hubble parameter at the present time yields Hubble's constant which is the proportionality constant of Hubble's law. Applied to a fluid with a given equation of state, the Friedmann equations yield the time evolution and geometry of the universe as a function of the fluid density.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30721431',
'title': 'Hubble bubble (astronomy)',
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'passage_text': 'The Hubble constant, named for astronomer Edwin Hubble, whose work made clear the expansion of the universe, measures the rate at which expansion occurs. In accordance with the Copernican principle that the Earth is not in a central, specially favored position, one would expect that measuring this constant at any point in the universe would yield the same value. If, on the other hand, Earth were at or near the center of a very low-density region of interstellar space (a relative void), denser material in a shell around it would strongly attract material away from the centerpoint. Thus, stars inside such a "Hubble bubble" would accelerate away from Earth much faster than the general expansion of the universe. This situation would provide an alternative to dark energy in explaining the apparent accelerating universe.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42975',
'title': "Hubble's law",
'section': 'Section::::Interpretation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
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'passage_text': 'Since the Hubble "constant" is a constant only in space, not in time, the radius of the Hubble sphere may increase or decrease over various time intervals. The subscript \'0\' indicates the value of the Hubble constant today. Current evidence suggests that the expansion of the universe is accelerating ("see" Accelerating universe), meaning that, for any given galaxy, the recession velocity dD/dt is increasing over time as the galaxy moves to greater and greater distances; however, the Hubble parameter is actually thought to be decreasing with time, meaning that if we were to look at some "fixed" distance D and watch a series of different galaxies pass that distance, later galaxies would pass that distance at a smaller velocity than earlier ones.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7960760',
'title': 'Hubble volume',
'section': 'Section::::Hubble limit as an event horizon.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'However, the Hubble parameter is not constant in various cosmological models so that the Hubble limit does not, in general, coincide with a cosmological event horizon. For example, in a decelerating Friedmann universe the Hubble sphere expands with time, and its boundary overtakes light emitted by more distant galaxies so that light emitted at earlier times by objects "outside" the Hubble sphere still may eventually arrive inside the sphere and be seen by us. Conversely, in an accelerating universe, the Hubble sphere shrinks with time, and its boundary overtakes light emitted by nearer galaxies so that light emitted at earlier times by objects "inside" the Hubble sphere will eventually recede outside the sphere and will never be seen by us.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42975',
'title': "Hubble's law",
'section': 'Section::::Measured values of the Hubble constant.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 127,
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'passage_text': 'There are multiple methods to determine the Hubble constant, their results differ significantly. , the cause of the discrepancy is not understood. In April 2019, astronomers reported further substantial discrepancies, depending on the measurement method used, in determining the Hubble constant, suggesting a realm of physics currently not well understood in explaining the workings of the universe. This discrepancy is often called the Hubble tension.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26262',
'title': 'Redshift',
'section': 'Section::::Observations in astronomy.:Extragalactic observations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 81,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 81,
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'passage_text': 'The Hubble law\'s linear relationship between distance and redshift assumes that the rate of expansion of the Universe is constant. However, when the Universe was much younger, the expansion rate, and thus the Hubble "constant", was larger than it is today. For more distant galaxies, then, whose light has been travelling to us for much longer times, the approximation of constant expansion rate fails, and the Hubble law becomes a non-linear integral relationship and dependent on the history of the expansion rate since the emission of the light from the galaxy in question. Observations of the redshift-distance relationship can be used, then, to determine the expansion history of the Universe and thus the matter and energy content.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do scientists think Hubble constant (a characteristic of the universe expansion rate) is actually a constant?',
'selftext': 'There is already a [partial answer]( URL_0 ) to this question; it explains that the expansion rate can be considered a constant at this time (the time human civilization exists). But why do scientists think the acceleration is the same across the universe?',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["When you look farther away you also look back in time, so when you detect light that has been travelling for 10 billion years from a distant quasar you're also detecting the results of whatever happened to it during that time.\n\nThe amount of redshift (energy loss due to the expansion of space while it was in flight) we see in these ancient photons suggests that the rate of local expansion was the same at all times and at all places while the light was traveling.\n\nIf the expansion *wasn't* constant over time or location, you would see light unexpectedly under/over shifted compared to its age and point of origin.",
'The simple answer to this is that scientists do not think the Hubble constant is actually a constant. Even Hubble himself did not think it was a constant value but for the sake of his argumentation he simplified it to a constant factor for his calculations to make them fit at a moment in time. The previous theory was that the universe was constant and did not expand or contract. However Hubble were able to chart the movement of distant galaxies on a chart which gave him a constant rate of expansion. This is the constant he observed at this point in time and in this part of the universe. However we now know that the Hubble parameter changes but for most cases it is close to the Hubble constant.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'dm23vn',
'query': 'why do scientists think hubble constant (a characteristic of the universe expansion rate) is actually a constant?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1973',
'title': 'American Revolution',
'section': 'Section::::Concluding the Revolution.:National debt.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 91,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 91,
'end_character': 641,
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'passage_text': 'The national debt fell into three categories after the American Revolution. The first was the $12 million owed to foreigners, mostly money borrowed from France. There was general agreement to pay the foreign debts at full value. The national government owed $40 million and state governments owed $25 million to Americans who had sold food, horses, and supplies to the Patriot forces. There were also other debts which consisted of promissory notes issued during the war to soldiers, merchants, and farmers who accepted these payments on the premise that the new Constitution would create a government that would pay these debts eventually.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31646',
'title': 'Article One of the United States Constitution',
'section': 'Section::::Section 8: Powers of Congress.:Enumerated powers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 102,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 102,
'end_character': 542,
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'passage_text': 'Congress has the power to borrow money on the credit of the United States. In 1871, when deciding "Knox v. Lee," the Court ruled that this clause permitted Congress to emit bills and make them legal tender in satisfaction of debts. Whenever Congress borrows money, it is obligated to repay the sum as stipulated in the original agreement. However, such agreements are only "binding on the conscience of the sovereign", as the doctrine of sovereign immunity prevents a creditor from suing in court if the government reneges on its commitment.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2784275',
'title': 'Internal debt',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'end_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Internal public debt owed by a government (money a government borrows from its citizens) is part of the country\'s national debt. It is a form of fiat creation of money, in which the government obtains finance not by creating it "de novo", but by borrowing it. The money created is in the form of treasury securities or securities borrowed from the central bank.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2189576',
'title': 'Bureau of the Public Debt',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "While the public debt of the United States can be traced to the beginning of the nation itself in 1776, Public Debt, as it's known today, was officially created in 1940. The United States' government creates financial budgets through three methods: by printing money, collecting taxes, and by borrowing. The printing of money is costly and the introduction of money in the nation can create issues of inflation. Taxing the people requires the ability to incur the additional costs of their personal incomes to give to the urgent need of the debt. Borrowing is necessary to be able to finance deficits at times from those who can afford to supplement the debt in the belief that upon a time of surplus the debts would be paid back to those indebted to by the borrowers. Today, the Bureau of Public also make insurances and issues securities through the market. The creation was part of a Treasury reorganization plan where the Public Debt Service was officially designated the Bureau of the Public Debt. Public Debt has had a presence in Parkersburg, WV since 1954, when the city was designated a relocation site for Public Debt in the event of a national emergency. In 1957, Parkersburg became the electronic processing center for savings bonds, and from 1993 to 1996, Public Debt consolidated and transferred the majority of its operations to Parkersburg. Today, over 95% of Public Debt employees work in Parkersburg. In October 2012, the Bureau of the Public Debt consolidated with the Financial Management Service to form the Bureau of the Fiscal Service.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31461654',
'title': 'United States debt ceiling',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'Under of the United States Constitution, only Congress can authorize the borrowing of money on the credit of the United States. From the founding of the United States until 1917, Congress directly authorized each individual debt issued. To provide more flexibility to finance the United States\' involvement in World War I, Congress modified the method by which it authorized debt in the Second Liberty Bond Act of 1917. Under this Act, Congress established an aggregate limit, or "ceiling," on the total amount of new bonds that could be issued.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18717338',
'title': 'United States dollar',
'section': 'Section::::Banknotes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 104,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 104,
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'passage_text': 'The U.S. Constitution provides that Congress shall have the power to "borrow money on the credit of the United States". Congress has exercised that power by authorizing Federal Reserve Banks to issue Federal Reserve Notes. Those notes are "obligations of the United States" and "shall be redeemed in lawful money on demand at the Treasury Department of the United States, in the city of Washington, District of Columbia, or at any Federal Reserve bank". Federal Reserve Notes are designated by law as "legal tender" for the payment of debts. Congress has also authorized the issuance of more than 10 other types of banknotes, including the United States Note and the Federal Reserve Bank Note. The Federal Reserve Note is the only type that remains in circulation since the 1970s.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7048889',
'title': 'Debt buyer (United States)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'According to the Federal Reserve Bank of New York\'s May 2017 Quarterly Report on Household Debt and Credit, Americans owe $12.73 trillion in consumer debt to creditors—credit card companies, student loans, mortgages, and car dealers, among others. These debts are usually paid off to creditors, but by 2017, unpaid debts were "increasingly likely to end up in the hands of professional debt collectors—companies whose business it is to collect debts that are owed to other companies." According to the annual CFPB 2017 report, there were 130,000 people employed by 6,000 collection agencies in the "$13.7 billion dollar industry".\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does the U.S. government owe money to itself?',
'selftext': "I can't quite grasp this based on stuff I am finding through Google. I am not savvy with economics. Thanks in advance. Edit: Thanks to everyone for your responses. I need to study up on bond markets apparently.",
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Governments borrow money by issuing bonds, which are simply agreements to pay back the money, along with a modest amount of interest, by a particular date (the bond\'s maturity date). Try googling "How do government issued bonds work?" or similar.',
'The Federal Government "borrows" money from the people by issuing Federal Bonds and printing more cash, which devalues whatever money you have in your pocket.\n\n\nHypothetical situation. 2017 budget rolls around, we have a $1 trillion deficit. The Fed issues $1 trillion in bonds and prints that much in cash. If there\'s $100 trillion dollars in circulation, printing that $1T just devalued your dollar by 1%. \n\nThis is a result of the official abolishment of the gold standard in 1971\n\n',
'The US government may have a fund set up to hold money and disburse it later for a specific purpose (for example, the social security fund). \n\nNow, the government could just keep that money in a bank, earning no interest. But that would be stupid because inflation would cause the fund to lose its value (the price of everything else will go up to keep up with inflation but your dollar figure in the bank stays the same, so when you draw on fund years later, you will end up buying less of the goods than you could have years before). \n\nSo the government has a choice on how to invest that money. With the financial world considering US government bonds to be essentially risk-free, and the interest on those bonds can in general keep up with inflation, the people running that specific fund will invest the money in US government bonds. Now the US government owes money (through its bonds) to itself (its own fund).\n\nThe government is likely avoiding other investment strategies (stocks, corporate bonds, etc) because they could be perceived as too risky. For example, imagine if the social security fund was invested in large bank stocks or even real estate in 2008 when the market tumbled. The person who made that investment decision, and his overseers (ultimately Congress/President) would face lots of political scrutiny, to put it mildly, for the losses incurred. Granted the stock market rebounded, but at the time, people would be very angry at the losses mounting in the social security fund. They would see it as the government taxing them and then just losing the money. It\'s too politically risky.\n\nIn the end, the government doesn\'t "raid" the social security fund. The fund managers are making a choice to buy government bonds.',
"I'll try to make it more simple than the other correct answer. \n\nThe US government is a set of different departments, each with their revenues and expenses. \n\nSome departments, like the Social Security Administration have more revenues than expenses today, but anticipate the trend to reverse itself soon, so they save their surpluses. They often do this by buying US Treasuries through the bond market.\n\nThink of government debt as any other asset, be it a gold coin or a stock in Apple."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '5m1gf6',
'query': 'how does the u.s. government owe money to itself?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '47258007',
'title': 'Saltwater soap',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Ordinary soap is a salt of a fatty acid. Soaps are mainly used as surfactants for washing, bathing, and cleaning. Soaps for cleansing are made by treating vegetable or animal oils and fats with a strongly alkaline solution. Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides; three molecules of fatty acids are attached to a single molecule of glycerol. The alkaline solution, which is often called lye (although the term "lye soap" refers almost exclusively to soaps made with sodium hydroxide), brings about a chemical reaction known as saponification. In this reaction, the triglyceride fats are first hydrolyzed into free fatty acids, and then these combine with the alkali to form crude soap: a combination of various soap salts, excess fat or alkali, water, and liberated glycerol (glycerin).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '349842',
'title': 'Triclosan',
'section': 'Section::::Alternatives.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 63,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'A comprehensive analysis in 2007 from the University of Michigan School of Public Health indicated that plain soaps are just as effective as consumer-grade antibacterial soaps with triclosan in preventing illness and removing bacteria from the hands.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '53333538',
'title': 'List of cleaning products',
'section': 'Section::::Cleaning products.:Soaps.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 251,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 251,
'end_character': 225,
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'passage_text': 'In chemistry, a soap is a salt of a fatty acid. Household uses for soaps include washing, bathing, and other types of housekeeping, where soaps act as surfactants, emulsifying oils to enable them to be carried away by water.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2439173',
'title': 'Grease (lubricant)',
'section': 'Section::::Properties.:Thickeners.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 486,
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'passage_text': 'Soaps are the most common emulsifying agent used, and the selection of the type of soap is determined by the application. Soaps include calcium stearate, sodium stearate, lithium stearate, as well as mixtures of these components. Fatty acids derivatives other than stearates are also used, especially lithium 12-hydroxystearate. The nature of the soaps influences the temperature resistance (relating to the viscosity), water resistance, and chemical stability of the resulting grease.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '428502',
'title': 'Hand washing',
'section': 'Section::::Substances used.:Soap and detergents.:Antibacterial soap.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
'end_character': 243,
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'passage_text': 'A comprehensive analysis from the University of Oregon School of Public Health indicated that plain soaps are as effective as consumer-grade anti-bacterial soaps containing triclosan in preventing illness and removing bacteria from the hands.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2327130',
'title': 'Fels-Naptha',
'section': 'Section::::Use.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'end_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'The soap comes packaged in paper similar to bar body soap and is most often found in the laundry section of a supermarket or grocery store. It is intended for the pre-treatment of stains by rubbing the dampened product on a soiled area prior to laundering. The manufacturer claims it to be most effective in removing chocolate, baby formula, perspiration, and make-up.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '338192',
'title': 'Common-ion effect',
'section': 'Section::::Solubility effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 297,
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'passage_text': 'The salting-out process used in the manufacture of soaps benefits from the common-ion effect. Soaps are sodium salts of fatty acids. Addition of sodium chloride reduces the solubility of the soap salts. The soaps precipitate due to a combination of common-ion effect and increased ionic strength.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does standard bar soap clean your hands if it does not have any antibacterial additives? Especially when the soap uses animal fat as a base component.',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It emulsifies the dirt and oil on your skin letting it be washed away.\n\nTo be fair all the antibacterial this and that really only makes us feel safer as it and people not taking tgeir antibiotics properly is leading to drug resistant bacteria.\n\nThis pandemic however is a virus so antibacterial soap doesn't really do a whole lot",
'The reason regular non-antibacterial soap still works at _removing_ - not killing - bacteria and virus carrying stuff, is because thats what soap does: soap molecules have a water loving (philic) end and a carbon chain (oils etc.) end. When you wash your hands with soap, oil and other gunk is on your hands. The soap molecules surround the gunk molecules in little bubbles with their water loving ends sticking out and thus all of these little water loving pockets of gunk, oil, grease, bacteria etc. are easily washed away. With enough scrubbing and water, you can do the same, but soap just makes it easier. \n\nYour body naturally has a rather robust barrier (your skin, mucous membranes) and it will do most of the work at containing things like the corona virus, hanging out in blobs of saliva, or mucous or whatever that might have come from another person. But when you rub that stuff on your hand in your eyes or put it in your mouth, well, you essentially just opened the door in that barrier to the bad stuff. \n\nYes, if you ARE infected, you stand a really good chance of surviving with nothing more than really strong "regular flu" symptoms; the ones who will die from coronavirus are those who would be susceptible to any flu like thing (elderly, those with already compromised immune systems), its just that this one is so much more contagious than regular flu....\n\nSo if you take one thing away here its WASH YOUR HANDS A LOT and don\'t go licking things.',
'There is a good thread on twitter from an Icelandic chemistry professor about why soap works so well with viruses:\n\n[_URL_0_](_URL_0_)',
"Everyone answered this question very well, I'll just add this. Stop using soap with antibiotics, we will create a world we can't live in.",
'The animal fats are treated with strongly basic (opposite of acidic) chemicals. These cause the fat to undergo a chemical reaction called "saponification" that turns the fat into soap. Yes, that\'s literally what happens. Fat into soap using caustic lye. (This is something of a plot point in Fight Club but if you\'re actually 5 years old, you should wait a decade or two before watching that movie.)\n\nSoap works because it\'s made of molecules that have a water-loving end and a water-hating end. The water-hating end sticks to things like blobs of grease or oil, germs, and such. The water-loving end just sort of flaps in the breeze until you get enough soap particles surrounding an something.\n\nOnce an item is completely surrounded with a blob of these soap molecules, they stick to water better than your hand (because the water-loving end is pointing outwards). The final rinse with water washes the soap and the soap-encased dirt, oil, germs, and other stuff away.\n\nThe catch is that you have to scrub vigorously enough and for long enough time. The dirt and germs are all stuck to your skin (often inside microscopic pits and valleys). The vigorous rubbing or scrubbing action dislodges the dirt and germs. Without the soap, a lot of them would just stick back onto your skin. However, if your hands are all soapy, everything gets surrounded by the soap molecules and can\'t reattach. The water washes them down the drain. But, if you don\'t dislodge the germs, they don\'t get surrounded by soap and stay stuck to your skin.\n\nNow, soap does have some limited ability to kill some bacteria. Those water-hating ends of the soap molecules wiggle into the cell walls of the bacteria and make them fall apart. But, it doesn\'t work on all bacteria and it\'s just an added bonus. The primary function of soap is to prevent the germs from re-attaching to your skin and letting the water wash them down the drain.\n\nOf course, for marketing purposes, many soap manufacturers add extra antibacterial agents to their soap. However, those additives haven\'t been proven to help in normal hand-washing situations. As such, in the USA, the FDA has told soap companies to stop using them unless they can prove that they actually help out. This is actually a difficult thing to do because washing your hands with regular soap is already very effective.\n\nThis is also why soap and water are better than hand sanitizer. Hand sanitizer does kill a lot of germs but not all of them. Hand sanitizer just evaporates away instead of being washed away like soap and water. So, all the germs that aren\'t killed by the sanitizer will be left on your skin.\n\nAlcohol hand santizers should only be used if there isn\'t soap and running water near by.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'fhk1uc',
'query': 'how does standard bar soap clean your hands if it does not have any antibacterial additives? especially when the soap uses animal fat as a base component.',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1082841',
'title': 'Fictitious force',
'section': 'Section::::Examples of fictitious forces.:Acceleration in a straight line.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::1. Figure 1 (center panel). To an observer at rest on an inertial reference frame (like the ground), the car will seem to accelerate. In order for the passenger to stay inside the car, a force must be exerted on the passenger. This force is exerted by the seat, which has started to move forward with the car and is compressed against the passenger until it transmits the full force to keep the passenger moving with the car. Thus, the forces exerted by the seat are unbalanced,so the passenger is accelerating in this frame.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '78809',
'title': 'Speed limit',
'section': 'Section::::Justification.:Road traffic safety.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 87,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 87,
'end_character': 470,
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'passage_text': 'It is desirable to attempt to reduce the speed of road vehicles in some circumstances because the kinetic energy involved in a motor vehicle collision is proportional to the square of the speed at impact. The probability of a fatality is, for typical collision speeds, empirically correlated to the fourth power of the speed "difference" (depending on the type of collision, not necessarily the same as "travel" speed) at impact, rising much faster than kinetic energy.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27232354',
'title': 'Nagel–Schreckenberg model',
'section': 'Section::::Outline of the model.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 521,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::2. Slowing down: All cars are checked to see if the distance between it and the car in front (in units of cells) is smaller than its current velocity (which has units of cells per time step). If the distance is smaller than the velocity, the velocity is reduced to the number of empty cells in front of the car – to avoid a collision. For example, if the velocity of a car is now 5, but there are only 3 free cells in front of it, with the fourth cell occupied by another car, the car velocity is reduced to 3.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25672504',
'title': 'MythBusters (2010 season)',
'section': 'Section::::Episode 143 – "Mythssion Control".:Crash Force.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
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'passage_text': 'Jamie and Adam revisited the "Compact Compact" myth after fans complained about a claim Jamie made in the earlier episode. During the investigation he had said that two cars hitting each other at is "equivalent to a single impact going into a solid wall at 100 miles an hour". This was disputed by fans claiming that according to Newton\'s third law, two cars hitting each other at 50\xa0mph is the same as one car crashing into a wall at 50\xa0mph.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40172612',
'title': 'Assured clear distance ahead',
'section': 'Section::::ACDA rule-specific case generalized to the Basic Speed Law.:Critical speed.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 56,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 56,
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'passage_text': 'In the fifth case, critical speed "V" applies when road curvature is the factor limiting safe speed. A vehicle which exceeds this speed will slide out of its lane. Critical speed is a function of curve radius "r", superelevation or banking "e", and friction coefficient "μ"; the constant "g" again is the acceleration of gravity. However, most motorists will not tolerate a lateral acceleration exceeding 0.3g ("μ"\xa0=\xa00.3) above which many will panic. Hence, critical speed may not resemble loss of control speed. Attenuated "side" friction coefficients are often used for computing critical speed. The formula is frequently approximated without the denominator for low angle banking which may be suitable for nearly all situations except the tightest radius of highway onramps. The principle of critical speed is often applied to the problem of traffic calming, where curvature is both used to govern maximum road speed, and used in traffic circles as a device to force drivers to obey their duty to slow down when approaching an intersection.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '190274',
'title': 'Traffic calming',
'section': 'Section::::Measures.:Engineering measures.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 265,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Vertical deflection: Raising a portion of a road surface can create discomfort for drivers travelling at high speeds. Both the height of the deflection and the steepness affect the severity of vehicle displacement. Vertical deflection measures include:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '560591',
'title': 'Overdrive (mechanics)',
'section': 'Section::::Description.:Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': "The power needed to propel a car at any given set of conditions and speed is straightforward to calculate, based primarily on the total weight and the vehicle's speed. These produce two primary forces slowing the car: rolling resistance and air drag. The former varies roughly with the speed of the vehicle, while the latter varies with the square of the speed. Calculating these from first principles is generally difficult due to a variety of real-world factors, so this is often measured directly in wind tunnels and similar systems.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "If I'm driving at a constant speed of 60mph and get rear-ended by a vehicle which is moving at a constant 80mph, would the force of impact be the same as if I were sitting at 0mph and got rear ended by someone driving 20mph?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['yes, the impact would have the same amount of force. \n\nThe big difference would be the whole spinning out of control at 60 mph would be much more dangerous than at 0 mph.',
"Yes, you would experience the same force, but this doesn't mean the same thing would happen in the two cases. \n\nThe first thing we're concerned with is the momentum of the cars: momentum is a measure of the mass and velocity of an object. A higher momentum basically means that an object will resist slowing down.\n\nNext, the velocity of the impact. In both cases, the velocity of the faster car is basically 20mph. Basically, as long as you're moving at a constant speed, you can say that you aren't moving at all, and everything around you is instead moving based on your actual speed; this is the underlying premise of relativity. So in both cases, the rear car will have the same relative momentum at the moment of impact, leading to the same force being applied. This is where the differences start.\n\nIf you're travelling at 60mph, the bits of your car that need to move are already moving, so you absorb more of the momentum and could potentially lose control of your vehicle. If you're stopped, then what will happen depends on conditions inside your vehicle: is your car in gear with the engine off, in neutral with the brakes on, or in neutral with the brakes off?\n\nIf your car is in gear, then in order for it to move, the force needs to be strong enough to cause your wheels to move the engine block - the opposite of what normally happens. This isn't a great scenario, as the force your car receives won't be transferred to forward motion as easily, and could feel quite nasty.\n\nIf your car is in neutral with the brakes off, you will find yourself rolling forwards, which is probably the best situation unless this pushes you into another vehicle. Have you ever seen a Newton's Cradle? This situation is kind of like one of those - your car will absorb some of the motion and start rolling. You'll still get a nasty jolt, but it won't be as bad as the other two cases; this is the closest to the situation where you're travelling at 60mph.\n\nFinally, if you're in neutral with the brakes on, you'll have quite a nasty experience. Your car will do everything it can to resist moving, so more of the momentum will be absorbed. This is because in order for your wheels to turn, they need to overcome the friction from the brakes and also move your engine block; alternatively, your car will slide forwards because the wheels won't turn.\n\nI hope this answer was helpful for you."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '761i4b',
'query': "if i'm driving at a constant speed of 60mph and get rear-ended by a vehicle which is moving at a constant 80mph, would the force of impact be the same as if i were sitting at 0mph and got rear ended by someone driving 20mph?",
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '10115962',
'title': 'Catathrenia',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Catathrenia typically, sometimes even exclusively, occurs during REM sleep, although it may also occur to a lesser degree during NREM sleep. Catathrenia begins with a deep inspiration. The person with catathrenia holds her or his breath against a closed glottis, similar to the Valsalva maneuver. Expiration can be slow and accompanied by sound caused by vibration of the vocal cords or a simple rapid exhalation with no sound . Despite a slower breathing rate, no oxygen desaturation usually occurs. Certain side effects include sore throat, fatigue, and dizziness.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5067584',
'title': 'Parasomnia',
'section': 'Section::::Rapid eye movement (REM)-related parasomnias.:Catathrenia.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 43,
'end_character': 720,
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'passage_text': 'Before the ICSD-3, Catathrenia was classified as a rapid-eye-movement sleep parasomnia, but is now classified as sleep-related breathing disorder. It consists of breath holding and expiratory groaning during sleep, is distinct from both somniloquy and obstructive sleep apnea. The sound is produced during exhalation as opposed to snoring which occurs during inhalation. It is usually not noticed by the person producing the sound but can be extremely disturbing to sleep partners, although once aware of it, sufferers tend to be woken up by their own groaning as well. Bed partners generally report hearing the person take a deep breath, hold it, then slowly exhale; often with a high-pitched squeak or groaning sound.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1976353',
'title': 'Obstructive sleep apnea',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Individuals with OSA are rarely aware of difficulty breathing, even upon awakening. It is often recognized as a problem by others who observe the individual during episodes or is suspected because of its effects on the body. OSA is commonly accompanied with snoring. The terms obstructive sleep apnea syndrome or obstructive sleep apnea–hypopnea syndrome are used to refer to OSA when it is associated with symptoms during the daytime (e.g. excessive daytime sleepiness, decreased cognitive functions). Symptoms may be present for years or even decades without identification, during which time the individual may become conditioned to the daytime sleepiness and fatigue associated with significant levels of sleep disturbance. Individuals who generally sleep alone are often unaware of the condition, without a regular bed-partner to notice and make them aware of the signs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12277461',
'title': 'Onirism',
'section': 'Section::::In medicine.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 250,
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'passage_text': 'In psychiatry, onirism refers to a mental state in which visual hallucinations occur while fully awake. It is a symptom of some parasomnias (such as REM sleep behavior disorder and breakdown syndromes), but is more often associated with drug abuse. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10115962',
'title': 'Catathrenia',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Common characteristics in reported cases.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- People with catathrenia themselves do not feel like they are experiencing a sleep apnea; the breath-holding appears to be controlled through the unconscious. Oxygen desaturation during a catathrenia episode is usually negligible.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28445',
'title': 'Sleep apnea',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'There are three forms of sleep apnea: obstructive (OSA), central (CSA), and a combination of the two called mixed. OSA is the most common form. Risk factors for OSA include being overweight, a family history of the condition, allergies, a small airway, and enlarged tonsils. In OSA, breathing is interrupted by a blockage of airflow, while in CSA breathing stops due to a lack of effort to breathe. People with sleep apnea may not be aware they have it. In many cases, it is first observed by a family member. Sleep apnea is often diagnosed with an overnight sleep study. For a diagnosis of sleep apnea, more than five episodes per hour must occur.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32149',
'title': 'Unconsciousness',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Unconsciousness is a state which occurs when the ability to maintain an awareness of self and environment is lost. It involves a complete or near-complete lack of responsiveness to people and other environmental stimuli.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'The difference between being asleep, being unconscious and being put asleep with anestesia.',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Unconsciousness is a broad term. Being conscious means reacting to outside stimuli. A sleeping person is technically conscious because they still react to light, sound, pressure, etc. Someone in a coma - medically induced or otherwise - typically will not.',
"sleep is the body doing repair work on the brain - it's very easy to wake up a sleeping person\n\nunconsciousness is an emergency shutoff, usually due to trauma - low blood pressure and brain swelling are the usual candidates. - It's (near) impossible to wake up an unconscious person (and usually it's pretty dangerous to do so)\n\nA coma is when, for whatever reason, you don't wake up from being unconscious. This is usually because whatever caused you to go unconscious doesn't go away (this is where brain damage happens, and can turn people in vegetables), and less often because the thing that's supposed to wake you up just... doesn't. - It's impossible to wake up someone in a coma (that's what separates a coma from unconsciousness), and a lot of the treatments for non-traumatic comas are basically just the same drugs you use to wake up unconscious people turned up to 11\n\nanesthesia is for you brain like what happens when you unplug a desktop computer. The drugs just turn off your brain, and it will stay off until the drugs are scrubbed from your system.",
'In simple terms, sleep is surprisingly a very active process. Your brain sends millions of signals and messages when you are asleep - dreams and the like. The brain moves between phases of activity, and during REM sleep actively prevents your limb muscles from moving. \n\nAnaesthesia conversely reduces the activity of your brain. Everything slows down and high levels of anaesthesia drugs can stop all significant electrical activity in your brain (isolelectric EEG). Comas are similar and have varying levels, but in essences yout brain activity is reduced when you are in a coma.\n\n(Am an Anaesthetist (UK))',
'Think of conscious and Anesthesia like a dimmer switch on a light. The lower the switch the dimmer the light. If the switch is broken (coma) the light still works and there still is electricity but it can’t get to the light. Anesthesia basically temporarily changes the dimmer with drugs and when the drugs go away the dimmer goes back to the original setting. To what conscious is can be difficult and becomes very philosophical as we don’t really understand how the original dimmer works we just know if we interact with specific receptors in the brain (I.e. GABA receptors) it artificially activated the dimmer and when we stops the dimmer goes back. Anesthesia providers talk about consciousness in terms of 4 stages. 1st being light sedation (sleep) where I describe to my patients as you can be asleep but might remember things around you (think of napping on the couch at a family gathering). 2nd being an excitatory stage which is the most dangerous part of anesthesia and a side effect of the drugs we have to use (think of a plane taking off or landing). 3rd general anesthesia were you don’t respond to highly stimulating things (like surgery). 4th is essentially the lowest setting on the dimmer, there is brain activity but not much (coma). The dimmer gets broken because of many things could be injury causing swelling, not enough oxygen in your blood, not enough blood in your brain (related to oxygen), or drugs. Luckily thru experiments in the past we now have drugs that can lower the dimmer to a level we want but not so much we break the dimmer. Source I am an Anesthestiology Assistant CAA (think of a physician Assistant that only does anesthesia)',
'Being unconscious generally means you are not aware of your surroundings including ambient sounds, smells, sights, touch or your own existence or the passage of time. \n\nSo being asleep, being knocked out by trauma or anesthesia or being in a coma, being clinically dead or unborn all reflect a state of unconsciousness. There are different levels based on brain activity, if any. \n\nSleep itself has different levels. During one to two hours a night most people have dreams so they are conscious of their own existence but not their surroundings though indirectly ambient noise can influence their dreams. The remainder of their sleep they do not dream and are not aware of their own existence or the passing of time. \n\nThere are reports of people being unresponsive in a coma or undergoing a heart attack or under anesthesia who are actually conscious to the point in which they can hear those around them, process what they are saying and can think about what is happening but cannot move, see or communicate back. This is similar to sleep paralysis.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'e73gck',
'query': 'the difference between being asleep, being unconscious and being put asleep with anestesia.',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3326958',
'title': 'Cartesian materialism',
'section': 'Section::::Replies and objections to Dennett and his arguments.:Replies from neuroscience.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 51,
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'passage_text': 'Another criticism comes from investigation into the human visual system. Although both eyes each have a blind spot, conscious visual experience does not subjectively seem to have any holes in it. Some scientists and philosophers had argued, based on subjective reports, that perhaps the brain somehow "fills in" the holes, based upon adjacent visual information. Dennett had powerfully argued that such "filling in" was unnecessary, based on his objections to a Cartesian theater. Ultimately, however, studies have confirmed that the visual cortex does perform a very complex "filling in" process.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7664101',
'title': 'Cortical visual impairment',
'section': 'Section::::Symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 482,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The field of view may be severely limited. The best vision might be in the centre (like tunnel vision) but more often it is at some other point, and it is difficult to tell what the person is really looking at. Note that if the person also has a common ocular visual impairment such as nystagmus then this can also affect which part(s) of the visual field are best. (Sometimes there exists a certain gaze direction which minimises the nystagmus, called a "null point.")\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2158298',
'title': 'Visual impairment',
'section': 'Section::::Classification.:United States.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
'end_character': 441,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- "Low vision" generally refers to a severe visual impairment, not necessarily limited to distance vision. Low vision applies to all individuals with sight who are unable to read the newspaper at a normal viewing distance, even with the aid of eyeglasses or contact lenses. They use a combination of vision and other senses to learn, although they may require adaptations in lighting or the size of print, and, sometimes, Braille.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '176997',
'title': 'Blindsight',
'section': 'Section::::Describing blindsight.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 812,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Patients with blindsight have damage to the visual system that allows perception (the visual cortex of the brain and some of the nerve fibers that bring information to it from the eyes) rather than the system that controls eye movements. This phenomenon shows how, after the more complex visual system is damaged, people can use the latter visual system of their brains to guide hand movements towards an object even though they cannot see what they are reaching for. Hence, visual information can control behavior without producing a conscious sensation. This ability of those with blindsight to "see" objects that they are unconscious of suggests that consciousness is not a general property of all parts of the brain; yet it suggests that only certain parts of the brain play a special role in consciousness.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2243071',
'title': 'Kuriakose Elias Chavara',
'section': 'Section::::Excerpts.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 85,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 85,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- "Just as without eyes one cannot see the material things of the world, so also without knowledge it will be impossible for us to see or understand the reality of this world and the eternity where God dwells in. As those who have no eyes are called “Blind”, so too those who have no learning are to be called “intellectually blind” Hence it is the responsibility of priest to teach the faithful and of parents to teach their children."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1364622',
'title': 'Four-dimensional space',
'section': 'Section::::Dimensional analogy.:Visual scope.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 55,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 55,
'end_character': 961,
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'passage_text': 'We spatially perceive ourselves as beings in a three-dimensional space, but visually we are restricted to one dimension less: we see the world with our eyes as projections to two dimensions, on the surface of the retina. Assuming a four-dimensional being were able to "see" his world in projections to a hypersurface, also just one dimension less, i.e., to three dimensions, it would be able to "see", e.g., all six sides of an opaque box simultaneously, and in fact, what is inside the box at the same time, just as we can see all four sides and simultaneously the interior of a rectangle on a piece of paper. The being would be able to discern all points in a 3-dimensional subspace simultaneously, including the inner structure of solid 3-dimensional objects, things obscured from our viewpoints in three dimensions on two-dimensional projections. Our brains receive images in two dimensions and use reasoning to help us "picture" three-dimensional objects.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36087839',
'title': 'Varieties of criticism',
'section': 'Section::::Self-criticism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 162,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 162,
'end_character': 281,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- People might have "blind spots" in their awareness, i.e., they are simply unable to see a part of themselves for what it is (unless others point it out to them). In that case, they are unable to criticize themselves, because they don\'t know what there is to criticize.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If our field of vision is limited, why can we not see or imagine "nothing" on the outer edges of our vision, or "black" like the top/bottom edges of movies',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Your brain already "erases" information you see but you don\'t need, as well as "fills in the blanks" for information that\'s missing or assumed.\n\nyou have a blindspot in each eye but if you look at a wall, you don\'t see two black circles, your visual center just automatically paints in the blindspots, because you don\'t need to see two blank spots. Your brain also ignores stuff like your nose, you don\'t need to pay attention to your nose poking into your field if view\n\nSeeing the end of your vision, or seeing a big black region around your visio would serve no purpose and have no advantage, and there\'s no point for the visual system to evolve such a feature.\n\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '60ljgk',
'query': 'if our field of vision is limited, why can we not see or imagine "nothing" on the outer edges of our vision, or "black" like the top/bottom edges of movies',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '43903922',
'title': 'Alcohol-related brain damage',
'section': 'Section::::Neuroimaging.:Electromagnetic methods.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
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'passage_text': 'These neuroimaging methods have found that alcohol alters the nervous system on multiple levels. This includes impairment of lower order brainstem functions and higher order functioning, such as problem solving. These methods have also shown differences in electrical brain activity and responsiveness when comparing alcohol-dependent and healthy individuals.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14678677',
'title': 'Alcohol myopia',
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'passage_text': "Alcohol's ability to alter behavior and decision-making stems from its impact on synaptic transmission at GABA receptors. Alcohol's effects on the synaptic level dampen the brain's processing ability and limit attentional capacity.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2990841',
'title': 'Alcohol tolerance',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Alcohol tolerance refers to the bodily responses to the functional effects of ethanol in alcoholic beverages. This includes direct tolerance, speed of recovery from insobriety and resistance to the development of alcoholism.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26685784',
'title': 'Effects of alcohol on memory',
'section': 'Section::::Mode of actions.:Effects on the hippocampus.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'Alcohol acts as a general central nervous system depressant, but it also affects some specific areas of the brain to a greater extent than others. Memory impairment caused by alcohol has been linked to the disruption of hippocampal function — particularly affecting gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) neurotransmission which negatively impacts long-term potentiation (LTP). The molecular basis of LTP is associated with learning and memory. Particularly, damage to hippocampal CA1 cells adversely affects memory formation, and this disruption has been linked to dose-dependent levels of alcohol consumption. At higher doses, alcohol significantly inhibits neuronal activity in both the CA1 and CA3 pyramidal cell layers of the hippocampus. This impairs memory encoding, since the hippocampus plays an important role in the formations of new memories.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26685784',
'title': 'Effects of alcohol on memory',
'section': 'Section::::Effects on working memory.:In the short term.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
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'passage_text': 'Alcohol consumption has substantial, measurable effects on working memory, although these effects vary greatly between individual responses. Not much is really known about the neural mechanisms that underlie these individual differences. It is also found that alcohol impairs working memory by affecting mnemonic strategies and executive processes rather than by shrinking the basic holding capacity of working memory. Isolated acute-moderate levels of alcohol intoxication do not physically alter the structures that are critical for working memory function, such as the frontal cortex, the parietal cortex, the anterior cingulate, and parts of the basal ganglia. One finding regarding the effects of alcohol on working memory points out that alcohol reduces working memory only in individuals with a high baseline working memory capacity, which suggests that alcohol might not uniformly affect working memory in many different individuals. Alcohol appears to impair the capacity of working memory to modulate response inhibition. Alcohol disinhibits behaviour, but it only does so in individuals with a low baseline working memory capacity. An interesting finding is that the incentive to perform well with working memory measurement tasks while under the influence of alcohol "\'does", in fact, have some effect on working memory, as it boosts scores in the rate of mental scanning and reaction time to stimulus; however, it did not reduce the number of errors as opposed to subjects with no incentive to perform well. Even acute alcohol intoxication (a blood alcohol concentration of 0.08-0.09%) produces a substantial impairment of working memory processes that require mnemonic rehearsal strategies. It is less likely for alcohol to impair a working memory task that does not rely on memory rehearsal or associated mnemonic strategies. Because of this, working memory is very susceptible to falter when an individual participates in tasks involving retention concerning both auditory and visual sequences. An interesting example of this is the failure of guitarists or other musicians performing concerts to cue in on auditory patterns and make it known that their performance is hindered by intoxication, whereas professional basketball (a less sequence-heavy activity for working memory) standout Ron Artest recently admitted in an interview with "Sporting News" to drinking heavily during half-time early in his career and the fact that it had little — if not any recognizable — effect on his working memory. His former coach Fran Fraschilla has gone on record saying:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26685784',
'title': 'Effects of alcohol on memory',
'section': 'Section::::Long-term memory.:Explicit memory.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': 'High doses of alcohol severely disrupt the storage process of semantic memories. Alcohol was found to impair the storage of novel stimuli but not that of previously learned information. Since alcohol affects the central nervous system, it hinders semantic storage functioning by restricting the consolidation of the information from encoding.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43903922',
'title': 'Alcohol-related brain damage',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Alcohol-related brain damage alters both the structure and function of the brain as a result of the direct neurotoxic effects of alcohol intoxication or acute alcohol withdrawal. Increased alcohol intake is associated with damage to brain regions including the frontal lobe, limbic system, and cerebellum, with widespread cerebral atrophy, or brain shrinkage caused by neuron degeneration. This damage can be seen on neuroimaging scans.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Does alcohol tolerance come from your body learning to metabolise it more efficiently, or your brain learning to function better whilst under the influence, or both?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
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'answers': ["Both. Alcohol is metabolized into its non-toxic (less toxic?) form by enzymes in the liver. Once your liver realizes that it is frequently encountering this thing, it starts producing more enzymes which allow it to break the substance down more quickly.\n\nFurthermore, since your brain *technically* doesn't want to lose motor control to alcohol, the system of neurotransmitters which are affected by the presence of metabolized alcohol eventually compensate to lose less fidelity when encountering it.\n\nEDIT: It might incorrect to say it is metabolized into a less toxic form. I'm a little shakey on that - acetaldehyde and acetate are toxic substances, but that is nonetheless what the body does to the ethanol as it processes and prepares to excrete it.",
'Down-regulation plays a part in most forms of tolerance related to psychoactive susbstances. Basically, your brain reduces the number of receptor sites on neurons when they are repeatedly exposed to an abundance of neurotransmitters, so future exposure has less effect. This system also explains withdrawal. Once the neurotransmitter levels drop from lack of use the reduced receptor sites take several weeks to regrow and withdrawal symptoms are worst. Until the receptors up-regulate and return to normal, the decreased receptor sites struggle to take up what little neurotransmitters are now present. ',
'I\'ve always had an extremely high tolerance. It doesn\'t seem to be genetic considering the rest of my family and I\'ve asked my dad about it. I can drink and realize I should not drive or do other activities that and such but there is no "drunk" feeling. Copious amounts of alcohol have been consumed to test this theory. I seem to process it quite quickly. On the one hand it\'s great, on the other I don\'t get to experience the fun.',
"I think tolerance comes mostly from your body. The liver is an incredible organ and can take a lot of abuse. Some people can drink incredible amounts of alcohol every day for years and still manage to function. That is until cirrhosis fully sets in and the liver can't metabolize anymore. When this happens (if I understand correctly) alcohol just goes straight into the blood stream. This is how you might see advanced alcoholics get completely trashed on relatively small amounts of alcohol like single serving containers of fortified wine, fortified lager or hard cider. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '5skv4z',
'query': 'does alcohol tolerance come from your body learning to metabolise it more efficiently, or your brain learning to function better whilst under the influence, or both?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '34416929',
'title': 'The Art of the Rifle',
'section': 'Section::::Trajectory: curve of a bullet in flight.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A bullet in flight is in projectile motion, meaning no other forces are acting on it except the acceleration due to gravity (and sometimes wind). When a bullet leaves the muzzle, it not only travels forward, but also begins to fall due to the influence of gravity. The downward acceleration is constant and does not depend on how fast the bullet leaves the muzzle. Therefore, in order for a shooter to aim at a distant target and then hit it, the actual trajectory, or path that the bullet follows is a curve, not a straight line. That is, the bullet is shot at a slightly upward angle, and the goal of sighting in the rifle is to match the vertical position of the bullet on the downward part of its trajectory with the target. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3095897',
'title': 'Celebratory gunfire',
'section': 'Section::::Falling-bullet injuries.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Bullets fired into the air usually fall back with terminal velocities much lower than their muzzle velocity when they leave the barrel of a firearm. Nevertheless, people can be injured, sometimes fatally, when bullets discharged into the air fall back down to the ground. Bullets fired at angles less than vertical are more dangerous as the bullet maintains its angular ballistic trajectory and is far less likely to engage in tumbling motion; it therefore travels at speeds much higher than a bullet in free fall.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21161917',
'title': 'Lead pursuit',
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'passage_text': 'As air-to-air manoeuvres take the relative motion into play, many times gunshots fired directly at the target miss it due to the constant movement of the target, and the chasing pilot feels that the shot is late to reach the target; meanwhile, target has moved from that location. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3679054',
'title': 'Powerhead (firearm)',
'section': 'Section::::Design.:Purpose of contact-shooting.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Bullets are generally designed to work in air, which has a very low density. The density of water is roughly 800 times higher than that of air at sea level, and that reduces the penetration of a bullet proportionally. A bullet might travel a mile (1.6 km) in air, but travel no more than a few feet (about a meter) in water. Expanding hunting or defensive ammunition, such as that using hollow point bullets, will penetrate even less, as the water is dense enough to cause the bullet to expand. By firing while in contact with the target, a powerhead does not waste energy on traveling through the water, but rather expends all its energy directly on the target.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22330996',
'title': 'Golf stroke mechanics',
'section': 'Section::::Shots.:Secondary characteristics.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- A "punch" or "knock-down" shot is one with a low trajectory, that is employed when hitting into the wind or in order to avoid hitting the ball into overhead obstructions. This stroke is achieved by keeping the weight forward and the hands ahead of the clubhead through impact.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '584911',
'title': 'External ballistics',
'section': 'Section::::Using ballistics data.\n',
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'passage_text': 'This table demonstrates that, even with a fairly aerodynamic bullet fired at high velocity, the "bullet drop" or change in the point of impact is significant. This change in point of impact has two important implications. Firstly, estimating the distance to the target is critical at longer ranges, because the difference in the point of impact between 400 and is 25–32\u2009in (depending on zero), in other words if the shooter estimates that the target is 400\u2009yd away when it is in fact 500\u2009yd away the shot will impact 25–32\u2009in (635–813\u2009mm) below where it was aimed, possibly missing the target completely. Secondly, the rifle should be zeroed to a distance appropriate to the typical range of targets, because the shooter might have to aim so far above the target to compensate for a large bullet drop that he may lose sight of the target completely (for instance being outside the field of view of a telescopic sight). In the example of the rifle zeroed at , the shooter would have to aim 49\u2009in or more than 4\u2009ft (1.2\u2009m) above the point of impact for a target at 500\u2009yd.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '186150',
'title': 'Terminal ballistics',
'section': 'Section::::Firearm projectiles.:Classes of bullets.:Target shooting.\n',
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'passage_text': 'For short range target shooting on ranges up to 50 meters (55 yd), aerodynamics are relatively unimportant and velocities are low. As long as the bullet is balanced so it does not tumble, the aerodynamics are unimportant. For shooting at paper targets, the best bullet is one that will punch a perfect hole through the target. These bullets are called wadcutters. They have a very flat front, often with a relatively sharp edge along the perimeter. The flat front punches out a large hole in the paper, close to, if not equal to, the full diameter of the bullet.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do bullets fired into the air come down fast enough to do damage?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
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'answers': ['Bullets are propelled by gases from a gunpowder charge. Once it leaves the barrel traveling up, eventually the round reaches an apex, and heads back toward gravity. It will reach terminal velocity falling back down, which is much less than muzzle velocity firing up, but still enough to do damage. Case in point, a stray round coming back down in this manner took out the back window of my friends car a few 4th of Julys ago, it was found in the trunk after passing through the seat back.',
'It accelerates at 9.8m/sec² (minus wind friction) so if my math is close it would come down with a terminal velocity of around 175mph.',
"There's actually a myth busters episode about this. If you fire a bullet straight up in the air, perfectly perpendicular to the ground, it won't have enough velocity coming back down to kill you. It probably won't tickle but you won't die. If I remember correctly, their theory was that when people fire up into the air they don't do it perfectly perpendicular to the ground so the bullet continues to spin as it travels point-first (as it does when fired levelly), and thus maintains its aerodynamic-ness and speed enough to kill.",
" > what makes it go fast enough to kill someone?\n\nGravity.\n\nTheir terminal falling velocity may be a lot lower than their muzzle velocity, but it's still well beyond fast enough to do serious damage or kill.",
'Other situation is when bullets don’t go up at a steep enough angle to lose velocity and fall down. Instead they make more of a rainbow arc, not loosing THAT much speed at all before impacting something.',
'Mythbusters covered this several times. A bullet fired straight up will eventually stop and fall back down. Terminal velocity for a bullet is only about 100 miles per hour. Not enough to hurt you. \n\nA bullet fired at an angle will still travel horizontally at several hundred miles per hour. That is how people get killed.'],
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'query_id': 'c9pxp6',
'query': 'how do bullets fired into the air come down fast enough to do damage?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '402713',
'title': 'Windscreen wiper',
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'passage_text': "A windshield wiper or windscreen wiper (British English) is a device used to remove rain, snow, ice and debris from a vehicle's front window. Almost all motor vehicles, including cars, trucks, buses, train locomotives, and watercraft with a cabin—and some aircraft—are equipped with one or more such wipers, which are usually a legal requirement.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30426',
'title': 'Total internal reflection',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 108,
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'passage_text': 'Rain sensors for automatic windscreen/windshield wipers have been implemented using the principle that total internal reflection will guide an infrared beam from a source to a detector if the outer surface of the windshield is dry, but any water drops on the surface will divert some of the light.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13036200',
'title': 'Automobile drag coefficient',
'section': 'Section::::Deletion.:Windshield wipers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'The effect that windshield wipers have on a vehicles airflow varies between vehicles; however, they are often omitted from race vehicles and high efficiency concepts in order to maintain the smallest possible coefficient of drag. A much more common option is to replace the windshield wipers with lower profile wipers, or to only remove the windshield wiper on the passenger side of the vehicle, and even to fabricate a deflector to deflect the air up and over the wipers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '925835',
'title': 'Blizzard of 1977',
'section': 'Section::::In western New York.:Onset.:Friday afternoon.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
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'passage_text': 'In addition to the roads becoming impassable, motorists also had to deal with vehicles breaking down due to the combination of very cold temperatures, very high winds, and blowing snow. For example, a maintenance pickup truck at the Buffalo airport had snow blasted into the engine compartment that then melted, saturated the spark plugs, and stalled the engine. A report from Welland, Ontario, (see section below for a description of the blizzard in Canada) indicated many cars there overheated when snow got under the radiator, melted, and then refroze, interfering with the fan.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '402713',
'title': 'Windscreen wiper',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'On some vehicles, a windscreen/windshield washer system is also used to improve and expand the function of the wiper(s) to dry or icy conditions. This system sprays water, or an antifreeze "window washer fluid", at the windscreen using several well-positioned nozzles. This system helps remove dirt or dust from the windscreen when it is used in concert with the wiper blades. When antifreeze washer fluid is used, it can help the wipers remove snow or ice. For these types of winter conditions, some vehicles have additional heaters aimed at the windows, or embedded heating wire(s) in the glass; these defroster systems help to keep snow and ice from building up on the windscreen. Less frequently, miniature wipers are installed on headlights to ensure that they function optimally.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2889917',
'title': 'Mary Anderson (inventor)',
'section': 'Section::::Windshield wipers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': "In a visit to New York City in the winter of 1903, in a trolley car on a frosty day, Anderson observed that a trolley car driver struggled to see past the windows because of the falling sleet. When she returned to Alabama she hired a designer for a hand-operated device to keep a windshield clear and had a local company produce a working model. She applied for, and in 1903 was granted, a 17-year patent for a windshield wiper. Her device consisted of a lever inside the vehicle that controlled a rubber blade on the outside of the windshield. The lever could be operated to cause the spring-loaded arm to move back and forth across the windshield. A counterweight was used to ensure contact between the wiper and the window. Similar devices had been made earlier, but Anderson's was the first to be effective.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '59793473',
'title': 'Windshield phenomenon',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The windshield phenomenon (or windscreen phenomenon) is a term given to the anecdotal observation that people tend to find fewer insects smashed on the windscreens of their cars now compared to a decade or several decades ago. This effect has been ascribed to major global declines in insect abundance. \n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do people pull their windshield wipers up during a snow storm?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['To prevent the wipers from becoming frozen onto the windshield glass, if ice forms due to snow melting and refreezing.'],
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'query_id': '7md9x0',
'query': 'why do people pull their windshield wipers up during a snow storm?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1652437',
'title': 'TracFone Wireless',
'section': 'Section::::Other brands.:Straight Talk.\n',
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'passage_text': "Straight Talk is a Mobile Virtual Network Operator (MVNO) offering both CDMA and GSM support. The CDMA service uses Verizon's or Sprint's CDMA 1xRTT wireless networks and the GSM service makes use of either T-Mobile's or AT&T's GSM networks.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2013139',
'title': 'Xfinity',
'section': 'Section::::Land line telephone.\n',
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'passage_text': "Xfinity Voice allows communication over the internet using VoIP, but uses a private network instead of a public IP address, which allows Comcast to prioritize the voice data during heavy traffic. In technical terms, on Comcast's Hybrid Fiber Coaxial network, calls are placed into individual Unsolicited Grant Service flows, based on DOCSIS 1.1 Quality of service standards. For the customer, this has the benefit of preventing network congestion from interfering with call quality. However, this separation of traffic into separate flows, or Smart pipe, has been seen by some as a violation of net neutrality, who call instead for equal treatment of all data, or dumb pipe. Other, non-Comcast VoIP services on Comcast's network must use the lower priority public IP addresses. The practice was questioned by the FCC in 2009. In their response, Comcast stated that services that use telecommunications are not necessarily telecommunications services, and noted the FCC's current designation of Comcast Digital Voice as an information service exempted it from telecommunications service regulations. Comcast also said that because Comcast Voice was a separate service, it was unfair to directly compare the data for Comcast Voice with the data for other VoIP services.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29296208',
'title': 'VenueGen',
'section': 'Section::::Technology.:Audio.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 317,
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'passage_text': "Users with a headset and a broadband connection can communicate through VoIP or dial-in from a phone line using one of VenueGen's designated conference phone numbers. Voices of participants are heard in-world through 3D positional sound audio that enables users to locate and identify users speaking around the room.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12455177',
'title': 'Telstra Corporate Centre',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Telstra Corporate Centre is an office skyscraper in Melbourne, Australia. Standing 218 m high with 47 floors (43 used as offices), it is in the top ten tallest in Melbourne. It is located at 242 Exhibition Street. It is the world headquarters for Telstra and includes a small retail precinct located on the ground floor towards the Little Lonsdale St side.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42663908',
'title': 'Perrott Lyon Mathieson',
'section': 'Section::::Notable projects.:Telstra Corporate Centre.\n',
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'passage_text': "The Telstra Corporate Centre is a sleek, black signature for a corporatised government monopoly, to some extent comfortable and very recognisable that sits well in the skyline. The design at the corporate scale is to accept a complicity with the value system of the city that is to accept the primary role of the other discourses such as the economic and speculative. The aerial view of the telecom building shows us the glazed tower wrapped around the core. The overall configuration of the tower, as an object, is sculptural rather than elevational with the smoked class curtain walls that cover the majority of the building's exterior facade, reflecting the city on its surface as well as keeping its interior private. Its glass curtain walls coil around the grey tilted lift core, offering the different aspects of its composition as the viewer circles the city. The telecom corporate building by Perrott Lyon Mathieson is an evolution of the tower type in Melbourne as it is able to reconfigure the tower as a response to the city in the round, or a reading of the city as an object. As part of the skyline, this view of the collective aspirations of a society is critical in placing that society within world culture, but also in designating its difference.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29580',
'title': 'Set-top box',
'section': 'Section::::TV signal sources.:IPTV receiver.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In IPTV networks, the set-top box is a small computer providing two-way communications on an IP network and decoding the video streaming media. IP set-top boxes have a built-in home network interface that can be Ethernet, Wireless (802.11 g,n,ac), or one of the existing wire home networking technologies such as HomePNA or the ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides a way to create a high-speed (up to 1Gbit/s) local area network using existing home wiring (power lines, phone lines, and coaxial cables).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13522458',
'title': 'British telephone socket',
'section': 'Section::::Broadband.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
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'passage_text': 'In order to use Broadband Internet services simultaneously with voice telephony, it is necessary to use a DSL filter. This is a low pass filter in line with the phone outlet. This prevents high frequency data noise from affecting the lower frequency voice bandwidth and it also prevents the low impedance of the connected phone from attenuating or modulating the high speed DSL data Path. Enough bandwidth is retained for voice telephony and the majority is used for high speed data. \n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How can Straight Talk use the same towers as Verizon and other top tier providers?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Mobile phone companies own a lot of spectrum and towers, generally more than they can use (for now, things are growing). They sell their excess capacity to other providers, such as Straight Talk to use unused portions of their mobile phone networks. It's making $0 while not in use, so they'd rather sell it then have it generate no cash for them.\n\nJust about all large mobile phone companies do this to a fairly significant degree, and as such, its not uncommon for a company (such as a Straight Talk) to have deals with multiple providers in order to make sure their network is good enough, as often one single provider can't give them everything they need.",
'Towers are expensive to build, own, and maintain. So straight talk just leases space from other carriers that have already built.a tower. They dont have to worry about building them and the other carrier gets to recoup some funds',
'Thanks for the easy to understand reply. ',
'I work for a cell phone tower company. We own the towers and rent space on each one to several different carriers. Here’s a random tower from a google search. Generally each level of antennae you see belongs to a different carrier. \n\n_URL_0_',
"In addition to the fact that the big companies (Verizon, Att, etc) lease their towers they do so cheaper than it costs for their own customers, how could they get away with that you might ask? Often times it's because the leased carriers are given lower priority than the primary owner, so Straight talk might not get a fast internet download speed while at the same time a Verizon customer would. \n\nThe second tier carriers can be a great deal but understand you may not get quite the same quality of service.",
'I think there are some anti-competition laws which force large telecoms into sharing their towers with smaller companies. Of course they have to pay to use them.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9eitx6',
'query': 'how can straight talk use the same towers as verizon and other top tier providers?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '20630639',
'title': 'Oral ecology',
'section': 'Section::::Ecology and types.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': "Oral bacteria work with our immune system to keep our bodies disease free by fighting disease-producing germs that try to come in through the mouth. For example, some of these bacteria produce organic acids that kill the organisms that cause intestinal problems. Without these good bacteria, our immune systems would be constantly bombarded by airborne and saliva-transferred germs. Bacteria are also needed to control the growth of fungus. “Balance between all the different bacteria and fungus are critical” or else the “fungus overgrows and takes over.” So, ironically, though bacteria have the potential to harm us, our mouth and the good bacteria in it are the body's first line of defense. These bacteria are transmitted to a human early in their childhood through their contact with their caretakers by kisses or food premastication.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20630639',
'title': 'Oral ecology',
'section': 'Section::::Diseases.:Diseases transmitted through saliva.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': "Each day numerous bacteria grow in a person's mouth. Though bacteria and saliva can be beneficial to one's health, both can also cause problems. Many diseases are related to oral bacteria. Proper oral care and habits can protect against and reduce the effects of some harmful bacteria.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16159527',
'title': 'Mouth infection',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'The bacteria of the oral microbiome consist of a wide variety of gram positive cocci and rods, gram negative cocci and rods, obligate anaerobes, and facultative anaerobes. The most common bacteria that causes mouth infections are "Streptococcus" species. Poor dental hygiene promotes the accumulation of these bacteria at the tooth root, eventually causing a cavity or dental caries. The decaying tooth root provides bacteria with an enclosed environment with low oxygen content. Consequently, the obligate and facultative anaerobes present within the oral cavity flourish and outcompete the other bacteria at the site of tooth decay, causing the dental caries to escalate into a mouth infection. The corrosive enzymes released by the anaerobes erode the surrounding bone and enable the infection to invade surrounding structures. Given the natural history of a mouth infection, the vast majority of clinically-treated oral infections are polymicrobial, or caused by multiple different species of bacteria at the same time. Until the source of the infection is controlled with some form of drainage and antibiotics, a mouth infection will likely not resolve on its own.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '782',
'title': 'Mouthwash',
'section': 'Section::::Research.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
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'passage_text': 'Research in the field of microbiotas shows that only a limited set of microbes cause tooth decay, with most of the bacteria in the human mouth being harmless. Focused attention on cavity-causing bacteria such as "Streptococcus mutans" has led research into new mouthwash treatments that prevent these bacteria from initially growing. While current mouthwash treatments must be used with a degree of frequency to prevent this bacteria from regrowing, future treatments could provide a viable long-term solution.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16159527',
'title': 'Mouth infection',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'Mouth infections are most commonly caused by an overgrowth of bacteria that normally populate the oral cavity. In a healthy adult, billions of bacteria, viruses, and fungi reside within the oral cavity and represent more than 500 different species. They are collectively known as the oral microbiome. When healthy, the oral microbiome is in dynamic equilibrium such that no one bacteria or group of organisms dominates. However, certain situations, like a decaying tooth root or a penetrating puncture wound from a fish bone, can generate an environment that disrupts the normal oral microbiome and promote the growth of pathogenic bacteria. Although sore throats (pharyngitis) are caused by viruses and oral yeast infections (candidiasis) are caused by fungi, most mouth infections that lead to swelling and abscesses are caused by bacteria.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20630639',
'title': 'Oral ecology',
'section': 'Section::::Ecology and types.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'The human mouth contains around 500 to 1,000 different types of bacteria with various functions as part of the human flora and oral microbiology. About 100 to 200 species may live in them at any given time. Individuals that practice oral hygiene have 1,000 to 100,000 bacteria living on each tooth surface, while less clean mouths can have between 100 million and 1 billion bacteria on each tooth. While some of the bacteria in our mouths are harmful and can cause serious illness, much of our oral bacteria are actually beneficial in preventing disease. Streptococci make up a large part of oral bacteria.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20630639',
'title': 'Oral ecology',
'section': 'Section::::Diseases.:Diseases transmitted through saliva.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': "Because of the amount of bacteria in each person's mouth, there is a transfer of bacteria through saliva when lip balm, drinks, toothbrushes, or anything else is shared. Some of these viruses that result are relatively inconsequential while others could potentially have a serious impact on one's life. Some examples of the milder diseases passed through saliva include herpes simple virus (cold sores or canker sores), flu virus, cold virus, and various bacteria that cause periodontal disease (inflammation or infection of gum tissue), venereal diseases, and candida albicans (fungus).\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does bacteria in our mouth become harmful to our teeth, while bacteria inside our body is usually kept in check and co-exists within us?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["When bacteria in the mouth eat food they poop acid. That acid mixes with food and saliva to make 'plaque'. The plaque sticks to your teeth. The acid in the plaque dissolves the surface of your tooth (enamel), creating holes (cavities).",
"It's the foods we eat. All the sugar. Our ancestors ate the diet we evolved to eat and it was much nicer on the teeth.",
'Strep Mutans is a specific bacteria that has evolved the ability to infect tooth structure. It converts carbs into acid that dissolve tooth structure.... as they destroy the tooth they create their own microenvironment to thrive in. There are hundreds of other bacteria in your mouth that are harmless. Kind of like most of the bacteria in your gut is helpful but Salmonella will make you sick.',
"Because our modern diets are particularly bacteria friendly. Refined sugars stick to the teeth and are easy for bacteria to consume.\n\nIt's only in the last couple of centuries that sugar's become so available, so we're not evolved to deal with it at all.",
'Dentist here so you’re in my wheelhouse. The top commenter did a solid job of an ELI5 but I’m going to make a couple of additions. The acids produced by the bacteria in our mouths are indeed what dissolve our teeth and create “cavities”. The bacteria eat and break down carbohydrates - chips, crackers, candy, soda, Gatorade, energy drinks, fruit juice, etc. Everytime the bacteria are given food, they eat and produce their acidic byproducts, usually lasting 20-60min after the last bite/drink. This drops the pH balance of our mouths, which usually hovers around neutral (neither acidic nor basic). Upon constant replenishing of bacterial food products with each bite or sip, the acid eventually builds up enough that our saliva (which protects our teeth) gets overpowered and the pH drops past 5.5, THIS is when demineralization (decay) begins, and will continue UNTIL the pH is brought back above 5.5. \n\nThis is why constant snacking/sipping sugary foods and beverages is so bad for our teeth - the bacteria are in a constant state of nutrient intake and acid production which then leads to extended periods of low pH and subsequent tooth decay.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'f5iclc',
'query': 'why does bacteria in our mouth become harmful to our teeth, while bacteria inside our body is usually kept in check and co-exists within us?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '40084006',
'title': 'Smart lock',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Smart locks allow users to grant access to a third party by means of a virtual key. This key can be sent to the recipient smartphone over standard messaging protocols such as e-mail or SMS. Once this key is received the recipient will be able to unlock the smart lock during the time previously specified by the sender.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40084006',
'title': 'Smart lock',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Smart locks, like the traditional locks, need two main parts to work: the lock and the key. In the case of these electronic locks, the key is not a physical key but a smartphone or a special key fob configured explicitly for this purpose which wirelessly performs the authentication needed to automatically unlock the door.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7156461',
'title': 'Default password',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "Some devices (such as wireless routers) will come with unique default router username and passwords printed on a sticker, which is more secure option than a common default password. Some vendors will however derive the password from the device's MAC address using a known algorithm, in which case the password can be also easily reproduced by attackers.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '525465',
'title': 'Lock and key',
'section': 'Section::::Types of lock.:With electronic keys.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A smart lock is an electromechanics lock that gets instructions to lock and unlock the door from an authorized device using a cryptographic key and wireless protocol. Smart locks have begun to be used more commonly in residential areas, often controlled with smartphones. Smart locks are used in coworking spaces and offices to enable keyless office entry. In addition, electronic locks cannot be picked with conventional tools.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '210476',
'title': 'SIM lock',
'section': 'Section::::Unlocking technology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': 'A handset can be unlocked by entering a code provided by the network operator. Alternative mechanisms include software running on the handset or a computer attached to the handset, hardware devices that connect to the handset or over-the-air by the carrier. Usually the unlock process is permanent. The code required to remove all locks from a phone is referred to as the "master code", "network code key", or "multilock code". \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2778',
'title': 'Parallel ATA',
'section': 'Section::::Parallel ATA interface.:HDD passwords and security.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 106,
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'passage_text': 'A device can have two passwords: A User Password and a Master Password; either or both may be set. There is a Master Password identifier feature which, if supported and used, can identify without disclosing the current Master Password.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1135907',
'title': 'HomePlug',
'section': 'Section::::Security.\n',
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'passage_text': 'To simplify the process of configuring passwords on a HomePlug network, each device has a built-in master password, chosen at random by the manufacturer and hard-wired into the device, which is used only for setting the encryption passwords. A printed label on the device lists its master password.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do passwords work. Specifically passwords to unlock devices such as smartphones or laptops',
'selftext': 'Just to make it simpler to explain how do iPhones(if this isn’t publicly known then any computing device is fine the iPhone is just an example) know which password is correct and unencrypt your data for access without having what your password is stored to be checked against. If your smart device does have a stored copy of your password for checking how does it keep it hidden from people who would try to gain access to the phone. If this is too complex to be explained easily are their any resources you can point to that do explain it. Thanks in advance!',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['A iphone have a [Secure\\_Enclave](_URL_0_) that is a dedicated hardware for the password/fingerprint. It is not accessible to the general CPU except for calls that send it the passcode/fingerprint to it to unlock the system or conferme that it is correct. It also manage the part that encrypt the storage and send it the key. It is all built in a way so you never can read it.\n\nSo if there is not password it the CPU can set one but to change it you first need to send the current password and then you can update it. You can never read back the password because the hardware part that handle and store it do not allow that.',
'At a high level, typically most services (including a login to a device/computer) take what you type as a password (numbers, letters etc)\nand run a mathematical transformation on it called a “hash”\n\nThe advantages of this are \n1) you get the same “hash” output value every time for the same input (password)\n2) the hash itself cannot easily be reversed, so that you can’t get the plain text password just by stealing (or looking at) it\n\nWhen you type the password, the hash is generated and then compared to the hash stored somewhere on the system.\nIf they match, you gain access. \n\nWhere this hash is stored depends on the device or operating system (iOS, Mac, Windows , Linux etc)',
' > how do iPhones ... know which password is correct and unencrypt your data for access without having what your password is stored to be checked against.\n\nThis is actually due to a very clever process called a "hash". This is a complicated mathematical function that is easy to do one way but extremely difficult to do in reverse. A common example is finding prime numbers; it is pretty easy to check if a specific number is prime, but finding the next prime number after a really big prime requires a bunch of calculations that take a very long time.\n\nSo the password is run through this hashing algorithm and it spits out this big number called the "hash" of the password. This big number is **not unique** to the password, there are other possible inputs which could produce that result called "collisions". However those other options are absurdly unlikely to run across by chance, like one in many trillions.\n\nThe device only stores the hash of the password, not the password itself. If you tell the device your password it runs the hash function again and checks to see if the results match. If they do it unlocks the device because evidently you know what the password is. However even if someone steals the hash they still don\'t know what to tell your device in order to unlock it, until they can calculate backwards from the hash to find one of the inputs that would yield that result (either your password or one of the collisions). But calculating backwards might take tens of thousands of years with current computing technology, at which point you certainly don\'t care.',
"Storing passwords themselves isn't particularly secure, because any good hacker will be able to find it, extract it, and take advantage of it.\n\nBut this poses a problem, if it isn't secure to store a password in plain text, what can the program use to check if the password you input is correct?\n\nThe method typically used for this is hashing.\n\nA hash is a mathematical algorithm that has two main features.\n\n1. Regardless of what value you input, it always gives an output of the same length.\n\n2. The algorithm is not reversible. You can't perform the equation backwards to turn the hash back into the original password.\n\nWhen you type in your password the algorithm turns it into a hash, and that is compared to what is stored on the device.\n\nSo what is the upside of doing this?\n\nA database of hashes are all the same length, so even if a hacker were to steal them they couldn't determine how long the original password was. Be it 1 character or 100.\n\nHashes themselves aren't useable, if you put the hash value into the application it will get hashed itself and therefore give a completely different value and not work.\n\nHashes can't be reversed, so having the hash doesn't mean you can easily determine what the original password was.\n\nHashes are complex and slow, meaning they need a lot of processing power to run. This is good from a security perspective because it slows hackers down. It's difficult to brute force hashes because you need a lot of CPU power to run hashing algorithms over and over again.\n\nBut that doesn't mean it's infallible. Hashing algorithms are public knowledge (ie the equations are standardized and easy to get) so what hackers do is create databases of hashes using pre-generated passwords. So they run a,b,c,d, etc and common passwords through the equation to make a database of known hashes... then they compare stolen hashes to the database to get people's passwords.\n\nThe catch is this requires a lot of effort, but it's becoming more and more common place as an attack as these databases are pre-generated (someone has done the hard work for you already) and are easily found on the internet."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'cp2ry3',
'query': 'how do passwords work. specifically passwords to unlock devices such as smartphones or laptops',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '37007714',
'title': 'Work Programme',
'section': 'Section::::Criticism.:Payment-by-results.\n',
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'passage_text': 'It has been argued that payment-by-results whereby companies only get paid for finding people work meant that they focussed on the "easiest" cases among the long-term unemployed with the most "difficult" effectively sidelined. The term "creaming and parking" has been used to describe this process. The Department for Work and Pensions denied that "parking" was an issue. A study by the Third Sector Research Centre at Birmingham University found widespread "gaming" of the Work Programme by private sector providers. They argue that because providers were not paid until an unemployed person had been in work for two years it made little economic sense to concentrate on the most "difficult cases". The study also found that the largest private sector providers known as "primes" were guilty of passing more difficult cases onto sub-contractors. Furthermore, "parking" meant that charities were not getting referrals under the Work Programme as such customers were not considered likely to result in a payment for the provider.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22241545',
'title': 'Bristol Bus Boycott',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The bus workers\' concern, apart from racism, was that a new competitive source of labour could reduce their earnings. Pay was low and workers relied on overtime to get a good wage. One shop steward said, "people were fearful of an influx of people from elsewhere (on the grounds it) would be reducing their earnings potential."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '53706',
'title': 'Wage slavery',
'section': 'Section::::Psychological effects.:Psychological control.:Lower wages.\n',
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'passage_text': 'At the same time, employers in the service industry have justified unstable, part-time employment and low wages by playing down the importance of service jobs for the lives of the wage laborers (e.g. just temporary before finding something better, student summer jobs and the like).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '786944',
'title': 'Working poor',
'section': 'Section::::Obstacles to uplift.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Given the fact that many working poor people do not own a car or cannot afford to drive their car, where they live can significantly limit where they are able to work, and vice versa. Given the fact that public transportation in many US cities is sparse, expensive, or non-existent, this is a particularly salient obstacle. Some working poor people are able to use their social networks—if they have them—to meet their transportation needs. In a study on low-income single mothers, Edin and Lein found that single mothers who had someone to drive them to and from work were much more likely to be able to support themselves without relying on government aid.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '51114',
'title': 'Transport economics',
'section': 'Section::::Social effects on poverty.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In the US those with low income living in cities face a problem called “poverty transportation.” The problem arises because many of the entry level jobs which are sought out by those with little education are typically located in suburban areas. Those jobs are also not very accessible by public transportation because the transportation was often designed to move people around cities, which becomes a problem when the jobs are no longer located in the cities. Those who cannot afford cars inevitably suffer the worst, because they have no choice but to rely on public transport. The problem is illustrated by an estimation that 70% of entry level jobs are located in the suburbs, while only 32% of those jobs are within a quarter mile of public transportation. More difficult (or more expensive) access to jobs and other goods & services can act as a ghetto tax.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '786944',
'title': 'Working poor',
'section': 'Section::::Obstacles to uplift.\n',
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'passage_text': "Like the unemployed poor, the working poor struggle to pay for basic necessities like food, clothing, housing, and transportation. In some cases, however, the working poor's basic expenses can be higher than the unemployed poor's. For instance, the working poor's clothing expenses may be higher than the unemployed poor's because they must purchase specific clothes or uniforms for their jobs. Also, because the working poor are spending much of their time at work, they may not have the time to prepare their own food. In this case, they may frequently resort to eating fast food, which is less healthful and more expensive than home-prepared food.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '511068',
'title': 'Self-serving bias',
'section': 'Section::::Real-world implications.:Workplace.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
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'passage_text': "The self-serving bias can be found in several aspects of the workplace. Research shows that the self-serving bias is used to explain employment: being hired for a job is attributed to personal factors, whereas failure to obtain a job is attributed to external factors. Experimental investigation of the explanations for unemployment through asking participants to imagine particular job opportunities and likelihood of getting those jobs, however, did not show such a self-serving bias. Researchers claim that this may be due to the actor-observer role differences in the self-serving bias. Within the workplace, victims of serious occupational accidents tend to attribute their accidents to external factors, whereas their coworkers and management tend to attribute the accidents to the victims' own actions. Interpersonal dynamics of the self-serving bias in the previous section have implications for attributions for outcomes in the workplace. In an investigation of group dynamics, virtual group members had to complete a decision-making task via computer-mediated communication. Results showed that the self-serving bias was present in negative outcomes, and that greater interpersonal distance from group members increased blame for negative outcomes.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Some jobs are unpleasant but fundamental to society (eg: janitor, bus driver). Why aren't these the best paid jobs?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Because anyone can do them. They are low skill and lots of people can fill that role.\n\nSometimes they do get better pay because the job is undesirable (I think trash collectors get paid decent, at least compared to minimum wage). ',
"Jobs are categorized by amount of skills you need to have to perform the job or amount of profit that you produce per period of time. Also, supply and demand curve of labor. How many people are available on the market to do some particular job. Being a janitor doesn't require a much of skills or bachelors degree, a lot of people can do this job, and the outcome is just a clean place you work/ live.",
"Because they don't need to. Simple as that. The market doesn't require it. At the current pay, they can find qualified people to fill those positions. A brain surgeon would make $10/hr if they could hire good people at that amount. ",
"The most highly paid jobs require some combination of: a) exceptional intelligence/skill/education/training; and/or b) an unwillingness on the part of most people to perform the job.\n\nExample (A AND B): patent attorney. A patent attorney must have an outstanding technical background (undergrad degree (4 years) plus at least a master's degree (2yrs), and frequently a PhD (5-6 years)), must have a law degree (3 years), and then must want (or at least agree) to write patents consisting of scores/hundred of pages of highly detailed technical/legal jargon. It's insufferable, and most people (including me) find it incredibly boring.\n\nAt a large law firm, a patent attorney can start at $160-180K per year and in 10 years make anywhere from $500K to a few million dollars per year. \n\nOther examples (A and B) include: neurosurgeon, heart surgeon.\n\nExample (A NOT B): Movie actor. While many people may *want* the job, few have the skill to be able to perform adequately. Same for NFL player, etc. Result = high salary.\n\nExample (B NOT A): Garbageman. While few people *want* the job, it doesn't take much skill to perform. Result: higher salary than other low skilled positions, but not anywhere near as high as, say, a patent attorney.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n",
'Jobs aren\'t paid by how "tough" or "important" they are. They are (imperfectly) paid by how replaceable the skill is of the person doing the job.',
"It's basically supply and demand. More people are able and willing to become janitors, bus drivers, social workers, etc (massive supply) than there are positions available (limited demand), which drives down the price of the labor.",
'Supply and demand. Most people can be janitors or, with the proper training, drive buses. This large labor pool puts downward pressure on the wages for these occupations.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5p3j4i',
'query': "some jobs are unpleasant but fundamental to society (eg: janitor, bus driver). why aren't these the best paid jobs?",
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '4368067',
'title': 'Cashback reward program',
'section': 'Section::::Details.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Rewards based credit card products like cash back are more beneficial to consumers who pay their credit card statement off every month. Rewards based products generally have higher Annual percentage rate. If the balance were not paid in full every month the extra interest would eclipse any rewards earned. Most consumers do not know that their rewards-based credit cards charge higher fees to the vendors who accept them without vendors having any notification.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17182301',
'title': 'Credit card',
'section': 'Section::::Benefits and drawbacks.:Detriments to society.:Inflated pricing for all consumers.\n',
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'passage_text': "Merchants that accept credit cards must pay interchange fees and discount fees on all credit-card transactions. In some cases merchants are barred by their credit agreements from passing these fees directly to credit card customers, or from setting a minimum transaction amount (no longer prohibited in the United States, United Kingdom or Australia). The result is that merchants are induced to charge all customers (including those who do not use credit cards) higher prices to cover the fees on credit card transactions. The inducement can be strong because the merchant's fee is a percentage of the sale price, which has a disproportionate effect on the profitability of businesses that have predominantly credit card transactions, unless compensated for by raising prices generally. In the United States in 2008 credit card companies collected a total of $48 billion in interchange fees, or an average of $427 per family, with an average fee rate of about 2% per transaction.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17182301',
'title': 'Credit card',
'section': 'Section::::Credit cards in ATMs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 191,
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'passage_text': 'Many credit card companies will also, when applying payments to a card, do so, for the matter at hand, at the end of a billing cycle, and apply those payments to everything before cash advances. For this reason, many consumers have large cash balances, which have no grace period and incur interest at a rate that is (usually) higher than the purchase rate, and will carry those balances for years, even if they pay off their statement balance each month.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4368067',
'title': 'Cashback reward program',
'section': 'Section::::Details.\n',
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'passage_text': 'When accepting payment by credit card, merchants typically pay a percentage of the transaction amount in commission to their bank or merchant services provider. Merchants are often not allowed to charge a higher price when a credit card is used as opposed to other methods of payment, so there is no penalty for a card holder to use their credit card. The credit card issuer is sharing some of this commission with the card holder to incentivise them to use the credit card when making a payment.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9008',
'title': 'Debit card',
'section': 'Section::::Debit cards around the world.:United States.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Some consumers prefer "credit" transactions because of the lack of a fee charged to the consumer/purchaser. A few debit cards in the U.S. offer rewards for using "credit". However, since "credit" transactions cost more for merchants, many terminals at PIN-accepting merchant locations now make the "credit" function more difficult to access. For example, if you swipe a debit card at Wal-Mart or Ross in the U.S., you are immediately presented with the PIN screen for online debit. To use offline debit you must press "cancel" to exit the PIN screen, and then press "credit" on the next screen.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17182301',
'title': 'Credit card',
'section': 'Section::::Benefits and drawbacks.:Costs to merchants.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Merchants are charged several fees for accepting credit cards. The merchant is usually charged a commission of around 1 to 4 percent of the value of each transaction paid for by credit card. The merchant may also pay a variable charge, called a merchant discount rate, for each transaction. In some instances of very low-value transactions, use of credit cards will significantly reduce the profit margin or cause the merchant to lose money on the transaction. Merchants with very low average transaction prices or very high average transaction prices are more averse to accepting credit cards. In some cases merchants may charge users a "credit card supplement" (or surcharge), either a fixed amount or a percentage, for payment by credit card. This practice was prohibited by most credit card contracts in the United States until 2013, when a major settlement between merchants and credit card companies allowed merchants to levy surcharges. Most retailers have not started using credit card surcharges, however, for fear of losing customers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22538340',
'title': 'Credit CARD Act of 2009',
'section': 'Section::::Provisions.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Giving consumers enough time to pay their bills. Credit card companies have to give consumers at least 21 days to pay from the time the bill is mailed. Credit card companies can not "trap" consumers by setting payment deadlines on the weekend or in the middle of the day, or changing their payment deadlines each month. Creditors may not charge late fees if debtor shows proof of payment by close of business on the due date. If the established due date falls upon a Saturday, Sunday, or legal banking holiday, the due date is pushed back to the next business day.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "If you have good credit, and pay your bills off every month, how do credit card companies make money off you? Wouldn't they prefer customers with bad credit?",
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'category': 'Economics',
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'answers': ["You almost hit the nail on the head. It's not that credit card companies prefer customers with bad credit, but they do prefer customers that carry a balance on their accounts from month to month. They can't charge interest on a $0.00 balance, so in cases like that they make money from everyone else.",
'They prefer low risk, which is what a good credit score indicates, and they still make money even if you pay all your bills in full. Every time you use your card, the merchant has to pay a fee. A portion goes to the network (Visa, etc.), though the biggest share goes to the issuing bank. As long as you keep using your card, the bank keeps making money off of you. ',
'Credit card processors make processing fees for every transaction you make, which is a set fee plus a percentage of the total. So while they make more off you running up a balance and charging you exorbitant interest, they still do make money off you even if you pay your bill every month. Additionally, they have tons of consumer data on purchases/purchasing patterns, etc. they can sell.\n\nIt\'s sort of like the "freemium" model in other businesses, where access to a certain level of the product is free but for higher level access you have to pay. ',
"Credit card companies take a small percentage from the retailer on every sale. Retailers don't mind so much because people tend to spend more when they can put things on credit. When you buy a $1,000 TV at Best Buy with your MasterCard, MC gets about $25 from Best Buy right off the bat. American Express charges a higher percentage which is why it's less common to see retailers who accept their cards.\n\nLike /u/JenusPrist said, credit card companies like people who carry a bit of a balance but keep making regular payments, but someone who owes more money than they can realistically pay back becomes a high risk of defaulting. The credit card company may have to sell a $10,000 debt to a collections agency for pennies on the dollar to let them try to recover whatever they can.",
'They charge a little from the retailer, too. This is why some stores offer cheaper prices when paid in cash.\n\nIf you keep unpaid balance, it\'s double income for the card company.\n\nIn Thai we use a phrase like "gain both up and down" to describe this situation.'],
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'query_id': '6iyx3e',
'query': "if you have good credit, and pay your bills off every month, how do credit card companies make money off you? wouldn't they prefer customers with bad credit?",
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1275987',
'title': 'Moon illusion',
'section': 'Section::::External links.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- "Finally! Why the Moon Looks Big at the Horizon and Smaller When Higher Up" by Don McCready, Professor Emeritus, Psychology Department, University of Wisconsin-Whitewater, Revised 10 November 2004, retrieved 31 October 2015\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '31156672',
'title': 'Supermoon',
'section': 'Section::::Appearance.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A full moon at perigee appears roughly 14% larger in diameter than at apogee. Many observers insist that the moon looks bigger to them. This is likely due to observations shortly after sunset when the moon is near the horizon and the moon illusion is at its most apparent.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43777942',
'title': 'Face on Moon South Pole',
'section': 'Section::::Craters on the Moon.:Face or crater?\n',
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'passage_text': "When people describe the images they see on the Moon, such as a face, they are not directly seeing that image displayed upon the Moon. They are rather looking at an irregular section of the Moon's surface. The irregular section consists of deep holes, called craters, and hills.\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '21477128',
'title': 'September 2015 lunar eclipse',
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'passage_text': "The Moon appeared larger than normal, because the Moon was just 59 minutes past its closest approach to Earth in 2015 at mid-eclipse, sometimes called a supermoon. The Moon's apparent diameter was larger than 34' viewed straight overhead, just off the coast of northeast Brazil.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36094559',
'title': 'Solar eclipses on the Moon',
'section': 'Section::::At its edges of the near side and its small surroundings.\n',
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'passage_text': "It also occurs in several polar areas. In that part of the Moon, the Earth is seen in the high-altitude areas of craters, hills, and mountains, as well as a few areas such as lunar seas (also known as plains). In some areas, it is visible in deep craters and most of the surrounding lower-ground areas. In the middle parts, the Earth is never visible, and its eclipses are never seen as the crater and its mountains, including crater ones, block the view. In areas around seven to eight degrees near the far side, a part of the Earth's view is blocked. In some eclipses, this phenomenon begins not long after sunrise in the west and ends not long before sunset in the east. At that location, they are seen at higher altitudes and at most medium altitudes.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '889127',
'title': 'Mount Victoria, Wellington',
'section': 'Section::::Famous moonrise.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The Mount Victoria Lookout is the location where the video Full Moon Silhouettes was shot. It was filmed by photographer Mark Gee at moonrise on 28 January 2013. The real time video footage shows silhouettes of people gathered up on the lookout watching a huge moon rise, and quickly became an internet sensation, gaining international media attention and viewed by millions worldwide.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '61182504',
'title': 'Earth phase',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Among the most prominent features of the Moon\'s sky is Earth. Earth\'s angular diameter (1.9°) is four times the Moon\'s as seen from Earth, although because the Moon\'s orbit is eccentric, Earth\'s apparent size in the sky varies by about 5% either way (ranging between 1.8° and 2.0° in diameter). Earth shows phases, just like the Moon does for terrestrial observers. The phases, however, are opposite; when the terrestrial observer sees the full Moon, the lunar observer sees a "new Earth", and vice versa. Earth\'s albedo is three times as high as that of the Moon (due in part to its whitish cloud cover), and coupled with the wider area, the full Earth glows over 50 times brighter than the full Moon at zenith does for the terrestrial observer. This Earth light reflected on the Moon\'s un-sunlit half is bright enough to be visible from Earth, even to the unaided eye – a phenomenon known as earthshine.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does the moon look huge in the distance when poping over a mountain but small on a picture or a video?',
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'category': 'Physics',
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'answers': ["Forced perspective. When it's next to the mountain, your mind has a frame of reference. In a picture, or even just higher in the sky, you don't have that same reference.",
'The short answer is it\'s an optical illusion. This is mainly caused by having something to compare the moon\'s scale too (mountain, building, etc). \n\nMany people belive its due to being lower to the horizon and the atmosphere "magnifies" it, however this is incorrect. \n\nTo test this optical illusion for yourself, hold up an object at arms length to the moon when it is low on the horizon and looks larger. Compare the scale of the moon to the object. Then, later when the moon is higher in the sky and looks normal size, hold the same object at arms length again. You will see its the same size.',
'In addition to the other answers, in photography and film, you can use certain lenses and techniques to make the moon look gigantic, while the camera on phones and a lot of other things generally do the opposite. It might look smaller in the picture than it does irl because the camera being used creates the illusion that it is smaller than it really is',
"It's a well known optical illusion called the Moon Illusion. It's even apparent in video games like Minecraft. The closer to the horizon the moon is the bigger it looks.",
"The most likely reason for this illusion is how your brain's vision handling system interpets the Moon's distance. Your brain handles the Moon as being 'in the sky', and the sky is where the clouds are.\n\nWhen you are looking near the horizon, the clouds, and that horizon, are a long way away. So our brains assume the Moon is about that same distance away, so they present the Moon to us as very large object among distant things.\n\nWhen you are looking straight up, those same clouds are fairly close. Even when there are no clouds, our brains assume that the sky above us is a flat layer. So we see the moon as a small object that is close.\n\nThis image handling happens on a subconscious level, and the results are passed to our conscious mind. Only then do apply our knowledge that the moon is the same object that is very distant, and that its apparent changing size is not logical. In fact, because the Moon is further away from us when it rises, it should appear slightly smaller at the horizon than when it is overhead - and if you measure it - which is what a camera does - that is what you would find.",
'Not sure why everyone is explaining why the moon looks bigger near the horizon compared to up in the sky when the question is specifically about comparing it to a photo or video. \n\nThe answer is when you take a photo on your phone, your phone has a wide angle lens which tries to get a wide field of view. I.e it tries to capture the entire scenery in front of you. Distant objects look smaller the wider your lens is. \n\nTo get around this problem you need to use a telephoto lens. Telephoto (zoom) lenses make distant objects appear bigger because they have a narrower field of view. \n\nTo make the moon still appear bigger you could include a distant object in the picture like a building or an airplane. \n\nThe relative size of the distant object to the moon will make the moon look huge.\n\nEdit: edited for clarity',
'Moon Illusion.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nI know it is a WikiLink, but still a good read.',
' > but small on a picture or a video?\n\nThe size the moon appears in a picture or video is dictated by the focal length of the lens you are using, wide angle lenses make the moon appear small in a photograph and telephoto lenses make it appear larger. It would be similar in comparison to looking at the moon through binoculars versus looking at the moon through a telescope. \n\nAs an example phone cameras generally use the equivalent of 35mm or 50mm lenses (compared to 35mm SLR lenses), this is a relatively wide angle lenses so the moon appears very small in the picture. If you use a telephoto lens such as a 200mm, 500mm, or 800mm lens the moon will appear much larger in the photograph. The longer the focal length of the lens the more the moon will be magnified in the picture.',
'Focal length makes the background small in a lot of cellphone-type shots. To make the moon big, your best bet is to shoot it with a telescope. To get it big in the background, you would use a 400mm+ lens to shoot an object with the moon in the background.\n\nThe focal length keeps the subject normal but zooms the background a lot.',
'It has to do with the lens of the camera. If you shoot the moon with a lens upwards of 85mm it would look like it should, with a proper scale compared to other objects in the picture.\n\nWide lenses (35mm and wider) make things look further away and smaller. And phones rarely have a lens that is longer than 24-28mm.',
'I thought it had to do with focal length but now everyone in this thread says its because we dont know. Good?',
'It is not an optical illusion. It is not a perspective issue either. It is how light hits the camera sensor after bending through a curved lens. This is essentially how lenses are supposed to work.\n\nYou curve the lens to gather light from a wider area. As a consequence, the objects are rendered smaller. If you have one of those small curved rear view mirrors that stick on your existing rear view mirrors in the car, you know what I am talking about. These show you objects, but they don’t give you a good idea of their distance.\n\nOn a wide angle lens like your cellphone, objects at a distance appear smaller. That’s why your subject looks normal but the buildings or the horizon look smaller and get cramped into the scene.\n\nNow compare the distance between your subject and those buildings to the distance between the subject and the moon!',
"It all comes down to the focal length of the lens being used to catch the image. The longer the focal length, the more gigantic distant things are going to look. You can do tricks with this by having distant objects between you and the moon also showcased. So if you're miles away from a city skyline with the moon rising over it and you use say a 400mm lens to capture the image it's going to make the moon look like it takes up a meaningful percentage of the sky.\n\nHere's a good explainer. Photog used a 500mm max zoom dialed to the end with 2 teleconverters connected for an effective focal length of 1000mm or thereabouts.\n\n[_URL_0_](_URL_0_)",
'In my experience, whenever you poop over a mountain you have a strain a bit because your butthole gets real nervous. That makes your vision go blurry, so the moon appears bigger.',
'Are my eyes broken? Moon always looks small'],
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'query_id': 'bi3fm0',
'query': 'why does the moon look huge in the distance when poping over a mountain but small on a picture or a video?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '23140972',
'title': 'Intermediate rent',
'section': 'Section::::Rent to HomeBuy.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Another form of Intermediate Rent is known as "Rent to HomeBuy". This is where an applicant will be able to live in a property at a discounted rent for a period of three to five years at a subsidised rent, whilst keeping an option to purchase a percentage of the property at any point during the tenancy (typically 25%). This allows the household to live in the property of their choice, whilst using the money they save through the rent subsidy to save for a deposit.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '3743931',
'title': 'Rent-to-own',
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'passage_text': 'Rent-to-own, also known as rental-purchase, is a type of legally documented transaction under which tangible property, such as furniture, consumer electronics, motor vehicles, home appliances, real property, and engagement rings, is leased in exchange for a weekly or monthly payment, with the option to purchase at some point during the agreement.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '373963',
'title': 'Owner-occupancy',
'section': 'Section::::Pros and cons.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Houses and the land they sit on are expensive, and the combination of monthly mortgage, insurance, maintenance and repairs, and property tax payments are sometimes greater than monthly rental costs. Buildings may also gain and lose substantial value due to real estate market fluctuations, and selling a property can take a long time, depending on market conditions. This can make home ownership more constraining if the homeowner intends to move at a future date. Some home owners see their purchase as an investment and intend to either sell or rent the property after renovating or letting the house appreciate in value (known as flipping if done quickly).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '54070911',
'title': 'Home Ownership Investment',
'section': 'Section::::Details.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In a typical home ownership investment, a homeowner will receive 10% of the purchase value of the home in cash from an investor. In exchange, when the contract terminates, the investor will receive some percentage share in the increase or decrease of the value of the home, often between 35-50%, in addition to the initial investment.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '54070911',
'title': 'Home Ownership Investment',
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'passage_text': 'A home ownership investment can be originated at the time of purchase or on a currently owned home. If the investment in originated at the time of purchase, the purchase price is taken as a reference price for future return calculations. If the home is currently owned, an appraisal may be necessary to determine the original agreed upon price of the asset at origination.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '423958',
'title': 'Pre-approval',
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'passage_text': 'The "second" meaning relates to mortgage lending. People interested in buying a house can often approach a lender, who will check their credit history and verify their income, and then can provide assurances they would be able to get a loan up to a certain amount. This pre-approval can then help a buyer find a home that is within their loan amount range. Buyers can ask for a letter of pre-approval from the lender, and when shopping for a home can have possibly an advantage over others because they can show the seller that they are more likely to be able to buy the house. Often real estate agents prefer to work with a buyer who has a pre-approval as it demonstrates that they are well-qualified to receive financing and are serious about buying a home. A pre-approval is based on the documentation the borrower supplies at the time of application, and any actual eligibility to receive the pre-approved loan depends on the terms and conditions of the pre-approval and ability to secure the loan before the pre-approval expires.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5112281',
'title': 'Real estate in South Korea',
'section': 'Section::::"Jeonse".\n',
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'passage_text': 'This unique way of renting a house is called "jeonse"; a renter makes a lump-sum deposit on a rental space instead of paying monthly rent, at anywhere from 50 to 100% of the market value, and gets back the whole deposit when the rent contract ends. The home-owner is free to invest the deposit as wanted, as long as the same amount of money is returned to the tenant at the end of the contract.\n',
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'title': 'Home buying terms',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': [' > What are points and origination fees?\n\nThe origination fee is like an upfront payment to the lender for creating the loan. It is usually a percentage (0.5%, 1%) of the loan amount. _URL_1_\n\n > Is earnest money basically just a deposit? Does it get factored into the sale at all?\n\nThis is also called "good faith" money. It is like a deposit - it shows that you and the seller have taken the first step to put the house under contract, that you intend to buy the house (pending any serious findings from an inspection), etc. If you go through with the sale, then that money will go towards the final cost of the house, like part of an early deposit. If you as a buyer do not go through with the purchase because the inspection found a ton of mold or meth damage that wasn\'t previously disclosed (or other previously non-disclosed issues) then you should be entitled to the money back. If you do not go through with the purchase because you got cold feet/changed your mind, then you would not get the money back. If the seller changes his/her mind then you would get the money back.\n\n > What is a short sell and why do lenders ask if a house is a short sell?\n\nA short *sale* usually happens when the seller is having financial problems and the house is about to be foreclosed. They are trying to sell the house for less money than what their current loan amount for it is (for instance, they might owe $200,000 still but are trying to sell it for $160,000). Or it could be when the property of the value has fallen lower than what the owner owes and the loan holder might recover *some* money from the sale of the house in its current state. \n\nIt just requires more paperwork and more agreements on everyone\'s part to get a short sale through, since the bank that owns the title on the house has to agree to sell it at a loss basically. \n\nI would also caution you about short sales and just advise you to assume the worst possible scenario, which is that the person couldn\'t make financial payments, which means they probably couldn\'t pay to keep the house up so there might be some serious problems that you\'ll want to check for during an inspection (and some problems might even be self-evident when you do the initial walkthrough).\n\n > Is the interest rate different than the APR? If so, how are they different? If not, why are both terms used interchangeably?\n\nAPR = annual percentage rate, it is the more technical term for "interest rate". They\'re used interchangeably because they\'re equally common terms for the same thing. Sort of like how someone might say "soda" and someone might say "pop", or "gas" and "fuel". \n\n > What is mortgage insurance and what is covered by it?\n\nAlso called "Private Mortgage Insurance" or "PMI". It\'s generally activated when a buyer does not put down at least 20% deposit off the purchase cost. It\'s basically a way to protect the lender and help ensure the lender\'s investment in you is covered in case you stop paying the mortgage / fall behind on your payments. Some loans require it by default, others don\'t. You can read more about it here: _URL_0_\n\n > What happens in the time between going under contract and when you close?\n\nIf the loan isn\'t secured yet (ie, you were pre-approved so you could make the offer but the loan wasn\'t fully processed), they would fully process it. You would have licensed home inspectors come and check everything for issues (make sure the outlets work, make sure the appliances work, make sure the air conditioning and heat work, check for structural damage, make sure there aren\'t any gas leaks or unmitigated radon risks, stuff like that); once these inspections are done you get a report of the issues, and you can even go negotiate with the seller to get some of them fixed as part of a bargaining tool. You\'ll get homeowner\'s insurance set up. You can pay to get the title of the property inspected and secured so you don\'t have someone trying to make a claim against you ten years down the road that the property is part of their great-great-great-grandfather\'s inheritance that they just received. Stuff like that. \n\n**Since it\'s your first time buying a house, do research online about what benefits your state might offer you**. In some states there are first time home buyer benefits you can get access to that can help alleviate a little bit of the cost or grant you access to certain loans with better benefits.\n\nedit: If you live in Maryland I know a great guy > _ > I don\'t want to advertise here, PM me but this agent hooked me up with one of the hardest working lenders and insurance agents I\'ll probably ever meet.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'bpc1h1',
'query': 'home buying terms',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '494319',
'title': 'Circular breathing',
'section': 'Section::::Method.:Learning.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'The usual first difficulty is to inhale through the nose while blowing out air stored in the cheeks. To some this may be a big hurdle, to others it is no problem at all. This technique may be practiced by holding a finger in front of a thin air stream out of the lips and listening to the wind sound.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52819587',
'title': 'Romanisation of Sindhi',
'section': 'Section::::Indus Roman Sindhi.:Basics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': 'To get the air to come out of your nose, you lower your velum. This opens up your nasal cavity and lets the air out through your nostrils. You can let air out through your nose and mouth at the same time: This makes a nasalized sound.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48925128',
'title': 'Nose-blowing',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'end_character': 224,
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'passage_text': 'Nose-blowing is the act of expelling nasal mucus by exhaling forcefully through the nose. This is usually done into a facial tissue or handkerchief, facial tissues being more hygienic as they are disposed of after each use.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48536074',
'title': 'Flaccid dysarthria',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 339,
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'passage_text': 'Damage to the cranial nerves innervating muscles that control the velum may result in hypernasal speech. This can sound like someone is saying things through their nose, making oral sounds like "b" or "d" sound more like "m" or "n", respectively. Or, there may be air release through the nose that is audible, as in an attempt to say "s".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '848560',
'title': 'Nasolacrimal duct',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 376,
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'passage_text': 'This is the reason the nose starts to run when a person is crying or has watery eyes from an allergy, and why one can sometimes taste eye drops. For the same reason when applying some eye drops it is often advised to close the nasolacrimal duct by pressing it with a finger to prevent the medicine from escaping the eye and having unwanted side effects elsewhere in the body.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3512524',
'title': 'Respiratory sounds',
'section': 'Section::::Abnormal breath sounds.:Continued.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 255,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Rales: Small clicking, bubbling, or rattling sounds in the lungs. They are heard when a person breathes in (inhales). They are believed to occur when air opens closed air spaces. Rales can be further described as moist, dry, fine, and coarse.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48925128',
'title': 'Nose-blowing',
'section': 'Section::::Etiquette.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'Nose-blowing becomes a breach of etiquette if it is done directly in front of someone at a dining table or in a lobby. When nose-blowing needs to take place at the table, the person doing it should turn away from everybody else and especially away from food on the table. If the nose-blowing session is going to be short, then it could be done at the table, but if the nose is too stuffed and the resulting nose-blowing session will be long and loud, then it is strongly advised to go to the restroom/washroom.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why can’t you hum while holding your nose?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['You can if you open your mouth. The air that carries the sound from your vocal cords has to go somewhere. ',
"Because humming is essentially forcing sound to come out of your nose. You're basically pronouncing a nasal consonant; so if you're blocking your nose, you can't pronounce a nasal consonant, and thus, cannot hum. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9mw9q0',
'query': 'why can’t you hum while holding your nose?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '93768',
'title': 'Government bond',
'section': 'Section::::Risks.:Interest rate risk.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': 'Interest rate changes can affect the value of a bond. If the interest rates fall, then the bond prices rise and if the interest rates rise, bond prices fall. When interest rates rise, bonds are more attractive because investors can earn higher coupon rate, thereby holding period risk may occur. Interest rate and bond price have negative correlation. Lower fixed-rate bond coupon rates meaning higher interest rate risk and higher fixed-rate bond coupon rates meaning lower interest rate risk. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60737',
'title': 'Bond (finance)',
'section': 'Section::::Investing in bonds.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 110,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 110,
'end_character': 766,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Fixed rate bonds are subject to "interest rate risk", meaning that their market prices will decrease in value when the generally prevailing interest rates rise. Since the payments are fixed, a decrease in the market price of the bond means an increase in its yield. When the market interest rate rises, the market price of bonds will fall, reflecting investors\' ability to get a higher interest rate on their money elsewhere — perhaps by purchasing a newly issued bond that already features the newly higher interest rate. This does not affect the interest payments to the bondholder, so long-term investors who want a specific amount at the maturity date do not need to worry about price swings in their bonds and do not suffer from interest rate risk.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16436684',
'title': 'Inverse floating rate note',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': "As short-term interest rates fall, both the market price and the yield of the inverse floater increase. This link often magnifies the fluctuation in the bond's price. However, in the opposite situation, when short-term interest rates rise, the value of the bond can drop significantly, and holders of this type of instrument may end up with a security that pays little interest and for which the market will pay very little. Thus, interest rate risk is magnified and contains a high degree of volatility.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8421588',
'title': 'Amortizing loan',
'section': 'Section::::Effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "BULLET::::- Interest rate risk: A secondary effect is that amortization reduces the duration of the debt, reducing the debt's sensitivity to interest rate risk, as compared to debt with the same maturity and coupon rate. This is because there are smaller payments in the future, so the weighted-average maturity of the cash flows is lower.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2029112',
'title': 'Bond market',
'section': 'Section::::Volatility.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "But participants who buy and sell bonds before maturity are exposed to many risks, most importantly changes in interest rates. When interest rates increase, the value of existing bonds falls, since new issues pay a higher yield. Likewise, when interest rates decrease, the value of existing bonds rises, since new issues pay a lower yield. This is the fundamental concept of bond market volatility—changes in bond prices are inverse to changes in interest rates. Fluctuating interest rates are part of a country's monetary policy and bond market volatility is a response to expected monetary policy and economic changes.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '849779',
'title': 'Bond convexity',
'section': 'Section::::Mathematical definition.:How bond duration changes with a changing interest rate.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'As the interest rate increases, the present value of longer-dated payments declines in relation to earlier coupons (by the discount factor between the early and late payments). However, bond price also declines when interest rate increases, but changes in the present value of sum of each coupons times timing (the numerator in the summation) are larger than changes in the bond price (the denominator in the summation). Therefore, increases in r must decrease the duration (or, in the case of zero-coupon bonds, leave the unmodified duration constant). Note that the modified duration D differs from the regular duration by the factor one over 1+r (shown above), which also decreases as r is increased.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21326076',
'title': 'Bond vigilante',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': "In the bond market, prices move inversely to yields. When investors perceive that inflation risk or credit risk is rising they demand higher yields to compensate for the added risk. As a result, bond prices fall and yields rise, which increases the net cost of borrowing. The term references the ability of the bond market to serve as a restraint on the government's ability to over-spend and over-borrow.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'what causes bond interest rates to fluctuate?',
'selftext': 'I understand that the reason that Dow J dropped so sharply yesterday was because the interest on a longer term bond was higher than that of a short term bond (or at least that what my personal finance teacher explained it as; inverted interest was the term I think) but what major factors affect the interest rate for bonds?',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The more you want a bond, the less the government has to pay you in interest to buy it. How much do I have to pay you per day to pick up dog poop? A lot. Now how much do I have to pay you per day to pet kittens? Very little, because everyone wants to pet kittens! If everyone wants a 10-year bond, they don't need to lure you into buying it by promising a huge interest rate - they already have your excitement to have one.\n\nTo take your question a step further, WHY does someone want a 10-year bond? Or a 2-year bond? It's a safe place to store your money and still get paid some interest in the process (as opposed to a bank account or under your mattress, which pays you essentially nothing). The problem is that more people want a bond that lasts for 10 years than one that lasts for 2 years. Crazy, right? Why would you rather have a bond that doesn't pay you back your original amount for 10 years than one that pays you back in two years? Because more and more, people are convinced that the economy will be terrible in two years, but will be back to normal in 10 years. By buying 10 year bonds, they're guaranteeing themselves that nice little interest rate for 10 years, rather than just two - in case things turn bad in two years and there are no more good interest rates available."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'cqtd1h',
'query': 'what causes bond interest rates to fluctuate?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '4438616',
'title': 'ShoppingTown Mall',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': "In 2012 a community theater, Central New York Playhouse, opened. This was part of a trend in which local businesses and community groups filled some of the space created by the loss of national retail tenants. Between 2015 and 2016 the mall lost three of its four anchor tenants, Macy's, Dick's Sporting Goods, and J.C. Penney. In February 2015, Moonbeam Capital Investments proposed plans to demolish the Sears wing and turn it into a strip mall. This has been halted indefinitely because of a tax dispute.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37294420',
'title': 'East Broadway (Manhattan)',
'section': 'Section::::Structures and places.:East Broadway Mall.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
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'passage_text': 'However, since the 2010s, gentrification has been rapidly increasing in the area, which also has affected the rent prices of the storefront spaces resulting in many of the businesses to move out causing a large influx of them to now be empty and often the new businesses that would take over the spaces would stay only a short period and then close. The mall is now slowly experiencing minor gentrification as there is now currently an art gallery occupying a storefront space by a non Asian occupant.It is also a very similar situation at another mini mall at 75 East Broadway, called in Chinese translation 東方商場, which literally translates in English, East Coast Mall that is right across the street from the East Broadway Mall. These malls that were once very vibrant during the 1990s to 2000s with many Fuzhou customers have now become quieter as there are not as many businesses and the Fuzhou residents in the area are now slowly declining.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8185866',
'title': 'Greyfield land',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The term has historically been applied to formerly-viable retail and commercial shopping sites (such as regional malls and strip centers) that have suffered from lack of reinvestment and have been "outclassed" by larger, better-designed, better-anchored malls or shopping sites. These particular greyfield sites are also referred to as "dead malls" or "ghostboxes" if the anchor or other major tenants have vacated the premises leaving behind empty shells.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2703826',
'title': 'Dead mall',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Many malls in North America are considered "dead" (for the purposes of leasing) when they have no surviving anchor store (often a large department store) or successor that could serve as an entry into or attraction to the mall.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25103858',
'title': 'Highlands Mall',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Decline.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': "With no anchor tenant for the first time in over 30 years, other businesses at the mall continued to close, leaving the mall a shadow of its former self. Some smaller tenants rented former store space for offices, but the mall now offered very little in the way of choices for retail shoppers. Because of few cars outside the mall, it was assumed during the mall's last few years that it had been closed for some time.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37294420',
'title': 'East Broadway (Manhattan)',
'section': 'Section::::Structures and places.:East Broadway Mall.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 33,
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'passage_text': "There has also been issues where the mall owners have been accused of illegally increasing the rents at very high rates on tenants who have been longtime small businesses as an attempt to gentrify the mall. This resulted in protests against the mall owners. There have been accusations that the mall owners were prejudice against Fuzhou immigrant shopkeepers and threatened to clean them out of the mall. One example was a female tenant named Mei Rong Song, originally paying rent less than $3,000 a month, it increased dramatically to $12,000 in 2008. Mei Rong Song went into disagreement with her new rent rate and began fighting the eviction proceedings in court. In retaliation, the mall’s managers closed Mei Rong Song's heat and water services to her space.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56980343',
'title': 'Funan DigitaLife Mall',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Decline and revamp.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'Due to the popularity of online shopping, business at the mall had been declining over the past few years, forcing tenants to close down. The mall was initially planned to be renovated in 2014. However, it was later slated for demolition. The last day of mall operation was 30 June 2016. All tenants have since relocated and the building was later demolished.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is the rationale behind kicking out a business from a strip mall/shopping center and leaving the space to sit for months/years?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['If it’s empty, they get tax write offs. Maybe they want to empty out the whole place and sell it for multi-family housing development.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'dvm001',
'query': 'what is the rationale behind kicking out a business from a strip mall/shopping center and leaving the space to sit for months/years?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '7987115',
'title': 'EABA',
'section': 'Section::::Game Mechanics.:Combat.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 40,
'end_character': 460,
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'passage_text': 'Combat time in V2 is run on an expanding scale, something unique to EABA. In most RPGs, time in combat is broken down into small manageable chunks: a combat turn in GURPS is always one second, for example. A combat round is EABA starts at one second, the next is 2 seconds, then 4, 8, 15, 30, and one minute. The goal is to make time manageable, but also to allow characters to perform complex actions during combat without taking hours of play time to do so.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17933',
'title': 'Latency (engineering)',
'section': 'Section::::Communication latency.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 412,
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'passage_text': 'Online games are sensitive to latency (or "lag"), since fast response times to new events occurring during a game session are rewarded while slow response times may carry penalties. Due to a delay in transmission of game events, a player with a high latency internet connection may show slow responses in spite of appropriate reaction time. This gives players with low latency connections a technical advantage.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12070411',
'title': 'Lockstep protocol',
'section': 'Section::::Drawbacks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 299,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'As all players must wait for all commitments to arrive before sending their actions, the game progresses as slowly as the player with the highest latency. Although this may not be noticeable in a turn-based game, real-time online games, such as first person shooters, require much faster reactions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24985969',
'title': 'Kenka Bancho: Badass Rumble',
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 1172,
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'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In normal mode, the game runs on a 7-day time limit, depending on the players actions, they can earn various endings, the game can then be replayed as a new game plus that carries over everything the player has earned except for their peons. There is also a more casual mode called "Night Out". This mode does not have a fixed time limit and allows the player to fight as many opponents as they like before quitting (a quick-play style of mode) however, players are limited to only a few districts, fewer sets of enemies and will not be able to call on peons for help nor be able to sleep to restore health and stamina. Players also will not be able level up in this mode, instead enemies will randomly drop glowing experience orbs known as Bancho Souls (in normal gameplay, leveling up will also allow the player to earn bancho souls) which will allow the player to strengthen their Bancho or sell for cash. Players will find themselves using this mode often as enemies gradually get stronger as the player levels up in normal gameplay not to mention to obtain the various item and money drops to help prepare. This mode can be played with a friend locally via "ad hoc".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2149333',
'title': 'The Hobbit (1982 video game)',
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 316,
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'passage_text': 'Unlike other works of interactive fiction, the game is also in real time, insofar as a period of idleness causes the "WAIT" command to be automatically invoked and the possibility of events occurring as a result. This can be suppressed by entering the "PAUSE" command, which stops all events until a key is pressed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21827711',
'title': 'Photo Spot',
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 326,
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'passage_text': 'Any random attempts to locate the differences will only trigger an annoying buzzer and result in time penalty. However, there are 3 hints available in the game to assist you through some of the difficult level that you would encounter, but by keeping them unused would help you gain bonus score towards the end of each level.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '296972',
'title': 'Konami Code',
'section': 'Section::::The Variations Of Konami Code.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 47,
'end_character': 263,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A common misconception is that the code ends with Start or Select Start. In many titles, the player must press Start after entering the code in order to start a game, or press Select to switch to two-player mode and then start the game, leading to the confusion.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does a game like Call of Duty have practically no online delay at all while when playing a game like NBA 2K17, multiplayer modes experience about a full second of delay between when the button is pressed and when the game responds?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Err. I haven\'t noticed this to happen in any online game so thought I\'d start with that. \n\nVideo games online don\'t use much bandwidth so getting a faster connection doesn\'t really impact them that much. (Unless it comes with better latency)\n\nGames are mostly impacted by latency or ping, this is how long it takes for a piece of information to get from your computer to the host.\n\nSome games select a player with a good connection as a host and others use a central server. \n\nThe graphics are rendered locally with just the information about what movements the players are making sent back and forth. \n\nHaving played NHL, Madden, and NBA 2k I have never noticed long delays. Are you playing one of these games on a computer and the other on TV? Delays in console gaming especially can be very long if your TV isn\'t in "game mode"\n\nMost modern TVs put a 1/2 second delay on what they show so that they can upscale, and insert additional frames to make things look smoother- this obviously negatively impacts gaming. \n',
'There are mutliple ways of how you setup your networking when implementing networks for a game.\n\nOne of the most important, if not the most important aspect when doing this is if your game uses deterministic lockstep.\n\nWhen using a deterministic lockstep networking model, every action your client wants to do, has to be authorized by the authority of the game session, which in a client-server structure would be the server.\n\nIf you use peer-to-peer the authority of the gamesession would be one of the players who basically runs a server either within the client itself as paralel thread or as a dedicated program which is initiated by the gameclient which is called a child process (the gameclient would be the parent process while the server executable would be the child process).\n\nEitherway, when a gameclient wants to do something, it first has to get an ok from the authority. So you press a button which does the "pass" in a basketball game, and before it gets executed the authority will check if you are allowed to do this, and give you an ok if you are. Once the ok arrives, your client starts to execute the pass command you just game.\n\nAs you might already see, latency and server overload might cause the ok message to take a while. And until then, nothing is displayed for you. On the upside is, that what you see, is actually what is considered the correct state of the game... at all times. When you see a certain player holding the ball, you know, that this player hold the ball.\n\nNow there is another common way of doing network, which is predictive networking. As the name suggests your client predicts certain things. Movement for example. You move your character, and the client predicts that the authority does give it\'s ok, and starts displaying it right away. Or if you do an invalid command like trying to walk through a wall, it will predict that the authority will not give it\'s ok, and stop your model from going through the wall.\n\nNow the first thing is, with that your current gamestate will always be out of sync unless nothing moves or changes in any way. This often requires the authority to give a bit of leeway. Ever wondered why people can shot you while you were already behind a wall on your screen? Well the authority got a "hey I shot this guy" and due to the out of sync nature the authority decided that yes, indeed you got shot as the timeframe in which your client said "I walked behind this wall" and the other client said "I shot this guy" is within the margin of error. Without that margin of error you might never hit someone, as nobody would be where your client shows them, unless they stand still. And if you for a longer period of time not get updates, your client might run completely out of sync, in which case it needs to be resynced by the latest state from the authority, which is often shown as everyone either moving really fast or teleporting around.\n\nBut on the plus side is, that any action done on your side is immediatly reflected on your screen.\n\nAlso those two might be combined in certain ratios. An example would be Guild Wars 2 which allows predictive movement, but requires determinitis lockstep actions for skills.\n\nWhen you have a lag or a disconnect, you can still move as if nothing happened, and in case of a lag, the server might actually accept your movement if you could have reached that place within the timeframe in which no updates arrived. But at the same time using skills will not work, as you won\'t get an ok from the server.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '5mn1bl',
'query': 'how does a game like call of duty have practically no online delay at all while when playing a game like nba 2k17, multiplayer modes experience about a full second of delay between when the button is pressed and when the game responds?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '54606546',
'title': 'Nokia 8',
'section': 'Section::::Specifications.:Hardware.:Cameras and multimedia.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The front and rear cameras\' combined standout feature is an advanced dualphotographic image camera (rebranded "Bothie" by Nokia), where the cameras can be used simultaneously by dividing the screen into a split-image setup, a technology Nokia calls Dual-Sight mode. Both the front and main cameras use ZEISS optics.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '667163',
'title': 'Camera phone',
'section': 'Section::::Technology.:External camera.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
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'passage_text': 'In 2013-2014 Sony and other manufacturers announced add-on camera modules for smartphones called lens-style cameras. They have larger sensors and lenses than those in a camera phone but lack a viewfinder, display and most controls. They can be mounted to an Android or iOS phone or tablet and use its display and controls. Lens-style cameras include:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '81429',
'title': 'Rangefinder camera',
'section': 'Section::::Pros and cons.:Large lenses block viewfinder.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Larger lenses may block a portion of the view seen through the viewfinder, potentially a significant proportion. A side effect of this is that lens designers are forced to use smaller designs. Lens hoods used for rangefinder camera may have a different shape to those with other cameras, with openings cut out of them to increase the visible area.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1004947',
'title': 'Digital camera back',
'section': 'Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Digital backs which are used in place of the normal film back are available for most medium and all large-format cameras with adaptors which can allow the same digital camera back to be used with several different cameras, allowing a photographer to choose a body/lens combination best suited for each application rather than using a body/lens system which represents a compromise of design to fit a variety of applications.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1004947',
'title': 'Digital camera back',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Mergers and partnerships.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Another trend is the release of new camera systems designed to tightly integrate with digital backs; this provides users with the ability to use film, but is easier to use for digital work than a film camera with a less-integrated accessory digital back.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31822809',
'title': 'Nokia N9',
'section': 'Section::::Hardware.:Camera.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
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'passage_text': 'The main (back) camera has an autofocus feature, dual LED flash, is optimized for 16:9 and 4:3 aspect ratios, and has a 4× digital zoom for both video and camera. The sensor size of the back camera is 8.7 megapixels (3552 × 2448 px); the effective resolution for the 16:9 aspect ratio is 3552 × 2000 px (7.1 megapixels), and 3248 × 2448 px (8 megapixels) for the 4:3 aspect ratio. Typically, a 16:9 picture format on a digital camera is achieved by cropping the top and bottom of a 4:3 image, since the sensor is 4:3. Nokia N9 genuinely provides more in the width of the picture by choosing the 16:9 aspect ratio option by using the full 3552-pixel width of the sensor, and more in the height of the picture by choosing the 4:3 aspect ratio option by using the full 2448-pixel height of the sensor. The Carl Zeiss lens has quite unusual specifications for a mobile phone: 28mm wide-angle lens focal length, fast (for this class) f/2.2 aperture, and a 10\xa0cm-to-infinity focus range. It is capable of recording up to 720p video at 30 fps with stereo sound.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15790548',
'title': 'Ultra wide angle lens',
'section': 'Section::::Features.:Better aperture setting.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Thanks to the small focal length, these lenses can shoot longer exposures without fear of camera shake in the image. (In longer lenses camera shake is multiplied by the zoom factor, but in shorter lenses it is much less apparent). This means that the photographer can afford to use a much smaller aperture if they choose, and still retain a balanced image.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why are the front and back cameras on smartphones not the same to begin with? Why do they need to differ in quality?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['cost and size.\nif all other variables remain constant, a bigger lens allows for better photos, as well as a bigger image sensor (the light sensing chip behind the lens). since they’re intended for different things, they just use different cameras. smaller cameras are also better at taking pictures of things closer to themselves (like a selfie)',
'Size. And cost.\n\nOne has to discreetly fit beside the screen, not look like a hideous lens obscuring your screen size, and only needs to take photos up close of your face. The other one needs to function as an actual camera and take detail, be able to zoom, etc.\n\n',
'Back cameras are much larger and are able to do many more things. There’s no need to have two of them on a phone. The front facing camera is mostly for selfies so there’s no need for a zoom or wide lens',
"Most people are never going to use the selfie camera for anything other than - you guessed it - selfies, or possibly video chat, which by their very nature never need to be all that high quality. Putting a top quality camera in the front camera position would just increase the cost for a benefit, from most people's perspective, of very little. ",
"The bette the camera the more it costs to make. So the phone markers chooses cameras that are just good enough for what they are used for.\n\nThe back page camera is often used for big scenes with many details and need more data. The front camera is often used for selfies or similar, where details are not as needed or necessarily good thing (which is why we have filters that smooth the skin etc).\n\nHistorically the front camera was for video chat, which was limited by bandwidth and data, makings low resolution good enough. \n\nEdit: Switched back/front. D'uh!",
"Every penny saved on a component, when you're shipping several million units, adds up quick!!!\n\nIf the selfie camera just needs to be adequate enough to do a good enough job, it's hard to justify the few extra pennies on the component, especially since selfie cams are not that popular of a selling point. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'a3l6ra',
'query': 'why are the front and back cameras on smartphones not the same to begin with? why do they need to differ in quality?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '4850169',
'title': 'Epinastine',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Epinastine (brand names Alesion, Elestat, Purivist, Relestat) is a second-generation antihistamine and mast cell stabilizer that is used in eye drops to treat allergic conjunctivitis. It is produced by Allergan and marketed by Inspire in the United States. It is highly selective for the H receptor and does not cross the blood-brain-barrier.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55313',
'title': 'Allergy',
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'passage_text': 'Early exposure to potential allergens may be protective. Treatments for allergies include avoiding known allergens and the use of medications such as steroids and antihistamines. In severe reactions injectable adrenaline (epinephrine) is recommended. Allergen immunotherapy, which gradually exposes people to larger and larger amounts of allergen, is useful for some types of allergies such as hay fever and reactions to insect bites. Its use in food allergies is unclear.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '298600',
'title': 'Procaine',
'section': 'Section::::Adverse effects.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Procaine can also cause allergic reactions causing individuals to have problems with breathing, rashes, and swelling. Allergic reactions to procaine are usually not in response to procaine itself, but to its metabolite PABA. Allergic reactions are in fact quite rare, estimated to have an incidence of 1 per 500,000 injections. About one in 3000 white North Americans is homozygous (i.e. has two copies of the abnormal gene) for the most common atypical form of the enzyme pseudocholinesterase, and do not hydrolyze ester anesthetics such as procaine. This results in a prolonged period of high levels of the anesthetic in the blood and increased toxicity. However, certain populations in the world such as the Vysya community in India commonly have a deficiency of this enzyme.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '175734',
'title': 'Local anesthetic',
'section': 'Section::::Side effects.:Potential side effects.:Immunologic allergy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 81,
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'passage_text': 'Adverse reactions to local anesthetics (especially the esters) are not uncommon, but legitimate allergies are very rare. Allergic reactions to the esters is usually due to a sensitivity to their metabolite, para-aminobenzoic acid, and does not result in cross-allergy to amides. Therefore, amides can be used as alternatives in those patients. Nonallergic reactions may resemble allergy in their manifestations. In some cases, skin tests and provocative challenge may be necessary to establish a diagnosis of allergy. Also cases of allergy to paraben derivatives occur, which are often added as preservatives to local anesthetic solutions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3678047',
'title': 'Oral allergy syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
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'passage_text': "Antihistamines may also relieve the symptoms of the allergy by blocking the immune pathway. Persons with a history of severe anaphylactic reaction may carry an injectable emergency dose of epinephrine (such as an EpiPen). Oral steroids may also be helpful. Allergy immunotherapy has been reported to improve or cure OAS in some patients. Immunotherapy with extracts containing birch pollen may benefit OAS sufferers of apple or hazelnut related to birch pollen-allergens. Even so, the increase in the amount of apple/hazelnut tolerated was small (from 12.6 to 32.6 g apple), and as a result, a patient's management of OAS would be limited.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '956888',
'title': 'Cetirizine',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Cetirizine, sold under the brand name Zyrtec among others, is a second generation antihistamine used to treat allergic rhinitis (hay fever), dermatitis, and urticaria. It is taken by mouth. Effects generally begin within an hour and last for about a day. The degree of benefit is similar to other antihistamines such as diphenhydramine.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55313',
'title': 'Allergy',
'section': 'Section::::Management.:Immunotherapy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 84,
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'passage_text': "Allergen immunotherapy is useful for environmental allergies, allergies to insect bites, and asthma. Its benefit for food allergies is unclear and thus not recommended. Immunotherapy involves exposing people to larger and larger amounts of allergen in an effort to change the immune system's response.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does an Epipen work to help severe allergies and why don’t we use it for moderate/mild allergies?',
'selftext': 'I’ve always wondered why people use an epipen when having a severe allergic reaction to things like peanuts or shellfish but we don’t use it for people who get bad allergies to things like pets or pollen?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Because it’s a huge strain on the system of the person receiving it. It’d be like killing an ant mound with a bazooka — it would work, perhaps, but it’s not a thing you’d do often, and there are better, less-scorched-earth tools that are better suited to the situation. ',
'It causes bronchial dilation so your airway stays open when it’s trying to close in anaphylaxis. It increases blood pressure too. It’s the same thing as adrenaline. It’s only meant to be used in ER situations. It does nothing for histamine which is the cause of most every day allergies. ',
"An epipen contains epinephrine, commonly known as adrenaline, one of the main hormones released by the body when PANICKING OMG THERE'S A LION. \n\nIt's great for doing things like restarting your heart, lifting a car off your child, or removing blood flow from parts of your nose and throat that might be blocked by an allergic reaction, thus allowing you to breathe, but it also removes blood flow from your digestive system until your body can filter it out which... Well, apart from the explosive diahrroea brought on by extended use, your stomach will eventually dissolve it's own lining and dump a strong acid into your bloodstream, if that lining isn't grown back. \n\nLack of blood flow inhibits your body's ability to grow back your stomach. Which in mediocre cases result in ulcers. \n\nEpinephrine is healthy if released by your body occasionally. Injecting it on a regular basis isn't. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9m8d63',
'query': 'how does an epipen work to help severe allergies and why don’t we use it for moderate/mild allergies?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '170803',
'title': 'Mood (psychology)',
'section': 'Section::::Factors which affect mood.:Lack of sleep.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'end_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': 'However, in a subset of cases sleep deprivation can, paradoxically, lead to increased energy and alertness and enhanced mood. This effect is most marked in persons with an eveningeness type (so called night-owls) and people suffering from depression. For this reason it has sometimes been used as a treatment for major depressive disorder.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4761393',
'title': 'Treatment of bipolar disorder',
'section': 'Section::::Lifestyle changes.:Sufficient sleep.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 55,
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'end_paragraph_id': 55,
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'passage_text': 'If sleeping is disturbed, the symptoms can occur. Sleep disruption may actually exacerbate the mental illness state. Those who do not get enough sleep at night, sleep late and wake up late, or go to sleep with some disturbance (e.g. music or charging devices) have a greater chance of having the symptoms and, in addition, depression. It is highly advised to not sleep too late and to get enough high quality sleep.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37615833',
'title': '2013 in science',
'section': 'Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:October.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 637,
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'end_paragraph_id': 637,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Researchers have shown that a fundamental reason for sleep is to clean the brain of toxins. This is achieved by brain cells shrinking to create gaps between neurons, allowing fluid to wash through.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46966',
'title': 'Sleep disorder',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Disruptions in sleep can be caused by a variety of issues, including teeth grinding (bruxism) and night terrors. When a person suffers from difficulty falling asleep and/or staying asleep with no obvious cause, it is referred to as insomnia.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27982883',
'title': 'Differential diagnoses of depression',
'section': 'Section::::Sleep disorders.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 70,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Insomnia: While the inability to fall asleep is often a symptom of depression, it can also in some instances serve as the trigger for developing a depressive disorder. It can be transient, acute or chronic. It can be a primary disorder or a co-morbid one.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36677584',
'title': 'Effects of sleep deprivation in space',
'section': 'Section::::Performance errors relative to sleep desynchronization and work overload.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
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'passage_text': 'Individuals who work at night and attempt to sleep during the day suffer because the timing of their sleep/wake schedule remains out of phase with the timing of the environmental light. Night workers are particularly prone to vehicle accidents, and their decreased alertness, performance, and vigilance are likely to blame for a higher rate of industrial accidents and quality control errors on the job, injuries and a general decline in work productivity rate. Recent information also suggests that as the body normally releases melatonin when it is dark, working under artificial like at night suppresses the released of melatonin, which may increase the risk of developing cancer.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50798',
'title': 'Insomnia',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
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'passage_text': 'It is common for patients who have difficulty falling asleep to also have nocturnal awakenings with difficulty returning to sleep. Two-thirds of these patients wake up in the middle of the night, with more than half having trouble falling back to sleep after a middle-of-the-night awakening.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why we get sleepy in situations that sleeping can kill us',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['What situations do you mean?',
"Yeah I've always wonder why we get sleepy after hitting your head. I remember my parents always telling me to not fall asleep while they drove me to the hospital....",
'The bit of your brain that decides when to be sleepy can\'t access higher rational thought, it\'s based on the brain\'s physiological status. \n\nYour brain gets sleepy when the chemistry in your brain indicates that it needs to sleep, along with some hormonal inputs from the body like adrenaline which tell it that something critical is going on and you need to be awake. But the part of your brain thinking "I better not fall asleep while driving because I could crash" can\'t communicate that information to the part of the brain that decides when to be sleepy. As far as that part of your brain is concerned, if you are driving late at night you are sitting calmly in a quiet, dark place and you haven\'t slept in a while and now would be a good time. \n\nThis is not entirely terrible, it makes it harder for you to sleep-depriving yourself to a dangerous extent. And it\'s not like your conscious mind can\'t override sleepiness for a long time. But the modern world has a lot of situations where it would be a bad idea to be sleepy but there are no obvious cues the sleepiness part of your brain is adapted to interpret, and this causes problems (like, you aren\'t going to be sleepy if there\'s a large predator staring at you, because you are innately going to be adapted to respond to that. But there\'s no innate adaptation to staying awake while driving).'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'eyq1ij',
'query': 'why we get sleepy in situations that sleeping can kill us',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '23665',
'title': 'Pixel',
'section': 'Section::::Technical.:Subpixels.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Many display and image-acquisition systems are not capable of displaying or sensing the different color channels at the same site. Therefore, the pixel grid is divided into single-color regions that contribute to the displayed or sensed color when viewed at a distance. In some displays, such as LCD, LED, and plasma displays, these single-color regions are separately addressable elements, which have come to be known as subpixels. For example, LCDs typically divide each pixel vertically into three subpixels. When the square pixel is divided into three subpixels, each subpixel is necessarily rectangular. In display industry terminology, subpixels are often referred to as "pixels", as they are the basic addressable elements in a viewpoint of hardware, and hence "pixel circuits" rather than "subpixel circuits" is used.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '593708',
'title': 'Subpixel rendering',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A single pixel on a color subpixelated display is made of several color primaries, typically three colored elements—ordered (on various displays) either as blue, green, and red (), or as red, green, and blue (). Some displays have more than three primaries, often called MultiPrimary, such as the combination of red, green, blue, and yellow (), or red, green, blue and white (W), or even red, green, blue, yellow, and cyan ().\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7681',
'title': 'ClearType',
'section': 'Section::::How ClearType works.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'If the computer controlling the display knows the exact position and color of all the subpixels on the screen, it can take advantage of this to improve the apparent resolution in certain situations. If each pixel on the display actually contains three rectangular subpixels of red, green, and blue, in that fixed order, then things on the screen that are smaller than one full pixel in size can be rendered by lighting only one or two of the subpixels. For example, if a diagonal line with a width smaller than a full pixel must be rendered, then this can be done by lighting only the subpixels that the line actually touches. If the line passes through the leftmost portion of the pixel, only the red subpixel is lit; if it passes through the rightmost portion of the pixel, only the blue subpixel is lit. This effectively triples the horizontal resolution of the image at normal viewing distances; the drawback is that the line thus drawn will show color fringes (at some points it might look green, at other points it might look red or blue).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1243526',
'title': 'Dither',
'section': 'Section::::Digital photography and image processing.:Applications.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Some LCDs may use temporal dithering to achieve a similar effect. By alternating each pixel\'s color value rapidly between two approximate colors in the panel\'s color space (also known as Frame Rate Control), a display panel which natively supports only 18-bit color (6 bits per channel) can represent a 24-bit "true" color image (8 bits per channel).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '593708',
'title': 'Subpixel rendering',
'section': 'Section::::PenTile.:Example with the common stripes layout.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
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'passage_text': 'Some LCDs compensate the inter-pixel color mix effect by having borders between pixels slightly larger than borders between subpixels. Then, in the example above, a viewer of such an LCD would see a blue line appearing adjacent to a red line instead of a single magenta line.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7681',
'title': 'ClearType',
'section': 'Section::::How ClearType works.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Normally, the software in a computer treats the computer’s display screen as a rectangular array of square, indivisible pixels, each of which has an intensity and color that are determined by the blending of three primary colors: red, green, and blue. However, actual display hardware usually implements each pixel as a group of three adjacent, independent "subpixels," each of which displays a different primary color. Thus, on a real computer display, each pixel is actually composed of separate red, green, and blue subpixels. For example, if a flat-panel display is examined under a magnifying glass, the pixels may appear as follows:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16027304',
'title': 'Interferometric modulator display',
'section': 'Section::::Working principle.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 297,
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'passage_text': 'Multiple color displays are created by using subpixels, each designed to reflect a specific different color. Multiple elements of each color are generally used to both give more combinations of displayable color (by mixing the reflected colors) and to balance the overall brightness of the pixel.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How can a single pixel on a TV screen change to so many different colors?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['You remember mixing paint colours when you were a kid? A single pixel is made up of a tiny blue light, a tiny red light, and a tiny green light. It can be any colour just by controlling how strong each of these colours shines inside it. More modern screens (e.g., Liquid Crystal Display) have fancier technology but let’s stick to ELI5.',
"Your eye have 3 types of cone cell that detect light color. One type is most sensitive to blue light, one to green light and one to red light . So any color you can see is a combination of signal from the three types of cones.\n\nA monitor have red green and blue sub pixel where each primary stimulate only on cone type. By changing the amount light each sub pixel emit can use get any response from the eye and see any possible color. So by exploiting how the human eye work you can produce any color with light on only 3 colors.\n\n It is a bit simplified explanation and a RGB monitor can't show all colors you can see with you naked eye. I suggest looking at [Technology Connections - The Weird World in RGB](_URL_0_) for entertaining explanation of color vision and RGB work and the limitations."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'drto7p',
'query': 'how can a single pixel on a tv screen change to so many different colors?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '4397993',
'title': 'Decoupling capacitor',
'section': 'Section::::Discussion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Active devices of an electronic system (transistors, ICs, vacuum tubes, for example) are connected to their power supplies through conductors with finite resistance and inductance. If the current drawn by an active device changes, voltage drops from power supply to device will also change due to these impedances. If several active devices share a common path to the power supply, changes in the current drawn by one element may produce voltage changes large enough to affect the operation of others - voltage spikes or ground bounce, for example - so the change of state of one device is coupled to others through the common impedance to the power supply. A decoupling capacitor provides a bypass path for transient currents, instead of flowing through the common impedance. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5304916',
'title': 'Voltage converter',
'section': 'Section::::Practical voltage converters.:Converters for devices.:Mains converters.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'Another requirement is to provide low-voltage electricity to a device from mains electricity; this would be done by what is usually called a "power supply". Most modern electronic devices require between 1.5 and 24 volts DC; lower-powered devices at these voltages can often work either from batteries or mains. Some devices incorporate a power supply and are simply plugged into the mains. Others use an external power supply comprising either a transformer and rectifier, or electronic circuitry. Switched-mode power supplies have become widespread in the early twenty-first century; they are smaller and lighter than the once-universal transformer converters, and are often designed to work from AC mains at any voltage between 100 and 250 V. Additionally, because they are typically rectified to operate at a DC voltage, they are minimally affected by the frequency of the mains (50 vs 60 Hz). Details on operation are given in the article on power supplies.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '219042',
'title': 'Power supply',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Uninterruptible power supply.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
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'passage_text': 'An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) takes its power from two or more sources simultaneously. It is usually powered directly from the AC mains, while simultaneously charging a storage battery. Should there be a dropout or failure of the mains, the battery instantly takes over so that the load never experiences an interruption. Instantly here should be defined as the speed of electricity within conductors which is somewhat near the speed of light. That definition is important because transmission of high speed data and communications service must have continuity/NO break of that service. Some manufacturers use a quasi standard of 4 milliseconds. However, with high speed data even 4 ms of time in transitioning from one source to another is not fast enough. The transition must be made in a break before make method. The UPS meeting that requirement is referred to as a True UPS or a Hybrid UPS. How much time the UPS will provide is most often based on batteries and in conjunction with generators. That time can range from a quasi minimum 5 to 15 minutes to literally hours or even days. In many computer installations, only enough time on batteries to give the operators time to shut down the system in an orderly way. Other UPS schemes may use an internal combustion engine or turbine to supply power during a utility power outage and the amount of battery time is then dependent upon how long it takes the generator to be on line and the criticality of the equipment served. Such a scheme is found in hospitals, data centers, call centers, cell sites and telephone central offices.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '66819',
'title': 'Root mean square',
'section': 'Section::::In common waveforms.:In waveform combinations.:Average electrical power.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
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'passage_text': 'Electrical engineers often need to know the power, "P", dissipated by an electrical resistance, "R". It is easy to do the calculation when there is a constant current, "I", through the resistance. For a load of "R" ohms, power is defined simply as:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '749012',
'title': 'Current source',
'section': 'Section::::Current and voltage source comparison.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 65,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "Most sources of electrical energy (mains electricity, a battery, etc.) are best modeled as voltage sources. Such sources provide constant voltage, which means that as long as the current drawn from the source is within the source's capabilities, its output voltage stays constant. An ideal voltage source provides no energy when it is loaded by an open circuit (i.e., an infinite impedance), but approaches infinite power and current when the load resistance approaches zero (a short circuit). Such a theoretical device would have a zero ohm output impedance in series with the source. A real-world voltage source has a very low, but non-zero output impedance: often much less than 1 ohm.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1780823',
'title': 'AC power',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Power in an electric circuit is the rate of flow of energy past a given point of the circuit. In alternating current circuits, energy storage elements such as inductors and capacitors may result in periodic reversals of the direction of energy flow.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3270043',
'title': 'Electric power',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Electric power is usually produced by electric generators, but can also be supplied by sources such as electric batteries. It is usually supplied to businesses and homes (as domestic mains electricity) by the electric power industry through an electric power grid. Electric energy is usually sold by the kilowatt hour (1 kW·h = 3.6 MJ) which is the product of the power in kilowatts multiplied by running time in hours. Electric utilities measure power using an electricity meter, which keeps a running total of the electric energy delivered to a customer.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why and how do electronic devices draw only as much current from a power source as required in that very moment?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Everything draws only as much as it needs.\n\nElectricity flows a little like water, for ELI5. You open the radio a little when you need just a little, or all the way when you want a lot.\n\nYour television, to pick one, draws just a little power while it waits for you to turn it on. Then when it's on, it draws more to turn on the lights, change the sounds and so on.\n\nMore specifically, like water, the ability to take as much as it wants (up to what's available) is always there. When parts of the electronics are used, and they need more, they take more. Different circuits close, allowing there electrons to flow, and more electricity gets used.",
'In some appliances, there is actually a physical rheostat. As you turn the dial, you are physically increasing the contact surface between 2 areas and creating more contact for the electricity to flow through. A familiar use is like the dimmer switch on your wall. (google image search for circular rheostat and you will find good pictures)\n\nThere are also "digital potentiometers" which do the same thing but are all electrical. This, for instance, can increase the volume on a tv without a physical control knob.\n\nIn terms of how the TV simply turns on - when the TV get a signal to turn on (either with a physical button or an electronic signal) it electronically "opens a gate" to electrical flow. The electrical current would LOVE to rush through your TV, so as soon as that gate is open, the electricity flows through and the TV turns on.\n\nAn electronic device might a combination of on/off gates, and/or variable digital potentiometers as needed.',
'Three important equations: V A R, W A V, and W I^2 R. These three allow you to determine all those power flow numbers if you just know two. In each of these, imagine a circle with the top half to itself, and the bottom half further split in two, so like a T in a circle. The first letter goes up top and the other two in the bottom. Multiply the bottom two to get the top one, or divide the top one by one of the bottom ones to get the other bottom one.\n\nIn this case, we\'ll be using V A R, because we know the voltage from the power source (let\'s say it\'s a toaster at 120V). So why does this toaster pull 5 amps? Because of the other half of that bottom bit, the R, or resistance. Volts divided by resistance equals your amperage, so you hook up a meter and get a reading of 24 ohms. 120 / 24 = 5! Voltage is like the pressure trying to push electricity in, and the resistance U\nIs... Well it\'s the resistance of the "pipe" to having that pushed in, which balances out to how much *actually* goes through. You have a pipe pushing So much water pressure and a valve partially shut holding some of that potential flow back, you\'ll get less gallons per minute.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9i96y7',
'query': 'why and how do electronic devices draw only as much current from a power source as required in that very moment?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '4007073',
'title': 'Gene expression profiling',
'section': 'Section::::Categorizing regulated genes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
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'passage_text': 'Genes have other attributes beside biological function, chemical properties and cellular location. One can compose sets of genes based on proximity to other genes, association with a disease, and relationships with drugs or toxins. The Molecular Signatures Database and the Comparative Toxicogenomics Database are examples of resources to categorize genes in numerous ways.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8406655',
'title': 'Introduction to genetics',
'section': 'Section::::How genes work.:Genes make proteins.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'The function of genes is to provide the information needed to make molecules called proteins in cells. Cells are the smallest independent parts of organisms: the human body contains about 100 trillion cells, while very small organisms like bacteria are just a single cell. A cell is like a miniature and very complex factory that can make all the parts needed to produce a copy of itself, which happens when cells divide. There is a simple division of labor in cells—genes give instructions and proteins carry out these instructions, tasks like building a new copy of a cell, or repairing damage. Each type of protein is a specialist that only does one job, so if a cell needs to do something new, it must make a new protein to do this job. Similarly, if a cell needs to do something faster or slower than before, it makes more or less of the protein responsible. Genes tell cells what to do by telling them which proteins to make and in what amounts.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1662015',
'title': 'Gene-centered view of evolution',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.:Organisms as vehicles.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
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'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 498,
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'passage_text': 'Genes are usually packed together inside a genome, which is itself contained inside an organism. Genes group together into genomes because "genetic replication makes use of energy and substrates that are supplied by the metabolic economy in much greater quantities than would be possible without a genetic division of labour." They build vehicles to promote their mutual interests of jumping into the next generation of vehicles. As Dawkins puts it, organisms are the "survival machines" of genes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9127632',
'title': 'Biology',
'section': 'Section::::Foundations of modern biology.:Genetics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 685,
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'passage_text': 'Genes are the primary units of inheritance in all organisms. A gene is a unit of heredity and corresponds to a region of DNA that influences the form or function of an organism in specific ways. All organisms, from bacteria to animals, share the same basic machinery that copies and translates DNA into proteins. Cells transcribe a DNA gene into an RNA version of the gene, and a ribosome then translates the RNA into a sequence of amino acids known as a protein. The translation code from RNA codon to amino acid is the same for most organisms. For example, a sequence of DNA that codes for insulin in humans also codes for insulin when inserted into other organisms, such as plants.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12266',
'title': 'Genetics',
'section': 'Section::::Gene expression.:Genetic code.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 51,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "Genes generally express their functional effect through the production of proteins, which are complex molecules responsible for most functions in the cell. Proteins are made up of one or more polypeptide chains, each of which is composed of a sequence of amino acids, and the DNA sequence of a gene (through an RNA intermediate) is used to produce a specific amino acid sequence. This process begins with the production of an RNA molecule with a sequence matching the gene's DNA sequence, a process called transcription.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2354482',
'title': 'C-value',
'section': 'Section::::Variation among species.:C-value paradox.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 917,
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'passage_text': 'In 1948, Roger and Colette Vendrely reported a "remarkable constancy in the nuclear DNA content of all the cells in all the individuals within a given animal species", which they took as evidence that DNA, rather than protein, was the substance of which genes are composed. The term C-value reflects this observed constancy. However, it was soon found that C-values (genome sizes) vary enormously among species and that this bears no relationship to the "presumed" number of genes ("as reflected by" the complexity of the organism). For example, the cells of some salamanders may contain 40 times more DNA than those of humans. Given that C-values were assumed to be constant because genetic information is encoded by DNA, and yet bore no relationship to presumed gene number, this was understandably considered paradoxical; the term "C-value paradox" was used to describe this situation by C.A. Thomas, Jr. in 1971.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8406655',
'title': 'Introduction to genetics',
'section': 'Section::::Genes and inheritance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 550,
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'passage_text': 'Genes are pieces of DNA that contain information for synthesis of ribonucleic acids (RNAs) or polypeptides. Genes are inherited as units, with two parents dividing out copies of their genes to their offspring. Humans have two copies of each of their genes, but each egg or sperm cell only gets "one" of those copies for each gene. An egg and sperm join to form a complete set of genes. The resulting offspring has the same number of genes as their parents, but for any gene one of their two copies comes from their father, and one from their mother.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Physical nature of genes.',
'selftext': 'A friend of mine asked me about the physical nature of genes but I could not satisfy her. Have the genes any appearance like beads or anything like that? And how is one gene separated from another on a chromosomes locus?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['DNA is a string of nucleotides. some of it codes for proteins, some of it controls the expression of genes, some of it is junk. All of it looks the same, it\'s the same four amino acids in billions of different patterns.\n\nSections that translate into proteins have special bits at each end tat are known as "stop codons", this is a code that tells the cellular machinery transcribing the section to top. You still can\'t see them, since it\'s just three more amino acids just like all of the DNA before and after it. \n\nThere is no special appearance of a gene, it\'s just a section in a long, long, long string of AGATAGAGATAGAAAGGTTAAGGG that means something specific. It doesn\'t have decorations or beads or clumps.\n',
'Genes are separated from each other by non-coding regions on chromosomes. In fact, the majority of the DNA in humans is never expressed as a protein product, and we\'re not entirely sure what a lot of it is for. \n\nI talked about the structure of DNA in the reply to the above poster,\n adding on to that, every three DNA nucleotides forms a codon - there are special "Start" and "Stop" codons - the START signal is basically a complex that is designed to attach to the DNA replication machinery in your cells. It will keep reading down the line and producing a mirror image copy of everything it reads until it reaches a "Stop" codon.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7323do',
'query': 'physical nature of genes.',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '936584',
'title': '365 (number)',
'section': 'Section::::Timekeeping.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 337,
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'passage_text': 'There are 365.2422 solar days in the mean tropical year. Several solar calendars have a year containing 365 days. Related to this, in Ontario, the driver\'s license learner\'s permit used to be called "365" because it was valid for only 366 days. Financial and scientific calculations often use a 365-day calendar to simplify daily rates.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '652165',
'title': 'Mesoamerican calendars',
'section': 'Section::::365-day calendar.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 228,
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'passage_text': "This 365-day calendar corresponded was divided into 18 'months' of 20 days each, plus 5 'nameless' days at the end of the year. The 365 day year had no leap year so it varied from the solar year by a quarter of a day each year.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1118020',
'title': 'Middle-earth calendar',
'section': 'Section::::Calendar of Imladris.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 45,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 45,
'end_character': 244,
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'passage_text': 'Five other days, two between "coirë" and "tuilë" and three between "yávië" and "quellë", meant the calendar added up to 365 days. Irregularities were allowed for by adding another three days every twelve years, except the last year of a "yén".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10634661',
'title': '365-day calendar',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'A 365-day calendar consists of exactly 365 days per year (no leap days), and is primarily used in computer models and as an assumption in every-day calculations. For example, a calculation of a daily rate may use an annual total divided by exactly 365.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '315929',
'title': 'Calendar reform',
'section': 'Section::::Proposals.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 55,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 55,
'end_character': 316,
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'passage_text': 'Most plans evolve around the solar year of a little more than 365 days. This number does not divide well by seven or twelve, which are the traditional numbers of days per week and months per year respectively. The nearby numbers 360, 364 and 366 are divisible in better ways. There are also lunar-centric proposals.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1118020',
'title': 'Middle-earth calendar',
'section': 'Section::::Calendar of Imladris.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 42,
'end_character': 261,
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'passage_text': 'Five or eight extra days outside the seasons make the length of the "loa" 365 or 368 days. Most years are 365 days, but every twelfth year is 368 days, resulting in an average year of 365.25 days with the additional suggestion that the \'Reckoning of Rivendell\'\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '949518',
'title': 'Birkat Hachama',
'section': 'Section::::The solar calendar.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 51,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 51,
'end_character': 279,
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'passage_text': 'The 28-year cycle is based on a solar year of 365.25 days, which is only nearly precise. The Hebrew calendar itself uses a solar year of 365.2468 days, but utilizes the less precise approximation of 365.25 for Birkat Hachama so that the blessing might occur with some frequency.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If 52*7 is 364 where do we get our extra day to make a 365 day calendar year?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Mathematics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["52 is just a rough enough guide to how many days there are in a year but if you add the days of each month, you'll get 365.",
'There are 52 FULL weeks in a year, and 365 FULL days. Those extra fractions make the extra day each year and the extra day every four years.',
"The calendar year isn't a whole number of weeks, which is also why a particular date will be one day of the week one year, but another the next year.",
"The year isn't exactly 52 weeks long, it's 52.14 weeks long. This is also why the first of the month moves forward one day of the week each year, and why you'll get an extra paycheck some years if paid weekly or biweekly.\n\n52 weeks is not the definition of a year, it's just a convenient approximation",
"Well there simply isn't 52 weeks in a year, there are 52 weeks and one day or 52.143 weeks. Saying 52 weeks in a year is just a close enough approximation. It's the same when someone says there are 4 weeks in a month even though there isn't exactly 4 weeks. Technically there isn't even 365 days in a year. There is about 365.25 which is why leap years exist to keep everything lined up and even that isn't exactly right. ",
'This isnt exactly a five year old question\n\nI have had to program the leap year algorithm in software control units, before those formulas for the algorithms were commonly found in software libraries. \n\nThe formula goes...\nIf the year is wholly divisible by 4 then it is a leap year,\nUnless it is wholly divisible by 100 then it is not a leap year,\nUnless it is wholly divisible by 400, in which it is a leap year.\n\nThis can be expressed by the formula....\nLeap = year % 400 == 0 and not (year % 100 == 0) and year % 4 == 0,\nWhere % is the modulus operator. \n\nSo this means that 2000 was a leap year, coz 2000. % 400 == 0\nAnd 1900 was not a leap year coz 1900 % 100 != 0\nAnd 2020 will be a leap year coz 2020 % 4.== 0\n\nMakes sense now?\n\nBut even that is not the whole story as that too is an approximation, not to mention that the rotation of the earth and the rotation of the earth around the sun is slowing sown, so future corrections will be needed. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9sgnxo',
'query': 'if 52*7 is 364 where do we get our extra day to make a 365 day calendar year?',
'query_type': 'Mathematics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '49255451',
'title': 'Economics of plastics processing',
'section': 'Section::::Aspects of plastic processing.:Incineration of plastics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'Recycling plastics presents the difficulty of handling mixed plastics, as unmixed plastics are usually necessary to maintain desirable properties. Mixing many plastics results in diminished material properties, with even just a few percent of polypropylene mixed with polyethylene producing a plastic with significantly reduced tensile strength. An alternative to recycling of these plastics and those which can’t be easily recycled such as thermosets is to use degradation to break the polymers down into monomers of low molecular weight. The products of this process can be used to make high quality polymers however energy stored in the polymer bonds is lost during this process.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1999119',
'title': 'Plastic recycling',
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'passage_text': 'When different types of plastics are melted together, they tend to phase-separate, like oil and water, and set in these layers. The phase boundaries cause structural weakness in the resulting material, meaning that polymer blends are useful in only limited applications. The two most widely manufactured plastics, polypropylene and polyethylene, behave this way, which limits their utility for recycling. Each time plastic is recycled, additional virgin materials must be added to help improve the integrity of the material. So, even recycled plastic has new plastic material added in. The same piece of plastic can only be recycled about 2-3 times before its quality decreases to the point where it can no longer be used.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '1548441',
'title': 'Plastics engineering',
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'passage_text': 'Some plastics are manufactured from re-cycled materials but their use in engineering tends to be limited because the consistency of formulation and their physical properties tend to be less consistent. Electrical and electronic equipment and motor vehicle markets together accounted for 58 percent of engineered plastics demand in 2003. Engineered plastics demand in the US was estimated at $9,702 million in 2007.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '70157',
'title': 'Recycling',
'section': 'Section::::Recycling industrial waste.:Plastic recycling.:Physical recycling.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Some plastics are remelted to form new plastic objects; for example, PET water bottles can be converted into polyester destined for clothing. A disadvantage of this type of recycling is that the molecular weight of the polymer can change further and the levels of unwanted substances in the plastic can increase with each remelt.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '944339',
'title': 'Fibre-reinforced plastic',
'section': 'Section::::Design considerations.:Disposal and recycling concerns.\n',
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'passage_text': "As a subset of plastic, FR plastics are liable to a number of the issues and concerns in plastic waste disposal and recycling. Plastics pose a particular challenge in recycling because they are derived from polymers and monomers that often cannot be separated and returned to their virgin states. For this reason not all plastics can be recycled for re-use, in fact some estimates claim only 20% to 30% of plastics can be recycled at all. Fibre-reinforced plastics and their matrices share these disposal and environmental concerns. Investigation of safe disposal methods has led to two main variations involving the application of intense heat: in one binding agents are burned off - in the process recapturing some of the sunk material cost in the form of heat - and incombustible elements captured by filtration; in the other the incombustible material is burned in a cement kiln, the fibres becoming an integral part of the resulting cast material. In addition to concerns regarding safe disposal, the fact that the fibres themselves are difficult to remove from the matrix and preserve for re-use means FRP's amplify these challenges. FRP's are inherently difficult to separate into base materials, that is into fibre and matrix, and the matrix is difficult to separate into usable plastics, polymers, and monomers. These are all concerns for environmentally-informed design today. Plastics do often offer savings in energy and economic savings in comparison to other materials. In addition, with the advent of new more environmentally friendly matrices such as bioplastics and UV-degradable plastics, FRP will gain environmental sensitivity.\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '2376557',
'title': 'Engineering plastic',
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'passage_text': 'Engineering plastics have gradually replaced traditional engineering materials such as wood or metal in many applications. Besides equalling or surpassing them in weight/strength and other properties, engineering plastics are much easier to manufacture, especially in complicated shapes.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '11774990',
'title': 'Upcycling',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
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'passage_text': 'For example, during the recycling process of plastics other than those used to create bottles, many different types of plastics are mixed, resulting in a hybrid. This hybrid is used in the manufacturing of plastic lumber applications. However, unlike the engineered polymer ABS which hold properties of several plastics well, recycled plastics suffer phase-separation that causes structural weakness in the final product.\n',
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'title': '5: Why is it so hard to replace plastics with another material with similar properties?',
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'answers': ['Cost: plastic is extremely cheap to produce (also to recycle), currently nothing as cheap exists so companies will keep using what makes them the most money. \n\nProperties: there actually aren\'t many materials with similar properties: \n- recycled/compostable plastics aren\'t as maleable and mess up the recycling of normal plastics. \n- paper, well just see the outrage of paper straws \n- metal costs too much and is heavy \n- the cutting edge "plastic killers" don\'t currently work on large scale due to lack of technology/knowledge in how to scale (eg. Nanostructures)\n\nIn actuality plastics are probably the most important, useful and revolutionary material technology in history. It would also be the most environmentally friendly material if we would be able to close the loop and recycle most of it. Problems only arise when it ends up in nature, which I personally believe to just be due to severe incompetence on parts of government, companies and to some extent people.\n\nAFAIK "fact" to take forward: Producing paper straws rather than plastic ones is often a net loss in terms of GHG emissions, habitat loss and chemical intensity. \n\nUse this to always think about the whole life-cycle of products and on the many different ways the environment can be hurt.',
'There are two parts to this question: first plastics are largely defined by their properties and composition. If something had all the same propertied then it likely is another plastic.\n\nSecondly for different individual properties (malleable, non biodegradable, non reactive to most things, etc.) there are plenty of alternatives.\n\nNone are as cheap.\n\nThere are also minor issues like paper products breakdown faster, metal things are heavier, etc. that add up to issues over time but the big simple one is that plastic is very very cheap. Its a considerable investment in both short and long term to switch to something else (certainly one worth making but people don’t like to spend money).',
"Plastics are incredible. There isn't one single material capable of having the wide range of material properties plastics can have. They can be cheap, durable, lend themselves well to manufacturing methods such as blow moulding, rotation moulding, injection moulding etc. In the case of thermoplastic elastomers they can be reused (in some capacity anyway). There are food grade plastics, plastics capable of withstanding pretty impressive temperatures (the inner side of many cooking pans are coated with a thin layer of PTFE, better known as Teflon, for non-sticking purposes). They have favourable mechanical properties in that some can act as living hinges in many products (think the lid of a tictac box), meaning no bearings and with that no additional manufacturing processes are required. Sure there are materials with similar properties to _some_ plastic types but you'll be hard pressed to find one which can mimic most let alone all plastic types.",
'"Plastics" is not a single thing, it is a group of things defined by properties. Specifically the ability to be easily molded into various shapes while being durable.\n\nIf you find something that has the properties of plastic, it\'s plastic. \n\nFwiw, we already do have plastics that will biodegrade. Made from corn. Not economically practical and cannot replace everything we use plastic for.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query': '5: why is it so hard to replace plastics with another material with similar properties?',
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'title': 'Darby, Montana',
'section': 'Section::::Movies and Television filmed in Darby.\n',
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'passage_text': '"Yellowstone" is an American television series created by Taylor Sheridan that is set to premiere on June 20, 2018 on the Paramount Network. Yellowstone follows "the Dutton family, led by John Dutton played by Kevin Costner, who controls the largest contiguous ranch in the United States, under constant attack by those it borders — land developers, an Indian reservation, and America’s first National Park. It is an intense study of a violent world far from media scrutiny — where land grabs make developers billions, and politicians are bought and sold by the world’s largest oil and lumber corporations. Where drinking water poisoned by fracking wells and unsolved murders are not news: they are a consequence of living in the new frontier. It is the best and worst of America seen through the eyes of a family that represents both. The series went into production in August 2017 at the Chief Joseph Ranch in Darby, Montana which is standing in as the home of John Dutton.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '54060698',
'title': 'Yellowstone (American TV series)',
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'passage_text': '"Yellowstone" follows "the Dutton family, led by John Dutton, who controls the largest contiguous ranch in the United States, under constant attack by those it borders—land developers, an Indian reservation, and America\'s first National Park. It is an intense study of a violent world far from media scrutiny—where land grabs make developers billions, and politicians are bought and sold by the world\'s largest oil and lumber corporations. Where drinking water poisoned by fracking wells and unsolved murders are not news: they are a consequence of living in the new frontier. It is the best and worst of America seen through the eyes of a family that represents both."\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '54060698',
'title': 'Yellowstone (American TV series)',
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'passage_text': 'Yellowstone is an American drama television series created by Taylor Sheridan and John Linson that premiered on June 20, 2018 on Paramount Network. It stars Kevin Costner, Wes Bentley, Kelly Reilly, Luke Grimes, Cole Hauser and Gil Birmingham. The series follows the conflicts along the shared borders of a large cattle ranch, an Indian reservation, land developers and Yellowstone National Park. In June 2019, Paramount renewed the series for a third season.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '22055561',
'title': 'Yellowstone (British TV series)',
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'passage_text': 'Yellowstone is a BBC nature documentary series broadcast from 15 March 2009. Narrated by Peter Firth, the series takes a look at a year in the life of Yellowstone National Park, examining how its wildlife adapts to living in one of the harshest wildernesses on Earth. Yellowstone debuted on BBC Two at 8:00pm on Sunday 15 March 2009 and has three episodes. Each 50-minute episode was followed by a ten-minute film called "Yellowstone People", featuring visitors to the Park and locals who had assisted the production team. The series was the channel\'s highest-rated natural history documentary in over five years with audiences peaking at over four million.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17967520',
'title': 'The Living Edens',
'section': 'Section::::Episodes.:Yellowstone - America Sacred Wilderness.\n',
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'passage_text': "Yellowstone is a hive of activity. Paul Schullery has been watching wildlife here for 30 years and is one of the world's leading authorities on the park. As he guides us through this fresh, sunlit environment, wolves and grizzly bears mount extraordinary chase sequences in their quest for elk, and mountain lions gambol about without worry. Dramas occur in every season, for Yellowstone isn't just the world's first National Park - it's one of the great success stories in wildlife conservation.\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '22347853',
'title': 'Greater Yellowstone Coalition',
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'passage_text': 'The Greater Yellowstone Coalition is a conservation organization protecting the lands, waters and wildlife of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem of Idaho, Montana and Wyoming. The group was formed in 1983 with the idea that protecting Yellowstone and Grand Teton national parks could only be achieved by protecting the wild integrity of the last largely intact temperate ecosystem in North America. The group is based in Bozeman, Montana, and has offices in Driggs, Idaho, Jackson, Wyoming and Cody, Wyoming.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '26668031',
'title': 'Expeditions and the protection of Yellowstone (1869–1890)',
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'passage_text': "When President Ulysses S. Grant created Yellowstone National Park with the signing of the Act of Dedication, March 1, 1872, it was the result of three major expeditions into the region, expeditions that brought the wonders of Yellowstone into public view. Prior to 1869, the Yellowstone region—its rivers, waterfalls, lakes, mountains, valleys and geothermal features were essentially part of an unknown and unexplored territory. Even after the creation of the park, the region remained largely unexplored and its resources unprotected for over a decade until the U.S. Army assumed management of the park in 1886. Even after the U.S. Army took control, legal protection of the park's resources was limited. From 1869 until 1890, a number of notable expeditions contributed not only to the creation of the park, but to a broader public, social and scientific understanding of the park, its resources and wonders. This understanding ultimately led Congress and the Federal Government to adopt much stronger laws to protect the park and its resources culminating in the Lacey Act of 1894.\n",
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'title': "What's the deal with Yellowstone?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
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'answers': ["Yellowstone National Park sits over what is known as the Yellowstone Caldera. This is the mouth of what's called a supervolcano. There are many predictions online on what would happen if the supervolcano erupted. [Here is one](_URL_0_).\n\nThe worst part, other than the immediate effects is such an eruption would severely hurt growing seasons for most of the farmland in the U.S.",
'Yellowstone is a supervolcano. If it erupted it would cover most of North America in ash, something that is very lethal as volcanic ash is shards of glass. Anything it touches including water and food is contaminated and breathing it in deadly. It would also put enough ash into the air to put the world into a volcanic winter, potentially even starting a new Ice Age if the eruption is big enough. ',
'Yellowstone sits over a massive hotspot and is a supervolcano.\n\nWhile it would be very bad if it erupted, the danger is rather hilariously overblown by Hollywood. Granted, Wyoming and parts of Idaho and Montana would be gone, and the states immediately east and southeast of Wyoming (so, Colorado, the Dakotas, Nebraska, Iowa, Minnesota, and Kansas) would have a lot of ashfall and a slight but still significant global temperature shift for a few years (honestly, less than 5 years), that would be it. Anything West of the Rockies, or East of the Appalachians, would be basically unscathed other than a very light dusting of ash.\n\nIt would be less of a "everyone on Earth is going to die" and more of a "North America is going to kind of suck for the next decade" kind of thing.'],
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'query': "what's the deal with yellowstone?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '80506',
'title': 'Twisted pair',
'section': 'Section::::Unshielded twisted pair.\n',
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'passage_text': 'UTP cable is also the most common cable used in computer networking. Modern Ethernet, the most common data networking standard, can use UTP cables. Twisted pair cabling is often used in data networks for short and medium length connections because of its relatively lower costs compared to optical fiber and coaxial cable.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '3492955',
'title': 'Fiber to the x',
'section': 'Section::::Benefits.\n',
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'passage_text': 'While fiber optic cables can carry data at high speeds over long distances, copper cables used in traditional telephone lines and ADSL cannot. For example, the common form of Gigabit Ethernet (1Gbit/s) runs over relatively economical category 5e, category 6 or augmented category 6 unshielded twisted-pair copper cabling but only to . However, 1 Gbit/s Ethernet over fiber can easily reach tens of kilometers. Therefore, FTTP has been selected by every major communications provider in the world to carry data over long 1 Gbit/s symmetrical connections directly to consumer homes. FTTP configurations that bring fiber directly into the building can offer the highest speeds since the remaining segments can use standard Ethernet or coaxial cable.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '2940457',
'title': 'Multi-mode optical fiber',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The equipment used for communications over multi-mode optical fiber is less expensive than that for single-mode optical fiber. Typical transmission speed and distance limits are 100 Mbit/s for distances up to 2\xa0km (100BASE-FX), 1\xa0Gbit/s up to 1000\xa0m, and 10\xa0Gbit/s up to 550\xa0m.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '3492955',
'title': 'Fiber to the x',
'section': 'Section::::Benefits.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Fiber is often said to be "future-proof" because the data rate of the connection is usually limited by the terminal equipment rather than the fiber, permitting substantial speed improvements by equipment upgrades before the fiber itself must be upgraded. Still, the type and length of employed fibers chosen, e.g. multimode vs. single-mode, are critical for applicability for future connections of over 1 Gbit/s.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '24760954',
'title': 'Synchronous Serial Interface',
'section': 'Section::::Cabling – according to RS-422 standards.\n',
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'passage_text': 'When high data rates are used, the application is limited to a shorter cables. It is possible to use longer cables when low data rates are used. The DC resistance of the cable limits the length of the cable for low data rate applications by increasing the noise margin as the voltage drop in the cable increases. The AC effects of the cable limit the quality of the signal and limit the cable length to short distances when high data rates are used. Examples of data rate and cable length combinations vary from 90 kbit/s at 1.2\xa0km to 10 Mbit/s at 5m for RS-422. \n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '537442',
'title': 'HDMI',
'section': 'Section::::Versions.:Version comparison.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The "version" of a connection depends on the versions of the HDMI ports on the source and sink devices, not on the HDMI cable. The different categories of HDMI cable only affect the bandwidth (maximum resolution / refresh rate) of the connection. Other features such as audio, 3D, chroma subsampling, or variable refresh rate depend only on the versions of the ports, and are not affected by what type of HDMI cable is used. The only exception to this is Ethernet-over-HDMI, which requires an "HDMI with Ethernet" cable.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '300602',
'title': 'Internet access',
'section': 'Section::::Technologies.:Hardwired broadband access.:Fiber to the home.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The use of optical fiber offers much higher data rates over relatively longer distances. Most high-capacity Internet and cable television backbones already use fiber optic technology, with data switched to other technologies (DSL, cable, POTS) for final delivery to customers.\n',
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'title': 'Why are other standards for data transfer used at all (HDMI, USB, SATA, etc), when Ethernet cables have higher bandwidth, are cheap, and can be 100s of meters long?',
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'category': 'Technology',
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'answers': ["You had the misconception of ethernet cables having higher bandwidth. That's where your root of your confusion.",
"USB cabling and receptacle buses are cheaper than ethernet cables.\n\nUSB has greater port density, and will fit cleanly into thinner form factor platforms.\n\nUSB 3.0 has ~5 gbps transfer rate, whereas cat5e gets stable 1gbps. Getting 10Gbps typically requires cat6e ethernet cables or fiber, which are not exactly flexible and definitely not as cheap.\n\nCopper ethernet is also rated for 100 meters; you would not get very good throughput at 100s of meters on copper. Granted, this isn't typically a requirement for USB based eqpt either.\n\nEli5 edit:\n1. USB cable and especially the equipment you plug into (buses/controllers) cheaper than ethernet\n2. Fit more USB ports in tiny space (known as port density)\n3. USB faster than ethernet for price, especially on modern solutions like USB-C\n4. Ethernet is better at longer distances, which is why networking equipment uses it, but your keyboard does not need to",
"Ethernet generally cannot transmit power, or requires quite a bit of componentry on both ends to do so. It therefore doesn't work well for things like keyboards, mice, flash drives that require a power source.\n\nIt doesn't have the sheer bandwidth needed for HDMI or displayport, or the very low latency and, until recently, high bandwidth needed to run SATA.\n\n10Gb/s ethernet endpoints are still very expensive and power consuming.",
'Gigabit ethernet max. transfer speed: ca. 1 Gb/sec\n\nHDMI 2.1 max. transfer speed: ca. 42 Gb/sec',
"Because you need 100m ethernet cables. That's basically it. And they are cheap because you need a few hundred meters to wire up something, and the bigger the production the cheaper the cost of a single unit. Pair that with a cheap connecter, and you have Ethernet Cables.",
'There are many advantages and disadvantages to each type of transportation. Since every industry is unique and has different costs and profit margins, companies choose the method that fits them best. \nFor example, HDMI works best for transferring videos, USB works best for transferring files to small portable devices such as flash drives. SATA works best for external hard drives.',
'So what is being conflated here is Ethernet cables and Ethernet, HDMI cables and HDMI, etc. We need to talk about the physical layer and the protocols separately. \n\nEthernet is a protocol that can be run on top of a number of physical layers. Most people think of Ethernet cable as twisted shielded pair. \n\nThis is a type of transmission line that has an impedance of about 100 ohms. Depending on a number of factors like the dielectric loss, and how uniform the impedance of the line is different sorts of transmission lines have different bandwidths. The usable bandwidth of a CAT6A cable is about 500 MHz. The rest of the bandwidth comes from additional channels or QAM modulation techniques. \n\nNow what are SATA cables? Well they are differential pair signals as well. So is HDMI, copper differential signal pairs.\n\nNow imagine you want to send a signal down a transmission line and you want it to switch on and off at 20 GHz. Well you can actually do that on any sort of cable, the question really is just how much of the signal will actually make it to the other end and what it will look like. If its just loss and not lots of horrific reflections then you just need to just put repeaters in the cable or make it short enough. If the transmission line has a lot of dispersion then the shape of the signal will get lost and it will become hard to "see". These factors are often shown with something called an eye diagram, the more open the eye is the better the signal integrity of the communication channel. \n\nThe fact that Ethernet can be 100 m long means that the dispersion and the loss of the cable have to be low at the frequencies that protocol is used at. As others have pointed out HDMI has a lot more bandwidth so the cables can\'t be as long or the transmission line quality has to be better. Cheap cables mean lower transmission line quality. \n\nThe very best cables that are not optical (in terms of bandwidth) tend to be rigid pipes that are quite a lot like coax but have the center conductor basically floating in air with little spacers, these get up above 100 GHz.',
'This comes down to the intended use of the Device more than anything else. HDMI to Ethernet adapters do exist, and Ethernet can obviously handle the bandwidth required for a 1080p video stream, but a lot of the "extra pins" HDMI has cover audio, error detection, frame timing etc. Classically the interface to provide a usable signal on the video output end is provided by the input device, and monitors, TV\'s, etc tend to follow this pattern.\n\nIn the case of USB, the devices themselves have to be smart enough to tell the computer how they\'re connecting and what sort of functionality they\'ll perform.\n\nBandwidth isn\'t the end all consideration when determining what the most efficient way to transmit information is. While transmitting the required signals via ethernet may be possible it wasn\'t designed to support the wide array of applications better suited to specific connector types.',
"Ethernet is the slowest of Transfer standards you mentioned. That's why a USB to Ethernet dongle works at full speed, but HDMI over Ethernet works only with compression.",
"Follow up eli5. \nWhy is one connector/ cable give better or worse speed? My understanding is that a conductor is a conductor, obviously less resistance based on wire guage, and type of metal, and stranded vs solidcore would be parameters that would effect how much current it can use etc. Also i imagine the specific impedance or capacitance of the wire at that guage and length could affect its ability to transmit frequencies cleanly. And Obviously you would need the correct number of conductors for a particular data protocal. But how would the shape of the connector type at the end have anything to do with transfer speeds? Can't one easily convert any wire to any connector type with similar number of conductors? Shielding and wire guage options aside what is the physics that allow one wire or connector standard to transfer at twice the speed of the next? Also why does the twisted pair or cat5 wires have any affect on transfer speeds vs non twisted 8 conductor wire?",
'In addition to things others have mentioned, the RJ45 connectors you are probably thinking of aren’t very durable (the clips tend to break off if you unplug and plug back in often). Unlike USBc they also aren’t reversible.',
"I know this comment will never be seen, but Ill try anyway. Data bandwidth is not the only measurement for a cable, and many cables are used because they fill a role no other cable will fill properly. HDMI for instance was shoved down our collective throats by the media 'powers that be'. It has 19 wires inside it, and performs a massive series of handshakes both to negotiate things like display resolution (through EDID) and copyright protection (HDCP). An ethernet cable cant pass this signal without a translation device (which exists and is known as an HDMI extender). Meanwhile, HDMI wires are notoriously finicky over medium to long distances. \n\n\nRG6 with a BNC connector is often used because the actual termination (bit on the end) can be secured. BNC was actually created by the British Navy iirc for that express purpose. The equipment it is used on does not require ethernet throughput. \n\n\nFiber is frankly very high on the list of wires that are great. Extreme data transmission speeds are possible, and you can run it for extremely long distances without issue. There are also secure connectors that pretty much assure the thing will not pop out by accident. The downsides are its fragility, and lack of easily available equipment for it to be used with.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nTLDR; \nWires are used for all kinds of reasons, not just data throughput.",
"for HDMI, it is lossless and has 48Gbps bandwidth (with [hdmi 2.1](_URL_0_)). So it's not quite like you've thought",
'Ethernet at those rates requires high powered high speed data management as well as a hardware interface and network layer computing where as others use more like a hardware chip to do the handling and stream pretty simple digital data streams that talk more on a hardware interface.',
"HDMI is up to 48GB/s. The fastest attainable ethernet you can get in your home is 10GB/s, and that's a signficant cost. Normally, people have 1gbps. 40 and 100 gb ethernet are used in and between datacenters.\n\nEach of these cables has a specific purpose that ethernet cannot nessecarily match. Sometimes it's high bandwidth, sometimes low latency.",
'Ethernet cables can not be 100s of meters long. They can be up to 100m, a singular hundred.',
'The easiest answer is that USB has built in standards for device detection, drivers, and is designed to handle a much broader range of devices.\n\nHDMI has built in negotiated standards for DRM, and the port is meant to be easier to install in tighter places.\n\nWith the addition of Thunderbolt to the USB 4.0 specification, fiber optics are now used for handling stuff previously relegated to PCI cards inside computers.\n\nFinally, power. HDMI includes Ethernet for transport. USB can handle up to 100W of power with the proper Type-C cable\n\nBottom line, Ethernet is designed to do one thing - networking. We can sometimes shoehorn it to do these other tasks, but imagine an Ethernet port on a thin tablet today.',
"DisplayPort 1.4 is something like 32.4 Gbps. HDMI 2.0 is 14.4 Gbps (a new version is slowly coming out with bandwidth even higher than DisplayPort 1.4). These also require relatively short cables. Ethernet in real use and inexpensively acquired by consumers don't really come close to those speeds.\n\nTo put that in perspective of what you can do with that, DisplayPort 1.4 can easily do 4k/60fps/4:4:4 chroma/10 or 12bit color. I'm not sure exactly what it maxes out at, but at some point you have to start compromising on something. For example the current mainstream HDMI spec, which as stated already has higher bandwidth than what most consumers have access to as far at network gear, is already hitting it's limit with 4k forcing you to choose between 4k/60fps/4:2:2 chroma/10 or 12bit color, 4k/60fps/4:4:4 chroma/8bit color, or 4k/30fps/4:4:4 chroma/10 or 12 bit color. Basically you have to compromise on resolution, chroma subsampling, refresh rate, or color depth. The more you make one go up, the less you can have of the others.\n\nPlease disregard any typos or technical errors. The gist of this reply is to point out that even at really high bandwidths, higher than what most of us have access to with networking gear, compromises have to be made. My current display is a 3440x1440@144hz, 10bit color, 4:4:4 chroma subsampling using DisplayPort. I am not sure the current mainstream HDMI can handle that.",
"**Summary/TL;DR**: Different standards exist, because it is impossible to meet all design requirements in one standard that is also inexpensive enough for consumer use. In some cases, it's even impossible to meet them all, period. Like with cabling. Some applications need stable cabling, others need flexible cabling. And some design criteria have only been recently met by Ethernet, whereas other standards have been meeting them for over a decade now.\n\nOkay lets unwrap this a bit:\n\n**USB** was originally designed to be a standard to connect inexpensive peripherals in a way that is unified and easier to handle than previous options. Compared to Ethernet (or really just about anything else) USB has always been both dirt cheap and dead simple to implement. It is also designed to be easy to handle for people with physical disabilities. USB connectors being simple and sliding in and out of their receptacles easily isn't a mistake, it's a deliberate design choice. Same with the cables being thinner and easier to bend. USB also comes with a set of standard drivers that do away with the need to write your own driver software for all but the most unusual devices.\n\n* (+) Much cheaper on the hardware side\n* (+) Simpler to implement, hardware wise\n* (+) Small. Many USB devices are smaller than even an RJ45 socket\n* (+) Connectors specified for a high number of connect/disconnect cycles, almost unbreakable, simple, easy to handle, even for people with physical disabilities\n* (+) Cheaper on the software side as well. (usually no extra drivers needed, can do lots of things)\n* (+) Still cheaper for similar bandwidth for high bandwidth\n* (-) Plugs unplug themselves all the time\n* (-) Historically, relatively low bandwith\n\n**SATA** was specified as point to point high bandwidth low latency short distance bus. Until 10G Ethernet, SATA has been much faster than Ethernet, and because of the point to point design (i.e. there are never more than one receiver and one sender on a connection), things like arbitration (figuring out who gets to send next) are unnecessary, very *very* greatly improving latency, which is what you need for access to local storage devices. The short distance design also makes cables and transceivers (the send/receiver chips at the end) much cheaper to implement.\n\n* (+) Much cheaper on the hardware side\n* (+) Lower latency (Important for storage)\n* (+) Less complexity, one sender, one receiver per cable\n* (+) Until very recently, faster than Ethernet\n* (+) Cheaper per bandwidth unit\n* (-) Single purpose\n\n**HDMI** is actually not that different from SATA, conceptually, but it has a few extra features added. Specifically it is designed for very low latency, it features very high bandwidth (even current 10G Ethernet is slower than an HDMI connection, starting from HDMI 1.3, which was specified in *2006*). Essentially it is designed to meet all needs of a digital A/V connection, which actually aren't that easy to meet with a general purpose network standard. On the other hand, as point to point short range standard it lacks a few of the design requirements of Ethernet, which makes it cheaper to implement. (Btw, pretty much this entire section is also valid for **DisplayPort** and **Thunderbolt**, with with not that very many differences, with Thunderbolt having a few extra features that go beyond what HDMI and DP do)\n\n* (+) Cheaper to implement\n* (+) Much lower, and dependably low latency (important for A/V)\n* (+) Historically, and currently *much* faster than Ethernet\n* (+) Cheaper per bandwidth unit\n* (+) Has special features for A/V transport that aren't easy to implement\n* (-) Single/low number purpose\n\n**Ethernet** was specified to serve a very different purpose than any of these standards. Ethernet's claim to fame is long distance ( > 10m) high bandwidth, something none of the other standards can do. On the other hand it's more expensive to implement, the drivers are clunkier (and don't cover many use cases, i.e. you need lots of stuff on top to cover things like storage or A/V), and Ethernet does not have a guaranteed latency at all, something it inherits from its past of being a shared medium (10Base-2). And lastly, the cabling is rigid, awkward to handle, not specified to me moved around all the time (even flexible Cat cable isn't, really, not the way you move around a mouse cable for instance)\n\n* (-) More expensive to implement (for anything > 1GB still *much* more expensive)\n* (-) Hardware (necessary chips) needs much more space than USB\n* (+/-) Lots of cabling options - > flexibility, but also incompatibility\n* (-) No guaranteed latency\n* (+) Can do much longer distances at high bandwidth than the other options\n* (-) Driver situation is a bit of a mixed bag for anything above layer 2.\n* (-) More expensive per bandwidth unit\n* (-/+) Cabling rigid and hard to move around. Can be a good thing for solidity, but is a bad thing for things like mice or USB sticks",
'ELI5 answer: Because it\'s easier to have different types of plugs for different things.\n\nAs for a more technical explanation, I\'m copy/pasting what I\'ve put elsewhere (only slightly edited)\n\n----\n\n200 meters is the limit for Cat5, 100 for Cat7. The bandwidth for Cat7 which is 10 Gbps which beats USB 3 hands down while the newest standard for HDMI is 18Gbps.\n\nThe form factor of RJ45 is only that way because of standards. It doesn\'t have to be the size or shape that it is but good luck getting every computer and NIC manufacturer to adopt a new one.\n\nAs for the max length of a cable, there are such things as "repeaters" which are insanely cheap these days. \n\nAdditionally, AWS 24 ethernet cables have been used for VGA cables in the past. [Here\'s a link to a converter just for this purpose](_URL_1_)\n\nHDMI nowadays has bandwidth up to 18 Gbps but previous versions went up to 10 Gbps, same as Cat7. In fact, [there are converters just for this purpose](_URL_0_)\n\nSo, now that you\'ve read all of this, the reason is because of technical standards. After all, it would be hella confusing if everything plugged into the back of your computer via RJ45. On the other hand, it\'s only eight wires and it\'s extremely easy to wire in another plug on the cable and save yourself some money.\n\n----\n\nEdit: To add some history as to why we have different plugs: Computers didn\'t always have standards when it came to hardware. Anyone could make a component and as long as it fit the motherboard, you could sell it even if the drivers, software, and cables were completely proprietary. Along came modems, printers, and sound cards and it became such a nightmare to support that eventually standards for things were introduced and manufacturers were expected to conform. By then, we had so many pieces of hardware out there that the most popular ones were (mostly) the ones who benefited since they had the largest market share and had the highest financial agility to adopt or influence the standards. Because of this, those different cable types were kind of cemented in place and became commonly used, spreading forward to the plethora of cable ends we have now.\n\nSometimes, however, technology advances and we can get more into a smaller area. We see this mostly commonly with USB plug types. Sometimes we only need a limited amount of bandwidth or we just plainly have a very small amount of room. For example, could you imagine using one of [these](_URL_2_) on your PlayStation controller???\n\nSo we have different cable connector types for historical, bandwidth, expense, power requirements, or space reasons.',
"Those other cables do not meet the safety requirements from the insurance industry or government to ensure buildings are safe and cheap. Etherlink usually does meet the safety requirements so it's ok to use inside the walls and ceiling of a building. New cables can and do get invented from time to time but proving they are safe is very expensive, so everyone still uses ethernet.",
'In addition to what everyone has already said, Ethernet cables are extremely inflexible. None of those could be reasonably routed inside of a PC case (ie SATA replacement) and would be clunky and fragile to carry around with you constantly.',
"Mostly it comes down to money, and what tech available at the time was not suitable, or it was just an upgrade. \nHDMI came along cause dvi was big, clunky, and did not support audio, and became a defacto standard for such and today got a nearly 50 gbps. \nUSB came along as a method to connect peripherals, be it mouse, keyboard, and so much more, and with it's 5 voltage it became a nice standard for giving power to peripherals as well as becoming an eventual charging standard thanks to the EU. \nSATA is just an upgraded edition of PATA like HDMI and DisplayPort is an upgraded version of DVI and VGAm, and it was generally faster then ethernet was at the same time. \nLastly there is the ethernet cable itself, the third most sold cable after power and phone, and will probably rise above phone any minute now. \nEthernet cables are big, they are chonky, and the good cables are fairly expensive to make as well. \nSo to summarize, each form of data transfer was made for a certain purpose in mind, and at the time it fit that purpose better then all alternatives, pluss money had quite a bit to say about it. \nIt was a tool fit for it's purpose, however all of them could be used as hammers, but hammers are better hammers then non-hammers even when non-hammers can be used as hammers. \nOh and whats more, the highest bandwidth today on ethernet cable is at a slow 400 gbit/s. \nIn comparison PCI express 5.0 is already up into 512 Gbit/s, while NVLink 1.0 is at 640 Gbit/s NVLink 2.0 at 1.2 Tbit/s, and then you got Infinity Fabric, which is part of HT for communications between cpu and gpu and has a max theoretical bandwidth of 4096 Tbit/s",
"Ethernet plugs are brittle, they're not made to be plugged and unplugged several times. USB and HDMI are designed specifically with this in mind.\n\nas for SATA plugs, it's easier and cheaper to just keep using them, than try to adapt everything to a new standard",
"I think a lot of people on here are caught in the bandwidth of the cable but that's not the answer. The answer is simply that ethernet is made for networking devices. An HDMI for example does that but also a bunch of other stuff because it has 19 pins. If you used ethernet you'd have to add a process that decide what a packet was intended for and that will add latency and cost of manufacturing a new TV or dvd player which would be present with HDMI.",
'Well:\n\n- USB is cheaper.\n\n- USB can transmit power, and a lot of it in certain cases.\n\n- Even USB 3.0 ports can deliver 5Gb speeds, while CAT 5E can only do 1GB.',
"A similar question I always wondered is why we developed all these other cables when regular coax cables have high enough bandwidth for HD signals and fast internet. Also, same question with VGA vs HDMI or Displayport. You could run an HD resolution on a CRT monitor with just a VGA cable 20 years ago. Why did we change these things? I'm sure that they would eventually not be enough, but it seems like we changed them decades before it was necessary.",
"In addition to what everyone else said Ethernet cables are usually solid core wire which doesn't flex very well and would probably work harden and break pretty quick when put in the same usage conditions as a USB cable for a phone or something. The RJ45 connector is also much larger and less durable than any of the standards you mentioned.",
" > can be hundreds of meters long\n\nUh... No? They start to degrade the signal after about 300 feet; which is just under 100 meters. It's gonna be the same for any copper cable.\n\nSource: I install internet for a living. After 300 feet of cable, we have to use switches or repeaters then run more cable from that. Though typically, if we have to move it more than 300ft, we just use a PTP system to deliver it wirelessly.",
'Besides the bits explained already, the biggest advantage HDMI had over other connection forms was that it was built to be HDCP-ready. IE, it was more about control than technical specs.'],
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'query': 'why are other standards for data transfer used at all (hdmi, usb, sata, etc), when ethernet cables have higher bandwidth, are cheap, and can be 100s of meters long?',
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'title': 'Oculesics',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Pupil dilation - Pupil dilation may be harder to detect by most people. Sexual desire may be a cause of such dilation. It may also be an indication of attraction. Physiologically, eyes dilate when it is darker to let in more light.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The "latency" of pupillary response (the time in which it takes to occur) increases with age. Use of central nervous system stimulant drugs and some hallucinogenic drugs can cause dilation of the pupil.\n',
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'passage_text': 'One explanation for the evolution of slit pupils is that they can exclude light more effectively than a circular pupil. This would explain why slit pupils tend to be found in the eyes of animals with a crepuscular or nocturnal lifestyle that need to protect their eyes during daylight. Constriction of a circular pupil (by a ring-shaped muscle) is less complete than closure of a slit pupil, which uses two additional muscles that laterally compress the pupil. \n',
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'title': 'Kurt Goldstein',
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'passage_text': 'If, in examining a man\'s pupillary reflex, we obtain a relatively constant contraction of the iris, this is possible only because the individual, so to speak, surrenders his eye to us and completely foregoes the usual act of seeing, i.e. the visual prehension of some environmental feature. Of course, it is true that in real vision the diameter of the pupil changes according to the amount of light on the seen object. But it certainly is not true that the same light intensity will produce the same contraction when it affects the organ in isolation (as in the reflex examination), and when it acts upon the eye of the person who deliberately regards an objects. Although it is not easy to prove this experimentally, one only needs to contrast the pupillary reaction of a man looking interestedly at a brightly illuminated object with the reaction of an eye which has been exposed "in isolation," to the same light intensity. The difference in pupillary reaction is immediately manifest.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A dilation response (mydriasis), is the widening of the pupil and may be caused by adrenaline, anticholinergic agents or drugs such as MDMA, cocaine, amphetamines, dissociatives and some hallucinogenics. Dilation of the pupil occurs when the smooth cells of the radial muscle, controlled by the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), contract.\n',
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'title': 'Iris dilator muscle',
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'passage_text': 'The pupillary dilator acts to increase the size of the pupil to allow more light to enter the eye. It works in opposition to the pupillary constrictor. Pupil dilation occurs when there is insufficient light for the normal function of the eye, and during heightened sympathetic activity, for example in the "fight or flight reflex."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Pupilometer',
'section': 'Section::::Pupillary Distance Measurement in Ophthamology.:Pupil response.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The extent of dilation of the pupil in the eye could be an indicator of interest and attention. Methods of reliable measurement of cognitive load, such as the dilation or constriction of the pupils, are used in marketing research to assess the attractiveness of TV commercials. Dilation of the pupils reflects an increase in mental processes, whether it be attentiveness, or psychomotor responsiveness. The pupil response has also been found to reflect long-term memory processes both at encoding, predicting the success of memory formation, and at retrieval reflecting the operation of different recognition outcomes.\n',
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'title': "Why aren't our pupils always dilated so that we see more all the time?",
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'answers': ['Stare into a bright light. How much can you see?\n\nWhen your pupils dilate it is to allow more light into your eyes. Letting in more light in dark situations helps you see better, but letting in more light in a bright situation makes it harder to see and can damage your eyes.',
'Pupils dilate to let more light in, that only means you see more if you are in an area with dim lighting. If you are in an area with bright lighting it means you will see less because you will be blinded. '],
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'passage_text': 'The complex numbers can be defined by introducing an abstract symbol which satisfies the usual rules of algebra and additionally the rule . This is sufficient to reproduce all of the rules of complex number arithmetic: for example:\n',
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'title': 'HP 35s',
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'passage_text': 'Complex numbers can be entered in either rectangular form (using the key) or polar form (using the key), and displayed in either form regardless of how they were entered. They can be decomposed using the (radius "r") and (angle "Θ") functions. There are no functions for extracting real and imaginary parts, though that can be worked around, using the formulas and .\n',
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'title': 'F Sharp (programming language)',
'section': 'Section::::Language overview.:Functional programming.\n',
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'passage_text': 'forms a sequence of squares of numbers from 0 to 14 by filtering out numbers from the range of numbers from 0 to 25. Sequences are generators – values are generated on-demand (i.e., are lazily evaluated) – while lists and arrays are evaluated eagerly.\n',
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'passage_text': 'It is important to get the integer sort size used in the recursive calls by rounding the 2/3 "upwards", e.g. rounding 2/3 of 5 should give 4 rather than 3, as otherwise the sort can fail on certain data. However, if the code is written to end on a base case of size 1, rather than terminating on either size 1 or size 2, rounding the 2/3 of 2 upwards gives an infinite number of calls.\n',
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'title': 'Siamese method',
'section': 'Section::::The method.:Other values.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Any sequence of numbers can be used, provided they form an arithmetic progression (i.e. the difference of any two successive members of the sequence is a constant). Also, any starting number is possible. For example the following sequence can be used to form an order 3 magic square according to the Siamese method (9 boxes): 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45 (the magic sum gives 75, for all rows, columns and diagonals).\n',
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'title': 'Algebra over a field',
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'passage_text': 'Any complex number may be written "a" + "bi", where "a" and "b" are real numbers and "i" is the imaginary unit. In other words, a complex number is represented by the vector ("a", "b") over the field of real numbers. So the complex numbers form a two-dimensional real vector space, where addition is given by ("a", "b") + ("c", "d") = ("a" + "c", "b" + "d") and scalar multiplication is given by "c"("a", "b") = ("ca", "cb"), where all of "a", "b", "c" and "d" are real numbers. We use the symbol · to multiply two vectors together, which we use complex multiplication to define: ("a", "b") · ("c", "d") = ("ac" − "bd", "ad" + "bc").\n',
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'title': 'Collation',
'section': 'Section::::Automated collation.:Issues with numbers.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Sometimes, it is desired to order text with embedded numbers using proper numerical order. For example, "Figure 7b" goes before "Figure 11a", even though \'7\' comes after \'1\' in Unicode. This can be extended to Roman numerals. This behavior is not particularly difficult to produce as long as only integers are to be sorted, although it can slow down sorting significantly. For example, Microsoft Windows does this when sorting file names.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do you order complex numbers?',
'selftext': "More specifically: If imaginary numbers don't belong to the real number line, does it make sense to say 3i > 2i? This is talking about pure imaginary numbers, but I extend the question further with ''mixed'' complex numbers. Does it make sense to say 2+i < 2+3i? Or 3+i > 2+i?",
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'answers': ["There's no total order for complex numbers, at least not one that is consistent with the arithmetic operations on the complex numbers. ",
'I suppose if you want order, the magnitude would help not only with purely imaginary numbers following the real numbers (i, 2i, 3i...) But also with complex numbers with real and imaginary parts. ',
"Only one-dimensional quantities have the property of 'order' you're talking about.\n\nAs a result, if you want to 'order' a multi-dimensional value you first need to project it into a single dimension. The common ways to do this for complex numbers would be to either take the magnitude (distance away from the origin) or the angle (rotation off the x-axis)."],
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'title': 'Palpitations',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Psychiatric problems.\n',
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'passage_text': "Anxiety and stress elevate the body's level of cortisol and adrenaline, which in turn can interfere with the normal functioning of the parasympathetic nervous system resulting in overstimulation of the vagus nerve. Vagus nerve induced palpitation is felt as a thud, a hollow fluttery sensation, or a skipped beat, depending on at what point during the heart's normal rhythm the vagus nerve fires. In many cases, the anxiety and panic of experiencing palpitations causes a sufferer to experience further anxiety and increased vagus nerve stimulation. The link between anxiety and palpitation may also explain why many panic attacks involve an impending sense of cardiac arrest. Similarly, physical and mental stress may contribute to the occurrence of palpitation, possibly due to the depletion of certain micronutrients involved in maintaining healthy psychological and physiological function. Gastrointestinal bloating, indigestion and hiccups have also been associated with overstimulation of the vagus nerve causing palpitations, due to branches of the vagus nerve innervating the GI tract, diaphragm, and lungs.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31307752',
'title': 'State-Trait Anxiety Inventory',
'section': 'Section::::The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Feelings of unease, worry, tension, and stress can be defined as anxiety. It is usually accompanied by a situation that causes these feelings for example, a big test or interview. It can also be caused by anxiety disorders such as Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) or Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD). The STAI tests two different types of anxiety, state and trait anxiety.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '146000',
'title': 'Amygdala',
'section': 'Section::::Neuropsychological correlates of amygdala activity.:Anxiety.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Feelings of anxiety start with a catalyst – an environmental stimulus that provokes stress. This can include various smells, sights, and internal feelings that result in anxiety. The amygdala reacts to this stimuli by preparing to either stand and fight or to turn and run. This response is triggered by the release of adrenaline into the bloodstream. Consequently, blood sugar rises, becoming immediately available to the muscles for quick energy. Shaking may occur in an attempt to return blood to the rest of the body. A better understanding of the amygdala and its various functions may lead to a new way of treating clinical anxiety.\n',
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'title': 'Anxiety',
'section': 'Section::::Symptoms.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The emotional effects of anxiety may include "feelings of apprehension or dread, trouble concentrating, feeling tense or jumpy, anticipating the worst, irritability, restlessness, watching (and waiting) for signs (and occurrences) of danger, and, feeling like your mind\'s gone blank" as well as "nightmares/bad dreams, obsessions about sensations, déjà vu, a trapped-in-your-mind feeling, and feeling like everything is scary."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '922',
'title': 'Anxiety',
'section': 'Section::::Risk factors.:Medical conditions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 66,
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'passage_text': 'Many medical conditions can cause anxiety. This includes conditions that affect the ability to breathe, like COPD and asthma, and the difficulty in breathing that often occurs near death. Conditions that cause abdominal pain or chest pain can cause anxiety and may in some cases be a somatization of anxiety; the same is true for some sexual dysfunctions. Conditions that affect the face or the skin can cause social anxiety especially among adolescents, and developmental disabilities often lead to social anxiety for children as well. Life-threatening conditions like cancer also cause anxiety.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '600102',
'title': 'Stage fright',
'section': 'Section::::Effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'When someone starts to feel the sensation of being scared or nervous they start to experience anxiety. According to a Harvard Mental Health Letter, "Anxiety usually has physical symptoms that may include a racing heart, a dry mouth, a shaky voice, blushing, trembling, sweating, lightheadedness, and nausea". It triggers the body to activate its sympathetic nervous system. This process takes place when the body releases adrenaline into the blood stream causing a chain of reactions to occur. This bodily response is known as the "fight or flight" syndrome, a naturally occurring process in the body done to protect itself from harm. "The neck muscles contract, bringing the head down and shoulders up, while the back muscles draw the spine into a concave curve. This, in turn, pushes the pelvis forward and pulls the genitals up, slumping the body into a classic fetal position".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '922',
'title': 'Anxiety',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Anxiety is an emotion characterized by an unpleasant state of inner turmoil, often accompanied by nervous behaviour such as pacing back and forth, somatic complaints, and rumination. It is the subjectively unpleasant feelings of dread over anticipated events, such as the feeling of imminent death. \n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is that pressure sensation we feel in our chest when we get a spike of anxiety?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['I believe it is adrenaline, the fight or flight reflex. But modern man doesn’t necessarily have the same fight or flight reflex as our ancestors - it’s more fight, flight or freeze. Most people freeze but the body still release the adrenaline used from the original fight or flight.',
'And in a real fight or flight scenario your last concern is going to be chest pain, it will be survival. After that your body will notice it’s in pain. Have you ever heard of someone chopping their finger off but not noticing? That’s because of the adrenaline.',
"Its literally blood being shunted to vital areas of the body as part of the fight or flight response, which is the body's automatic response to fear. Your sympathetic nervous system signals your heart and lungs through hormones like adrenaline to begin working harder to supply you with extra oxygen in important areas, just in case you actually need it to defend yourself or run away. Your blood pressure, pulse, and respirations will usually measure higher (sometimes dramatically) when you are scared or anxious. You may, in addition to the pressure in your chest, feel things like a cold knot in your stomach (from blood leaving the digestive system), jitteriness or shaking, and/or sweating."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8j7jlm',
'query': 'what is that pressure sensation we feel in our chest when we get a spike of anxiety?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '15842342',
'title': 'Laboratory diagnosis of viral infections',
'section': 'Section::::Host antibody detection.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Antibody testing has become widely available. It can be done for individual viruses (e.g. using an ELISA assay) but inautomated panels that can screen for many viruses at once are becoming increasingly common.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50646737',
'title': 'Viral load monitoring for HIV',
'section': 'Section::::Types.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 239,
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'passage_text': 'Various viral load tests might be used. One way to classify tests is by whether it is a nucleic acid test or non-nucleic acid test. Variation in cost and the time it takes to get a result may be factors in selecting the type of test used.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '368736',
'title': 'Misconceptions about HIV/AIDS',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:HIV antibody testing is unreliable.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'end_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': 'Progress in testing methodology has enabled detection of viral genetic material, antigens, and the virus itself in bodily fluids and cells. While not widely used for routine testing due to high cost and requirements in laboratory equipment, these direct testing techniques have confirmed the validity of the antibody tests.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41405319',
'title': 'OraQuick',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 275,
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'passage_text': 'Unlike other HIV tests that measures HIV virus or HIV antigens from blood, OraQuick measures the HIV antibodies in saliva. The test kit contains an oral swab attached to the reader, and a fluid-filled test tube. The test results can either be invalid, positive, or negative.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15925628',
'title': 'Hepatitis B',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
'end_character': 234,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The tests, called assays, for detection of virus infection involve serum or blood tests that detect either viral antigens (proteins produced by the virus) or antibodies produced by the host. Interpretation of these assays is complex.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2206783',
'title': 'Direct fluorescent antibody',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'end_character': 321,
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'passage_text': 'Commercial DFA testing kits are available, which contain fluorescently labelled antibodies, designed to specifically target unique antigens present in the bacteria or virus, but not present in mammals (Eukaryotes). This technique can be used to quickly determine if a subject has a specific viral or bacterial infection.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2861',
'title': 'Advertising',
'section': 'Section::::Theory.:Advertising research.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 120,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 120,
'end_character': 373,
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'passage_text': 'Post-testing employs many of the same techniques as pre-testing, usually with a focus on understanding the change in awareness or attitude attributable to the advertisement. With the emergence of digital advertising technologies, many firms have begun to continuously post-test ads using real-time data. This may take the form of A/B split-testing or multivariate testing.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do viral test kits work?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['A technique called qPCR. You use an enzyme called Reverse transcriptase to convert viral RNA into DNA. Then followed by another enzyme called DNA polymerase to clone it multiple times.\n\nMix that with fluorescent DNA primers (short glowing chunks) that are used by the enzyme to build the target DNA, and you can count how much viral DNA there is based on how much fluorescence is given off under UV light.\n\nThere are other techniques but this is the easiest and most common.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'fhu5ht',
'query': 'how do viral test kits work?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '21780446',
'title': 'Species',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'In biology, a species () is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. Other ways of defining species include their karyotype, DNA sequence, morphology, behaviour or ecological niche. In addition, paleontologists use the concept of the chronospecies since fossil reproduction cannot be examined.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9236',
'title': 'Evolution',
'section': 'Section::::Outcomes.:Speciation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 92,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 92,
'end_character': 1196,
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'passage_text': 'There are multiple ways to define the concept of "species." The choice of definition is dependent on the particularities of the species concerned. For example, some species concepts apply more readily toward sexually reproducing organisms while others lend themselves better toward asexual organisms. Despite the diversity of various species concepts, these various concepts can be placed into one of three broad philosophical approaches: interbreeding, ecological and phylogenetic. The "Biological Species Concept" (BSC) is a classic example of the interbreeding approach. Defined by evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr in 1942, the BSC states that "species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups." Despite its wide and long-term use, the BSC like others is not without controversy, for example because these concepts cannot be applied to prokaryotes, and this is called the species problem. Some researchers have attempted a unifying monistic definition of species, while others adopt a pluralistic approach and suggest that there may be different ways to logically interpret the definition of a species.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '532379',
'title': 'Type species',
'section': 'Section::::Use in zoology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 463,
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'passage_text': 'A type species is both a concept and a practical system that is used in the classification and nomenclature (naming) of animals. The "type species" represents the reference species and thus "definition" for a particular genus name. Whenever a taxon containing multiple species must be divided into more than one genus, the type species automatically assigns the name of the original taxon to one of the resulting new taxa, the one that includes the type species.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '94320',
'title': 'Virus classification',
'section': 'Section::::Virus species definition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 435,
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'passage_text': 'Species form the basis for any biological classification system. The ICTV had adopted the principle that a virus species is a polythetic class of viruses that constitutes a replicating lineage and occupies a particular ecological niche. In July 2013, the ICTV definition of species changed to state: "A species is a monophyletic group of viruses whose properties can be distinguished from those of other species by multiple criteria."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2528728',
'title': 'Species complex',
'section': 'Section::::Definition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 556,
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'passage_text': 'A species complex is typically considered as a group of close, but distinct species. Obviously, the concept is closely tied to the definition of a species. Modern biology understands a species as "separately evolving metapopulation lineage" but acknowledges that the criteria to delimit species may depend on the group studied. Thus, many species defined traditionally, based only on morphological similarity, have been found to comprise several distinct species when other criteria, such as genetic differentiation or reproductive isolation were applied.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19653842',
'title': 'Organism',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 460,
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'passage_text': 'Organisms are classified by taxonomy into specified groups such as the multicellular animals, plants, and fungi; or unicellular microorganisms such as a protists, bacteria, and archaea. All types of organisms are capable of reproduction, growth and development, maintenance, and some degree of response to stimuli. Humans are multicellular animals composed of many trillions of cells which differentiate during development into specialized tissues and organs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '167660',
'title': 'Cell type',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 933,
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'passage_text': 'A cell type is a classification used to distinguish between morphologically or phenotypically distinct cell forms within a species. A multicellular organism may contain a number of widely differing and specialized cell types, such as muscle cells and skin cells in humans, that differ both in appearance and function yet are genetically identical. Cells are able to be of the same genotype, but different cell type due to the differential regulation of the genes they contain. Classification of a specific cell type is often done through the use of microscopy (such as those from the cluster of differentiation family that are commonly used for this purpose in immunology). Recent developments in single cell RNA sequencing facilitated classification of cell types based on shared gene expression patterns. This has led to the discovery of many new cell types in e.g. mouse cortex, hippocampus, dorsal root ganglion and spinal cord.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does the definition of "species" work in single cell organisms?',
'selftext': 'the definition i know of species is something that can mate and make fertile offspring. i dont see how that works in single-cell asexual organisms.',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Traditionally, bacteria were classified by characteristics of theirs that were observed in a lab. For example, the most fundamental division of bacteria is between bacteria that are stained by a Gram stain and those that aren\'t. (This corresponds to important differences in their cell wall and membrane.)\n\nLooking at other features like morphology (what the cells look like under a microscope), colony morphology (what the blobs that grow when you put them on a Petri plate look like), metabolic features (what can it eat and what wastes does it produce; also, what vitamins it needs), and other lab tests, bacteria were further and further classified until the scientists were satisfied that they couldn\'t discern any differences within the last groups defined. Those groups were species.\n\nSo for a hypothetical example, bacteria in genus X might be Gram-positive (stained by a Gram stain) with spherical cells ~1.5 microns in diameter that form very flat greenish colonies and are catalase negative (do not make hydrogen peroxide bubble when mixed with it). Within genus X, species Y can use glucose, maltose, and lactose for food, while species Z can only use glucose.\n\nWith the advent of easy DNA sequencing, bacterial species are mostly defined by their genome sequence. But when the genome sequence databases were built, they made them by sequencing the genomes of bacteria classified by the old methods and assigning the sequence to the old species name.\n\nIn the end, "species" is not really a well-defined concept for single-celled organisms and it will always be a little fuzzy and inconsistent.',
'It is a bit different.\n\nFirst the microbiologists discovered that bacteria can exchange genetic material. It is not the sexual mating of multicellular organisms. But nuclear material does get transferred from one single celled organism to another.\n\n"Species" is a concept invented by humans. Linne did this. He enthusiastically started classifying living organisms into species. When he and his buddies got down to microscopic creatures he did not stop. They named them all. If a single cell organism looked like others, they were called members of a species. \n\nIt worked. Microbiologists could classify those little creatures. Studying them under the microscope they could name them by shape, rod, sphere, (cocci), twisty ones, (spirochetes). This really did help a lot. A scientist could describe experiments. Another scientist could duplicate these experiments.\n\nThey described the organisms they worked with by naming their species. Mostly the experiments worked. The experiments could be duplicated. They studied how they stained and what they grew on. So the species descriptions began to include phrases like gram negative lactose intolerant. It became understood that their were various strains of these species. If a scientist described an important experiment they would keep cultures of the organism used. Someone wanting to replicate the experiment could request a test tube of the organism.\n\nThis happens now too. Many species of bacteria have had their complete DNA sequences recorded.\n\n It is still important to name single cell bacteria as species. Vaccines are developed which will immunize against infection by named species. Reference strains are kept in laboratories to use to develop the vaccines. If the vaccine works against the reference strain it will work against what are called "wild" strains.\n\nSome strains of bacteria grown in culture in a laboratory must be periodically used to infect a lab animal. The bacteria in their blood is cultured and used to keep the strain virulent. \n\nSo single celled bacteria which spread a particular disease will have the same physical appearance and DNA. Recognizing an organism recovered from the blood from an infected person or animal is an important Eureka moment. Malarial species are still named. They also exchange genetic material. Part of their life cycle is asexual reproduction. Part is not.\n\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6xg3ut',
'query': 'how does the definition of "species" work in single cell organisms?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '49261',
'title': 'Corporate personhood',
'section': 'Section::::In the United States.:Legislation in the United States.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'This federal statute has many consequences. For example, a corporation is allowed to own property and enter contracts. It can also sue and be sued and held liable under both civil and criminal law. As well, because the corporation is legally considered the "person", individual shareholders are not legally responsible for the corporation\'s debts and damages beyond their investment in the corporation. Similarly, individual employees, managers, and directors are liable for their own malfeasance or lawbreaking while acting on behalf of the corporation, but are not generally liable for the corporation\'s actions. Among the most frequently discussed and controversial consequences of corporate personhood in the United States is the extension of a limited subset of the same constitutional rights.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1287559',
'title': 'Privacy laws of the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Modern tort law.:False light.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 42,
'end_character': 469,
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'passage_text': 'Moreover, the standards of behavior governing employees of government institutions subject to a state or national Administrative Procedure Act (as in the United States) are often more demanding than those governing employees of private or business institutions like newspapers. A person acting in an official capacity for a government agency may find that their statements are not indemnified by the principle of agency, leaving them personally liable for any damages.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13855134',
'title': 'Corporate manslaughter',
'section': 'Section::::Support and criticism of the concept.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
'end_character': 264,
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'passage_text': 'Further, a corporation may simply be a "veil" for an individual\'s activities, easily liquidated and with no reputation to protect. Again it is argued, company fines ultimately punish shareholders, customers and employees in general, rather than culpable managers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21167332',
'title': 'Staff management',
'section': 'Section::::Responsibilities and liabilities.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 532,
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'passage_text': "The organization is responsible for every employee in a company if something goes wrong. Employees can receive compensation for any serious incidents that may have occurred such as health and safety violations or injuries operating machinery, for example. Another example is the case of a supplier to British retailer Primark. The supplier's factory was located in the Rana Plaza building in Bangladesh. The building collapsed on April 24, 2013 killing 1100 people. The company was forced to pay the victims £12 million in damages.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29354893',
'title': 'Uninsured employer',
'section': 'Section::::State-based uninsured employers fund.:New York Uninsured Employers Fund.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 511,
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'passage_text': "BULLET::::- If an employee is hurt when there is no workers' compensation policy in effect and that employee chooses to file a workers' compensation claim, the employer will be liable for the actual cost of medical care and compensation payments, in addition to penalties. If a corporation has failed to secure workers' compensation coverage, the president, secretary and treasurer of a corporation are personally liable for the medical care, compensation payments, penalties and possible criminal prosecution.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18681682',
'title': 'Grama (halacha)',
'section': 'Section::::In civil law.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
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'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'There is a rule that "Grama benizakin patur". If somebody caused financial harm to somebody else via an action that was not guaranteed to harm them, the person cannot be forced by a court to pay, although he might be morally obligated to.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40229978',
'title': 'Anti-corporate activism',
'section': 'Section::::Counter-arguments.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 284,
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'passage_text': 'The defenders of corporations such as Ron Arnold highlight that governments do legislate in ways that restrict the actions of corporations (see Sarbanes-Oxley Act) and that lawbreaking companies and executives are routinely caught and punished, usually in the form of monetary fines.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'When a company commits a gross violation that affects people (physically/mentally/financially, etc.), why is the company forced to pay the government, instead of the people they hurt?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Usually they'll have to pay both. Fines levyed by the state is not meant to replace money companies have to pay for the damages they cause a person.\n\nLet's say a company causes you to lose a leg because of negligence, they might be fined by the state if they broke the law, but *in addition to that* they have to pay you money for the damages they caused you specifically.",
'The company pays the government for violating federal codes. They are punitive, not compensatory. Compensatory actions are done through the court system via individual or class action lawsuit, though the ruling that determines the fine will typically help the case for compensation for those that have been affected. They are separate actions. \n\nSame as getting into an accident while drunk. The state fines you for your crime along with any other penalties, the lawsuit by the person you hit will compensate them for their injuries, etc. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'abvgl1',
'query': 'when a company commits a gross violation that affects people (physically/mentally/financially, etc.), why is the company forced to pay the government, instead of the people they hurt?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2681589',
'title': 'Noogenesis',
'section': 'Section::::Issues and further research prospects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 33,
'end_character': 562,
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'passage_text': "The development of the human brain, perception, cognition, memory and neuroplasticity are unsolved problems in neuroscience. Several megaprojects are being carried out in: American BRAIN Initiative, European Human Brain Project, China Brain Project, Blue Brain Project, Allen Brain Atlas, Human Connectome Project, Google Brain, - in attempt to better our understanding of the brain's functionality along with the intention to develop human cognitive performance in the future with artificial intelligence, informational, communication and cognitive technology.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20211596',
'title': 'Ten percent of the brain myth',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 342,
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'passage_text': 'The 10 percent of the brain myth is a widely perpetuated urban legend that most or all humans only use 10 percent (or some other small percentage) of their brains. It has been misattributed to many people, including Albert Einstein. By extrapolation, it is suggested that a person may harness this unused potential and increase intelligence.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22189413',
'title': 'Up from Dragons',
'section': 'Section::::Chapters.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 342,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "BULLET::::18. Third Millennium Brain: The rewriting of the brain's potentials that started in the past still continues. “Braintech” is arising and will enhance humans even more. It is suggested that humans knowing that their origins lie in their brains, rather than ancient myth, will gain Brain Rights and enter a new Era—that of the Brain.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2452832',
'title': 'Evolution of human intelligence',
'section': 'Section::::Models.:Group selection.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 72,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 72,
'end_character': 818,
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'passage_text': "These concepts can be tied to the social brain hypothesis, mentioned above. This hypothesis posits that human cognitive complexity arose as a result of the higher level of social complexity required from living in enlarged groups. These bigger groups entail a greater amount of social relations and interactions thus leading to a expanded quantity of intelligence in humans. However, this hypothesis has been under academic scrutiny in recent years and has been largely disproven. In fact, the size of a species' brain can be much better predicted by diet instead of measures of sociality as noted by the study conducted by DeCasien et. al. They found that ecological factors (such as: folivory/frugivory, environment) explain a primate brain size much better than social factors (such as: group size, mating system).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '682482',
'title': 'Human',
'section': 'Section::::Psychology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 92,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 92,
'end_character': 390,
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'passage_text': 'Generally regarded as more capable of these higher order activities, the human brain is believed to be more "intelligent" in general than that of any other known species. While some non-human species are capable of creating structures and using simple tools—mostly through instinct and mimicry—human technology is vastly more complex, and is constantly evolving and improving through time.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2175813',
'title': 'Korea Institute of Science and Technology',
'section': 'Section::::Research institutes and divisions.:Brain Science Institute.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "The human brain is a highly complex system often dubbed a miniature universe. Its many mysteries have yet to be unveiled. The Brain Science Institute specializes in convergence research encompassing biology, chemistry, nanotechnology, information technology and computer engineering through which it aims to understand the neural mechanism responsible for controlling human behavior and to discover the clues to the tools for overcoming brain dysfunctions. The objective of the Brain Science Institute is to unravel the mysteries of the brain and thereby develop into the hub of the world's brain science research.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '519280',
'title': 'Intelligence',
'section': 'Section::::External links.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The Limits of Intelligence: The laws of physics may well prevent the human brain from evolving into an ever more powerful thinking machine by Douglas Fox in "Scientific American", June 14, 2011.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Is human brain at it's limits? and are there other stages of human brain development that will lead to us getting smarter.",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["A helpful way to think about the brain is not as a something that reaches 'capacity'. Our brains are very efficient, so as we develop and grow we keep reinforcing the neural pathways that help us the most in life - i.e. how should I interpret someone shouting at me, or someone crying.\n\nIf you grow up with a lot of exposure to learning, you'll create very efficient pathways that make you very good at lets say math, or writing, or critical analysis. This means that by the time we reach adulthood, we have very established connections which act as a kind of 'cheat sheet' for interpreting external stimulation - we see something and the brain draws on past experience to make sense of it. \n\nBUT what is very interesting is work being done on psychedelics right now. Essentially, under the influence of certain things in psychedelics our mind opens up and we can forge brand new neural connections much more easily - that is bits of the brain that weren't talking before can now talk to each other. This gives us new perspectives and insights and returns our mind to state like when we were young, that is when we were building our neural pathways. \n\nSo our brains are never at their limits because what they can build strong neural connections for are endless - they are just set in their ways."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'fzjnl6',
'query': "is human brain at it's limits? and are there other stages of human brain development that will lead to us getting smarter.",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '21347024',
'title': 'Hewlett-Packard',
'section': 'Section::::Products and organizational structure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 69,
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'passage_text': 'HP produces lines of printers, scanners, digital cameras, calculators, PDAs, servers, workstation computers, and computers for home and small-business use; many of the computers came from the 2002 merger with Compaq. HP promotes itself as supplying not just hardware and software, but also a full range of services to design, implement, and support IT infrastructure.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32489930',
'title': 'HP business desktops',
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'passage_text': 'HP Inc. targets their line of business desktop computers for use in the corporate, government and education markets. HP operate their business desktops on minimum 12-month product cycle and directly compete with Dell Optiplex, Acer Veriton and Lenovo ThinkCentre.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47034703',
'title': 'HP Inc.',
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'passage_text': 'HP Inc. (also known as HP and stylized as hp) is an American multinational information technology company headquartered in Palo Alto, California, United States. It develops personal computers (PCs), printers and related supplies, as well as 3D printing solutions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47034703',
'title': 'HP Inc.',
'section': 'Section::::History.:As HP Inc..\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'In 2016, HP announced a focus on users who upgrade their computers frequently and spend more money on games and released the game-centric Omen brand of laptops and desktops targeted at mid-range customers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47034703',
'title': 'HP Inc.',
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'passage_text': "HP is listed on the New York Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the S&P 500 Index. It is the world's largest personal computer vendor by unit sales, having regained its position in 2017 since it was overtaken by Lenovo in 2013. HP ranked No. 58 in the 2018 Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by total revenue.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3695788',
'title': 'Programmable calculator',
'section': 'Section::::Related tools.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 56,
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'passage_text': "The HP programmables and others have an IrDA interface which allows them to interface with the printers specially designed for the calculators, HP's main lines of laser printers, computers, other calculators, and other devices.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21347024',
'title': 'Hewlett-Packard',
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'passage_text': "The company was founded in a one-car garage in Palo Alto by Bill Hewlett and David Packard, and initially produced a line of electronic test equipment. HP was the world's leading PC manufacturer from 2007 to Q2 2013, at which time Lenovo ranked ahead of HP. HP specialized in developing and manufacturing computing, data storage, and networking hardware, designing software and delivering services. Major product lines included personal computing devices, enterprise and industry standard servers, related storage devices, networking products, software and a diverse range of printers and other imaging products. HP directly marketed its products to households, small- to medium-sized businesses and enterprises as well as via online distribution, consumer-electronics and office-supply retailers, software partners and major technology vendors. HP also had services and consulting business around its products and partner products.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do governments, schools, and big businesses (mostly) always use HP printers?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['So they? All I ever see is RICOH',
'hp usually gives away a lot of printers for free, but makes you sign a contract to buy supplies ie ink, toner, and paper from them. so businesses jump at this due to the low upfront cost since some of those higher end printers can easily cost 10k+',
'HP has payment plans for equipment. That includes computers and printers. Like a rent to own. They also do contracts where they will replace equipment X is Y years. Maintenance contacts are also available. The willingness of HP to work with the needs of the company is hard to beat. ',
'It\'s mostly Konika Minolta nowadays.\n\nIn any case, HP has / had a great tech support plan. Costly, but they offered "our technician will be at your location tomorrow first thing" as an option, 15+ years ago. Big businesses and governments want their stuff to work, so getting stuff fixed fast was a big deal.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'ar3l57',
'query': 'why do governments, schools, and big businesses (mostly) always use hp printers?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '16063653',
'title': 'Nutrition transition',
'section': 'Section::::Relation to economic development.:Biopsychosocial forces.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'The desires for these new diets and lifestyles are very understandable from a biological and psychosocial perspective. For example, humans have an innate preference for sweets dating back to hunter-gatherer populations. These sweets signaled a good source of energy for hunter-gatherers that were not food secure. This same concept also relates to human predisposition for energy-dense fatty foods. These foods were needed to sustain long journeys and provided a safety net for times of famine. Humans also desire to eliminate physical exertion. This can explain the shift to more sedentary lifestyles from occupational, domestic, and leisurely activities that were previously much more physical taxing. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '159670',
'title': 'Adenosine monophosphate deaminase deficiency type 1',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
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'passage_text': 'If a food containing even small but perceivable amount of sugar (simple sugars or disaccharides that can be tasted sweet, or starch that is at least minimally hydrolyzed by salivary amylase, or even some non-sugar sweeteners) is eaten in this state, there may be a period of time after it enters stomach and before bulk absorption occurs, when continuous exercise becomes very hard, and easily triggers rhabdomyolysis. It probably happens because the digestive system senses and signals forthcoming delivery of sugars, inhibiting fatty acid release and oxidation, and starving glycogen-less muscle cells of the sole available source of energy. Even simple continuous exercise, like walking or washing dishes by hand right after the meal, may trigger rhabdomyolysis in the exercising muscles. This rhabdomyolysis is probably not of exertional, but of hypoglycemic nature, as loaded glycogen-less muscles can rapidly remove glucose from blood, and the normal mechanism of glucose homeostasis lacks the required responsiveness or capacity to prevent hypoglycemia. The broken down myocytes probably do not yield much glucose. Unlike the case with exertional rhabdomyolisys, there is no warning. At rest, however, the liver will effortlessly cover the whole body energy needs until absorption of carbohydrates occurs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4748084',
'title': 'Self-denial',
'section': 'Section::::Positive effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'There is evidence brief periods of fasting, a denial of food, can be beneficial to health in certain situations. Self-denial is sometimes related to inhibitory control and emotional self-regulation, the positives of which are dealt with in those articles. As people grow accustomed to material goods they often experience hedonic adaptation, whereby they get used to the finer things and are less inclined to savor daily pleasures. Scarcity can lead people to focus on enjoying an experience more deeply, which increases happiness.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14083964',
'title': 'Animal psychopathology',
'section': 'Section::::Behavioral disorders.:Addiction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
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'passage_text': 'Sugar addiction has been examined in laboratory rats and it develops in the same way that drug addiction develops. Eating sugary foods causes the brain to release natural chemicals called opioids and dopamine in the limbic system. Tasty food can activate opioid receptors in the ventral tegmental area and thereby stimulate cells that release dopamine in the nucleus accumbens (NAc). The brain recognizes the intense pleasure derived from the dopamine and opioids release and learns to crave more sugar. Dependence is created through these natural rewards, the sugary treats, and the opioid and dopamine released into the synapses of the mesolimbic system. The hippocampus, the insula and the caudate activate when rats crave sugar, which are the same areas that become active when drug addicts crave the drug. Sugar is good because it provides energy, but if the nervous system goes through a change and the body becomes dependent on the sugar intake, somatic signs of withdrawal begin to appear like chattering teeth, forepaw tremors and head shakes when sugar is not ingested. Morphine tolerance, a measure of addiction, was observed in rats and their tolerance on Morphine was attributed to environmental cues and the systemic effects of the drug. Morphine tolerance does not depend merely on the frequency of pharmacological stimulation, but rather on both the number of pairings of a drug-predictive cue with the systemic effects of the drug. Rats became significantly more tolerant to morphine when they had been exposed to a paired administration than those rats that were not administered a drug-predictive cue along with the morphine.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3929220',
'title': 'Food craving',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'Foods with high levels of sugar glucose, such as chocolate, are more frequently craved than foods with lower sugar glucose, such as broccoli, because when glucose interacts with the opioid receptor system in the brain an addictive triggering effect occurs. The consumer of the glucose feels the urge to consume more glucose, much like an alcoholic, because the brain has become conditioned to release "happy hormones" every time glucose is present.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3929220',
'title': 'Food craving',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'There is no single explanation for food cravings, and explanations range from low serotonin levels affecting the brain centers for appetite to production of endorphins as a result of consuming fats and carbohydrates.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14511650',
'title': 'Impulsivity',
'section': 'Section::::Associated behavioral and societal problems.:Eating.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
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'passage_text': 'Consumption of a tempting food by non-clinical individuals increases when self-regulatory resources are previously depleted by another task, suggesting that it is caused by a breakdown in self control. Impulsive eating of unhealthy snack foods appears to be regulated by individual differences in impulsivity when self-control is weak and by attitudes towards the snack and towards healthy eating when self-control is strong. There is also evidence that greater food consumption occurs when people are in a sad mood, although it is possible that this is due more to emotional regulation than to a lack of self-control. In these cases, overeating will only take place if the food is palatable to the person, and if so individual differences in impulsivity can predict the amount of consumption.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "why people eat salty food then crave sugary food and repeat the cycle? What's going on in human body that causes this craving?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['We need salt and sugar to survive. Salt is vital for water retention and brain chemistry. And sugar is used by the body as well and natural sources of sugar like fruit and veggies are extremely good for us. \n\nAlso sweet and salty I believe are two major components of our taste. So our brain rewards is heavily for getting those things into our mouth and into our system. \n',
"We've evolved in environments where sugar and salt were no where near as abundant as they are today, and because they're so vital for our survival we've evolved to enjoy the taste of them in order to make us want to eat them to get the nutrition we need(ed). Now, there's a bit of a mismatch because of how readily available sugar and salt are. Not sure if this explains why you'd crave one after the other in a cycle though. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '5rzgyp',
'query': "why people eat salty food then crave sugary food and repeat the cycle? what's going on in human body that causes this craving?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '39747',
'title': 'Stomach',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'In humans and many other animals, the stomach is located between the oesophagus and the small intestine. It secretes digestive enzymes and gastric acid to aid in food digestion. The pyloric sphincter controls the passage of partially digested food (chyme) from the stomach into the duodenum where peristalsis takes over to move this through the rest of the intestines.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21944',
'title': 'Nervous system',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.:Comparative anatomy and evolution.:"Identified" neurons.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
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'passage_text': 'The brains of many molluscs and insects also contain substantial numbers of identified neurons. In vertebrates, the best known identified neurons are the gigantic Mauthner cells of fish. Every fish has two Mauthner cells, located in the bottom part of the brainstem, one on the left side and one on the right. Each Mauthner cell has an axon that crosses over, innervating neurons at the same brain level and then travelling down through the spinal cord, making numerous connections as it goes. The synapses generated by a Mauthner cell are so powerful that a single action potential gives rise to a major behavioral response: within milliseconds the fish curves its body into a C-shape, then straightens, thereby propelling itself rapidly forward. Functionally this is a fast escape response, triggered most easily by a strong sound wave or pressure wave impinging on the lateral line organ of the fish. Mauthner cells are not the only identified neurons in fish—there are about 20 more types, including pairs of "Mauthner cell analogs" in each spinal segmental nucleus. Although a Mauthner cell is capable of bringing about an escape response individually, in the context of ordinary behavior other types of cells usually contribute to shaping the amplitude and direction of the response.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39747',
'title': 'Stomach',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The stomach is a muscular, hollow organ in the gastrointestinal tract of humans and many other animals, including several invertebrates. The stomach has a dilated structure and functions as a vital digestive organ. In the digestive system the stomach is involved in the second phase of digestion, following chewing. It performs a chemical breakdown due to enzymes and hydrochloric acid.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33658047',
'title': 'Solmarisidae',
'section': 'Section::::Characteristics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Members of this family have dome-shaped bells and numerous tentacles set above the undulating margin of the bell. They do not have gastric pouches as do other members of the order. The gonads are situated inside the wall of the stomach.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7626',
'title': 'Cetacea',
'section': 'Section::::Physiology.:Organs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 40,
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'passage_text': 'The stomach consists of three chambers. The first region is formed by a loose gland and a muscular forestomach (missing in beaked whales), which is then followed by the main stomach and the pylorus. Both are equipped with glands to help digestion. A bowel adjoins the stomachs, whose individual sections can only be distinguished histologically. The liver is large and separate from the gall bladder.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13959121',
'title': 'Fiona pinnata',
'section': 'Section::::Description.:Digestive system.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
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'passage_text': 'The oesophagus is a short and rather slender tube. It leads from the upper part of the buccal mass towards, and opens into, the anterior margin of a distinct pyriform stomach. The stomach has the broad end forward, is placed above the reproductive system, and lies quite in the anterior portion of the visceral cavity. The internal surface of the stomach is not lamellated. The intestine leads from posterior end of the stomach, and is inclining slightly to the right side and passes backwards to the tubular anus. The anus is placed a little to the right of the median line of the back, immediately behind the heart. The intestinal tube is rather short, of equal diameter throughout, and internally plicated longitudinally.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3558454',
'title': 'Scipionyx',
'section': 'Section::::Description.:Soft tissues.:Digestive system.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
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'passage_text': 'The digestive tract can mostly be traced, either because the intestines are still present or by the presence of food items. The position of the oesophagus is indicated by a five millimetre long series of small food particles. Below the ninth dorsal vertebra the location of the stomach is shown by a cluster of bones of prey animals, the organ itself likely having been dissolved by its own stomach acid shortly after death. The rather backward position of the cluster suggests the stomach was dual in structure, with a forward enzyme-secreting proventriculus preceding a muscular gizzard. Gastroliths have not been reported.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'The stomach has neurons, but what are they for?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['most of your body has neurons, thats just what your nerves are called. Your stomach uses them to tell your brain if there is pain like any other neuron.',
'How would you feel if you had pain in your stomach or the temperature changes in your stomach.',
'Neurons are not only useful for sensation you feel but to allow areas of the body to communicate information to other areas. For example if the senses detect food it is helpful to be able to start up the digestive process such as salivation and increased stomach activity. Similarly the stomach is going to need to be able to sense when there is food inside it in order to digest it, both with muscle action and balancing acidity.',
'some opiate receptors are in the stomach, this is one of the reasons the chyme travels slower and leads to peristalsis or constipation.\n\npressing a receptor will do different things, enhancing mucus secretion or acid production, sometimes it will cause vomiting of a gag reflex.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8hijrh',
'query': 'the stomach has neurons, but what are they for?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '38879444',
'title': 'TP53-inducible glycolysis and apoptosis regulator',
'section': 'Section::::Function.:DNA damage response and cell cycle arrest.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'In non-resting cells, the cell cycle consists of G0 - G1 - S - G2 - M phases, and is tightly regulated at checkpoints between the phases. If the cell has undergone stress, certain proteins are expressed that will prevent the specific sequence of macromolecular interactions at the checkpoint required for progression to the next phase.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35714179',
'title': 'Cancer dormancy',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Dormancy is a stage in cancer progression where the cells cease dividing but survive in a quiescent state while waiting for appropriate environmental conditions to begin proliferation again. Quiescence is the state where cells are not dividing but at arrest in the cell cycle in G0-G1. Dormant cancer cells are thought to be present in early tumor progression, in micrometastases, or left behind in minimal residual disease (MRD) after what was thought to be a successful treatment of the primary tumor.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36563803',
'title': 'Neuroscience of sleep',
'section': 'Section::::Sleep function.:Waste clearance from the brain.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 81,
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'passage_text': "During sleep, metabolic waste products, such as immunoglobulins, protein fragments or intact proteins like beta-amyloid, may be cleared from the interstitium via a glymphatic system of lymph-like channels coursing along perivascular spaces and the astrocyte network of the brain. According to this model, hollow tubes between the blood vessels and astrocytes act like a spillway allowing drainage of cerebrospinal fluid carrying wastes out of the brain into systemic blood. Such mechanisms, which remain under preliminary research as of 2017, indicate potential ways in which sleep is a regulated maintenance period for brain immune functions and clearance of beta-amyloid, a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35714179',
'title': 'Cancer dormancy',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism.:Types of cancer dormancy.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::2. Cellular dormancy refers to the cell entering a state of quiescence where growth is arrested in G0-G1 of the cell cycle, and cells are truly inactive and asymptomatic. This is referred to as the dormancy that tumor cells enter when they survive dissemination but cannot adapt immediately to stresses or the new microenvironment. Recently, model pathogenic eukaryotic cell encystation has been linked to cancer cell dormancy, "Acanthamoeba" spp. were studied for conditions leading to their encystation. These conditions were imposed on prostate cancer cells to induce a state of dormancy from which they could be revived by elimination of the provoking stimuli. Dormant cells might also have different mechanisms that can be used to evade an immune response.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27834',
'title': 'Sleep',
'section': 'Section::::Functions.:Restoration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 57,
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'passage_text': 'The human organism physically restores itself during sleep, healing itself and removing metabolic wastes which build up during periods of activity. This restoration takes place mostly during slow-wave sleep, during which body temperature, heart rate, and brain oxygen consumption decrease. The brain, especially, requires sleep for restoration, whereas in the rest of the body these processes can take place during quiescent waking. In both cases, the reduced rate of metabolism enables countervailing restorative processes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44531850',
'title': 'Permanent cell',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Permanent cells are cells that are incapable of regeneration. These cells are considered to be terminally differentiated and non proliferative in postnatal life. This includes brain cells, neurons, heart cells, skeletal muscle cells, and red blood cells. Although these cells are considered permanent in that they neither reproduce nor transform into other cells, this does not mean that the body can not create new versions of these cells. For instance, structures in the bone marrow produce new red blood cells constantly, while skeletal muscle damage can be repaired by underlying satellite cells which fuse to become a new skeletal muscle cell. Disease and virology studies can use permanent cells to maintain cell count and accurately quantify the effects of vaccines. Some embryology studies also use permanent cells to avoid harvesting embryonic cells from pregnant animals; since the cells are permanent, they may be harvested at a later age when an animal is fully developed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15484616',
'title': 'Labile cell',
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'passage_text': 'In cellular biology, labile cells are cells that multiply constantly throughout life. The cells are alive for only a short period of time. Due to this,they can end up reproducing new stem cells and replace functional cells. Especially if the cells become injured through a process called necrosis, or even if the cells go through apoptosis. The way these cells regenerate and replace themselves is quite unique. While going through cell division, one of the two daughter cells actually becomes a new stem cell. This occurs so then that daughter cell can end up restoring the population of the stem cells that were lost. The other daughter cell separates itself into a functional cell in order to replace the lost, or injured cells during this process. Labile cells are one type of the cells that are involved in the division of cells. The other two types that are involved include stable cells and permanent cells. \n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do the cells stay alive when you fall asleep on a body part for an extended period of time?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Your arteries are high pressure hoses that stay open even if you compress them. They are deeper in your body too so they wont get compressed easily.',
"The numbness that comes from putting pressure on a body part is from compressing the nerves and disrupting their communication, not preventing blood flow, if that's why you ask."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'd6gntv',
'query': 'how do the cells stay alive when you fall asleep on a body part for an extended period of time?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '40075404',
'title': 'Concert for Freedom',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'Concert tickets went on sale on Monday, June 3, and almost all (60,000) were sold the same day, with online wait times to purchase tickets that exceeded six hours. This caused the organization to initially freeze ticket sales and then release 30,000 tickets for sale on the 17th, though these were for seats at the south goal post of the stadium, behind the stage.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9544075',
'title': 'The Police Reunion Tour',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': "Since concert tickets went up for sale worldwide, some concert dates were sold out in minutes. Tickets for the entire British tour, the band's first in 24 years, sold out within 30\xa0minutes. Worldwide, they have sold about 1.5m tickets with revenues reaching $168m.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48597479',
'title': "Exo Planet 2 – The Exo'luxion",
'section': 'Section::::Concerts.:Philippines.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'end_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- On December 5, netizens clamored that the ticket-selling was announced late, and caused an uproar. It was later announced that the ticket-selling was postponed to December 13, 2015 due to finalizing ticket prices and seat plans, though the concert will push through on the announced date. Upon the final release of tickets, all tickets were sold out within 3 hours.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46864607',
'title': "Dato' Siti Nurhaliza Unplugged 2015",
'section': 'Section::::Commercial performance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
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'passage_text': "Tickets for the concert were made available for online purchase though the concert's official online vendor, AirAsiaRedTix.com. The tickets were also sold on selected outlets for manual pick-ups. Although the concert was planned and executed in two weeks, tickets that were priced from RM 78 to RM 518 and sold in late March. They were sold out at least three days before the day of the concert.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13771900',
'title': 'Glastonbury Festival 2008',
'section': 'Section::::Ticket sales.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 869,
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'passage_text': 'Sale of tickets did not occur as fast as has been the case in recent years. After tickets went public on 6 April, only around 100,000 were purchased, prompting Eavis to re-open registration two days later. By contrast, 2007 saw the then entire allocation of 137,500 tickets sell out in around two hours. There are a number of theories as to why the 2008 lapse in ticket sales has occurred, with one popular theory being that would-be patrons have been put off due to the inclusion of hip hop artist Jay-Z. Michael Eavis disputes this, claiming that the lapse is due to a long run of poor weather conditions during previous years of the festival. The global economic downturn may be another explanation for would-be festival goers deciding instead to hold on to their money. The event did eventually sell out, although the final tickets were sold on the opening Friday.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41585287',
'title': 'Siti Nurhaliza in Symphony',
'section': 'Section::::Commercial performance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 423,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Tickets for the concert were made available since late April 2013 through its official ticket vendors, dfp.com.my and mpo.com.my. Listed from RM 150 to RM 400, it was reported that by May, more than 90 percents of the tickets have already been sold. With Petronas Philharmonic Hall at its full capacity able to seat 900 people per night, all 2700 tickets that were available sold out weeks after the concert was announced.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5516403',
'title': 'Arctic Monkeys tour history',
'section': 'Section::::"Whatever People Say I Am, That\'s What I\'m Not".:April 2006 UK tour.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'Tickets were put on general release at 6pm on 2 February, available online, by phone or box office. All 12 gigs were sold out within 10 minutes, with queuing at some venues beginning in the early hours of the morning.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How can concert tickets and big clothing drops seemingly be already sold out at the exact same second they go live?',
'selftext': 'For context: Was just attempting to get Anderson .Paak tickets from TicketMaster however their site was already displaying that they were sold out at the exact same second they went live.',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Either someone had access to buy before that, or a lot of buyers were just faster than you.\n\nThere's many examples of employees buying the entire stock before the sale goes live. And there's also many examples of people making software to buy tickets as fast as possible (seconds) as soon as sales opens, leaving little chance to people who buy manually.",
"People have systems in place to buy them all up for profit. Maybe they have a dozen browser windows open, maybe they straight up have bots, it doesn't matter - if there's a financial incentive to buy up a thing and resell it, people will.",
'Places like stubhub and vivid seats have bots that buy up the tickets within an split second. Im sure here are more companies that do this but those two come to mind. The answer is bots. CAPTCHA? joke. Its easy af to pay some Indian to enter the codes at lightning speed when they popup at his desk. It will screen shot it, send it to him and he puts his answer in the box it moves it to the seller. Sadly this is all perfectly legal and wont change.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '835onc',
'query': 'how can concert tickets and big clothing drops seemingly be already sold out at the exact same second they go live?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '5071866',
'title': 'Vehicular automation',
'section': 'Section::::Ground vehicles.:Trucks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 63,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 63,
'end_character': 462,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'As reported in June 1995 in Popular Science Magazine, self-driving trucks were being developed for combat convoys, whereby only the lead truck would be driven by a human and the following trucks would rely on satellite, an inertial guidance system and ground-speed sensors. Caterpillar Inc. made early developments in 2013 with the Robotics Institute at Carnegie Mellon University to improve efficiency and reduce cost at various mining and construction sites. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24594747',
'title': 'Trust-based marketing',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 508,
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'passage_text': 'Urban originally tested his hypothesis with a prototype site for General Motors called TruckTown which provided unbiased comparisons of competing truck products. He found that more than 75% of TruckTown visitors said they trusted TruckTown more than the dealer who had sold them their last vehicle. Urban continued to test his theory with projects such as AutoChoiceAdvisor, a website to help car shoppers find the vehicle that best suits their needs) and a Medicare Insurance advisor called PlanPrescriber.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29432015',
'title': 'Productivity improving technologies',
'section': 'Section::::Major sources of productivity growth in economic history.:Infrastructures.:Motorways.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 56,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 56,
'end_character': 275,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Highways with internal combustion powered vehicles completed the mechanization of overland transportation. When trucks appeared c. 1920 the price transporting farm goods to market or to rail stations was greatly reduced. Motorized highway transport also reduced inventories.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23911117',
'title': 'History of the trucking industry in the United States',
'section': 'Section::::19th century.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 763,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Before 1900, most freight transported over land was carried by trains using railroads. Trains were highly efficient at moving large amounts of freight, but could only deliver that freight to centralized urban centers for distribution by horse-drawn transport. The few trucks that existed at the time were mostly novelties, appreciated more for their advertising space than for their utility.Winton Motor Carriage Company built one of the first trailer trucks, converting a car into a tractor and made a small trailer to move cars from its factory in 1899. Ten years later Fruehauf experimented with tractor trailers. The use of range-limited electric engines, lack of paved rural roads, and small load capacities limited trucks to mostly short-haul urban routes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38655491',
'title': 'Rail freight in Great Britain',
'section': 'Section::::Trainload freight.:Vehicles.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 93,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 93,
'end_character': 659,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Road vehicles, particularly passenger cars, can be moved by rail using autoracks. Ford and Honda are two companies who use rail to transport road vehicles. Ford launched its Dagenham Dock to Halewood train using Cartic 4 wagons (up to 34 cars on each double deck wagon) on 13 July 1966. It was expected 200,000 Ford vehicles would be carried each year at a rate of 50 to 60 trains a week, plus 10 a week to the docks. 538 sets of Cartic 4 wagons were built between 1966 and 1972 and not finally scrapped until 2013. Jaguar Land Rover and BMW also use rail to transport vehicles. 90% of all finished vehicle rail movements within the UK are run by DB Cargo UK\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '583117',
'title': 'Trade route',
'section': 'Section::::Modern routes.:Railway routes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 80,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 80,
'end_character': 578,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Although railroads have lost much of the general-freight-carrying business to semi-trailer trucks, they remain the best means of transporting large volumes of such bulk commodities as coal, grain, chemicals, and ore over long distances. The development of containerization has made the railroads more effective in handling finished merchandise at relatively high speeds. In addition, the introduction of piggyback flatcars, in which truck trailers are transported long distances on specially-designed cars, has allowed railroads to regain some of the business lost to trucking.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '981875',
'title': 'Ashok Leyland',
'section': 'Section::::Products.:Trucks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 62,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 62,
'end_character': 279,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Ashok Leyland announced the sale of vehicles on the new U-Truck platform in November 2010 with the rolling out of the first set of 10 models of tippers and tractor trailers in the 16 to 49-tonne segment. Another 15 models were set to enter the market in the following 12 months.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': '95% of the moving truck vehicles for families I see are Uhauls. How did one company create such a monopoly over the moving business?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["One of the innovative things U-Haul did was franchise via gas stations. Existing infrastructure for fuel, office and garage space made the barriers to entry of a new franchisee really low. And there needs to be gas stations located strategically, so you get the coverage. \n\nAlso, the one-way rental is pretty huge, not sure if the other truck rentals have come up with anything similar that doesn't cost a fortune. ",
'There are/have been other competitors of scale... such as Ryder (they were negatively impacted after Timothy McVie used one of their trucks to blow up Oklahoma City federal building but do still exist), Penske, Budget, Enterprise all have truck rentals.',
"Uhaul is fairly well known for pushing a small vehicles frame near it's absolute limits. It seems they are getting better at this but some of their older small box trucks are literally bolted to the frames of small pickup trucks. Other rental companies use truck frames designed for the heavy loads. Uhaul is also known for running their trucks into the ground, which saves money in maintenance. Uhaul also advertises cheap rates but has many fees that most people don't realize until they read the contract. They even charge you for removing the dolly. Basically all of this has allowed them to offer the cheapest and shittiest experience but still give people something that will probably work in the end."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6fom6c',
'query': '95% of the moving truck vehicles for families i see are uhauls. how did one company create such a monopoly over the moving business?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '28692',
'title': 'Sabermetrics',
'section': 'Section::::Traditional measurements.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 353,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Sabermetrics was created in an attempt for baseball fans to learn about the sport through objective evidence. This is performed by evaluating players in every aspect of the game, specifically batting, pitching, and fielding. These evaluation measures are usually phrased in terms of either runs or team wins as older statistics were deemed ineffective.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28692',
'title': 'Sabermetrics',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
'end_character': 332,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Sabermetrics can be used for multiple purposes, but the most common are evaluating past performance and predicting future performance to determine a player's contributions to his team. These may be useful when determining who should win end-of-the-season awards such as MVP and when determining the value of making a certain trade.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28692',
'title': 'Sabermetrics',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 380,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Sabermetricians collect and summarize the relevant data from this in-game activity to answer specific questions. The term is derived from the acronym SABR, which stands for the Society for American Baseball Research, founded in 1971. The term "sabermetrics" was coined by Bill James, who is one of its pioneers and is often considered its most prominent advocate and public face.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3850',
'title': 'Baseball',
'section': 'Section::::Statistics.:Sabermetrics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 101,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 101,
'end_character': 347,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Sabermetrics refers to the field of baseball statistical study and the development of new statistics and analytical tools. The term is also used to refer directly to new statistics themselves. The term was coined around 1980 by one of the field's leading proponents, Bill James, and derives from the Society for American Baseball Research (SABR).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '337090',
'title': 'Society for American Baseball Research',
'section': 'Section::::Membership.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 397,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'While the acronym "SABR" may have lent its root to the word sabermetrics (for the use of sophisticated mathematical tools to analyze baseball), the Society is about much more than statistics. Well known figures in the baseball world such as Bob Costas, Keith Olbermann, Craig R. Wright, and Rollie Hemond are members, along with highly regarded "sabermetricians" such as Bill James and Rob Neyer.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3850',
'title': 'Baseball',
'section': 'Section::::Statistics.:Sabermetrics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 102,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 102,
'end_character': 206,
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'passage_text': "The growing popularity of sabermetrics since the early 1980s has brought more attention to two batting statistics that sabermetricians argue are much better gauges of a batter's skill than batting average:\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28692',
'title': 'Sabermetrics',
'section': 'Section::::Recent advances.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 47,
'end_character': 478,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Many sabermetricians are still working hard to contribute to the field through creating new measures and asking new questions. Bill James\' two "Historical Baseball Abstract" editions and "Win Shares" book have continued to advance the field of sabermetrics, 25 years after he helped start the movement. His former assistant Rob Neyer, who is now a senior writer at ESPN.com and national baseball editor of SBNation, also worked on popularizing sabermetrics since the mid-1980s.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What are and how effective are sabermetrics, and can they be applied to other sports?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Mathematics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Sabermetrics in baseball is a statistical analysis of performance. The idea is to shift away from aggregate measures like "hits per at bat" which have tactical dependencies that consider who\'s on which base and the overall state of the game. Instead, statisticians look at measures like OPS+ (runs per out relative to the league average). This measure can be statistically shown to be a better performance predictor than batting average.\n\nTo apply the concept to other sports you\'d need three things: data, more data, and a game model. Baseball is a slow game, in terms of time between plays to write down data about what just happened. As a result, baseball statisticians have lots of data for many past years with batter-by-batter detail and recent data with pitch-by-pitch detail. This would be harder to do in a faster game like basketball or a game with more things going on at the same time (which makes the game model harder to interpret) like soccer or football.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'ahfd0l',
'query': 'what are and how effective are sabermetrics, and can they be applied to other sports?',
'query_type': 'Mathematics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '7077',
'title': 'Computer file',
'section': 'Section::::File corruption.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 49,
'end_character': 392,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "When a file is said to be corrupted, it is because its contents have been saved to the computer in such a way that they can't be properly read, either by a human or by software. Depending on the extension of the damage, the original file can sometimes be recovered, or at least partially understood. A file may be created corrupt, or it may be corrupted at a later point through overwriting.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23039636',
'title': 'File carving',
'section': 'Section::::Motivation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 252,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'When a file is deleted, only the entry in the file system metadata is removed, while the actual data is still on the disk. After a format and even a repartitioning it might be that most of raw data is untouched and can be recovered using file carving.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3068409',
'title': 'Open (system call)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 312,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'If the file is being created, the filesystem may allocate the default initial amount of storage or a specified amount depending on the file system capabilities. If this fails an error will be returned. Updating the directory with the new entry may be performed or it may be delayed until the close is performed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '157935',
'title': 'Plaintext',
'section': 'Section::::Secure handling.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 967,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Discarded computers, disk drives and media are also a potential source of plaintexts. Most operating systems do not actually erase anything—they simply mark the disk space occupied by a deleted file as 'available for use', and remove its entry from the file system directory. The information in a file deleted in this way remains fully present until overwritten at some later time when the operating system reuses the disk space. With even low-end computers commonly sold with many gigabytes of disk space and rising monthly, this 'later time' may be months later, or never. Even overwriting the portion of a disk surface occupied by a deleted file is insufficient in many cases. Peter Gutmann of the University of Auckland wrote a celebrated 1996 paper on the recovery of overwritten information from magnetic disks; areal storage densities have gotten much higher since then, so this sort of recovery is likely to be more difficult than it was when Gutmann wrote. \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2160183',
'title': 'Data recovery',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 674,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In a third scenario, files have been accidentally "deleted" from a storage medium by the users. Typically, the contents of deleted files are not removed immediately from the physical drive; instead, references to them in the directory structure are removed, and thereafter space the deleted data occupy is made available for later data overwriting. In the mind of end users, deleted files cannot be discoverable through a standard file manager, but the deleted data still technically exists on the physical drive. In the meantime, the original file contents remain, often in a number of disconnected fragments, and may be recoverable if not overwritten by other data files.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58506548',
'title': 'EaseUS Data Recovery Wizard',
'section': 'Section::::Recovery process.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 400,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'When data is deleted from storage devices, the references to the data are removed from the directory structure. The space can then be used, or overwritten, with data from other files or computer functions. The deleted data itself is not immediately removed from the physical drive and often exists as a number of disconnected fragments. This data, so long as it is not overwritten, can be recovered.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '305743',
'title': 'Disk formatting',
'section': 'Section::::Recovery of data from a formatted disk.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 66,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 66,
'end_character': 745,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "As in file deletion by the operating system, data on a disk are not fully erased during every high-level format. Instead, the area on the disk containing the data is merely marked as available, and retains the old data until it is overwritten. If the disk is formatted with a different file system than the one which previously existed on the partition, some data may be overwritten that wouldn't be if the same file system had been used. However, under some file systems (e.g., NTFS, but not FAT), the file indexes (such as $MFTs under NTFS, inodes under ext2/3, etc.) may not be written to the same exact locations. And if the partition size is increased, even FAT file systems will overwrite more data at the beginning of that new partition.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'what happens to a file when it is uninstalled from a computer?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Your computer saves things by changing the ones and zeroes on disk. It doesn\'t matter what those bits were before you saved something, so there is no such thing as "empty" memory. As such, there\'s no point in "deleting" anything, as it would be equivalent to just saving random bits on top of the old ones.\n\nInstead of actually removing the data from the disk the computer just marks that part as free. Eventually, when something needs to be saved again, those bits might be used.',
"We tend to say the file is deleted. \nThe computer has a disk that acts like a like a filing cabinet. The computer keeps a list or table that tells it where the files is stored on the disk - similar to which draw on hanger in the filing cabinet. \nSo the table might say - file1 is stored at address 100 and is 40 pages long, and file 2 is stored at address 140 and is 50 pages long, file 3 is stored at address 190 and so on. \n\nIf you ask the computer to delete file 2 then it will just delete the name of the file from the table. After deleting the file the table might be - file1 is stored at address 100 and is 40 pages long and file 3 is stored at address 190.\n\nSo the file is still on the disk but the computer cannot find it from the table anymore. Next time a file is to be saved it might put it in the space the file 2 is using. If say file 4 is also 50 pages long then the computer might use the space file 2 uses and the table might be - file1 is stored at address 100 and is 40 pages long, and file 4 is stored at address 140 and is 50 pages long, file 3 is stored at address 190. File 2 has then been overwritten.\n\nUnlike real files the file on a computer is a row of switches that can be set to 0 or 1. When a new file needs to use the row of switches they are just switched to the new values.\n\nHope my analogy helps and doesn't confuse - the main point is that in most systems the file is not deleted, the index is deleted, and the space reused. \nThere are also other ways for the computer to manage the disk. ",
'Usually, "installed" implies many files that are associated with each other: an application (like Word or Photoshop; they are many files and settings, not one).\n\nModern applications, when they are installed, also include "uninstall" information, so that they can take themselves back off when you don\'t want them, and not leave much behind.\n\nWhen that happens, most of the files that were part of the application are marked "deleted", including the ones that tell the computer (and you) how to run the application in the first place.\n\nAs for the files themselves, your computer uses one of a few ways to know what a "file" is, and how to look at it. Commonly, a storage device is split into small (pretend) sectors and/or clusters. A file takes up a certain number of those, to store all its information--as many as it needs. When you make a file, a table keeps track of where the file starts. The file fills up a cluster, marks it "used," and asks for another. The storage device gives it the next one it sees that isn\'t marked "used." It fills that, marks it "used," and asks for another, repeat until there\'s nothing else that needs to go in the file. **There are other ways to do this but they have similar results.**\n\nWhen you delete a file, a couple of things happen:\nThe clusters that the file has marked "used," get marked "not used."\nThe table that tells you where the file starts, gets told to stop telling you that file is there.\n\nThe data that the file put in each cluster is still there, so right away, you could mark it all back the way it was, and you\'d have your file back. There are tools to do this.\n\nBut now that those clusters aren\'t marked "used," the next time a file asks the storage device for a new cluster, the device might give it one of the ones from the old file. That old file is now "overwritten" and can\'t easily be restored anymore.\n\nWhen people talk about "secure deletion," they\'re worried about this; that the clusters that had your data were only switched from "used" to "not used," and the actual data is still there if you turn them back to "used." Secure deletion, among other things, takes all those clusters, writes garbage to them, and then marks them "not used" again. This takes longer, and most files aren\'t secret.\n\n(Secure deletion also worries about shadows of your data in those clusters, like a TV screen still showing things a little while after you turn it off. So it writes garbage over and over till the only shadows are shadows of more garbage. This takes a LOT longer than just marking it "not used," so people only do it when they\'re really worried about something).'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '689ih3',
'query': 'what happens to a file when it is uninstalled from a computer?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1193070',
'title': 'List of recently extinct mammals',
'section': 'Section::::Extinct species.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A species is declared extinct after exhaustive surveys of all potential habitats eliminate all reasonable doubt that the last individual of a species, whether in the wild or in captivity, has died. Recently extinct species are defined by the IUCN as going extinct after 1500 C. E.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '420513',
'title': 'Lists of extinct species',
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'passage_text': 'This page features lists of extinct species, organisms that have become extinct, either in the wild or completely disappeared from Earth. In practice, a species not definitely located in the wild in the last 50 years is called extinct.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12617844',
'title': 'Catarina pupfish',
'section': 'Section::::Extinction.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Mexico\'s 2010 official list of species at risk (NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010) indicates that "Megupsilon aporus" is category "E" defined as "Probably extinct in the wild". Species that are considered extinct by experts are given that designation. However, if a species was rediscovered alive it would be given legal protection status immediately.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1193070',
'title': 'List of recently extinct mammals',
'section': 'Section::::Extinct in the wild.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A species that is extinct in the wild is one which has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as only known by living members kept in captivity or as a naturalized population outside its historic range due to massive habitat loss. A species is declared extinct in the wild after thorough surveys have inspected its historic range and failed to find evidence of a surviving individual.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11554654',
'title': 'Extinct in the wild',
'section': 'Section::::Examples.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Not all species that are extinct in the wild are rare. For example, "Ameca splendens", though extinct in the wild, was a popular fish among aquarists for some time, but hobbyist stocks have declined quite a lot more recently, placing its survival in jeopardy. However, the ultimate purpose of preserving biodiversity is to maintain ecological function. When a species exists only in captivity, it is ecologically extinct.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44503418',
'title': 'Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event',
'section': 'Section::::Extinction patterns.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In stream communities, few animal groups became extinct, because such communities rely less directly on food from living plants, and more on detritus washed in from the land, protecting them from extinction. Similar, but more complex patterns have been found in the oceans. Extinction was more severe among animals living in the water column than among animals living on or in the sea floor. Animals in the water column are almost entirely dependent on primary production from living phytoplankton, while animals on the ocean floor always or sometimes feed on detritus. Coccolithophorids and mollusks (including ammonites, rudists, freshwater snails, and mussels), and those organisms whose food chain included these shell builders, became extinct or suffered heavy losses. For example, it is thought that ammonites were the principal food of mosasaurs, a group of giant marine reptiles that became extinct at the boundary. The largest air-breathing survivors of the event, crocodyliforms and champsosaurs, were semi-aquatic and had access to detritus. Modern crocodilians can live as scavengers and survive for months without food, and their young are small, grow slowly, and feed largely on invertebrates and dead organisms for their first few years. These characteristics have been linked to crocodilian survival at the end of the Cretaceous.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12664226',
'title': 'Marstonia castor',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The US Fish and Wildlife Service declared this species extinct in December 2017 on the basis that it had not been seen since 2000. It was likely wiped out by groundwater withdrawal, pollution, and urbanization. However, the IUCN Red List still lists it as Critically Endangered.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How do they declare certain aquatic organisms as extinct, when we haven't explored a huge majority of the oceans?",
'selftext': "Apparently, we've only explored around [5%]( URL_0 ) of the Earth's oceans. How do they declare some aquatic organisms to be extinct, when we don't know what lies in the unexplored regions? > *Note that I'm talking about ancient and recent species here.*",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The same way we do on land, really. It is basically the reasoning of 'if we haven't seen any trace of species X in a good number of years, most likely they are extinct.' Sometimes those assumptions are correct. sometimes they are very false. (Like with coelacanths) \n\nThough note that unexplored parts of the ocean don't necessarily have to mean you can't know if an animal species is extinct. Many species have very specific habitats they don't deviate from. If you have a species that can only exist in shallow water or tide-pools, for example, then the fact that the deep sea has not yet been explored is not really an issue. That is not where those animals could live in the first place. Additionally, you don't always need to have explored a region. A lot of this is based on traces of their survivals, but that doesn't necessarily mean seeing the fish in the flesh. Finding remnants of them in the stomachs of other fish, finding them in fishing nets, finding them washed up on beaches. all of that can count towards being able to tell a species exists still or not. And if there is a huge change in that (for example, we used to find X species frequently in the stomach of dolphins, but they haven't been spotted there in 30 years) that can be a good indicator said species is gone.\n\nAgain, not ever 100% and some species have clung onto life in places unknown to us at first, but still a reasonable guess. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '5xawd4',
'query': "how do they declare certain aquatic organisms as extinct, when we haven't explored a huge majority of the oceans?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '38151849',
'title': 'Samsung Galaxy S4',
'section': 'Section::::Specifications.:Hardware.\n',
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'passage_text': "Galaxy S4 models use one of two processors, depending on the region and network compatibility. The S4 version for North America, most of Europe, parts of Asia, and other countries contains Qualcomm's Snapdragon 600 system-on-chip, containing a quad-core 1.9\xa0GHz Krait 300 CPU and an Adreno 320 GPU. The chip also contains a modem which supports LTE. Other models include Samsung's Exynos 5 Octa system-on-chip with a heterogeneous CPU. The octa-core CPU comprises a 1.6\xa0GHz quad-core Cortex-A15 cluster and a 1.2\xa0GHz quad-core Cortex-A7 cluster. The chip can dynamically switch between the two clusters of cores based on CPU usage; the chip switches to the A15 cores when more processing power is needed, and stays on the A7 cores to conserve energy on lighter loads. Only one of the clusters is used at any particular moment, and software sees the processor as a single quad-core CPU. The SoC also contains an IT tri-core PowerVR SGX 544 graphics processing unit (GPU). Regional models of the S4 vary in support for LTE; for Exynos 5-based models, while the E300K/L/S versions support LTE, with the Cortex-A15 also clocked at 1.6\xa0GHz. the GT-I9500 model does not. The S4 GT-I9505 includes a multiband LTE transceiver.\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '34067570',
'title': 'Samsung Galaxy W',
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'passage_text': 'The main differences between "Galaxy W" and other variants are its single-core CPU (1.4\xa0GHz manufactured by Qualcomm), higher screen pixel density compared to "Galaxy S II" and "Galaxy R", and a slightly different physical design.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28625065',
'title': 'Samsung Galaxy Tab 7.0',
'section': 'Section::::Successor models.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The second and current true successor tablets in the series are the Galaxy Tab 3 7.0 and 10.1 as well as the new variant under the Galaxy Tab line and second 8-inch tablet made by Samsung which was the Samsung Galaxy Tab 3 8.0 which are again aimed at budget markets. The front-facing cameras have been upgraded back to 1.3 MP quality, the chip set for the three tablets are now manufactured by different chipmakers namely Marvell for the 7.0, Samsung for the 8.0, and Intel for the 10.1, and is significantly thinner thanks to the new unified Samsung Design. In addition, the tablets now support some of the features once reserved for the S and Note series such as the Smart Stay, S-Voice, and exclusively on the 8.0 is the Multi-Window . The 10.1" version retails for $399, the 8.0" version at $299 and the 7.0" version $199.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '238601',
'title': 'Quiet PC',
'section': 'Section::::Individual components in a quiet PC.:CPU.\n',
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'passage_text': "Most modern mainstream and value CPUs are made with a lower TDP to reduce heat, noise, and power consumption. Intel's dual-core Celeron, Pentium, and i3 CPUs generally have a TDP of 35–54\xa0W, while the i5 and i7 are generally 64–84\xa0W (newer versions, such as Haswell) or 95W (older versions, such as Sandy Bridge). Older CPUs such as the Core 2 Duo typically had a TDP of 65\xa0W, while the Core 2 Quad CPUs were mostly 65–95\xa0W. AMD's Athlon II x2 CPUs were 65\xa0W, while the Athlon\xa0x4 was 95\xa0W. The AMD Phenom ranged from 80\xa0W in the x2 variant to 95 and 125\xa0W in the quad-core variants. The AMD Bulldozer CPUs range from 95–125\xa0W. The APUs range from 65\xa0W for the lower-end dual-core variants, such as the A4, to 100\xa0W in the higher-end quad-core variants, such as the A8. Some processors come in special low power versions. For example, Intel's lower TDP CPUs end in T (35\xa0W) or S (65\xa0W).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47498291',
'title': 'Samsung Galaxy A8 (2015)',
'section': 'Section::::Hardware.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The Galaxy A8 is thinner than earlier models from the A-series lineup, measuring in thickness. Other specifications include a 5.7 inch 1080p display, touch based fingerprint sensor,a 16 MP back and a 5MP front camera, an Octa core Exynos 5430 chipset or exynos 5433 chipset or a Snapdragon 615 Chipset, 2GB of RAM and a 3050 mAh battery. It comes shipped with Android 5.1.1 Lollipop. The Japan KDDI variant includes Oneseg & full Seg TV features while the Korean SK Telecom Variant has a T-DMB feature.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25403235',
'title': 'Sony Vaio Z series',
'section': 'Section::::VPC-Z Update (2010).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
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'passage_text': 'The Z series was updated in light of the new Core i5/i7 CPUs from Intel. The new range offers an i5 or i7 (although it is not clear if memory is dual port or triple port for the i7; it seems likely to be dual port, since varying the memory portness in the motherboard by CPU is a big change and because the memory choices remain 2/4/8, rather than changing to 3/6/12), a keyboard backlight, revised chassis and a Blu-ray writer. The first SSD models (VPC-Z1xxx) all use non-standard form-factor drives (due to lack of internal space) sourced from Samsung specifically for the Vaio; they cannot be replaced with standard third party 1.8 or 2.5\xa0inch drives. The SSDs in the refreshed models (VPC-Z12xx, VPC-Z13xx & VPC-Z14xx) can be replaced with 1.8" drives from Intel or Crucial, provided the Vaio is a dual RAID model and not a Quad-RAID model. The caveat is that the outer casing of the Intel or Crucial SSD must be stripped off of the SSDs in order for the SSDs to fit in the Z. At least VPCZ-13 dual-RAID models, custom-ordered in Japan were shipped with a pair of reduced size Toshiba SSD\'s, with a proprietary connector. The second, third and fourth refresh models still use proprietary Samsung drives on the Quad-RAID models. In order to replace the SSD drives in a first generation (VPC-Z11xxx) model, or any generation Quad-RAID model, the cable for the SSDs will need to be replaced with Sony part # A-1781-464-A.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55862423',
'title': 'Samsung Galaxy S9',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': "The Galaxy S9 and S9+ have nearly identical features to the S8 batch, with the same display size and aspect ratio, just like their predecessor. One highly regarded change to distinguish between the models is the location of the fingerprint sensor. While the S8's is found beside the camera, the S9's is directly underneath it. Most notably, however, the S9 line is equipped with several camera improvements over the S8.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does the US model of the Samsung Galaxy S8 have a different processor than the global model?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Qualcomm owns many many patents in the US basically forcing any company to use Qualcomm's modem to connect to wireless signals. Companies are free to use any SoC (System on a Chip) they want, the Galaxy S6 used the global SoC version but used a Qualcomm modem. The big issue is Qualcomm prices things in such a way that the 'deal' a company gets from using Qualcomm's modem and SoC makes it economically stupid to use your own SoC and Qualcomm's modem.\n\nEdit* Qualcomm is not competition friendly. There is a big reason why r/fuckqualcomm is a thing."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '627tzs',
'query': 'why does the us model of the samsung galaxy s8 have a different processor than the global model?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '54687883',
'title': "Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act",
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The Countering America\'s Adversaries Through Sanctions Act, "CAATSA" (, ), is a United States federal law that imposed sanctions on Iran, North Korea, and Russia. The bill was passed on July 27, 2017, 98–2 in the Senate, after having passed the House 419–3. On August 2, 2017, President Donald Trump signed it into law while stating that he believed the legislation was "seriously flawed".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '64704',
'title': 'Economy of Iran',
'section': 'Section::::International trade.:International sanctions.:Effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 153,
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'passage_text': 'According to NIAC, sanctions cost the United States over $175 billion in lost trade and 279,000 lost job opportunities. Between 2010 and 2012, sanctions cost the E.U. states more than twice as much as the United States in terms of lost trade revenue. Germany was hit the hardest, losing between $23.1 and $73.0 billion between 2010–2012, with Italy and France following at $13.6-$42.8 billion and $10.9-$34.2 billion respectively.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27634390',
'title': 'United States v. Banki',
'section': 'Section::::Sanctions history.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The United States enforces sanctions against several countries worldwide. These sanctions are instituted by the Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) under the Department of Treasury of the United States.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44821968',
'title': 'Mahmoud Reza Banki',
'section': 'Section::::United States v. Banki case.:Case background.:Sanctions history.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'The United States enforces sanctions against several countries worldwide. These sanctions are instituted by the Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) under the Department of Treasury of the United States.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43449324',
'title': 'International sanctions during the Ukrainian crisis',
'section': 'Section::::Other sanctions on Russia.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 59,
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'passage_text': 'In August 2017, United States Congress passed the "Countering America\'s Adversaries Through Sanctions Act" that imposed new sanctions on Russia for interference in the 2016 elections and its involvement in Ukraine and Syria. The Act prevents the easing, suspending or ending of sanctions by the President without the approval of the United States Congress.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13446672',
'title': 'Stuart A. Levey',
'section': 'Section::::Criticism.\n',
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'passage_text': 'According to "The New York Times", the failure of the United States to carry out sanctions against many Iranian companies and individuals is cited by European diplomats as an example of America failing to do what it has promised. Valerie Lincy of Iran Watch has said, "The United States now lags many other countries in enforcing sanctions that the United Nations has already voted." The "Tehran Times" wrote that the U.S. Treasury has increased pressure on foreign banks not to deal with sanctions against Iran, including performing "U-turn transactions," which allow U.S. banks to process payments involving Iran that begin and end with a non-Iranian foreign bank.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46537907',
'title': 'Weaponization of finance',
'section': 'Section::::Economic sanctions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': 'Economic Sanctions are the practice of withholding an economic advantage from another country for political purposes. Economic Sanctions primarily come in two forms, Trade and Financial. Trade sanctions can take the form of reducing or refusing exports to a country or refusing imports from the country. Financial Sanctions address monetary issues as opposed to trade. This can include blocking of government assets abroad as well as limiting access to financial markets. These approaches are often used in conjunction in order to increase the effectiveness of the Sanctions. The influence of a sanction is heavily dependent on the economic power of the country or countries imposing the sanction, this also leads to groups of nations such as the United Nations being capable of imposing more effective sanctions due to their combined influence on the world economy. They frequently act as a form of external pressure on a country, primarily being used in an attempt to coerce a country into either abandoning a controversial policy or to adopt one that is seen as beneficial to the country imposing the sanction. However much of the time the imposing of a sanction can unintentionally work against a positive outcome, weakening the economy of all countries involved through reduced trade and causing a reduction in the welfare of the involved populations, while also causing increasingly strained relations between the countries.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How exactly does the US "cut someone off from the dollar market" with sanctions?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The US tells banks that they cannot do business with "someone" if they want to do business with US regulated banks or the electronic funds transfer network. This doesn\'t exactly prevent them from spending dollars, but they have to do it with bundles of currency. As many a drug cartel discovered, Dollars are not compact or light at scale. To work at scale you really need your money to be numbers in a bank computer, and the US can cut off access to that.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '9z5yc7',
'query': 'how exactly does the us "cut someone off from the dollar market" with sanctions?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '54329819',
'title': 'Cat bite',
'section': 'Section::::Infections.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Rabies, a fatal neurologic disease in animals and people, is caused by a virus. Animals and people are most commonly infected through bites from rabid animals. Infected cats may have a variety of signs, but most often have sudden behavioral changes and progressive paralysis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19707361',
'title': 'Rabies in animals',
'section': 'Section::::Mammals.:Cats.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'end_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'Rabies is rare in cats. In the United States between 200-300 cases are reported annually. Cats that have not been vaccinated and are allowed access to the outdoors have the most risk for contracting rabies as they may come in contact with rabid animals. The virus is often passed on during fights between cats or other animals and is transmitted by bites, saliva or through mucous membranes and fresh wounds. The virus can incubate from one day up to over a year before any symptoms begin to show. Symptoms have a rapid onset and can include unusual aggression, restlessness, lethargy, anorexia, weakness, disorientation, paralysis and seizures. Vaccination of felines (including boosters) by a veterinarian is recommended to prevent rabies infection in outdoor cats.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6090525',
'title': 'Neglected tropical diseases',
'section': 'Section::::List of diseases.:Rabies.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
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'passage_text': 'There are two forms of rabies: furious and paralytic. There are 60,000 deaths from rabies annually. It is mostly found in Asia and Africa. There is a higher prevalence in rural areas and it disproportionately affects children. Rabies is usually fatal after symptoms develop. It is caused by a lyssavirus transmitted through wounds or bites from infected animals. The first symptoms are fever and pain near the infection site which occur after a one to three month incubation period. Furious (more common type) rabies causes hyperactivity, hydrophobia, aerophobia, and death by cardio-respiratory arrest occurs within days. Paralytic rabies causes a slow progression from paralysis to coma to death.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3304092',
'title': 'Dog bite',
'section': 'Section::::Health effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'Rabies results in the death of approximately 55,000 people a year, with most of the causes due to dog bites. "Capnocytophaga canimorsus", MRSA, tetanus, and "Pasteurella" can be transmitted from a dog to someone bitten by the dog. "Bergeyella zoohelcum" is an emerging infection transmitted through dog bites. Infection with "B. zoohelcum" from dog bites can lead to bacteremia.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19707361',
'title': 'Rabies in animals',
'section': 'Section::::Mammals.:Monkeys.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 35,
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'passage_text': 'Monkeys, like humans, can get rabies, however they do not tend to be a common source of rabies. Monkeys with rabies tend to die more quickly than humans. In one study, 9 of 10 monkeys developed severe symptoms or died within 20 days of infection. Rabies is often a concern for individuals travelling to developing countries as monkeys are the most common source of rabies after dogs in these places.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16946852',
'title': 'Rabies',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The period between infection and the first symptoms (incubation period) is typically 1–3 months in humans. Incubation periods as short as four days and longer than six years have been documented, depending on the location and severity of the contaminated wound and the amount of virus introduced. Initial signs and symptoms of rabies are often nonspecific such as fever and headache. As rabies progresses and causes inflammation of the brain and/or meninges, signs and symptoms can include slight or partial paralysis, anxiety, insomnia, confusion, agitation, abnormal behavior, paranoia, terror, and hallucinations, progressing to delirium, and coma. The person may also have hydrophobia.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55096367',
'title': 'Rabies in Tanzania',
'section': 'Section::::Context.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Rabies is a fatal, preventable zoonosis that infects the central nervous system of mammals, caused by the lyssavirus. It is endemic in low income countries, causing an estimated 55,000 human deaths each year with over 98% of these deaths following bites from rabid dogs. It is a dangerous disease, if it is not effectively controlled. Many of the developing world arguing that the efforts for control is hampered by lack of awareness of its true impact.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Animals with rabies live normally but infected people die in a week?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Animals die from rabies too.\n\nPeople will show symptoms of rabies after being bitten anywhere from weeks to months. ',
"Animals with rabies typically *don't* live normally. It is generally a disease with rapid deterioration and usually fatal. ",
"Rabies can kill a person in a week, but [1-3 months is more common](_URL_0_)\n\nIf you get bitten by a rabid dog, it sometimes gets in the blood, but it usually travels slowly inside the nerves toward the brain. A bite on the foot takes longer to reach the brain than a bite on the hand, or face.\n\nInfected animals don't live normally, they become something rather similar to zombies from fiction. [Somewhat disturbing video of a rabid raccoon](_URL_1_). Some mammals appear to be more or less immune- opossums very rarely get rabies in the wild, although it is possible.",
"With diseases, it's not evolutionarily advantageous to kill your host. If you do, then you kill yourself, too, since you were living off the host. So a disease that kills the host will generally die out before spreading very far. More successful diseases spread quickly and take awhile to kill, or don't kill at all. That way, they can survive for a long time. So with something like rabies, which is in effect 100% fatal (only a handful of cases have not been fatal in humans), it wouldn't be very successful. It would kill all of its hosts and therefore die too. But what you have with rabies is that there is another animal species that is the true host of it. The animal carries the rabies around, infecting others, while not dying itself. So the animal hosts have evolved over time as rabies has evolved, so both live. Humans haven't evolved with rabies affecting us since we're not the main hosts, and therefore it's much more deadly in humans."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7vxpf1',
'query': 'animals with rabies live normally but infected people die in a week?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1565482',
'title': 'Vortex ring state',
'section': 'Section::::Description.:Occurrence.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'A helicopter normally encounters this condition when attempting to hover out of ground effect above the hovering ceiling for the aircraft, hovering out of ground effect without maintaining precise altitude control, and while making downwind or steep, powered approaches when the airspeed drops to nearly zero.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12253924',
'title': 'Bölkow Bo 46',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'In forward flight, the rotor system is subject to various forms of differential loading. Imagine a rotor system where the tips of the blades rotate at 300\xa0km/h relative to still air. When that helicopter is hovering, the blades see the same 300\xa0km/h relative wind throughout their rotation. However, when the helicopter starts to move forward its speed is added to the speed of the blades as they advance towards the front of the aircraft, and subtracted as they retreat. For instance, if the helicopter is flying forward at 100\xa0km/h, the advancing blades see 300 + 100\xa0km/h = 400\xa0km/h, and for the retreating ones its 300 – 100\xa0km/h = 200\xa0km/h.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24144208',
'title': 'Operation Eagle (Sri Lanka)',
'section': 'Section::::Operation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'The helicopter was airborne in less time than the estimated time of one minute on ground, with its gunner firing at the LTTE pillbox that was in close proximity to the main gate of the fort. After reaching an altitude of 2000 feet, Lasantha turned home.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8286923',
'title': 'Helicopter',
'section': 'Section::::Flight.:Transition from hover to forward flight.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 97,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 97,
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'passage_text': 'As a helicopter moves from hover to forward flight it enters a state called translational lift which provides extra lift without increasing power. This state, most typically, occurs when the airspeed reaches approximately , and may be necessary for a helicopter to obtain flight.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '661342',
'title': 'Fairey Rotodyne',
'section': 'Section::::Development.:Analysis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
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'passage_text': "From two miles away it would stop a conversation. I mean, the noise of those little jets on the tips of the rotor was just indescribable. So what have we got? The noisiest hovering vehicle the world has yet come up with and you're going to stick it in the middle of a city?\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4166203',
'title': 'Under Defeat',
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': "Your helicopter can move in 8 directions, though your move speed is fixed in relation to the stage's scroll speed. Also, the option to have your left/right directions reversed (pilot style) or not is presented before actual play begins.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '54682411',
'title': 'The Amazing Race China 4',
'section': 'Section::::Race summary.:Leg 9 (Macau, China → Malaysia).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 191,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 191,
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'passage_text': 'In the first Roadblock of this leg, one team member rode a helicopter. Once in the air, they were given the controls to perform three specific tasks. First, they had to increase their speed from to and maintain it for 30 seconds. They then had to perform a full 360-degree turn within 2 minutes while maintaining a steady altitude. Finally, they had to rise from to and maintain the altitude for 30 seconds. If they correctly performed all 3 maneuvers in succession, they received their next clue and a piece of a "Buddhi Batiks" sari upon landing. Only two teams could complete this task at a time, if they failed any part of it, they would have to go to the back of the line.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'if a helicopter were to hover 12 hours without moving forward, would it be on the other side of the world?',
'selftext': 'Ok I know it sounds dumb. But I came across a flat earth thing that people are making fun of that said “if the earth really were spinning, a helicopter could hover in one spot for 12 hours and be on the other side of the world.” Why is that laughable? I don’t know how the physics of that works, but it feels like a helicopter actually wouldn’t spin with the earth if it were hovering high enough.',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["No.\n\nAll of the air in the atmosphere is spinning with the Earth. If it wasn't there would constantly be very fast wind always travelling West - but there isn't.\n\nJust like how the air moves with the Earth, a helicopter moves with the air.\n\nThis is a good watch which is kind of on topic (10 minutes): _URL_0_",
"The sort of lag you're thinking of is related to the Coriolis Effect. When very long-range shells are fired, the rotation of the Earth under the shell has to be accounted for to accurately target something. However, friction forces drag the atmosphere along as the Earth turns, so this limits the effect you're thinking of. Absent any other winds, a helicopter hovering at high-altitude for 12 hours (would likely run out of fuel and crash, but whatever) would drift a little east or west from their liftoff point depending on whether that point was in the Northern or Southern Hemisphere. In reality, you're not likely to get zero winds for 12 hours, especially at high-altitude, so this effect tends to be relatively minor.",
"The atmosphere is part of the Earth and spins with it. Otherwise there'd be 1000mph winds at the equator.\n\nThat's like saying if you jump in an airplane you'll rocket out the back at 600mph.",
"The atmosphere is a fluid just like water but less dense. By this person's logic if you spun a fish tank the fish wouldn't turn.",
'The Earth\'s atmosphere rotates with the Earth. Think about it this way; If you throw a ball straight upwards in a moving vehicle, the ball will fall straight down relative to you. An observer outside the vehicle would see the ball move in a parabolic motion, which is a combination of its vertical and horizontal motion. This is due to momentum, as it leaves the Earth\'s surface it still has the same momentum and will continue to have that momentum unless acted upon by an outside force. That is Newton\'s first law in action, "An object in uniform motion will continue that motion as long as it is not acted upon by an outside force."',
'The earth\'s circumference is about 25,000 miles. If what you said was true, we would perceive the helicopter moving at a speed of over 1,000 miles per hour. Every time a basketball player jumped up for a slam dunk, he would be flung through the air at this speed. Obviously this isn\'t happening.\n\nThe laws of conservation applies here. The helicopter is moving with the ground before the point in time that it takes off. This motion is not lost when it leaves the ground, because as Newton\'s law points out, "An object in motion stays in motion unless acted upon by another force." So what that means is, in order for the helicopter to end up on the opposite side of the planet 12 hours later, something must act upon it to negate the motion that was imparted upon it by the ground.',
'No. The helicopter is suspended in the air and the air moves with the rotation of the earth. Kind of like if you put a floating ball in a cake pan full of water and slowly moved it across the counter, the ball wouldnt remain stationary, it would move with the water and pan.\n\nA better question for the flat earthers is "What does exist that will remain stationary while the earth rotates around it?" \n\nA gyro scope remains stationary to a point in space so if energized for 24 hours it would make one full rotation.',
"It's like tossing a ball and it coming right back down in a moving car and not flying backwards",
'Its also true that when you take off, you already get a lateral velocity of the rotation of the earth to begin with. So its not like you have to reinitiate all that kinetic energy again.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'bkaubt',
'query': 'if a helicopter were to hover 12 hours without moving forward, would it be on the other side of the world?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1739053',
'title': 'Law of one price',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.:Example in formal financial markets.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 218,
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'passage_text': 'Commodities can be traded on financial markets, where there will be a single offer price (asking price), and bid price. Although there is a small spread between these two values the law of one price applies (to each).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48190',
'title': 'Commodity market',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'A commodity market is a market that trades in the primary economic sector rather than manufactured products, such as cocoa, fruit and sugar. Hard commodities are mined, such as gold and oil. Investors access about 50 major commodity markets worldwide with purely financial transactions increasingly outnumbering physical trades in which goods are delivered. Futures contracts are the oldest way of investing in commodities. Futures are secured by physical assets. Commodity markets can include physical trading and derivatives trading using spot prices, forwards, futures, and options on futures. Farmers have used a simple form of derivative trading in the commodity market for centuries for price risk management.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48152',
'title': 'Commodity money',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Commodity money is money whose value comes from a commodity of which it is made. Commodity money consists of objects having value or use in themselves (intrinsic value) as well as their value in buying goods.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29686344',
'title': 'Money in Islam',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'The price of a commodity is set by the market as long as fiat currency (paper) is not used. On the other hand, the price/value of commodities can be manipulated/adjusted by the creators of fiat money (by virtue of the market law of supply and demand).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2001375',
'title': 'Social conflict',
'section': 'Section::::Karl Marx.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 483,
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'passage_text': 'A commodity is a social use value produced by its owner not for personal consumption but for exchange. Marx believed that an entrepreneur has more and more to keep up with the more his company and power expands. It becomes more difficult each time his range of power increases. Eventually, the entrepreneur himself will become a commodity because he/she will no longer be able to keep up with their business and will have to put themselves (their company) up for sale on the market.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1661377',
'title': 'Intrinsic value (numismatics)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'In commodity money, intrinsic value can be partially or entirely due to the desirable features of the object as a medium of exchange and a store of value. Examples of such features include divisibility; easily and securely storable and transportable; scarcity; and difficulty to counterfeit. When objects come to be used as a medium of exchange they lower the high transaction costs associated with barter and other in-kind transactions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8983183',
'title': 'Money',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Commodity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 46,
'end_character': 1127,
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'passage_text': 'Many items have been used as commodity money such as naturally scarce precious metals, conch shells, barley, beads etc., as well as many other things that are thought of as having value. Commodity money value comes from the commodity out of which it is made. The commodity itself constitutes the money, and the money is the commodity. Examples of commodities that have been used as mediums of exchange include gold, silver, copper, rice, Wampum, salt, peppercorns, large stones, decorated belts, shells, alcohol, cigarettes, cannabis, candy, etc. These items were sometimes used in a metric of perceived value in conjunction to one another, in various commodity valuation or price system economies. Use of commodity money is similar to barter, but a commodity money provides a simple and automatic unit of account for the commodity which is being used as money. Although some gold coins such as the Krugerrand are considered legal tender, there is no record of their face value on either side of the coin. The rationale for this is that emphasis is laid on their direct link to the prevailing value of their fine gold content.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'when financial companies "buy" commodities, how are they stored? Or they buying "rights" to have them at that price?',
'selftext': "I've recently read about this fund company possessing more $2.3B worth of sugar and I was wondering how are they stored? Is it up to the financial company to pay for storage for such goods? How does it work? Source: URL_0",
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['They are buying "futures". These are contracts for a ton of soybeans in 4 months. Speculators buy them in hopes the price will be high and someone who needs soybeans to make their product will buy the contract for more than they bought it for.\n\nMany suggestions have been made that only firms capable of taking delivery of the goods should be able to buy futures, but speculators add liquidity to the marketplace so such laws have not been passed.\n\nSometimes markets go away. There used to be trading in Pork Bellies. It was my favorite investment name, bacon ... . However, the pig raisers don\'t write futures contracts any more because they think they can make more money by not hedging their production risk and simply selling hogs on the spot market.',
'no, sugar spoils anyway, you would never store it as an investment.\n\nThey own the future rights to buy sugar at a future date (hence why the contract is called a future). \n\nwhen that date comes, they *could* demand physical delivery. This might make sense if we were talking about Delta airlines and they had a jet fuel future... Yes they could take and use the jet fuel, but due to logistical issues of such a thing, its almost never happens. They will settle in cash and the commodity will end go through the most efficient supply chain based on its location, delta will buy its fuel on the open market based on where it needs it.\n\nNow, in other cases, like a Gold ETF, they may actually own gold. of course this is different, it doesnt spoil. in these cases, the gold is held in bank vaults around the world, NY, Zurich, London, ect. They spread it around to minimize risk.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5z76m3',
'query': 'when financial companies "buy" commodities, how are they stored? or they buying "rights" to have them at that price?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '17699830',
'title': 'Shutdown (computing)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': "To shut down or power off a computer is to remove power from a computer's main components in a controlled way. After a computer is shut down, main components such as CPUs, RAM modules and hard disk drives are powered down, although some internal components, such as an internal clock, may retain power.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45199965',
'title': 'Energy proportional computing',
'section': 'Section::::Background in energy sustainability.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 508,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- "Idle power-down": This technique exploits gaps in workload demand to shut off components that are idle. When shut down, components cannot do any useful work. The problems unique to this approach are: (1) it costs time and energy to transition between active and idle power-down states, (2) no work can be done in the off state, so power-up must be done to handle a request, and (3) predicting idle periods and adapting appropriately by choosing the right power state at any moment is difficult.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5176987',
'title': 'Mount (computing)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 212,
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'passage_text': 'Normally, when the computer is shutting down, every mounted storage will undergo an unmounting process to ensure that all queued data got written, and to preserve integrity of file system structure on the media.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4124677',
'title': 'Windows shell',
'section': 'Section::::Features.:Start menu.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 374,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Managing power states: Logging off and shutdown has always been a function of the Start menu. In Windows 8, the shutdown function was moved out of the Start screen, only to be brought back in Windows 8.1 Update (in April 2014) with a sufficiently high screen resolution. Computer power states can also be managed by pressing Alt+F4, or by pressing Ctrl+Alt+Del.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10663780',
'title': 'STXIT',
'section': 'Section::::Macro Format.:Univac VS/9.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 45,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 45,
'end_character': 431,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- "shutdown" is the label of an optional routine used if the system console operator has requested to shut down timesharing. The program has a short period to allow itself to clean up any necessary features and quit. When the routine completes, the program is terminated and the user automatically logged off. If no shutdown routine exists, the program is cancelled without warning and the user automatically logged off.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6999096',
'title': 'Reset (computing)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Most computers have a reset line that brings the device into the startup state and is active for a short time after powering on. For example, in the x86 architecture, asserting the RESET line halts the CPU; this is done after the system is switched on and before the power supply has asserted "power good" to indicate that it is ready to supply stable voltages at sufficient power levels. Reset places less stress on the hardware than power cycling, as the power is not removed. Many computers, especially older models, have user accessible "reset" buttons that assert the reset line to facilitate a system reboot in a way that cannot be trapped (i.e. prevented) by the operating system. Out-of-band management also frequently provides the possibility to reset the remote system in this way.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17699830',
'title': 'Shutdown (computing)',
'section': 'Section::::Implementations.:Microsoft Windows and ReactOS.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 287,
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'passage_text': 'In Microsoft Windows and ReactOS, a PC or server is shut down by selecting the Shutdown item from the Start menu on the desktop. Options include shutting down the system and powering off, automatically restarting the system after shutting down, or putting the system into stand-by mode.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why do computers have a shutdown process instead of just cutting it's own power?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["For the same reason that people generally lie down before going to sleep instead of just falling over: To avoid damage. \n\nAt any given time, a computer is running a lot of programs in the background, and they need to be safely closed before the computer shuts down. Many of them also save their state during their shutdown procedures, so they can resume where they were when the computer comes back on. These programs can be extremely important to the operation of the computer, and if things don't add up when it comes back on, the operating system itself won't run anymore. ",
'The shutdown process does a series of things from safely stop the OS (as not to corrupt the memory) along with the kernel and bios along with powering down each device in a sequential order as not to damage hardware.\n\nPurely cutting the power can cause hardware damage along with corrupt any software that was loaded into the memory at the time of power down. ',
"Computers have a lot of various processes from many programs going on at anytime.\n\nShutting down politely asks them to halt before cutting power.\n\nIt's like the difference between being asked to leave the bar at closing rather than being physically removed ",
"You COULD simply cut the power, and it will usually be fine. However, do it often, or at the wrong time, and the operating system will be corrupted.\n\nThink of the computer like somebody building something in workshop. While you're working, you have the tools you're using close at hand, current materials and project right in front of you, and the like. You don't put a tool away in it's assigned space **every single time** you grab a different one. You'll clean up at regular intervals, or when you know you're done with a tool or bit of material.\n\nNow, when you're finished, you put all the tools and materials away in their proper place, and do some basic clean up so the workshop is ready for it's next usage. This is what a computer does during shutdown. Simply cutting power would be like walking out of the workshop mid process. The area is a mess and many tools aren't where they belong.\n\nOn top of that, computers to a lot of caching and deferring of operations that don't need to happen right away, especially if it involves reading or writing from a much slower interface (like the hard drive, network). It's usually much more efficient to do a bunch of these operations in one massive batch than several spread out here and there. \n\n"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '9jtv46',
'query': "why do computers have a shutdown process instead of just cutting it's own power?",
'query_type': 'Technology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '6344',
'title': 'Capsid',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Capsids are broadly classified according to their structure. The majority of viruses have capsids with either helical or icosahedral structure. Some viruses, such as bacteriophages, have developed more complicated structures due to constraints of elasticity and electrostatics. The icosahedral shape, which has 20 equilateral triangular faces, approximates a sphere, while the helical shape resembles the shape of a spring, taking the space of a cylinder but not being a cylinder itself. The capsid faces may consist of one or more proteins. For example, the foot-and-mouth disease virus capsid has faces consisting of three proteins named VP1–3.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19167679',
'title': 'Virus',
'section': 'Section::::Microbiology.:Structure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Icosahedral: Most animal viruses are icosahedral or near-spherical with chiral icosahedral symmetry. A regular icosahedron is the optimum way of forming a closed shell from identical sub-units. The minimum number of identical capsomeres required for each triangular face is 3, which gives 60 for the icosahedron. Many viruses, such as rotavirus, have more than 60 capsomers and appear spherical but they retain this symmetry. To achieve this, the capsomeres at the apices are surrounded by five other capsomeres and are called pentons. Capsomeres on the triangular faces are surrounded by six others and are called hexons. Hexons are in essence flat and pentons, which form the 12 vertices, are curved. The same protein may act as the subunit of both the pentamers and hexamers or they may be composed of different proteins.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23905',
'title': 'Platonic solid',
'section': 'Section::::In nature and technology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 96,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 96,
'end_character': 372,
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'passage_text': 'Many viruses, such as the herpes virus, have the shape of a regular icosahedron. Viral structures are built of repeated identical protein subunits and the icosahedron is the easiest shape to assemble using these subunits. A regular polyhedron is used because it can be built from a single basic unit protein used over and over again; this saves space in the viral genome.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '533646',
'title': 'Mimivirus',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 229,
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'passage_text': 'Its capsid appears hexagonal under an electron microscope, therefore the capsid symmetry is icosahedral. It does not appear to possess an outer viral envelope, suggesting that the virus does not exit the host cell by exocytosis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14968',
'title': 'Regular icosahedron',
'section': 'Section::::Uses and natural forms.:Biology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 59,
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'passage_text': 'Many viruses, e.g. herpes virus, have icosahedral shells. Viral structures are built of repeated identical protein subunits known as capsomeres, and the icosahedron is the easiest shape to assemble using these subunits. A "regular" polyhedron is used because it can be built from a single basic unit protein used over and over again; this saves space in the viral genome.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1148456',
'title': 'Symmetry in biology',
'section': 'Section::::Radial symmetry.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 208,
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'passage_text': 'Many viruses have radial symmetries, their coats being composed of a relatively small number of protein molecules arranged in a regular pattern to form polyhedrons, spheres, or ovoids. Most are icosahedrons.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6344',
'title': 'Capsid',
'section': 'Section::::Specific shapes.:Icosahedral.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'The icosahedral structure is extremely common among viruses. The icosahedron consists of 20 triangular faces delimited by 12 fivefold vertexes and consists of 60 asymmetric units. Thus, an icosahedral virus is made of 60N protein subunits. The number and arrangement of capsomeres in an icosahedral capsid can be classified using the "quasi-equivalence principle" proposed by Donald Caspar and Aaron Klug. Like the Goldberg polyhedra, an icosahedral structure can be regarded as being constructed from pentamers and hexamers. The structures can be indexed by two integers "h" and "k", with formula_1 and formula_2; the structure can be thought of as taking "h" steps from the edge of a pentamer, turning 60 degrees counterclockwise, then taking "k" steps to get to the next pentamer. The triangulation number "T" for the capsid is defined as:\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why are some viruses shaped like an Icosahedron?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
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'answers': ["Most likely because it's a compact shape that can be built easily (make a triangle of protein 8 times, join them together).\n\nViruses hijack the cells of other creatures (or bacteria) to reproduce, so they need to keep things super simple."],
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'query_id': '8b23ba',
'query': 'why are some viruses shaped like an icosahedron?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '419094',
'title': 'Adipose tissue',
'section': 'Section::::Body fat meter.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 68,
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'passage_text': "In contrast with clinical tools, one relatively inexpensive type of body fat meter uses the principle of bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) in order to determine an individual's body fat percentage. To achieve this, the meter passes a small, harmless, electric current through the body and measures the resistance, then uses information on the person's weight, height, age, and sex to calculate an approximate value for the person's body fat percentage. The calculation measures the total volume of water in the body (lean tissue and muscle contain a higher percentage of water than fat), and estimates the percentage of fat based on this information. The result can fluctuate several percentage points depending on what has been eaten and how much water has been drunk before the analysis. Before bioelectrical impedance analysis machines were developed, there were many different ways in analyzing body composition such as skin fold methods using calipers, underwater weighing, whole body air displacement plethysmography (ADP) and DXA.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4784165',
'title': 'Bioelectrical impedance analysis',
'section': 'Section::::Accuracy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'Simple devices to estimate body fat, often using BIA, are available to consumers as body fat meters. These instruments are generally regarded as being less accurate than those used clinically or in nutritional and medical practice. They tend to under-read body fat percentage.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3937909',
'title': 'Body fat percentage',
'section': 'Section::::Measurement techniques.:Body average density measurement.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
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'passage_text': "Prior to the adoption of DXA, the most accurate method of estimating body fat percentage was to measure that person's average density (total mass divided by total volume) and apply a formula to convert that to body fat percentage.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3937909',
'title': 'Body fat percentage',
'section': 'Section::::Measurement techniques.:Anthropometric methods.:Height and circumference methods.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 45,
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'passage_text': 'There also exist formulas for estimating body fat percentage from an individual\'s weight and girth measurements. For example, the U.S. Navy circumference method compares abdomen or waist and hips measurements to neck measurement and height and other sites claim to estimate one\'s body fat percentage by a conversion from the body mass index. In the U.S. Navy the method is known as the "rope and choke." There is limited information, however, on the validity of the "rope and choke" method because of its universal acceptance as inaccurate and easily falsified.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4586751',
'title': 'Body composition',
'section': 'Section::::Body density.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'A reasonably accurate estimation of body fat can be obtained by means of a "two compartment model" of the human body which is based upon two simplifying assumptions: 1. Human fat has a density of 0.9 grams/ml, and 2. The lean (non-fat) components of the human body have an overall density of 1.1 grams/ml.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '419094',
'title': 'Adipose tissue',
'section': 'Section::::Body fat meter.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 67,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 67,
'end_character': 226,
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'passage_text': 'A body fat meter is a widely available tool used to measure the percentage of fat in the human body. Different meters use various methods to determine the body fat to weight ratio. They tend to under-read body fat percentage.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31108661',
'title': 'Body adiposity index',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "The body adiposity index (BAI) is a method of estimating the amount of body fat in humans. The BAI is calculated without using body weight, unlike the body mass index (BMI). Instead, it uses the size of the hips compared to the person's height.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do Machines Calculate Body Fat Percentage?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Usually scale use two electrod under your feet and use Tiny Ac current. By measuring the impedance and frequency responce of the human body they can deduce the ammount of fat and water.',
"The accuracy is a bit rubbish to be honest. \n\nExample. Hand held device - electrical pulse is sent out of one hand and recorded in the other. As you already know from lots of other things electricity will try to find the shortest or easiest path to ground/form a circuit ( the thing your holding in the other hand ) and that shortest path is usually up the arm across the chest and down the other arm. You've missed out a huge part of your body.\n\n\nExample 2. Floor scales. Even worse pluses goes up one leg to your crotch and down the other leg. Missed out entire upper body\n\n\nSome devices make you stand on a floor scale and also hold connected hand things. These are better because you're getting a more realistic reading because it's measuring more of the body.",
'Different body tissues have different conductivity, meaning electricity passes through some parts easier than others. The machines pass an electrical current through your body and use the information to estimate how much fat you have. Lots of things can throw off this estimate: any artificial body parts (like a joint replacement), how hydrated you are, if your limbs are longer or shorter than average, how much food you have in your stomach. They aren\'t that accurate. The more accurate ones are the seats with grabbing handles you might see at a gym. Most of these have instructions for ideal use conditions, usually hydrated and on an empty stomach. \n\n\nSome scales just have a setting where you input your age, build, height, and weight, and it gives you a BMI (body mass index) number. In this case, no measurement is actually being made, the scale is just letting you know how your weight compares to average health standards. \n\nHigher accuracy methods include a "bod pod" or the water displacement method. These aren\'t available at home, though.'],
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'query_id': 'el7qqx',
'query': 'how do machines calculate body fat percentage?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '18253454',
'title': 'Theory of conjoint measurement',
'section': 'Section::::Measurement and quantification.:Extensive and intensive quantity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Temperature is a quantity for which there is an absence of concatenation operations. We cannot pour a volume of water of temperature 40\xa0°C into another bucket of water at 20\xa0°C and expect to have a volume of water with a temperature of 60\xa0°C. Temperature is therefore an "intensive" quantity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24027000',
'title': 'Properties of water',
'section': 'Section::::Physical properties.:Water, ice, and vapor.:Triple point.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 35,
'end_character': 338,
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'passage_text': ' The temperature and pressure at which ordinary solid, liquid, and gaseous water coexist in equilibrium is a triple point of water. Since 1954, this point had been used to define the base unit of temperature, the kelvin but, starting in 2019, the kelvin is now defined using the Boltzmann constant, rather than the triple point of water.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20647050',
'title': 'Temperature',
'section': 'Section::::Thermodynamic approach.:Kelvin scale and absolute thermodynamic definitions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 47,
'end_character': 406,
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'passage_text': 'Numerical details are settled by making one of the heat reservoirs a cell at the triple point of water, which is defined to have an absolute temperature of 273.16 K. The zeroth law of thermodynamics allows this definition to be used to measure the absolute or thermodynamic temperature of an arbitrary body of interest, by making the other heat reservoir have the same temperature as the body of interest.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20666',
'title': 'Metre Convention',
'section': 'Section::::Post 1875 developments.:New SI.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 65,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 65,
'end_character': 412,
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'passage_text': 'A report published in 2007 by the Consultative Committee for Thermometry to the CIPM noted that their current definition of temperature has proved to be unsatisfactory for temperatures below 20\xa0K and for temperatures above 1300\xa0K. The committee was of the view that the Boltzmann constant provided a better basis for temperature measurement than did the triple point of water, as it overcame these difficulties.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41789',
'title': 'Thermodynamic temperature',
'section': 'Section::::Definition of thermodynamic temperature.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 70,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 70,
'end_character': 356,
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'passage_text': 'i.e. The ratio of heat exchanged is a function of the respective temperatures at which they occur. We can choose any monotonic function for our formula_12; it is a matter of convenience and convention that we choose formula_13. Choosing then "one" fixed reference temperature (i.e. triple point of water), we establish the thermodynamic temperature scale.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30291341',
'title': '2019 redefinition of the SI base units',
'section': 'Section::::Background.:Impetus for change.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 409,
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'passage_text': 'A report published in 2007 by the Consultative Committee for Thermometry (CCT) to the CIPM noted that their current definition of temperature has proved to be unsatisfactory for temperatures below and for temperatures above . The committee took the view that the Boltzmann constant provided a better basis for temperature measurement than did the triple point of water because it overcame these difficulties.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1258361',
'title': 'Relative thermal resistance',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 310,
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'passage_text': 'Relative thermal resistance is a measure of the energy required to mix water of two different temperatures (and thus different densities). Comparisons will be made against the differences in the density of water at 3.98\xa0°C and 5\xa0°C. (Wetzel 1983) Since this is a relative measure, there are no units involved.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'When you mix the same quantity of cold and hot water in a bucket, is the result the average of the two temperatures?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['In a perfectly closed system with no loss of temperature to the air or buckets, yes. A 50 degree bucket and a 100 degree bucket will make a 75 degree double bucket. \n\nIn reality it will be slightly less than 75 as some heat is lost to the bucket and the air. \n\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '6rqrkz',
'query': 'when you mix the same quantity of cold and hot water in a bucket, is the result the average of the two temperatures?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3398741',
'title': 'Alcohol fuel',
'section': 'Section::::Methanol and ethanol.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 443,
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'passage_text': 'To prevent corrosion the fuel system must be made of suitable materials, electrical wires must be properly insulated and the fuel level sensor must be of pulse and hold type, magneto resistive or other similar non-contact type. In addition, high quality alcohol should have a low concentration of contaminants and have a suitable corrosion inhibitor added. Scientific evidence reveals that also water is an inhibitor for corrosion by ethanol.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3398741',
'title': 'Alcohol fuel',
'section': 'Section::::Methanol and ethanol.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 615,
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'passage_text': 'Methanol and ethanol fuels contain soluble and insoluble contaminants. Halide ions, which are soluble contaminants, such as chloride ions, have a large effect on the corrosivity of alcohol fuels. Halide ions increase corrosion in two ways: they chemically attack passivating oxide films on several metals causing pitting corrosion, and they increase the conductivity of the fuel. Increased electrical conductivity promotes electrical, galvanic and ordinary corrosion in the fuel system. Soluble contaminants such as aluminum hydroxide, itself a product of corrosion by halide ions, clogs the fuel system over time.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20888255',
'title': 'Isopropyl alcohol',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Solvent.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 30,
'end_character': 217,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Isopropyl alcohol is commonly used for cleaning eyeglasses, electrical contacts, audio or video tape heads, DVD and other optical disc lenses, removing thermal paste from heatsinks on CPUs and other IC packages, etc.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14403',
'title': 'Hydrogen peroxide',
'section': 'Section::::Safety.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 102,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 102,
'end_character': 495,
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'passage_text': 'Hydrogen peroxide should be stored in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area and away from any flammable or combustible substances. It should be stored in a container composed of non-reactive materials such as stainless steel or glass (other materials including some plastics and aluminium alloys may also be suitable). Because it breaks down quickly when exposed to light, it should be stored in an opaque container, and pharmaceutical formulations typically come in brown bottles that block light.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14403',
'title': 'Hydrogen peroxide',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Disinfectant.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 73,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 73,
'end_character': 542,
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'passage_text': 'Historically hydrogen peroxide was used for disinfecting wounds, partly because of its low cost and prompt availability compared to other antiseptics. It is now thought to inhibit healing and to induce scarring because it destroys newly formed skin cells. Only a very low concentration of HO can induce healing, and only if not repeatedly applied. Surgical use can lead to gas embolism formation. Despite this, it is still used for wound treatment in many countries but is also prevalent as a major first aid antiseptic in the United States.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20888255',
'title': 'Isopropyl alcohol',
'section': 'Section::::Properties.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 463,
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'passage_text': 'Isopropyl alcohol is miscible in water, ethanol, ether, and chloroform. It dissolves ethyl cellulose, polyvinyl butyral, many oils, alkaloids, gums and natural resins. Unlike ethanol or methanol, isopropyl alcohol is not miscible with salt solutions and can be separated from aqueous solutions by adding a salt such as sodium chloride. The process is colloquially called "salting out", and causes concentrated isopropyl alcohol to separate into a distinct layer.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20888255',
'title': 'Isopropyl alcohol',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Solvent.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
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'passage_text': 'Isopropyl alcohol dissolves a wide range of non-polar compounds. It also evaporates quickly, leaves nearly zero oil traces, compared to ethanol, and is relatively non-toxic, compared to alternative solvents. Thus, it is used widely as a solvent and as a cleaning fluid, especially for dissolving oils. Together with ethanol, n-butanol, and methanol, it belongs to the group of alcohol solvents, about 6.4 million tonnes of which were used worldwide in 2011.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why doesn’t isopropyl alcohol damage electronics? Are there other liquids that also don’t do damage to electrical components?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["it's neither corrosive nor conductive, so it doesn't dissolve or short anything. it also evaporates at low temperatures, so cleanup is a nonissue\n\ncandle wax shares the first 2 properties, but not the 3rd. this means letting a candle drip into your PC won't destroy it, but requires careful cleaning as it traps heat",
"If you use it while the power is off, it's fine. It evaporates very quickly without leaving a residue so there's no chance of it shorting anything out. \n\nI can't say for sure if its conductive while in liquid form, but it sure as hell **is** flammable!",
'To answer your second question, oil is non-conductive as well. Back in the day before active cooling and radiators people used to fill their gaming rigs with cooking oil. Any liquid that is pure and contains no conductive properties will work.',
"Electronics are mostly plastic, copper, silicon, and solder. Alcohol neither corrode nor dissolves any of these things. It also evaporates without leaving harmful gunk. There are plenty of other liquids that won't hurt electronics, some of which are used for things like cleaning.",
'plastics are very choosy about what they dissolve in. Almost no plastic dissolves in IPA, so it wont mark any surface. It also evaporates quickly and doesnt leave a residue, or corrode metal, doesnt smell bad, and is non-toxic. It is better at dissolving oils and fats and other organic stuff than say ethanol (normal alcohol), and so good for cleaning. Acetone is just as good as cleaning, but more plastics are soluble in acetone, so not used. Other possible fluids (petrol, kerosene, turps etc) either smell too bad or might slightly dissolve some plastics.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'de4x3u',
'query': 'why doesn’t isopropyl alcohol damage electronics? are there other liquids that also don’t do damage to electrical components?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '7720408',
'title': 'California mule deer',
'section': 'Section::::Anatomy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'end_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': "One of the principal means of distinguishing the closely related black-tailed deer and white-tailed deer is the growth habit of the buck's antlers. In the case of the Black Tail and California mule deer, the antlers fork in an upward growth, whereas the other species' antlers grow in a forward direction.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20594743',
'title': 'Sangai',
'section': 'Section::::Biology and behavior.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
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'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The brow-antlered deer is a medium-sized deer, with uniquely distinctive antlers, measuring 100–110\xa0cm. in length with extremely long brow tine, which form the main beam. The two tines form a continuous curve at right angles to the closely set pedicels. This signifies its name, brow-antlered deer, the forward protruding beam appears to come out from the eyebrow. The antlers of the opposite sides are unsymmetrical with respect to each other. The beams are unbranched initially whereas curvature increases as length increases and they get forked also. The sexes are moderately dimorphic in body size and weight. The height and weight of a fully grown stag may be approximately 115–125\xa0cm at shoulder and 95 to 110\xa0kg (210 to 230\xa0lb) respectively. The height and weight of the female are shorter and less as compared to the male counterpart. The length of the body from the base to the ear up to the tail is about 145 to 155\xa0cm in both sexes. The tail is short and rump patch is not pronounced.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4851795',
'title': "Schomburgk's deer",
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 374,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'This deer was a graceful species similar in appearance to the barasingha. The pelt was a dark brown with lighter underparts. The underside of the tail was white. Males possessed basket-like antlers, upon which all the main tines branched. This caused the deer to have up to 33 points on their antlers and the outer edge of the rack to be up to long. Females had no antlers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3204976',
'title': "Thorold's deer",
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 604,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Adult male Thorold\'s deer have antlers, measuring up to in beam length, and weighing up to . Compared with those of wapiti or red deer, the antlers are flattened with the first and second ("bez") tines noticeably far apart. The antlers can have up to seven tines, which all lie in the same plane. They are shed annually in March, reaching their full length by late summer. Other distinctive features include longer ears than most other deer, lined with white hair, and large metatarsal and preorbital glands. The hooves are broad and heavy, with unusually long dewclaws. The tail is short, at in length.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41023100',
'title': 'Cervus elaphus acoronatus',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 431,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': '"Cervus elaphus acoronatus" was a deer of large size, similar to that of the existing "Cervus elaphus", with large and well developed antlers. In this archaic form the antlers lack at their apex, even in adult individuals, the characteristic multi-pointed "crown" (hence the Latin name "acoronatus", meaning "without crown"). In this subspecies the antlers have a simple distal fork oriented transversally to the axis of the body.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '651521',
'title': 'Mule deer',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 422,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The most noticeable differences between white-tailed and mule deer are the size of their ears, the color of their tails, and the configuration of their antlers. In many cases, body size is also a key difference. The mule deer\'s tail is black-tipped, whereas the whitetail\'s is not. Mule deer antlers are bifurcated; they "fork" as they grow, rather than branching from a single main beam, as is the case with white-tails.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38428',
'title': 'Deer',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 845,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Deer constitute the second most diverse family of artiodactyla after bovids. Though of a similar build, deer are strongly distinguished from antelopes by their antlers, which are temporary and regularly regrown unlike the permanent horns of bovids. Characteristics typical of deer include long, powerful legs, a diminutive tail and long ears. Deer exhibit a broad variation in physical proportions. The largest extant deer is the moose, which is nearly tall and weighs up to . The elk stands at the shoulder and weighs . On the contrary, the northern pudu is the smallest deer in the world; it reaches merely at the shoulder and weighs . The southern pudu is only slightly taller and heavier. Sexual dimorphism is quite pronounced – in most species males tend to be larger than females, and, except for the reindeer, only males possess antlers.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What makes deer/moose antlers symmetrical?',
'selftext': 'Straightforward question, since they’re like bones I was wondering why they don’t grow asymetrical. Also, they’re probably not exactly symmetrical but at first glace they are, and that is what I mean. Thank you',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['A symmetrical set of antlers are called typical, as opposed to a set of non typical which are not symmetrical. Antlers are "shed" and regrow every single year, a mature rocky mountain elk can grow 1 1/2" in mass a day during the peak. What trips me out about antlers... during the antler growth they\'re covered in skin and hair with lots of blood, the antler can become injured creating a deformity in the antler. This deformity will recur every subsequent year! The DNA for the shape of the antler changes and remembers that injury, how the heck does that happen! '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8a588c',
'query': 'what makes deer/moose antlers symmetrical?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1122245',
'title': 'Rocking chair',
'section': 'Section::::Purpose.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 228,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Many adults find rocking chairs soothing because of the gentle motion. Gentle rocking motion has been shown to provide faster onset of sleep than remaining stationary, mimicking the process of a parent rocking a child to sleep.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20223284',
'title': 'Pulsing (bodywork)',
'section': 'Section::::Forms and Practice.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 370,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Children and adults will often rock themselves when distressed: there appears to be a deep comfort and security to be found in gentle movement. With its flowing and wave-like movements, Pulsing perhaps recalls a body-memory of the foetal experience in the womb, where the baby is constantly subject to rhythmic pulsation, or of being cradled and rocked during infancy. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36434851',
'title': 'Ghodiyu',
'section': 'Section::::Usage.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 313,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Indian people believe that the rocking motion soothes and relaxes the child and puts them to sleep quickly by replicating the comfort and security of the womb. Indian mothers claim that using a ghodiyu for their child can relieve baby colic symptoms due to the rocking motion which they believe relaxes the baby.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '232062',
'title': 'Plagiocephaly',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Repositioning.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 629,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "This may include repositioning the child's head throughout the day so that the rounded side of the head is placed against the mattress, re-positioning cribs and other areas that infants spend time in so that they will have to look in a different direction to see their parents or others in the room, re-positioning mobiles and other toys for similar reasons, and avoiding extended time sleeping in car-seats (when not in a vehicle), bouncy seats, or other supine seating which is thought to exacerbate the problem. If the child appears to have discomfort or cries when they are re-positioned, a neck problem should be ruled out.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55003162',
'title': 'Infant crying',
'section': 'Section::::Abuse.:Normal crying.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 38,
'end_character': 519,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The physical abuse of infants is related to crying. Crying may be related to the abusive head trauma in infants. This is the most common cause of child abuse death. Fathers are often the ones who shake the infant. Shaking may occur many times. This shaking can cause serious injuries in almost 50% of the time. Some caregivers are unaware that shaking the baby can seriously harm or kill the infant. This type of abuse is being addressed by efforts to educate parents and caregivers with educational flyers and videos.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2363701',
'title': 'Cradleboard',
'section': 'Section::::Use.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 565,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Cradleboard use and its effect on mother-infant interaction has been studied in Navajo communities. It has been shown that cradleboard use has no significant negative effect on this development. In the first few months of infancy, cradleboards have a soothing effect on babies. After 6 months of age or more, infants begin to resist being placed in cradleboards more vigorously as they become more mobile, and they are often placed in the cradleboard with their arms and hands free, so that they can play with objects hung from the cradleboard for their amusement.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1954771',
'title': 'Swaddling',
'section': 'Section::::Modern swaddling.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 329,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'By the time the baby is learning to roll over, often around 4–5 months, parents and caregivers should transition the baby from swaddling to a less restrictive covering for sleep. If the baby can roll over, then it is important for the baby to have use of its hands and arms to adjust his or her head position after rolling over.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "why does shaking (like in a train or bus) and rocking a baby's crib help us sleep?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['I am going to take a dig at this. I think the exact word you are looking for is "Rocking to sleep".\n\nAs to why Rocking helps us sleep, it is a matter of brain waves.\n\nFirstly, we have been put to sleep a hundred times since our birth by gentle swinging motions of our parents. Hence our **brain associates these gentle movements to a relaxing environment**. As a result, we feel a little less stressed and calm, the perfect conditions for inducing sleep.\n\nNow comes the question: Why do babies rock to sleep in the first place? I read about it a while back, so I might not be accurate here. It is still poorly understood, but the bottom line is, **any sort of slow rhythmic movement is sleep inducing**. The reason is that our brain is made to respond to any stimuli. This is an evolutionary trait, and is one of the most important traits in our survival as a species. While observing a slow rhythmic movement, our brain functions at a much slower rate than if it was observing a random fast paced movement. Since there is nothing much new to intake, that means nothing much new to process. *Same input, same output, less processing*. This applies to all the senses: sight, hearing and so on. Hence our brain functions at a slower rate, which is the ideal condition for sleeping.\n\nAnother reason is that, rhythmic movement **calms down our Amygdala - the part of the brain which responds to fear**. Since Amygdala is a key element in the sleep-wake cycle, calming it down is one of the foremost tasks before sleep.\n\nSo there it is. Hope I have remembered it well.\n\nNote: Rocking does not only put us to sleep, it also helps us to sleep deeply.\n\nP.S. This is my first comment on Reddit, please be gentle.\n\nEdit: The article I read was probably about this study: _URL_0_. You can check this out. It more or less states the above.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5m76k4',
'query': "why does shaking (like in a train or bus) and rocking a baby's crib help us sleep?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '22574316',
'title': 'Orofacial myological disorders',
'section': 'Section::::Open mouth posture.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 30,
'end_character': 1123,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The adaptation from nasal to mouth breathing takes place when changes such as chronic middle ear infections, sinusitis, allergic rhinitis, upper airway infections, and sleep disturbances (e.g., snoring) take place. In addition, mouth breathing is often associated with a decrease in oxygen intake into the lungs. Mouth breathing can particularly affect the growing face, as the abnormal pull of these muscle groups on facial bones slowly deforms these bones, causing misalignment. The earlier in life these changes take place, the greater the alterations in facial growth, and ultimately an open mouth posture is created where the upper lip is raised and the lower jaw is maintained in an open posture. The tongue, which is normally tucked under the roof of the mouth, drops to the floor of the mouth and protrudes to allow a greater volume of air intake. Consequently, an open mouth posture can lead to malocclusions and problems in swallowing. Other causes of open-mouth posture are weakness of lip muscles, overall lack of tone in the body or hypotonia, and prolonged/chronic allergies of the respiratory tract. A.union\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2972283',
'title': 'Mouth breathing',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 1117,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Human infants are sometimes considered obligate nasal breathers, but generally speaking healthy humans may breathe through their nose, their mouth, or both. During rest, breathing through the nose is common for most individuals. Breathing through both nose and mouth during exercise is also normal, a behavioral adaptation to increase air intake and hence supply more oxygen to the muscles. Mouth breathing may be called abnormal when an individual breathes through the mouth even during rest. Some sources use the term "mouth breathing habit" but this incorrectly implies that the individual is fully capable of normal nasal breathing, and is breathing through their mouth out of preference. However, in about 85% of cases, mouth breathing represents an involuntary, subconscious adaptation to reduced openness of the nasal airway, and mouth breathing is a requirement simply in order to get enough air. Chronic mouth breathing in children may affect dental and facial growth. It may also cause gingivitis (inflamed gums) and halitosis (bad breath), especially upon waking if mouth breathing occurs during sleeping.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '146393',
'title': 'Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 531,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation, a form of artificial ventilation, is the act of assisting or stimulating respiration in which a rescuer presses his or her mouth against that of the victim and blows air into the person's lungs. Artificial respiration takes many forms, but generally entails providing air for a person who is not breathing or is not making sufficient respiratory effort on his/her own. It is used on a patient with a beating heart or as part of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) to achieve the internal respiration.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2972283',
'title': 'Mouth breathing',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 480,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The nasal airway may be compromised partially (where there is increased resistance to the flow of air due to narrowing of the lumen at some point in the upper respiratory tract) or completely obstructed. Such individuals may find it difficult or impossible to breathe through their nose alone. In about 85% of cases, mouth breathing is an adaptation to nasal obstruction. Specific causes of nasal obstruction which have been linked to mouth breathing include antrochoanal polyps.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40138278',
'title': 'Long face syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Definition and treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 284,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'For children, there is a concern that mouth breathing can contribute to the development of long face syndrome. A recent study finds that it is a growing problem which should be treated as "it won\'t just go away." In addition to mouth breathing, it may be associated with sleep apnea.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16159527',
'title': 'Mouth infection',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 1134,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Severe mouth infections become dangerous when breathing or swallowing are impaired. Since the primary and secondary spaces extend towards the back of the throat, significant swelling can lead to airway obstruction. Signs and symptoms of airway obstruction are difficulty breathing, stridor, low oxygen saturation measured by a pulse oximeter, blue discoloration of the skin or lips, and stridor. Similarly, infections that spread to adjacent structures may also impair swallowing or cause significant pain with swallowing. Individuals with long-standing infections may lose significant weight because pain blunts their desire and impairs their ability to eat food. When infections affect swallowing, one may not be able to swallow saliva and other oral secretions faster than they are produced, causing drooling. Pooling secretions at the back of the throat increases the likelihood of the saliva traveling down the windpipe and into the lungs instead of through the esophagus and into the stomach. This process of breathing in material that should be swallowed is known as aspiration, and can lead to more infections like pneumonia.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '414280',
'title': 'Bad breath',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 417,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Estimated rates of bad breath vary from 6% to 50% of the population. Concern about bad breath is the third most common reason people seek dental care, after tooth decay and gum disease. It is believed to become more common as people age. Bad breath is viewed as a social taboo and those affected may be stigmatized. People in the United States spend more than $1 billion per year on mouthwash to treat the condition.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is mouth breathing bad for humans and why are we able to do it?',
'selftext': 'Some of youtube videos I listened to recently said that mouth breathing cause facial problems like a recessed chin and sinus problems. Some guy named Dr. Mike Mew even claims it causes crowding in the teeth.',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['They don’t really say that mouth breathing is bad it’s just that breathing through your nose is better... the hairs in your nose “filter” the air hence why you get boogers(they are the “bad” stuff in the air)',
'Breathing through your nose is better because your nasal passages filter out some bacteria and other germs but not all. Breathing through your mouth is actually bad and less efficient because a lot of times you end up swallowing the air you need. Also, prolonged mouthbreathing leads the physiology of the mouth to change (meaning they shape and “environment” of the mouth is also changed. Most noticeably people who mouth break for a long time develop an openbite meaning the natural state of their mouth is open. It doesn’t happen to everyone but to a lot. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8ywy5p',
'query': 'why is mouth breathing bad for humans and why are we able to do it?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '8297063',
'title': 'Spatial view cells',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 715,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Spatial view cells are used by primates for storing an episodic memory that helps with remembering where a particular object was in the environment. Imaging studies have shown that the hippocampus plays an important role in spatial navigation and episodic memories. Also, spatial view cells enable them to recall locations of objects even if they are not physically present in the environment. The neurons associated with remembering the location and object are often found in the primate hippocampus. These spatial view cells do not only recall specific locations, but they also remember distances between other landmarks around the place in order to gain a better understanding of where the places are spatially.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1215674',
'title': 'Visual memory',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 981,
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'passage_text': "Visual memory describes the relationship between perceptual processing and the encoding, storage and retrieval of the resulting neural representations. Visual memory occurs over a broad time range spanning from eye movements to years in order to visually navigate to a previously visited location. Visual memory is a form of memory which preserves some characteristics of our senses pertaining to visual experience. We are able to place in memory visual information which resembles objects, places, animals or people in a mental image. The experience of visual memory is also referred to as the mind's eye through which we can retrieve from our memory a mental image of original objects, places, animals or people. Visual memory is one of several cognitive systems, which are all interconnected parts that combine to form the human memory. Types of palinopsia, the persistence or recurrence of a visual image after the stimulus has been removed, is a dysfunction of visual memory.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1717129',
'title': 'Explicit memory',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 430,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'People use explicit memory throughout the day, such as remembering the time of an appointment or recollecting an event from years ago. Explicit memory involves conscious recollection, compared with implicit memory which is an unconscious, unintentional form of memory. Remembering a specific driving lesson is an example of explicit memory, while improved driving skill as a result of the lesson is an example of implicit memory.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4718632',
'title': 'Mental representation',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 718,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Mental representations (or mental imagery) enable representing things that have never been experienced as well as things that do not exist. Think of yourself traveling to a place you have never visited before, or having a third arm. These things have either never happened or are impossible and do not exist, yet our brain and mental imagery allows us to imagine them. Although visual imagery is more likely to be recalled, mental imagery may involve representations in any of the sensory modalities, such as hearing, smell, or taste. Stephen Kosslyn proposes that images are used to help solve certain types of problems. We are able to visualize the objects in question and mentally represent the images to solve it.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5626',
'title': 'Cognitive science',
'section': 'Section::::Scope.:Memory.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 35,
'end_character': 494,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Cognitive scientists study memory just as psychologists do, but tend to focus more on how memory bears on cognitive processes, and the interrelationship between cognition and memory. One example of this could be, what mental processes does a person go through to retrieve a long-lost memory? Or, what differentiates between the cognitive process of recognition (seeing hints of something before remembering it, or memory in context) and recall (retrieving a memory, as in "fill-in-the-blank")?\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1008632',
'title': "Baddeley's model of working memory",
'section': 'Section::::Components.:Visuo-spatial working memory.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 33,
'end_character': 1044,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "However, visuo-spatial short-term memory can retain visual and/or spatial information over brief periods of time. When this memory is in use, individuals are able to momentarily create and revisit a mental image that can be manipulated in complex or difficult tasks of spatial orientation.There are some who have disparities in the areas of the brain that allow for this to happen from different types of brain damage. There can also be a misunderstanding here in the differences between transient memories such as the visual sensory memory. A transient memory is merely a fleeting type of sensory memory. Therefore, as the visual sensory memory is a type of sensory memory, there is a store for the information, but the store last for only a second or so. A common effect of the visual sensory memory is that individuals may remember seeing things that weren't really there or not remembering particular things that were in their line of sight. The memory is only momentary, and if it isn't attended to within a matter of seconds, it is gone.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8297063',
'title': 'Spatial view cells',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 745,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "In real world applications, monkeys remember where they saw ripe fruit with the aid of spatial view cells. Humans use spatial view cells when they try to recall where they may have seen a person or where they left their keys. Primates' highly developed visual and eye movement control systems enables them to explore and remember information about what's present at places in the environment without having to physically visit those places. These sorts of memories would be useful for spatial navigation in which the primates visualize everything in an allocentric, or worldly manner that allows them to convey directions to others without physically going through the entire route. These cells are used by primates in regular day-to-day lives.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How can we recall memories and imagine scenarios and see them visually, while also seeing and observing the current environment?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Your brain does lots of things simultaneously, if it didn\'t your heart would stop when you needed to take a breath, or when you thought about a math problem. \n\nNeedless to say, the thing you\'re seeing in actuality is based on stimulus coming from your optic nerve. That path only takes inputs from your eye (normally) whereas the input from your imagined scenarios is coming from elsewhere in the brain. They may have some overlap in terms of where they are processed in the brain (giving you the sense you are "seeing" a memory), but that portion of the brain is pretty good at doing things simultaneously.',
"because while the sensations might *feel* similar, both being visual, your imagination and your eyesight are not directly connected. Your brain doesn't have to stop processing what you're seeing in order to visualize something, and what you're visualizing doesn't make you start hallucinating.\n\nIn a similar sense how your inner monoloug doesn't prevent you speaking, imagining sounds doesn't make it harder to hear the outside world, and imagining what something disgusting smells like doesn't make you vomit. \n\nWhile the functions are similar, your imagination and your sensory inputs are processed differently in your brain, even if there is some overlap in where they get processed at different stages.",
"I've always been able to render things over my current environmental input. It's not real, I know it's not real, but I can place a virtual thing anywhere I want. I write software and I do the same thing with my software before I write it. Helps a lot with designing things before you write them. Takes a lot of energy though. \n\nThose organically rendered VR objects are recalled from the part of our brain that reconstructs objects based on visual input. Your brain is like a giant AVR machine. Amazing! The objects you perceive as they are perceived by you are rendered or constructed by your brain in real time!"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'e7wad4',
'query': 'how can we recall memories and imagine scenarios and see them visually, while also seeing and observing the current environment?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '683274',
'title': '6to4',
'section': 'Section::::How 6to4 works.:Address block allocation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'For example, the global IPv4 address has the corresponding 6to4 prefix . This gives a prefix length of 48 bits, which leaves room for a 16-bit subnet field and 64 bit host addresses within the subnets.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15318',
'title': 'IPv6',
'section': 'Section::::Transition mechanisms.:IPv4-mapped IPv6 addresses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 91,
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'passage_text': 'Addresses in this group consist of an 80-bit prefix of zeros, the next 16 bits are ones, and the remaining, least-significant 32 bits contain the IPv4 address. For example, ::ffff:192.0.2.128 represents the IPv4 address 192.0.2.128. Another deprecated format for IPv4-compatible IPv6 addresses is ::192.0.2.128.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15318',
'title': 'IPv6',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Devices on the Internet are assigned a unique IP address for identification and location definition. With the rapid growth of the Internet after commercialization in the 1990s, it became evident that far more addresses would be needed to connect devices than the IPv4 address space had available. By 1998, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) had formalized the successor protocol. IPv6 uses a 128-bit address, theoretically allowing 2, or approximately addresses. The actual number is slightly smaller, as multiple ranges are reserved for special use or completely excluded from use. The total number of possible IPv6 addresses is more than times as many as IPv4, which uses 32-bit addresses and provides approximately 4.3 billion addresses. The two protocols are not designed to be interoperable, complicating the transition to IPv6. However, several IPv6 transition mechanisms have been devised to permit communication between IPv4 and IPv6 hosts.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14921',
'title': 'IP address',
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'passage_text': 'Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) defines an IP address as a 32-bit number. However, because of the growth of the Internet and the depletion of available IPv4 addresses, a new version of IP (IPv6), using 128 bits for the IP address, was developed in 1995, and standardized in . In , a final definition of the protocol was published. IPv6 deployment has been ongoing since the mid-2000s.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24504672',
'title': 'IPv6 address',
'section': 'Section::::Address space.:Reserved anycast addresses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 96,
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'passage_text': 'The 128 highest addresses within each subnet prefix are reserved to be used as anycast addresses. These addresses usually have the 57 first bits of the interface identifier set to 1, followed by the 7-bit anycast ID. Prefixes for the network, including subnets, are required to have a length of 64 bits, in which case the universal/local bit must be set to 0 to indicate the address is not globally unique. The address with value 0x7e in the 7 least-significant bits is defined as a mobile IPv6 home agents anycast address. The address with value 0x7f (all bits 1) is reserved and may not be used. No more assignments from this range are made, so values 0x00 through 0x7d are reserved as well.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38404',
'title': 'Classless Inter-Domain Routing',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
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'passage_text': 'An IP address is interpreted as composed of two parts: a network-identifying prefix followed by a host identifier within that network. In the previous classful network architecture, IP address allocations were based on the bit boundaries of the four octets of an IP address. An address was considered to be the combination of an 8, 16, or 24-bit network prefix along with a 24, 16, or 8-bit host identifier respectively. Thus, the smallest allocation and routing block contained only 256 addresses—too small for most enterprises, and the next larger block contained addresses—too large to be used efficiently even by large organizations. This led to inefficiencies in address use as well as inefficiencies in routing, because it required a large number of allocated class-C networks with individual route announcements, being geographically dispersed with little opportunity for route aggregation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14921',
'title': 'IP address',
'section': 'Section::::IPv4 addresses.\n',
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'passage_text': 'An IPv4 address has a size of 32 bits, which limits the address space to (2) addresses. Of this number, some addresses are reserved for special purposes such as private networks (~18 million addresses) and multicast addressing (~270 million addresses).\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Is there a reason why all or most IP addresses begin with 192.168..?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['These are internal IP addresses. If you are on a home network, you will have this IP address. Even if you have one computer on a wireless router connected to a modem, you are on a home network.',
'192.168.x.x is reserved for [private networks](_URL_0_), i.e. your local network (for your home, office etc.)\n\nIn some places, each device could also be assigned a public IP address (for accessing the internet), or all the devices in the network could share the same public IP address using [NAT](_URL_1_).',
"192.168.x.x is part of the 'private' range of addresses set aside by the Internet masters (APNIC). Whilst these are valid addresses, they are specificically designed not to be transmitted across the wider Internet. There are actually 3 such sets, (Class A, B and C).\nThese are: \n\nA: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255.\n\nB: 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255.\n\nC: 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255.\n\nThe Technical term is '[Non Routeable IP addresses](_URL_0_)'\n",
'First you need to understand the difference between public and private IP addresses as well as the term routable. \n\nPrivate IP addresses are used internal to your network and public IPs are used external also known as routable. You may have 50/100/1000s of devices inside of your network they can all share one public IP address via Network Address Translation and the use of port numbers. \n\nIf you google “what is my IP” you’ll see a much different ip address. That is your public IP and it’s how you talk to the world. This is dynamically assigned via your ISP. \n\nThe best way to put it is this, your house has a unique address: 123 Main Street, city State zip code. No where else in the world does that address exist and it’s how UPS knows to find you. Now inside of your house you probably have tons of things that everyone else has. UPS doesn’t need to know where your fridge is to deliver you packages for the fridge just how to get to your house. \n\nThis all exists because there is a limited number of IPv4 address so every routable IP can have thousands of Private IPs behind it. \n\nThere are three private spaces:\n\n10.0.0.0/8\n172.16.0.0/12\n192.168.0.0/16\n\nI’m not 100% sure why most retail devices went with 192 as the IP range. Technically they could have used any of them. In my house I use several different subnets with the use of Vlans.\n\n192.168.98.0/24 vlan 998 management\n192.168.99.0/24 vlan 999 Lab\n192.168.100.0/24 vlan 1000 Home Network\n192.168.101.0/24 vlan 1001 IOT\n192.168.102.0/24 vlan 1002 Media\n192.168.103.0/24 vlan 1003 Cameras\nVlan 1004 retired\n192.168.105.0/24 vlan 1005 Servers\n192.168.106.0/24 vlan 1006 NAS \n\n\nThat’s about the basics of a network. I’ve been a network security engineer for about 10 years.. it’s a really amazing career with lots of jobs and the entry is minimal. Hope that helped. \n\nEdit: also understand most things in Network were developed 20-30 years ago when not many home users had internet. That is why 127.0.0.0 range is reserved.. the thought was we would never run out of IP address.. and it’s why IPv6 is becoming the new standard. ',
'You have a limited view of the IPv4 address space. This is most likely due to the use of the 192.168.0.0/16 address space by consumer routers. \n\nThe entire IPv4 address space is heavily utilized except the highest numbered addresses.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'adhakp',
'query': 'is there a reason why all or most ip addresses begin with 192.168..?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '12349567',
'title': 'Drain (plumbing)',
'section': 'Section::::Safety.:Waste versus re-circulated drains.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': "In the United Kingdom, plumbers refer to waste water as 'bad water'. This is under the premise that the water they are moving from one area to another via the use of a drain is not needed and can be removed from the area, like a 'bad apple' being removed from a fruit bowl.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '251975',
'title': 'Dehumidifier',
'section': 'Section::::Condensate.:Potability.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Various pathogens, including fungal spores, may accumulate in the water, particularly due to its stagnancy. Unlike in distilled water production, the water is not boiled, which would kill pathogens (including bacteria).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '268397',
'title': 'Anhydrous',
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'passage_text': 'A substance is anhydrous if it contains no water. Many processes in chemistry can be impeded by the presence of water, therefore, it is important that water-free reagents and techniques are used. In practice, however, it is very difficult to achieve perfect dryness; anhydrous compounds gradually absorb water from the atmosphere so they must be stored carefully.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2439731',
'title': 'Edwards Aquifer',
'section': 'Section::::Water balance.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Annual storage can be negative during dry years with high water use and positive during wet years with relatively low water use. A long-term negative imbalance between recharge and discharge in an aquifer may lead to the depletion of the available water in the aquifer.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26720883',
'title': 'Post-harvest losses (vegetables)',
'section': 'Section::::Causes of loss after harvest.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Fresh produce continues to lose water after harvest. Water loss causes shrinkage and loss of weight. The rate at which water is lost varies according to the product. Leafy vegetables lose water quickly because they have a thin skin with many pores. Potatoes, on the other hand, have a thick skin with few pores. But whatever the product, to extend shelf or storage life the rate of water loss must be minimal. The most significant factor is the ratio of the surface area of the fruit or vegetable to its volume. The greater the ratio the more rapid will be the loss of water. The rate of loss is related to the difference between the water vapour pressure inside the produce and in the air. Produce must therefore be kept in a moist atmosphere.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35226965',
'title': 'Water issues in developing countries',
'section': 'Section::::Availability and access.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'The scarcity of fresh water resources is an issue in arid regions around the world, but is becoming more common due to overcommitment of resources. In the case of physical water scarcity, there is not enough water to meet demand. Dry regions do not have access to fresh water in lakes or rivers while access to groundwater is sometimes limited. Regions most affected by this type of water scarcity are Mexico, Northern and Southern Africa, the Middle East, India, and Northern China. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11671698',
'title': 'Soil salinity control',
'section': 'Section::::The soil salinity problem.:Secondary cause.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Most of the water lost this way is stored underground which can change the original hydrology of local aquifers considerably. Many aquifers cannot absorb and transport these quantities of water, and so the water table rises leading to waterlogging.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What happens to water when it goes stale?',
'selftext': 'What happens to the water to give it that tangy, metal-like taste? Is it something to do with the plastic bottles?',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Part of it has to do with some of the gasses inside the water evaporating out, like how when you leave water out for a while it starts developing little bubbles along the walls of the glass.\n\nThe rest, as you mentioned, is from the container itself reacting with the water and the minerals inside it. ',
'After about 12 hours tap water starts to go flat as carbon dioxide in the air starts to mix with the water in the glass, lowering its pH and giving it an off taste'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '5wi89i',
'query': 'what happens to water when it goes stale?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '27009',
'title': 'Soap opera',
'section': 'Section::::United States.:Daytime serials on television.:Traditional grammar of daytime serials.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The visual quality of a soap opera is usually lower than prime time U.S. television drama series due to the lower budgets and quicker production times. This is also because soap operas are recorded on videotape using a multi-camera setup, unlike primetime productions that are usually shot on film and frequently use the single camera shooting style. Because of the lower resolution of video images, and also because of the emotional situations portrayed in soap operas, daytime serials make heavy use of close-up shots. Programs in the United States did not make the full conversion to high definition broadcasting until September 2011, when "The Bold and the Beautiful" became the last soap to convert to the format; "One Life to Live" was an exception to this, as it continued to be produced and broadcast in standard definition – albeit in the aspect ratio – until the end of its run on ABC in January 2012.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27009',
'title': 'Soap opera',
'section': 'Section::::United States.:Daytime serials on television.:Decline.:Causes.\n',
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'passage_text': 'As women increasingly worked outside of the home, daytime television viewing declined. New generations of potential viewers were not raised watching soap operas with their mothers, leaving the shows\' long and complex storylines foreign to younger audiences. Now, as viewers age, ratings continue to drop among young adult women, the demographic group that soap opera advertisers pay the most for. Those who might watch in workplace breakrooms are not counted, as Nielsen does not track television viewing outside the home. The rise of cable and the internet has also provided new sources of entertainment during the day. The genre\'s decline has additionally been attributed to reality television displacing soap operas as TV\'s dominant form of melodrama. An early term for the reality TV genre was "docu-soap". A precursor to reality TV, the televised 1994–95 O. J. Simpson murder case, both preempted and competed with an entire season of soaps, transforming viewing habits and leaving soap operas with 10 percent fewer viewers after the trial ended.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27009',
'title': 'Soap opera',
'section': 'Section::::Internet and mobile soap opera.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 226,
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'passage_text': 'With the advent of internet television and mobile phones, several soap operas have also been produced specifically for these platforms, including "", a spin-off of the established "EastEnders". For those produced only for the mobile phone, episodes may generally consist of about six or seven pictures and accompanying text.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35301989',
'title': 'Soap Life',
'section': 'Section::::Synopsis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': "The Soap Opera has been a staple of American television programming for over 50 years. However, in the late 2000s a number of these daytime dramas began to face major budget cuts and cancellations. Producer Matthew D'Amato and his crew sat with actors, producers, writers, and fans in over 70 interviews to provide an insider view of the world of soap operas as told by the people who live it in an attempt to uncover the reasons behind the sudden decline of the daytime soaps.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8652009',
'title': 'Daytime television',
'section': 'Section::::Content.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, and Australia, talk shows (hosted by a single personality or a larger panel) are a significant part of this timeslot, as well as, to a lesser extent, game shows and soap operas. In the U.S., the Big Three television networks all provide some degree of daytime programming, but the once-popular genre of soap operas have declined; although a few remain active, they have been largely replaced by less-expensive programming such as talk shows (including "Strahan and Sara", "The Talk", and "Today with Hoda & Jenna", which fill timeslots once filled by "One Life to Live", "As the World Turns", and "Passions" respectively). Game shows were also common in U.S. daytime lineups, but by the 1990\'s, only CBS\'s long-running "The Price Is Right" remained (which was later joined in 2009 by a revival of "Let\'s Make a Deal", which replaced the cancelled soap "Guiding Light").\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37377295',
'title': 'Vine Street (TV series)',
'section': 'Section::::Firsts.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Audiences were already accustomed to continuing story serials from the radio, but this was the first attempt on television. The term "soap opera" came about since many soap and cleaning product companies started trying to reach the many housewives who were home to listen these programs which normally aired in the afternoons. The "Oxford English Dictionary"s citation for the phrase dates its first appearance in print to 1938.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9144437',
'title': '1970s in television',
'section': 'Section::::Overall trends.:United States.:The soap opera boom.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Another popular medium in U.S. television moving into the 1970s was the soap opera, which moved from being a genre watched exclusively by housewives to having a sizable audience of men (who largely watched "The Edge of Night") and college students; the latter audience helped "All My Children" gain a devoted following, as it was on during many universities\' traditional "lunch period." In a "TIME" article written about the genre in 1976, it was estimated that as many as 35 million households tuned into at least one soap opera each afternoon, the most popular being "As the World Turns", which routinely grabbed viewing figures of twelve million or higher each day.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do modern phones lack the soap opera effect of modern TVs?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['I think they r referring to that hyper realistic quality in the picture.. i dont like it..it does remind me of a soap opera..I thought i was high the first time i saw it on someones tv..',
'The effect you’re talking about is the motion blending that takes what is normally 30fps or 24fps material and turning into into 120fps, which makes everything look like shit and if you have it turned on you’re a horrible person. \n\nI don’t know for sure why it’s not on phones, other than maybe no one fucking wants this garbage feature. And also it would absolutely wreck your battery like this wrecks whatever it is you’re trying to watch.',
"Newer TV's use display panels with much higher refresh rates than the programs they are showing. That means the program is made at 24 or 30 frames per second but the panel itself is refreshing up to e.g 200 times per second.\n\nIn order for the motion to be smooth and without jitters and judders the TV has to interpolate the other 170-ish frames every second. It does that using an algorithm running on a processor. And algorithms like that can't account for every eventuality. So they get it wrong sometimes and the motion looks weird.\n\nThere should be an option to disable the interpolation. Samsung calls it Auto Motion Plus, LG calls it TruMotion, Sony calls it MotionFlow, and so on.\n\nEdit : Sorry that didn't actually answer your question. I would guess phones don't do the same because of the cost of integrating or developing their own interpolation system. I think the decoding of most video formats is already done in integrated third party hardware (GPU chips) and tacking another stage onto that wouldn't be easy or cheap. And of course the reduction in battery life isn't something their sales literature could easily spin as a worthwhile tradeoff."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'fvpv99',
'query': 'why do modern phones lack the soap opera effect of modern tvs?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '212253',
'title': 'Electric power distribution',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Introduction of the transformer.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In the US the competition between direct current and alternating current took a personal turn in the late 1880s in the form of a "War of Currents" when Thomas Edison started attacking George Westinghouse and his development of the first US AC transformer systems, pointing out all the deaths caused by high voltage AC systems over the years and claiming any AC system was inherently dangerous. Edison\'s propaganda campaign was short lived with his company switching over to AC in 1892.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2108765',
'title': 'Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti',
'section': 'Section::::Professional career.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In the late 1880s, there was a debate within the industry about the transmission of electrical power, known as the War of the Currents. Thomas Edison supported a direct current (DC) based system, largely due to his holding many key patents and having set up some power plants supplying DC power. The rival Westinghouse Electric Corporation supported an alternating current (AC) system.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '342086',
'title': 'War of the currents',
'section': 'Section::::The current war ends.:Aftermath.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Even though the institutional war of currents had ended in a financial merger the technical difference between direct and alternating current systems followed a much longer technical merger. Due to innovation in the US and Europe, alternating current\'s economy of scale with very large generating plants linked to loads via long distance transmission was slowly being combined with the ability to link it up with all of the existing systems that needed to be supplied. These included single phase AC systems, poly-phase AC systems, low voltage incandescent lighting, high voltage arc lighting, and existing DC motors in factories and street cars. In the engineered "universal system" these technological differences were temporarily being bridged via the development of rotary converters and motor–generators that allowed the large number of legacy systems to be connected to the AC grid. These stopgaps were slowly replaced as older systems were retired or upgraded.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29778',
'title': 'Thomas Edison',
'section': 'Section::::Menlo Park laboratory (1876–1886).:War of currents.\n',
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'passage_text': "Thomas Edison's staunch anti-AC tactics were not sitting well with his own stockholders. By the early 1890s, Edison's company was generating much smaller profits than its AC rivals, and the War of Currents would come to an end in 1892 with Edison forced out of controlling his own company. That year, the financier J.P. Morgan engineered a merger of Edison General Electric with Thomson-Houston that put the board of Thomson-Houston in charge of the new company called General Electric. General Electric now controlled three-quarters of the US electrical business and would compete with Westinghouse for the AC market.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '342086',
'title': 'War of the currents',
'section': 'Section::::The current war ends.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The fifteen electric companies that existed 5 years before had merged down to two; General Electric and Westinghouse. The war of currents came to an end and this merger of the Edison company, along with its lighting patents, and the Thomson-Houston, with its AC patents, created a company that controlled three quarters of the US electrical business. From this point on General Electric and Westinghouse were both marketing alternating current systems. Edison put on a brave face noting to the media how his stock had gained value in the deal but privately he was bitter that his company and all of his patents had been turned over to the competition.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38824',
'title': 'Electric power transmission',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
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'passage_text': 'The late 1880s and early 1890s would see the financial merger of smaller electric companies into a few larger corporations such as Ganz and AEG in Europe and General Electric and Westinghouse Electric in the US. These companies continued to develop AC systems but the technical difference between direct and alternating current systems would follow a much longer technical merger. Due to innovation in the US and Europe, alternating current\'s economy of scale with very large generating plants linked to loads via long distance transmission was slowly being combined with the ability to link it up with all of the existing systems that needed to be supplied. These included single phase AC systems, poly-phase AC systems, low voltage incandescent lighting, high voltage arc lighting, and existing DC motors in factories and street cars. In what was becoming a "universal system", these technological differences were temporarily being bridged via the development of rotary converters and motor-generators that would allow the large number of legacy systems to be connected to the AC grid. These stopgaps would slowly be replaced as older systems were retired or upgraded.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '342086',
'title': 'War of the currents',
'section': 'Section::::The current war ends.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 74,
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'passage_text': "With Thomas Edison no longer involved with Edison General Electric, the war of currents came to a close with a financial merger. Edison president Henry Villard, who had engineered the merger that formed Edison General Electric, was continually working on the idea of merging that company with Thomson-Houston or Westinghouse. He saw a real opportunity in 1891. The market was in a general downturn causing cash shortages for all the companies concerned and Villard was in talks with Thomson-Houston, which was now Edison General Electric's biggest competitor. Thomson-Houston had a habit of saving money on development by buying, or sometimes stealing, patents. Patent conflicts were stymieing the growth of both companies and the idea of saving on some 60 ongoing lawsuits as well as saving on profit losses of trying to undercut each other by selling generating plants below cost pushed forward the idea of this merger in financial circles. Edison hated the idea and tried to hold it off but Villard thought his company, now winning its incandescent light patent lawsuits in the courts, was in a position to dictate the terms of any merger. As a committee of financiers, which included J.P. Morgan, worked on the deal in early 1892 things went against Villard. In Morgan's view Thomson-Houston looked on the books to be the stronger of the two companies and engineered a behind the scenes deal announced on April 15, 1892, that put the management of Thomson-Houston in control of the new company, now called General Electric (dropping Edison's name). Thomas Edison was not aware of the deal until the day before it happened.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'During the War of the Currents, Tesla and Edison battled over superiority between alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC). Why is alternating current regarded as more superior than direct current?',
'selftext': 'I know that the main difference between alternating current and direct current is that direct current flows from one direction while alternating current goes back and forth in the same circuit. But what difference does it make? Why does this make alternating current superior than direct current?',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It is not really superior. Automobiles use direct current.\n\nThe one really important difference up to now is that transformers can be used to step up and down the voltage with alternating current.\n\nAt the power plant the voltage is stepped up tremendously to be carried on high overhead wires. High voltage means low current. Low current means more power transmitted over same size wires with less loss due to resistance.\n\nThe voltage is stepped down before use in residential and most commercial buildings. Only alternating current can do this using transformers. \n\nThere may also be advantages in industry where triple phase alternating current can be made available.\n\nDirect current is actually less dangerous if people connect across the voltage.',
'Power needs to be transmitted at high voltages to minimize losses in the system. You don\'t use high voltage so it needs to be "stepped down." AC can be stepped down easily and efficiently with a transformer circuit. Before semiconductors, there was no efficient way to step down DC. Or at least nowhere near as efficient as a transformer with AC. \n\nBecause AC has fewer losses when it was stepped down, it was cheaper for power companies to adopt AC generators and transmit that instead of DC. \n\nThere were additional problems, for example it was easier to convert AC to DC for applications than convert DC to AC reliably. \n\nSo that\'s why we use AC in our power grids. \n\nThat said, things aren\'t the same today as they were a century ago. High voltage DC has fewer losses in the wire than AC, and modern electronics has made efficient DC/DC and DC/AC conversion possible. Over new and long distance transmission, DC is used today instead of AC. ',
"The reason is because of long transmission lines. The transmission lines themselves also have resistance, i.e. some of the power that is being sent through them is lost to resistance.\n\nHowever, the higher the voltage is you send through, the less power you lose this way. BUT very high voltage is dangerous and you want much lower voltages to actually use the electricity.\n\nWith AC it's rather easy to change the voltage through a transformer.\n\nWith DC it's not so easy to adapt the voltage.\n\nAnd that is why the electricity grid is AC.",
'Misnomer there - War of the Currents was Edison and **Westinghouse**, not Tesla and Edison. Tesla did not get into the AC biz until after the "War\' was already on and his poly-phase motor did not hit the market until after "War" was over. He had no roll in the War of the Currents. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nAs other have said, AC\'s main advantage was it could be converted to a higher voltage using a transformer to allow it to be transmitted much longer distances in the same diameter wire. The cost of wire (copper) was everything back then so if you did not have to buy big thick conductors you could undercut the other guy (Edison) who did. \n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '765op1',
'query': 'during the war of the currents, tesla and edison battled over superiority between alternating current (ac) and direct current (dc). why is alternating current regarded as more superior than direct current?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '13267877',
'title': 'Lobectomy (lung)',
'section': 'Section::::Administration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'end_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'Another way a lobectomy can be performed is through a video assisted surgery. With this type the surgeon does not need to pry the two ribs open in order to get in. A few small incisions are made and surgical tools are inserted into the chest cavity. A small camera with a light will then be inserted. What the camera sees will be projected onto a screen that the surgeon can see. Once the problem area is located the small tools that were previously inserted will be utilized to perform the surgery. Once the surgery is complete, the patient will remain in the intensive care unit of the hospital for a day. They will then remain in a regular hospital room for about 4 to 7 days.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '623686',
'title': 'Brain–computer interface',
'section': 'Section::::Future directions.:Functional brain mapping.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 180,
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'end_paragraph_id': 180,
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'passage_text': 'Each year, about 400,000 people undergo brain mapping during neurosurgery. This procedure is often required for people with tumors or epilepsy that do not respond to medication. During this procedure, electrodes are placed on the brain to precisely identify the locations of structures and functional areas. Patients may be awake during neurosurgery and asked to perform certain tasks, such as moving fingers or repeating words. This is necessary so that surgeons can remove only the desired tissue while sparing other regions, such as critical movement or language regions. Removing too much brain tissue can cause permanent damage, while removing too little tissue can leave the underlying condition untreated and require additional neurosurgery. Thus, there is a strong need to improve both methods and systems to map the brain as effectively as possible.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2853212',
'title': 'Carpenter syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 449,
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'passage_text': 'In surgery the doctor breaks the fused sutures to allow for brain growth. Doctors remove the cranial plates of the skull, reshape them and replace them back onto the skull in an attempt to reshape the head to appear more normal. Although the sutures are broken during surgery they will quickly refuse, and in some cases holes form in the plates allowing cerebral spinal fluid to escape into cyst like structures on the external surface of the head.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1410061',
'title': 'Crouzon syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 370,
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'passage_text': "Surgery is typically used to prevent the closure of sutures of the skull from damaging the brain's development. Without surgery, blindness and intellectual disability are typical outcomes. To move the orbits forward, surgeons expose the skull and orbits and reshape the bone. To treat the midface deficiency, surgeons can move the lower orbit and midface bones forward.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2638422',
'title': 'Oligoastrocytoma',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 387,
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'passage_text': "If resected, the surgeon will remove as much of this tumor as possible, without disturbing eloquent regions of the brain (speech/motor cortex) and other critical brain structure. Thereafter, treatment may include chemotherapy and radiation therapy of doses and types ranging based upon the patient's needs. Subsequent MRI examination are often necessary to monitor the resection cavity.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1514889',
'title': 'Apert syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Treatments.:Craniosynostosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
'end_character': 458,
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'passage_text': 'Surgery is needed to prevent the closing of the coronal sutures from damaging brain development. In particular, surgeries for the LeFort III or monobloc midface distraction osteogenesis which detaches the midface or the entire upper face, respectively, from the rest of the skull, are performed in order to reposition them in the correct plane. These surgeries are performed by both plastic and oral and maxillofacial (OMS) surgeons, often in collaboration.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5539379',
'title': 'Decompressive craniectomy',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Decompressive craniectomy ("crani-" + "-ectomy") is a neurosurgical procedure in which part of the skull is removed to allow a swelling brain room to expand without being squeezed. It is performed on victims of traumatic brain injury, stroke and other conditions associated with raised intracranial pressure. Use of the surgery is controversial.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What do doctors do with the empty space after a half brain removing surgery',
'selftext': "I can't spell the actual name of the surgery (hispherectomy?) but it's that surgery they give to epileptics where they cut out half your brain. What do they do with all that empty space in your head?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The procedure is called a hemispherectomy (hemi = half, sphere, ectomy = removal) and they don't do anything with the empty space. It ends up filling up with cerebrospinal fluid. It's not like they are going to put a prosthetic brain in there for cosmetic purposes, haha."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6eizt0',
'query': 'what do doctors do with the empty space after a half brain removing surgery',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '54305815',
'title': 'Communication in Distributed Software Development',
'section': 'Section::::Tools.:Asynchronous tools.:Email.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 324,
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'passage_text': 'Empirical studies demonstrated that all team members on a software development team used this tool effectively. Unlike instant messaging, email messages are intended to be more stand-alone and less sensitive to the context of communication, and thus producing email messages requires more time than traditional IM messages.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55951',
'title': 'Instant messaging',
'section': 'Section::::Interoperability.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
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'end_paragraph_id': 32,
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'passage_text': 'The use of proprietary protocols has meant that many instant messaging networks have been incompatible and users have been unable to reach users on other networks. This may have allowed social networking with IM-like features and text messaging an opportunity to gain market share at the expense of IM.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '59986398',
'title': 'JSON Meta Application Protocol',
'section': 'Section::::Motivation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 634,
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'passage_text': 'According to the developers the current standards for email protocols, namely IMAP and SMTP (for client-server communication, since server-server communication is not part of JMAP), are too complicated and are not well-suited for modern mobile networks and in high-latency scenarios. They believe that this has additionally led to stagnation in the quality of (especially free) e-mail clients, as well as to a proliferation of proprietary protocols developed by market-leading companies, e.g. for Google’s Gmail or Microsoft Outlook, all of which are meant to mitigate the various shortcomings of the current generation of protocols.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55464554',
'title': 'Reception and criticism of WhatsApp security and privacy features',
'section': 'Section::::2016.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
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'passage_text': 'WhatsApp is not the only messaging service that provides end-to-end encryption; among others, Threema, Wickr, Signal, Silent Phone, and Line also provide such encryption by default. iMessage and Viber provide it under special circumstances. Telegram provides end-to-end encryption as an opt-in feature, but does not support end-to-end encrypted group messaging.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8909996',
'title': 'SMTP proxy',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Inbound SMTP proxying.:Advantages of SMTP proxying.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'Because SMTP proxies do not store messages like a mail transfer agent (MTA) does, they can reject SMTP connections or message content in real-time, doing away with the need for out-of-band non delivery reports (NDRs), which are the cause of backscatter email, a serious problem in the Internet email system.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41501305',
'title': 'Telegram (software)',
'section': 'Section::::Reception.:Security.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 58,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 58,
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'passage_text': 'Critics have also disputed claims by Telegram that it is "more secure than mass market messengers like WhatsApp and Line", because WhatsApp applies end-to-end encryption to all of its traffic by default and uses the Signal Protocol, which has been "reviewed and endorsed by leading security experts", while Telegram does neither and insecurely stores all messages, media and contacts in their cloud. Since July 2016, Line has also applied end-to-end encryption to all of its messages by default.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1065362',
'title': 'End-to-end encryption',
'section': 'Section::::Modern usage.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'As of 2016, typical server-based communications systems do not include end-to-end encryption. These systems can only guarantee the protection of communications between clients and servers, meaning that users have to trust the third parties who are running the servers with the original texts. End-to-end encryption is regarded as safer because it reduces the number of parties who might be able to interfere or break the encryption. In the case of instant messaging, users may use a third-party client to implement an end-to-end encryption scheme over an otherwise non-E2EE protocol.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Given the fragmented instant messaging market and the failure to create a standard protocol, why aren't there email clients that make using email more like instant messaging?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Huh? \n\nEmail essentially already is instant messaging, if the user utilizes it in that way. You can get notifications that pop up on your computer that tell you that you just got an email, and it's essentially instance. Your phone can tell you that you just got an email, and it's essentially instant.\n\nI sometimes use email like that with my less Tech Savvy family members. I will have a 10 or 20 email long chain in only a few minutes, because we are just emailing back one or two sentences to each other.\n\nToday, I don't think there is an issue with email clients or technology. It's simply how the users utilize it.\n\nAlso, instant messaging it's probably not as popular as it once was, since the Advent and popularity of phones and texting has taken over from that."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8dc2tx',
'query': "given the fragmented instant messaging market and the failure to create a standard protocol, why aren't there email clients that make using email more like instant messaging?",
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '47623288',
'title': 'Recirculating aquaculture system',
'section': 'Section::::Special types of RAS.:Aquariums.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
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'passage_text': 'Home aquaria and inland commercial aquariums are a form of RAS where the water quality is very carefully controlled and the stocking density of fish is relatively low. In these systems the goal is to display the fish rather than producing food. However, biofilters and other forms of water treatment are still used to reduce the need to exchange water and to maintain water clarity. Just like in traditional RAS water must be removed periodically to prevent nitrate and other toxic chemicals from building up in the system. Coastal aquariums often have high rates of water exchange and are typically not operated as a RAS due to their proximity to a large body of clean water.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1163643',
'title': 'Marine aquarium',
'section': 'Section::::Modern fishkeeping.:Types of marine aquariums.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 337,
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'passage_text': 'Marine aquarists typically divide saltwater aquariums into those housing fish only, those housing fish with live rock, and those primarily designed to house corals and other invertebrates (also known as reef aquariums). Many fish hobbyists also divide the types of saltwater tanks based on the water temperatures at which they are kept.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1833705',
'title': 'Tropical fish',
'section': 'Section::::Aquarium fish.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 546,
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'passage_text': 'Tropical fish is a term commonly used to refer to fish that are kept in heated aquariums. Freshwater tropical fish are more commonly kept than saltwater tropical fish due to the common availability of fresh water sources, such as tap water, whereas salt water is not commonly available and has to be recreated by using fresh water with sea salt additions. Salt water has to be monitored to maintain the correct salinity because of the effects of evaporation. Freshwater tropical aquariums can be maintained by simply topping up with fresh water.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '440359',
'title': 'Salton Sea',
'section': 'Section::::Ecology.:Fish population.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
'end_character': 425,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Due to the high salinity, very few fish species can tolerate living in the Salton Sea. Introduced tilapia are the main fish that can tolerate the high salinity levels and pollution. Other freshwater fish species live in the rivers and canals that feed the Salton Sea, including threadfin shad, carp, red shiner, channel catfish, white catfish, largemouth bass, mosquitofish, sailfin molly, and the vulnerable desert pupfish.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10399667',
'title': 'Aquarium filter',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 355,
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'passage_text': 'Aquarium filters are critical components of both freshwater and marine aquaria. Aquarium filters remove physical and soluble chemical waste products from aquaria, simplifying maintenance. Furthermore, aquarium filters are necessary to support life as aquaria are relatively small, closed volumes of water compared to the natural environment of most fish.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1163643',
'title': 'Marine aquarium',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Marine fishkeeping is different from its freshwater counterpart because of the fundamental differences in the constitution of saltwater and the resulting differences in the adaptation of its inhabitants. A stable marine aquarium requires more equipment than freshwater systems, and generally requires more stringent water quality monitoring. The inhabitants of a marine aquarium are often difficult to acquire and are usually more expensive than freshwater aquarium inhabitants.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37205436',
'title': 'Saltwater fish',
'section': 'Section::::Captivity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'Saltwater aquariums are a multi-million dollar industry in the United States. About 10 million marine fish are imported into the United States each year for aquarium use. The United States imports more saltwater fish than any other country in the world. There are approximately 2,000 different species of saltwater fish that are imported and used in captivity. In many circumstances, fish used for marine trade are collected using harmful tactics such as cyanide. One way that people are trying to protect the coral reefs is by breeding marine fish in captivity. Captive-bred fish are known to be healthier and likely to live longer. Captive-bred fish are less susceptible to disease because they have not been exposed to the wild and they have not been damaged during the shipment process. Fish that are bred in captivity are already accustomed to aquarium habitats and food. \n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why are saltwater aquariums so hard to maintain, but the fish can live in the ocean with a lot more variables?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The oceans are very large. The food or waste from a fish is a super tiny fraction. In only 100 gallons of water, it can build up and cause problems.',
"Because fish have evolved to live in the conditions of the ocean, and these conditions hardly fluctuate. Consider the amount of water and ions used by a single fish. Now consider this amount to the size of the ocean. Even though the ocean has more than one fish (duh) most fish don't change their environmental conditions enough to displace the effect of how big the ocean is and so their local environment keeps very similar conditions all year.\n\nTL;DR: the conditions in the ocean don't change very much but aquarium conditions do, due to the size difference",
'It\'s largely *because* there are so many variables that are typically present in the ocean, but not in an aquarium. There are a million different chemicals that are present in the ocean in specific concentrations that won\'t be present in the aquarium, often because we don\'t know which of them is important or not. Even when they\'re not directly related to fish health, simply *changing* that environment is stressful. Reefs, mostly, don\'t change. They haven\'t changed significantly in tens of thousands of years\\*. Because of that, marine life isn\'t accustomed to dealing with changes.\n\nThey\'re also part of hugely complex web of resources - every fish on the reef has a specialized diet. You can replicate that diet, but only to a degree. For instance, most marine angels eat corals, which is undesirable in an aquarium because corals are *expensive*. On the reef, the angel could graze from place to place, eating a few polyps on a colony of thousands and move onto another colony while the first recovers - in an aquarium, there\'s only so many corals to munch on so they\'re all going to get munched on all the time. Ok, so don\'t keep angels with corals. Except that some angels are obligate corallivores - their diet *must* include coral. Tangs, like [blue regal tangs](_URL_1_), eat algae, specifically macroalgae (seaweed), which means you *have* to include seaweed in their diet. Except your angels, even if they don\'t need coral, still want meaty foods. So you have to feed two different things. Puffer fish have a fused tooth like a beak, which they use to scrape meat out of shells - they eat clams and snails. If their diet does not include clams and snails, their beak doesn\'t get worn down and, just like a rabbit, it will continue to grow until it hurts them. Every single fish in your aquarium will have a specialized diet, and often we don\'t know what all is in that diet. Not to mention the rest of the food web, from phytoplankton, zooplankton, diatoms, copepods, amphipods... Some foods may not be available in your tank without feeding *those*, and so on.\n\nAll of that assumes your fish will eat prepared foods *at all*. Except for *basically* most clownfish, seahorses, and a very, *very* small group of other fish, literally every other saltwater fish you see in an aquarium was wild caught. All of them. You may be offering them a high quality food pellet with every nutrient they need to survive, but they may never recognize that as food. It doesn\'t *look* like food to them, because even if it\'s made of shrimp and seaweed, it doesn\'t look like shrimp and seaweed. Some saltwater fish are very picky eaters and will never take to prepared foods, like [seahorses](_URL_0_) (that\'s my tank!). They will *only* eat live food, or frozen food like thawed mysis shrimp, even if they\'re captive bred!\n\nThe ocean is also big enough to absorb problems. Consider the [nitrogen cycle](_URL_3_): fish produce ammonia during their metabolic processes, which is broken down by bacteria, then broken down again until it becomes nitrate. In nature, that nitrate is absorbed by plants for the nitrogren, converted back, eat by the fish, converted into ammonia...etc. In your aquarium, you are always adding nitrogen via the food, but it\'s not *going* anywhere. Once it enters your tank, it stays there until you remove it. In the ocean, that\'s millions of gallons of water to absorb and spread out the nitrate while the plants absorb it, plus there\'s tons of plankton also absorbing it, *plus* there\'s tons of surface area for the nitrogen to evaporate into the air. None of that exists for your aquarium, so nitrate can build up very quickly. The same applies to things that mess with your pH (which has to be very consistent at 8.3 to 8.4) - the pH of the ocean doesn\'t change\\*, it\'s too big, but your teeny tiny tank may see pretty big swings in pH, or salinity, or temperature, which the fish are not equipped to deal with. There are so many factors to keep track of in your aquarium and not a whole lot of time to do it before it\'s changed enough to be stressful for the fish.\n\nThere\'s also the problem of space: even small reef fish that pick one hole and live there, or one small territory are used to a *lot* of space around them. Nomadic fish like tangs are used to having huge amounts of room to swim through. Being stuck in a small tank can be very stressful, especially if you make the mistake of overcrowding your tank or not having an appropriately sized tank (adult tangs need tanks in the hundreds of gallons to feel comfortable). Along with space, they\'re used to having features to hide in or hide around, and having big open spaces with no rocks or corals can make them feel unsafe. *They* don\'t know there aren\'t any sharks around, so they\'re looking for a place to hide, just in case, and there aren\'t any. Which often leaves you with a catch 22: less rock so your fish have more room to swim, but no place to hide, or places to hide but no room to swim. Finding that balance can be difficult.\n\nThere\'s more I could go into, like compatibility (which fish will eat each other or fight each other), how stressful transportation is, some of the questionable methods used to catch aquarium fish (like using cyanide - yes it\'s exactly as dangerous as it sounds, for both the fish and the diver), the deplorable conditions some of them are kept in before they make it to your tank...some of the absolutely, hideously deplorable conditions people try to keep them in at home...believe it or not, even saltwater fish are hardier than people give them credit for, you just would not believe how many people do it *wrong*, and how pants-on-head stupidly wrong they do it ("I just set my 10g up yesterday, the ammonia is reading at 4ppm, the pH is at 7.2, and the salinity is at 1.030...can I get three blue tangs, four clownfish, two angelfish, eight damsels, an eel, and a puffer? Thanks..."). (Seriously, if you want to set up an aquarium, fresh or salt, awesome! Go to /r/Aquariums and ask questions, or just PM me, aquariums are literally my job; I\'m more than happy to help! Do your research, do it right, be patient, and take care of the animals you\'re bringing into your home.)\n\n*Global climate change is having an effect: see [ocean acidification](_URL_4_). Along with rising temperatures and changes to salinity, the effects are [not good](_URL_2_). Marine life is having a really tough time dealing with the changes going on in their environments for many of the same reasons they have trouble dealing with aquariums. Their ecosystems have evolved a very delicate balance, and they all fit very carefully inside that balance, so when one thing gets out of whack the whole reef suffers.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '5wt455',
'query': 'why are saltwater aquariums so hard to maintain, but the fish can live in the ocean with a lot more variables?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '10412',
'title': 'Elementary function',
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'passage_text': 'In mathematics, an elementary function is a function of one variable which is the composition of a finite number of arithmetic operations , exponentials, logarithms, constants, trigonometric functions, and solutions of algebraic equations (a generalization of "n"th roots).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21258076',
'title': 'A. Philip Randolph Career Academy',
'section': 'Section::::Academics.:Mathematics.:Twelfth Grade.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Elementary Functions- a study of the elementary functions (power functions, polynomials, rational, exponential, logarithmic and trigonometric) with an emphasis on their behavior and applications. Some analytic geometry and elements of the calculus as well as the application of matrices to the solution of linear systems is also included.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6497220',
'title': 'Computational complexity of mathematical operations',
'section': 'Section::::Special functions.:Elementary functions.\n',
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'passage_text': "The elementary functions are constructed by composing arithmetic operations, the exponential function (exp), the natural logarithm (log), trigonometric functions (sin, cos), and their inverses. The complexity of an elementary function is equivalent to that of its inverse, since all elementary functions are analytic and hence invertible by means of Newton's method. In particular, if either exp or log in the complex domain can be computed with some complexity, then that complexity is attainable for all other elementary functions.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1567386',
'title': 'Elementary arithmetic',
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'passage_text': 'Elementary arithmetic is the simplified portion of arithmetic that includes the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. It should not be confused with elementary function arithmetic.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4778133',
'title': 'Elementary number',
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'passage_text': 'An elementary number is one formalization of the concept of a closed-form number. The elementary numbers form an algebraically closed field containing the roots of arbitrary equations using field operations, exponentiation, and logarithms.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28037920',
'title': 'Elementary function arithmetic',
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'passage_text': 'In proof theory, a branch of mathematical logic, elementary function arithmetic, also called EFA, elementary arithmetic and exponential function arithmetic, is the system of arithmetic with the usual elementary properties of 0,\xa01,\xa0+,\xa0×,\xa0"x", together with induction for formulas with bounded quantifiers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1567386',
'title': 'Elementary arithmetic',
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'passage_text': 'Elementary arithmetic starts with the natural numbers and the written symbols (digits) that represent them. The process for combining a pair of these numbers with the four basic operations traditionally relies on memorized results for small values of numbers, including the contents of a multiplication table to assist with multiplication and division.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is an elementary function?',
'selftext': "What makes a function an elementary function, and what are the names of functions that aren't elementary?",
'category': 'Mathematics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The elementary functions are a set of well known functions such as powers of x, roots of x, exponentials, trigonometric functions and their inverses, and most importantly any combinations of them, for example e^sinx + x^(2).\n\nNon elementary functions are those that can't be written like that. For example if I define the function:\n\nf(x) = 1 if x is rational and f(x) = 0 otherwise\n\nThen f is a non elementary function. This function has a specific name - Dirichlet function - but most non elementary functions don't have a name or an easy way to describe them. ",
"An elementary function is a function which you can write using a finite number of mathematical operations, which include any combination of the arithmetic operations (+,-,*,/), exponentials, logarithms, constant numbers, roots (and nth roots), trig, inverse trig and hyperbolic trig functions.\n\nBasically, if you write an equation/function just using those things mentioned, it's an elementary function. It's important to note infinite sums, limits and integral don't count.\n\nA non-elementary function is a function that cannot be written that way. An example of this is the integral of e^(-x^2). This function is called the error function. No matter what you do, there is no way you can write its anti derivative using a finite number of the aforementioned operations. A few other integrals also turn out the same way (such as the integral of e^(e^x) )"],
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'query_id': '873t09',
'query': 'what is an elementary function?',
'query_type': 'Mathematics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '19723734',
'title': 'Muscle',
'section': 'Section::::Exercise.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 64,
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'passage_text': 'The presence of lactic acid has an inhibitory effect on ATP generation within the muscle; though not producing fatigue, it can inhibit or even stop performance if the intracellular concentration becomes too high. However, long-term training causes neovascularization within the muscle, increasing the ability to move waste products out of the muscles and maintain contraction. Once moved out of muscles with high concentrations within the sarcomere, lactic acid can be used by other muscles or body tissues as a source of energy, or transported to the liver where it is converted back to pyruvate. In addition to increasing the level of lactic acid, strenuous exercise causes the loss of potassium ions in muscle and causing an increase in potassium ion concentrations close to the muscle fibres, in the interstitium. Acidification by lactic acid may allow recovery of force so that acidosis may protect against fatigue rather than being a cause of fatigue.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12219719',
'title': 'Cellular waste product',
'section': 'Section::::Secretion and effects of waste products.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
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'end_character': 440,
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'passage_text': 'Lactic acid tends to accumulate in the muscles, which causes pain of the muscle and joint as well as fatigue. It also creates a gradient which induces water to flow out of cells and increases blood pressure. Research suggests that lactic acid may also play a role in lowering levels of potassium in the blood. It can also be converted back to pyruvate or converted back to glucose in the liver and fully metabolized by aerobic respiration.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3266190',
'title': 'Muscle weakness',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Lactic acid hypothesis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 284,
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'passage_text': 'It was once believed that lactic acid build-up was the cause of muscle fatigue. The assumption was lactic acid had a "pickling" effect on muscles, inhibiting their ability to contract. The impact of lactic acid on performance is now uncertain, it may assist or hinder muscle fatigue.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '841074',
'title': 'Muscle fatigue',
'section': 'Section::::Metabolic fatigue.:Metabolites.:Lactic acid.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
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'passage_text': 'It was once believed that lactic acid build-up was the cause of muscle fatigue. The assumption was lactic acid had a "pickling" effect on muscles, inhibiting their ability to contract. Though the impact of lactic acid on performance is now uncertain, it may assist or hinder muscle fatigue.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14626122',
'title': 'Lactate dehydrogenase',
'section': 'Section::::Role in muscular fatigue.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 41,
'end_character': 599,
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'passage_text': 'The onset of acidosis during periods of intense exercise is commonly attributed to accumulation of lactic acid. From this reasoning, the idea of lactate production being a primary cause of muscle fatigue during exercise has been widely adopted. A closer, mechanistic analysis of lactate production under anaerobic conditions shows that there is no biochemical evidence for the production of lactate through LDH contributing to acidosis. While LDH activity is correlated to muscle fatigue, the production of lactate by means of the LDH complex works as a system to delay the onset of muscle fatigue.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '249961',
'title': 'Lactic acidosis',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 60,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 60,
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'passage_text': 'Lactic acidosis is also a consequence of the processes causing "rigor mortis". In the absence of oxygen, tissue in the muscles of the deceased carry out anaerobic metabolism using muscle glycogen as the energy source, causing acidification. With depletion of muscle glycogen, the loss of ATP causes the muscles to grow stiff, as the actin-myosin bonds cannot be released. (Rigor is later resolved by enzymatic breakdown of the myofibers.)\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '249961',
'title': 'Lactic acidosis',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "Lactic acidosis is a medical condition characterized by the buildup of lactate (especially L-lactate) in the body, with formation of an excessively low pH in the bloodstream. It is a form of metabolic acidosis, in which excessive acid accumulates due to a problem with the body's oxidative metabolism.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How does a build up of lactic acid in an athlete's muscles cause them to sometimes thow up",
'selftext': "I'm an athlete and I train for the 400m. During the 400m you get an insane amount of lactic acid in your muscles and sometimes this can cause you to throw up. Why does this happen?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Throwing up is one of a few things the body just defaults to when it senses something is geberally wrong. Better safe than sorry, maybe it's something you ate, let's throw up just to be sure. Makes sense from an evolutionary stand point.\n\nAlso, when so much lactic acid is built up, it'll sometimes end up in your actual stomach. This will irritate the stomach and throwing up gets rid of it."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7pvdew',
'query': "how does a build up of lactic acid in an athlete's muscles cause them to sometimes thow up",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '16180439',
'title': 'N-Gage (service)',
'section': 'Section::::The N-Gage application.:My Games.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
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'passage_text': 'Games that are not paid for will show a pop-up every time you play it—asking whether you’d like to try the free trial or either purchase, enter an unlock code (purchased or given through promotions), or rent the game. More on this below.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '49763315',
'title': 'List of television formats and genres',
'section': 'Section::::Genres.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Game Show: A television show depicting a real contest, typically a trivia competition or physical challenge, with rewards in prizes or money. Examples: "Let\'s Make a Deal", "The Price Is Right", "Family Feud", "Wheel of Fortune" and "Jeopardy!". On other game shows, such as "Match Game" and "Hollywood Squares", the players may include celebrities.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1635441',
'title': 'Breaking Vegas',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Many episodes have to do with cheats who illegally take money from the casino using sleight-of-hand tricks or some sort of gizmo. Namely, these scams include pastposting and card marking. Other episodes include famous examples of legal money-making techniques such as card counting. Some episodes are about legal strategies like winning at the craps table by throwing at certain angles using a certain grip with certain numbers at the top, or taking advantage of a worn-out ball bearing and a thus tilted roulette wheel.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28841709',
'title': 'Asar Talo Lahat Panalo!',
'section': 'Section::::Format.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'A game show, it promises the contestants the chance to bring home big cash prizes if the contestant called the Bida survives the barrage of heckling from the Kontrabidas known as the Sulsuleros. A celebrity guest will act as the head heckler who will be called Kapitan Kontra.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19920744',
'title': 'Cash Cab (American game show)',
'section': 'Section::::Production.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 38,
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'passage_text': "Near the end of the game at the player's destination Ben Bailey or Beth Melewski appears to present the cash won. In reality, this cash is a prop and used for on-air purposes only. The winnings, which must be taxed, are sent via check.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '365162',
'title': 'Online skill-based game',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'In April 2013, Betonline.ag launched a real money skill game room. Their game room includes Yahtzee, Tonk, gin rummy, spades and dominoes. Betonline claimed to be the only gambling site to offer real money skill games to Americans; however, the games being offered are considered illegal in most U.S. states.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40694945',
'title': 'Pocket Trains',
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'There are also special jobs that earn the player a secondary in-game currency called "Bux". This currency can be used to buy coins, allow more jobs to be held in yards at stations, speed up trains, and open crates. Bux can also be purchased with money.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do TV game shows tax people who get cash on the spot?',
'selftext': 'I see game shows like How too make a deal give away cash on the spot. Are these people taxed? I know if you win showcases etc taxes are collected on items, but what about cash handed on the spot?',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Any cash prize (including lotteries) is generally considered income in the eyes of the IRS (or similar entity for other countries). \n\nThe person/entity giving the money will report the transfer of money to the IRS (and in some cases, offer to withhold the expected taxes) , and it becomes the responsibility of the recipient to submit a payment of the expected owed taxes in a timely manner and to report the earnings when the time comes to file taxes for the year.',
"Often they don't actually give money away on the spot, that is just for the cameras. At the very least, the show has to gather sufficient information to report the award to the IRS.\n\nI was reading something about *Cash Cab*, about how it was one of the realest shows on The Discovery Channel, the only thing fake about it was handing out cash. There is paperwork off camera and the winners wind up with checks.\n",
"There have been documentaries on this, specifically related to the Price is Right.\n\nSurprisingly the fact that you have to pay taxes on lottery winnings and tv show prizes isn't as common knowledge as you'd think. If you win you have to fill in paper work and deal with the original vendor that donated the prize. Contestants are told about this after the show is over and quite often will abandon the prizes (cars, trips etc) because they can't fork over the cash for the taxes needed to pay for them.\n\nPrice is Right is apparently a stickler for not allowing you to take cash value for your prize. As a result the Price is Right supposedly has a depot that stores cars, and all manner of prizes that have appeared on the show but were unclaimed. The show is required to hold onto them for X period and then afterwards dispose (auction? re-use?) them.\n\nThat's one of the reasons that show like Jeopardy, Who wants to be a Millionaire, Family Feud, etc give out cash prizes. It's just easier to manage.\n\nInterestingly though Canada has no such law, and Canadians can claim lottery and prize winnings tax-free. If a Canadian wins on a show like Price is Right we have to pay the taxes upfront and then have to go through a laborious process to get the taxes back from the IRS because they can't tax us for that.",
"Surely depends how much money. If it's under 10 grand I'm quite sure it works exactly how they do bingo parlors.\n\nWhen you win anything over $1199, they rig it so you win multiple 1199's so it's not one lump taxable sum.",
"So you're telling me prize money is not tax-free in the US like it is e.g. in Germany? o.O",
'Canada does not tax windfall gains, so lottery/casino/game show winnings are pocketed in the amount shown. This is also why Canadians play American big-prize lotteries, as it is possible to keep much more of the winnings than American citizens do.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '8a0mqz',
'query': 'how do tv game shows tax people who get cash on the spot?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '28066528',
'title': 'Neanderthal anatomy',
'section': 'Section::::Distinguishing physical traits.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The following is a list of physical traits that distinguish Neanderthals from modern humans. However, not all of them distinguish specific Neanderthal populations from various geographic areas, evolutionary periods, or other extinct humans. Also, many of these traits are present in modern humans to varying extent due to both archaic admixture and the retention of ancestral hominid traits shared with Neanderthals and other archaic humans. Nothing is certain (from unearthed bones) about the shape of soft parts such as eyes, ears, and lips of Neanderthals.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27298083',
'title': 'Neanderthal',
'section': 'Section::::Name and classification.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Ever since the discovery of the Neanderthal fossils, expert opinion has been divided as to whether Neanderthals should be considered a separate species ("Homo neanderthalensis") or a subspecies ("Homo sapiens neanderthalensis") relative to modern humans.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10326',
'title': 'Human evolution',
'section': 'Section::::Evolution of genus "Homo".:Neanderthal and Denisovan.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Nearly all modern non-African humans have 1% to 4% of their DNA derived from Neanderthal DNA, and this finding is consistent with recent studies indicating that the divergence of some human alleles dates to one Ma, although the interpretation of these studies has been questioned. Neanderthals and "Homo sapiens" could have co-existed in Europe for as long as 10,000 years, during which human populations exploded vastly outnumbering Neanderthals, possibly outcompeting them by sheer numerical strength.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28066742',
'title': 'Neanderthal behavior',
'section': 'Section::::Language.\n',
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'passage_text': "Neanderthals had the same DNA-coding region of the FOXP2 gene as living humans, but are different in one position of the gene's regulatory regions, and the extent of FOXP2 expression might hence have been different in Neanderthals. Although the gene appears necessary for language—living humans who don't have the normal human version of the gene have serious language difficulties—it is not necessarily sufficient. It is not known whether FOXP2 evolved for or in conjunction with language, nor whether there are other language-related genes that Neanderthals may or may not have had. Similarly, the size and functionality of the Neanderthal Broca's and Wernicke's areas, used for speech generation in modern humans, is debated.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41244',
'title': 'Hybrid (biology)',
'section': 'Section::::In different taxa.:In humans.\n',
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'passage_text': 'There is evidence of hybridisation between modern humans and other species of the genus "Homo". In 2010, the Neanderthal genome project showed that 1–4% of DNA from all people living today, apart from most Sub-Saharan Africans, is of Neanderthal heritage. Analyzing the genomes of 600 Europeans and East Asians found that combining them covered 20% of the Neanderthal genome that is in the modern human population. Ancient human populations lived and interbred with Neanderthals, Denisovans, and at least one other extinct "Homo" species. Thus, Neanderthal and Denisovan DNA has been incorporated into human DNA by introgression.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26569605',
'title': 'Multiregional origin of modern humans',
'section': 'Section::::Genetic evidence.:Neanderthal mtDNA.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Neanderthal mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences from Feldhofer and Vindija Cave are substantially different from modern human mtDNA. Multiregionalists however have discussed the fact that the average difference between the Feldhofer sequence and living humans is less than that found between chimpanzee subspecies, and therefore that while Neanderthals were different subspecies, they were still human and part of the same lineage.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10326',
'title': 'Human evolution',
'section': 'Section::::Evolution of genus "Homo".:Neanderthal and Denisovan.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 128,
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'passage_text': 'The Neanderthal populations seem to have been physically superior to AMH populations. These differences may have been sufficient to give Neanderthal populations an environmental superiority to AMH populations from 75,000 to 45,000 years BP. With these differences, Neanderthal brains show a smaller area was available for social functioning. Plotting group size possible from endocrainial volume, suggests that AMH populations (minus occipital lobe size), had a Dunbars number of 144 possible relationships. Neanderthal populations seem to have been limited to about 120 individuals. This would show up in a larger number of possible mates for AMH humans, with increased risks of inbreeding amongst Neanderthal populations. It also suggests that humans had larger trade catchment areas than Neanderthals (confirmed in the distribution of stone tools). With larger populations, social and technological innovations were easier to fix in human populations, which may have all contributed to the fact that modern Homo sapiens replaced the Neanderthal populations by 28,000 BP.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "If some humans have Neanderthal DNA while others don't, does that mean some humans are at least somewhat of a different species than others.",
'selftext': "This has been really bothering me lately and due to my OCD has been constantly on my mind has been causing me a lot of distress. I recently learned that some humans have Neanderthal dna due to interbreeding while others don't. Given that Neanderthals are a different species (I understand the definition of species is somewhat loose), am I not fully human and instead a human-neanderthal crossbreed, whereas some of my friends who likely would not have Neanderthal dna be fully human and therefore a different species? Or would we both be considered equally human beings?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["No. The definition of a species is whether or not members can interbreed. All humans can interbreed as a species. We're all one breed much less not the same species. ",
'Homo sapiens neandethalensis (neandertals) is a sub-species of homo sapien sapien (modern human). Both are homo sapien (human) because they are very close cousins, close enough that they could breed and make successful offspring together. The definition of a separate species is that it must be another group of organisms that cannot mate with the main group to produce viable(fertile) offspring. So by definition neandetals were not a different species. ',
'The definition of species is indeed somewhat loose but most agree on the basic that successfully interbreeding and having fertile offspring means that you are part of the the same species.\n\nThis is why many people now think that Neanderthals should be considered a different subspecies of humans not a different species altogether.\n\nIt is similar to wolves and dogs which can interbreed and are the same species but still obviously different enough to tell them apart.\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '6s3glr',
'query': "if some humans have neanderthal dna while others don't, does that mean some humans are at least somewhat of a different species than others.",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '32961',
'title': 'Wine',
'section': 'Section::::Culinary uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 71,
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'passage_text': "Wine is a popular and important drink that accompanies and enhances a wide range of cuisines, from the simple and traditional stews to the most sophisticated and complex haute cuisines. Wine is often served with dinner. Sweet dessert wines may be served with the dessert course. In fine restaurants in Western countries, wine typically accompanies dinner. At a restaurant, patrons are helped to make good food-wine pairings by the restaurant's sommelier or wine waiter. Individuals dining at home may use wine guides to help make food–wine pairings. Wine is also drunk without the accompaniment of a meal in wine bars or with a selection of cheeses (at a wine and cheese party).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32961',
'title': 'Wine',
'section': 'Section::::Culinary uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 72,
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'passage_text': 'Wine is important in cuisine not just for its value as a drink, but as a flavor agent, primarily in stocks and braising, since its acidity lends balance to rich savory or sweet dishes. Wine sauce is an example of a culinary sauce that uses wine as a primary ingredient. Natural wines may exhibit a broad range of alcohol content, from below 9% to above 16% ABV, with most wines being in the 12.5–14.5% range. Fortified wines (usually with brandy) may contain 20% alcohol or more.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '61026863',
'title': 'House wine',
'section': 'Section::::Historical trends.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'Historically, house wine was usually poor quality, possibly "jug wine" derived from a second pressing of the grapes, and sold by the glass, promoted by a restaurant primarily on the basis of the wine\'s low cost. A 1979 article asserted that "so called \'fine\' restaurants, those serving the "haute cuisine" or those considered posh or plush, will not carry a house wine". Recently, due to a general rise in the availability of high quality wine, house wines have improved in quality in restaurants in the United States, and frequently may be produced by or for a specific restaurant, although house wines will still usually be on the cheaper end of the wine list for any given restaurant.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18948043',
'title': 'Alcoholic drink',
'section': 'Section::::Reasons for use.:Flavoring.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 45,
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'passage_text': 'Wine is important in cuisine not just for its value as an accompanying beverage, but as a flavor agent, primarily in stocks and braising, since its acidity lends balance to rich savory or sweet dishes. Wine sauce is an example of a culinary sauce that uses wine as a primary ingredient. Natural wines may exhibit a broad range of alcohol content, from below 9% to above 16% ABV, with most wines being in the 12.5–14.5% range. Fortified wines (usually with brandy) may contain 20% alcohol or more.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2061874',
'title': 'Wine accessory',
'section': 'Section::::Wine glasses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Wine glasses are a type of glass stemware that are used to drink and taste wine from. Selection of a particular wine glass for a wine style is important, as the glass shape can influence its perception.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1946',
'title': 'Unit of alcohol',
'section': 'Section::::Quantities.:Wines.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Wine sold by the glass is often served in nearly full glasses. Wine served at home, or when bought by the bottle in, say, a restaurant, is usually served in glasses less than half filled; the capacity of a wine glass is not the only criterion for judging quantity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16656433',
'title': 'James Suckling',
'section': 'Section::::Tasting style.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'In reply to the Italian magazine "Gentleman" on "what really makes a fine wine", he replied, "wine is like music" and therefore in the same way that most musical enjoyment comes not from knowledge of music but music\'s appeal to the emotions, wine too should be thought of emotionally by wine drinkers, not scientifically. He added that each and every good wine should be able "to move you" in some kind of way "like with music, literature and love".\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How is a glass of wine everyday good for you? :)',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It is NOT healthy at all.\n\nThe thing you heard is only a myth. Take a half aspirine instead.',
'It is not. There is proof to suggest that the antioxidants in wine are good for you. \n\nBut with that said, current consensus is that *any* alcohol is bad for you, and for virtually all drinks, the downsides outweigh any upsides. Drinking is always bad and should be avoided for optimal health.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'bsm778',
'query': 'how is a glass of wine everyday good for you? :)',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '6604',
'title': 'Rendering (computer graphics)',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Rendering or image synthesis is the automatic process of generating a photorealistic or non-photorealistic image from a 2D or 3D model (or models in what collectively could be called a "scene" file) by means of computer programs. Also, the results of displaying such a model can be called a render. A scene file contains objects in a strictly defined language or data structure; it would contain geometry, viewpoint, texture, lighting, and shading information as a description of the virtual scene. The data contained in the scene file is then passed to a rendering program to be processed and output to a digital image or raster graphics image file. The term "rendering" may be by analogy with an "artist\'s rendering" of a scene.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1564205',
'title': 'Real-time computer graphics',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Different techniques for rendering now exist, such as ray-tracing and rasterization. Using these techniques and advanced hardware, computers can now render images quickly enough to create the illusion of motion while simultaneously accepting user input. This means that the user can respond to rendered images in real time, producing an interactive experience.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '575963',
'title': 'Scientific visualization',
'section': 'Section::::Topics.:Surface rendering.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
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'passage_text': 'Rendering is the process of generating an image from a model, by means of computer programs. The model is a description of three-dimensional objects in a strictly defined language or data structure. It would contain geometry, viewpoint, texture, lighting, and shading information. The image is a digital image or raster graphics image. The term may be by analogy with an "artist\'s rendering" of a scene. \'Rendering\' is also used to describe the process of calculating effects in a video editing file to produce final video output. Important rendering techniques are:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1843472',
'title': 'Software rendering',
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'passage_text': 'Rendering is used in architecture, simulators, video games, movies and television visual effects and design visualization. Rendering is the last step in an animation process, and gives the final appearance to the models and animation with visual effects such as shading, texture-mapping, shadows, reflections and motion blurs. Rendering can be split into two main categories: real-time rendering (also known as online rendering), and pre-rendering (also called offline rendering). Real-time rendering is used to interactively render a scene, like in 3D computer games, and generally each frame must be rendered in a few milliseconds. Offline rendering is used to create realistic images and movies, where each frame can take hours or days to complete, or for debugging of complex graphics code by programmers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18567210',
'title': 'Computer graphics',
'section': 'Section::::Concepts and principles.:Rendering.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 87,
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'passage_text': 'Rendering is the generation of a 2D image from a 3D model by means of computer programs. A scene file contains objects in a strictly defined language or data structure; it would contain geometry, viewpoint, texture, lighting, and shading information as a description of the virtual scene. The data contained in the scene file is then passed to a rendering program to be processed and output to a digital image or raster graphics image file. The rendering program is usually built into the computer graphics software, though others are available as plug-ins or entirely separate programs. The term "rendering" may be by analogy with an "artist\'s rendering" of a scene. Although the technical details of rendering methods vary, the general challenges to overcome in producing a 2D image from a 3D representation stored in a scene file are outlined as the graphics pipeline along a rendering device, such as a GPU. A GPU is a device able to assist the CPU in calculations. If a scene is to look relatively realistic and predictable under virtual lighting, the rendering software should solve the rendering equation. The rendering equation does not account for all lighting phenomena, but is a general lighting model for computer-generated imagery. \'Rendering\' is also used to describe the process of calculating effects in a video editing file to produce final video output.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10175073',
'title': '3D computer graphics',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.:Layout and animation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'Before rendering into an image, objects must be laid out in a scene. This defines spatial relationships between objects, including location and size. Animation refers to the temporal description of an object (i.e., how it moves and deforms over time. Popular methods include keyframing, inverse kinematics, and motion capture). These techniques are often used in combination. As with animation, physical simulation also specifies motion.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14463952',
'title': 'Outline of animation',
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'passage_text': 'Animation – rapid display of a sequence of images of 2-D artwork or model positions in order to create an illusion of movement. It is an optical illusion of motion due to the phenomenon of persistence of vision. The most common method of presenting animation is as a motion picture or video program, although several other forms of presenting animation also exist.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'When someone talks about rendering a video, or an animation, what does that mean? And how would not rendering it affect it?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Rendering means having a machine draw each frame (picture) used in the video. Not rendering it means it would be blank.',
'Think of "rendering" as a painter painting a still image. In an animation/video, the computer renders/paints each frame of the video.\n\nIf you do not render it, it would not exist.',
'Let\'s compare video editing to building a car.\n\nSo you\'re editing your video, but really it\'s a collection of parts. Multiple footage clips, effects like color correction, etc. The computer is able to tell you that "yes, these parts put together make a car" but rendering is where the parts actually get put together and consolidated into one piece. It\'s a little more complicated than that I think, but ELI5. \n\nIf you try to play your video/move your car without rendering, the smoothness really depends on if your computer is strong enough to pick up x amount of parts at the same time. Rendering is like putting some of the car together so it can drive a little smoother.',
"Animation, effects, etc. are a collection of 1000's of frames. It would take forever to make those 1000's of frames manually with the tiny changes in each one think about how simplistic old cartoons are that were done that way. The background scrolls and the character has limited motion. Now, compare to something like a Pixar movie where you see individual hairs move as a character moves, etc. The only way to get that is to create a few key frames and have computers render, or figure out the missing frames in between, to complete the entire action.",
'The other aspect of it is that generally when we think of rendering we are also talking about packaging the video elements into a file that is able to sent and played by others (like a .mov or .mp4). Unlike when you are editing it, these are self contained files with all the parts (footage, effects, sound, titles) baked into each frame so that youtube or whatever can play it. While editing the video, the parts are all being pulled from their locations on the hard drive and the computer processors are temporarily configuring them in a way that you can preview it. Or in the case of an animation the computer is "drawing" a model based on what you created. This allows you to make changes and see them instantly since the computer will have to redraw the image again either way (think of how a video game would function). But this takes a lot of computing power and so may play slowly or at a reduced resolution until rendering. Also the file will probably only be usable by that particular animation or editing software. Once you are finished, rendering allows the computer to take all the parts and calculations and "bake" it in. Basically, instead of drawing the image it instead is just taking what you as a viewer sees and putting that into a digital video file format. \n\nAnother metaphor might be a simple modeling clay figure. You mold it with your hands into a shape, and you can even still move parts of it around or change its features. Once you are done, you take a picture and now you can go show it to your friend without having to bring a block of clay and tools to do it all over again in a different place. ',
'Rendering takes all of the different assets that may be in a video (clips, audio, etc.) and orders them and is more or less a set of instructions...I.E. "draw a pixel at this location with this color and play a sound" instead of "find the sound and video assets in storage, put it in RAM, run calculations on it THEN draw on screen/play sound."\n\nVideogames, conversely (for further illustration), are rendered at runtime. Since the character could be anywhere on the screen, particle effects could or could not need to be drawn on the screen, sounds could be true or false, obviously it\'s not going to be pre-rendered because we don\'t know what\'s going to happen yet! \n\nThats why you need a good graphics processor for gaming and video rendering, and why you don\'t need much processing at all for playing even 4k movies.',
"When speaking in terms of complex 3D animation. There's no way that a computer would be able to process an animation in real time by drawing and manipulating every object in the scene. Rendering is basically just going through each frame of a scene, waiting for it to load, then taking a screenshot. Then you just have a collection of 2D frames, which are far less flexible to manipulate but are much easier for a computer to play back in real time than true 3D, since you're trashing all of the 3rd dimension information as well as lighting, shadows & reflection information, which are some of the most CPU intensive parts of producing a good looking scene.",
"Rendering a video and rendering an animation are two completely different things. To produce a 3-D animated movie, you actually have to do both.\n\nRendering an animation is taking the 3-D scene the artist works with, and computing what the end result would look like. The artist isn't working with the whole thing, they are often using a simplistic lighting model and the final render actually traces out paths of light and how they reflect and refract and absorb across complex objects. Oftentimes there are also physical simulations being rendered. Animators don't model what water looks like, they just have a water simulation that needs to be processed by the computer to figure out what the water should be doing and what it should look like. \n\n_URL_0_\nThis video is an example of what artists actually work with when making the movie (with glitches, obviously). See how the models are simple with no textures and simple lighting? That all gets added in for the final render."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5ojn69',
'query': 'when someone talks about rendering a video, or an animation, what does that mean? and how would not rendering it affect it?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '8860',
'title': 'Dubbing (filmmaking)',
'section': 'Section::::Alternatives.:Dubbing and subtitling.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Netflix provides both subtitles and dubbed audio with its foreign language shows, including Brazil’s dystopian “3%” and the German thriller "Dark". Viewer testing indicates that its audience is more likely to finish watching a series if they select to view it with dubbed audio rather than translated subtitles. Netflix now streams its foreign language content with dubbed audio as default in an effort to increase viewer retention.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7224224',
'title': 'Subtitle',
'section': 'Section::::Categories.\n',
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'passage_text': "BULLET::::- Content subtitles are a North American Secondary Industry (non-Hollywood, often low-budget) staple. They add content dictation that is missing from filmed action or dialogue. Due to the general low-budget allowances in such films, it is often more feasible to add the overlay subtitles to fill in information. They are most commonly seen on America's Maverick films as forced subtitles, and on Canada's MapleLeaf films as optional subtitles. Content subtitles also appear in the beginning of some higher-budget films (e.g., Star Wars) or at the end of a film (e.g., Gods and Generals).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7224224',
'title': 'Subtitle',
'section': 'Section::::Translation.:Subtitles vs. dubbing and lectoring.\n',
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'passage_text': "In many Latin American countries, local network television will show dubbed versions of English-language programs and movies, while cable stations (often international) more commonly broadcast subtitled material. Preference for subtitles or dubbing varies according to individual taste and reading ability, and theaters may order two prints of the most popular films, allowing moviegoers to choose between dubbing or subtitles. Animation and children's programming, however, is nearly universally dubbed, as in other regions.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50276542',
'title': 'Criticism of Netflix',
'section': 'Section::::Accessibility.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In July 2012, Netflix formed an experimental project to crowdsource the closed-captioning effort using the Amara (formerly Universal Subtitles) platform. However, this proved problematic in the face of claims that crowdsourced subtitles, regardless of whether they are transcriptions or translations, are derivative works which infringe copyright if created or distributed without consent from the film\'s copyright owner. Amara operates under DMCA safe-harbor provisions which indemnify it from secondary copyright infringement lawsuits over user-uploaded content, and presumably Netflix would not publish any subtitles produced by this effort without authorization. Netflix stated it is not committed to using any subtitles produced by the crowdsourcing project. In October 2012, Netflix was found to be offering the television series "Andromeda" to customers in Finland with unauthorized subtitles from the fansub scene. When confronted, Netflix apologized and promised to remove the unauthorized translations but did not explain how the content came to be offered in the first place, or whether other potentially copyright-infringing subtitles exist in the company\'s repertoire.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Criticism of Netflix',
'section': 'Section::::Accessibility.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Netflix has still faced criticism over the quality of subtitles on some of its content and original productions; the service\'s video player contains a function allowing users to report issues with captioning. In one notable instance in 2018, "Queer Eye" contained sentences of dialogue missed by the subtitles, and censoring of expletives that were not censored in the audio. Netflix corrected these subtitles after receiving criticism via social media.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '668442',
'title': 'Lip sync',
'section': 'Section::::In video.:Language dubbing.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In English-speaking countries, many foreign TV series (especially anime like "Pokémon") are dubbed for television broadcast. However, cinematic releases of films tend to come with subtitles instead. The same is true of countries in which the local language is not spoken widely enough to make the expensive dubbing commercially viable (in other words, there is not enough market for it).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '175537',
'title': 'Netflix',
'section': 'Section::::International expansion.\n',
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'passage_text': 'As of July 2019, Netflix officially supports 23 languages for user interface and customer support purposes: Arabic (Modern Standard), Chinese (Simplified and Traditional), Danish, Dutch, English, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Indonesian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Norwegian (Bokmål), Polish, Portuguese (Brazilian and European), Romanian, Spanish (Castilian and Latin American), Swahili, Swedish, Thai and Turkish.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How is Netflix able to provide seemingly perfect subtitles to basically every show/movie on their platform and what allows them to do this so well?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The people that make the show or movie write down the subtitles, from the script. They package that as a subtitle file inside the video file, and Netflix opens that up to show it to you if you enable subtitles.',
'When a show is delivered to Netflix it must conform to their specifications, including subtitles. Netflix is not generating these files. \n\n_URL_0_'],
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'query_id': 'ashwlm',
'query': 'how is netflix able to provide seemingly perfect subtitles to basically every show/movie on their platform and what allows them to do this so well?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '21758657',
'title': 'Racewood',
'section': 'Section::::Format.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The simulators are controlled two different ways. The instructor mode is by pressing buttons on the side of the simulators to start, speed up, slow down or stop the horse whilst the rider mode is aid sensitive in the form of squeezing his/her leg on a side sensor panel to start the ride and squeezing again to speed up. To slow down or stop, the rider has to pull the reins.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9151212',
'title': 'Turn on the haunches',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.\n',
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'passage_text': 'For the rider, the turn on the haunches can teach coordination of aids, as the rider must balance both the driving and restraining aids, as well as maintain the correct bend using the inside leg pushing into the outside aids.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '912032',
'title': 'Equitation',
'section': 'Section::::Dressage seat equitation.\n',
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'passage_text': "The rider is judged on a proper classical position. This includes evaluating leg position, seat, hands, balance, and rhythm. The rider is to be relaxed and not interfere with the horse's movement, but able to make full use of all riding aids. The rider and horse should have unity, and the rider should use the aids correctly and efficiently.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8255169',
'title': 'Riding aids',
'section': 'Section::::Natural aids.:Voice.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Riding school horses, who hear instructors telling the pupils what do to, are known to obey spoken commands, which sometimes gives the false impression that the horse is obeying the rider. Likewise, experienced show horses will sometimes respond to the commands for changes of gait given by the announcer over the public address system rather than listening to their riders.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10986517',
'title': 'Competitive trail riding',
'section': 'Section::::Preparing for competition.:Conditioning the horse.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 273,
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'passage_text': "Riders need to be familiar with their horses' resting and working heart and respiration rates and know when an animal is stressed. This is an important part of the conditioning routine to ensure that a rider is able to anticipate the results at a P&R check in competition.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8255169',
'title': 'Riding aids',
'section': 'Section::::Natural aids.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 600,
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'passage_text': 'Good training of the rider will aim to produce someone with an "independent seat", meaning someone who is able to give the aids independent of each other (without, for example, sitting forward while adding leg). The rider\'s first task is to learn to ride the horse "without" interfering: keeping a steady contact with the bit, sitting in a balanced, relaxed position that allows them to absorb the horse\'s movement, and keeping a steady, quiet leg that does not pinch, bounce, or push forward or back. Only then will the rider be able to really start to influence the horse in such a way to help it.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2079903',
'title': 'Western pleasure',
'section': 'Section::::Class procedure and requirements.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 559,
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'passage_text': "The riders compete as a group at the same time, traveling around the outer edge of the arena. All contestants, at the command of the event's judge, are asked to have their horse walk, jog (a slow trot), and lope both directions in an arena, as well as to stand quietly and back up readily.This may seem easy to some, but actually involves more types of riding skills than the casual observer may realize. The judge looks at every detail. In addition, many judges will ask for extended gaits, particularly an extended jog and, in some breeds, the hand gallop.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How are horses taught to respond to the controls of the rider?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Repetition and reward. It's a long process to train a horse, and there are different methods (Western vs English mainly) but it all boils down to repetition and reward. Just like teaching a dog to sit, or a toddler to use the potty.\n\nThanks Pavlov"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '9lcitd',
'query': 'how are horses taught to respond to the controls of the rider?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2566171',
'title': 'Exercise-induced nausea',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 314,
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'passage_text': 'Another possible cause of exercise induced nausea is overhydration. Drinking too much water before, during, or after extreme exercise (such as a marathon) can cause nausea, diarrhea, confusion, and muscle tremors. Excessive water consumption reduces or dilutes electrolyte levels in the body causing hyponatremia.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '300465',
'title': 'Diuresis',
'section': 'Section::::Immersion diuresis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 962,
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'passage_text': 'The "temperature" component is caused by water drawing heat away from the body and causing vasoconstriction of the cutaneous blood vessels within the body to conserve heat. The body detects an increase in the blood pressure and inhibits the release of vasopressin (also known as antidiuretic hormone (ADH)), causing an increase in the production of urine. The "pressure" component is caused by the hydrostatic pressure of the water directly increasing blood pressure. Its significance is indicated by the fact that the temperature of the water does not substantially affect the rate of diuresis. Partial immersion of only the limbs does not cause increased urination. Thus, the hand in warm water trick (immersing the hand of a sleeping person in water to make him/her urinate) has no support from the mechanism of immersion diuresis. On the other hand, sitting up to the neck in a pool for a few hours clearly increases the excretion of water, salts, and urea.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '531611',
'title': 'Foodborne illness',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Symptoms often include vomiting, fever, and aches, and may include diarrhea. Bouts of vomiting can be repeated with an extended delay in between, because even if infected food was eliminated from the stomach in the first bout, microbes, like bacteria, (if applicable) can pass through the stomach into the intestine and begin to multiply. Some types of microbes stay in the intestine, some produce a toxin that is absorbed into the bloodstream, and some can directly invade deeper body tissues.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8507183',
'title': 'Vomiting',
'section': 'Section::::Complications.:Dehydration and electrolyte imbalance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 698,
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'passage_text': 'Prolonged and excessive vomiting depletes the body of water (dehydration), and may alter the electrolyte status. Gastric vomiting leads to the loss of acid (protons) and chloride directly. Combined with the resulting alkaline tide, this leads to hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis (low chloride levels together with high and and increased blood pH) and often hypokalemia (potassium depletion). The hypokalemia is an indirect result of the kidney compensating for the loss of acid. With the loss of intake of food the individual may eventually become cachectic. A less frequent occurrence results from a vomiting of intestinal contents, including bile acids and , which can cause metabolic acidosis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '53951',
'title': 'Diarrhea',
'section': 'Section::::Definition.:Osmotic.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 1230,
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'passage_text': 'Osmotic diarrhea occurs when too much water is drawn into the bowels. If a person drinks solutions with excessive sugar or excessive salt, these can draw water from the body into the bowel and cause osmotic diarrhea. Osmotic diarrhea can also be the result of maldigestion (e.g. pancreatic disease or coeliac disease), in which the nutrients are left in the lumen to pull in water. Or it can be caused by osmotic laxatives (which work to alleviate constipation by drawing water into the bowels). In healthy individuals, too much magnesium or vitamin C or undigested lactose can produce osmotic diarrhea and distention of the bowel. A person who has lactose intolerance can have difficulty absorbing lactose after an extraordinarily high intake of dairy products. In persons who have fructose malabsorption, excess fructose intake can also cause diarrhea. High-fructose foods that also have a high glucose content are more absorbable and less likely to cause diarrhea. Sugar alcohols such as sorbitol (often found in sugar-free foods) are difficult for the body to absorb and, in large amounts, may lead to osmotic diarrhea. In most of these cases, osmotic diarrhea stops when the offending agent (e.g. milk, sorbitol) is stopped.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '972656',
'title': 'Hypokalemia',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Gastrointestinal or skin loss.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 588,
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'passage_text': 'A more common cause is excessive loss of potassium, often associated with heavy fluid losses that "flush" potassium out of the body. Typically, this is a consequence of diarrhea, excessive perspiration, or losses associated with muscle-crush injury, or surgical procedures. Vomiting can also cause hypokalemia, although not much potassium is lost from the vomitus. Rather, heavy urinary losses of K in the setting of post-emetic bicarbonaturia force urinary potassium excretion (see Alkalosis below). Other gastrointestinal causes include pancreatic fistulae and the presence of adenoma.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '53951',
'title': 'Diarrhea',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea, is the condition of having at least three loose, liquid, or watery bowel movements each day. It often lasts for a few days and can result in dehydration due to fluid loss. Signs of dehydration often begin with loss of the normal stretchiness of the skin and irritable behaviour. This can progress to decreased urination, loss of skin color, a fast heart rate, and a decrease in responsiveness as it becomes more severe. Loose but non-watery stools in babies who are exclusively breastfed, however, are normal.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why does your body temperature increase when you're nauseous and or vomiting?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Body temperature doesn't increase because you're nauseous or vomiting.\n\n It rises so it can kill the intruder, like bacteria. \n\nVomiting happens so the body can get rid of the bacteria. I assume the main reason for vomiting is that the body tries to get rid of the material that has the intruder in it. Like spoiled food.\n\nIt also happens even if you ingest safe substance because the body doesn't know it's safe. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5mxjni',
'query': "why does your body temperature increase when you're nauseous and or vomiting?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '210454',
'title': 'Williams syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Social and psychological.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
'end_character': 1009,
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'passage_text': 'While these children often came off as happy due to their sociable nature, often there are internal drawbacks to the way they act. 76–86% of these children were reported as believing that they either had few friends or problems with their friends. This is possibly due to the fact that although they are very friendly to strangers and love meeting new people, they may have trouble interacting on a deeper level. 73–93% were reported as unreserved with strangers, 67% highly sensitive to rejection, 65% susceptible to teasing, and the statistic for exploitation and abuse was unavailable. This last one is a significant problem. People with Williams syndrome are frequently very trusting and want more than anything to make friends, leading them to submit to requests that under normal circumstances would be rejected. There are external problems as well. 91–96% demonstrate inattention, 75% impulsivity, 59–71% hyperactivity 46–74% tantrums, 32–60% disobedience, and 25–37% fighting and aggressive behavior.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31379772',
'title': 'Ellen MacArthur Cancer Trust',
'section': 'Section::::Impact.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
'end_character': 361,
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'passage_text': "The young people have fun, they adventure together and achieve, overcoming their fears, changing their self-perception and feeling important, and because they socialise with others like them they feel like they belong, are more positive, don't feel judged, feel their anxiety reduce and start to think differently about themselves and what they are capable of.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '422247',
'title': 'Self-awareness',
'section': 'Section::::Adolescence.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 46,
'end_character': 701,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'One becomes conscious of their emotions during adolescence. Most children are aware of emotions such as shame, guilt, pride and embarrassment by the age of two, but do not fully understand how those emotions affect their life. By age 13, children become more in touch with these emotions and begin to apply them to their own lives. A study entitled "The Construction of the Self" found that many adolescents display happiness and self-confidence around friends, but hopelessness and anger around parents due to the fear of being a disappointment. Teenagers were also shown to feel intelligent and creative around teachers, and shy, uncomfortable and nervous around people they were not familiar with.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16166681',
'title': 'Thulluvadho Ilamai',
'section': 'Section::::Plot.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 219,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Happy that they are save, they start laughing and mocking each other. The principal tells the parents that they are not worried about what happened and are happy. Feeling ashamed, the parents leave the children alone. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58689076',
'title': 'Social emotional development',
'section': 'Section::::Early childhood (birth to 3 years old).:Emotional experiences.:Emotional expression.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 768,
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'passage_text': 'Beginning at birth, newborns have the capacity to signal generalized distress in response to unpleasant stimuli and bodily states, such as pain, hunger, body temperature, and stimulation. They may smile, seemingly involuntarily, when satiated, in their sleep, or in response to pleasant touch. Infants begin using a “social smile,” or a smile in response to a positive social interaction, at approximately 2 to 3 months of age, and laughter begins at 3 to 4 months. Expressions of happiness become more intentional with age, with young children interrupting their actions to smile or express happiness to nearby adults at 8–10 months of age, and with markedly different kinds of smiles (e.g., grin, muted smile, mouth open smile) developing at 10 to 12 months of age.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31379772',
'title': 'Ellen MacArthur Cancer Trust',
'section': 'Section::::Impact.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 224,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Happy - young people experience a positive change in perspective on their illness and life. Fun is important, the trips are life changing and an escape from daily life. 91% of parents say their child is happier.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10203857',
'title': 'Contentment',
'section': 'Section::::General.:Contentment and positive psychology.:Leisure (also Leisure satisfaction).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 33,
'end_character': 210,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'This happy state of life is that generally experienced by the pre-school child and is gradually lost when duties and responsibilities of school life and subsequently the adult work-life enter into the picture.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do kids and some adults jump up and down when excited or happy?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Have you never done this? Never gotten so excited and filled with energy you just have to move? It's an energy release. We're also social animals and this is a way to express our excitement. \n\nPlus it's good for ventilation, moves the air around."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '698f5i',
'query': 'why do kids and some adults jump up and down when excited or happy?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1605200',
'title': 'Salt',
'section': 'Section::::Edible salt.:Sodium consumption and health.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 35,
'end_character': 835,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Table salt is made up of just under 40% sodium by weight, so a 6g serving (1teaspoon) contains about 2,300mg of sodium. Sodium serves a vital purpose in the human body: via its role as an electrolyte, it helps nerves and muscles to function correctly, and it is one factor involved in the osmotic regulation of water content in body organs (fluid balance). Most of the sodium in the Western diet comes from salt. The habitual salt intake in many Western countries is about 10 g per day, and it is higher than that in many countries in Eastern Europe and Asia. The high level of sodium in many processed foods has a major impact on the total amount consumed. In the United States, 75% of the sodium eaten comes from processed and restaurant foods, 11% from cooking and table use and the rest from what is found naturally in foodstuffs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '666',
'title': 'Alkali metal',
'section': 'Section::::Biological role and precautions.:Ions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 168,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 168,
'end_character': 753,
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'passage_text': 'Sodium and potassium occur in all known biological systems, generally functioning as electrolytes inside and outside cells. Sodium is an essential nutrient that regulates blood volume, blood pressure, osmotic equilibrium and pH; the minimum physiological requirement for sodium is 500\xa0milligrams per day. Sodium chloride (also known as common salt) is the principal source of sodium in the diet, and is used as seasoning and preservative, such as for pickling and jerky; most of it comes from processed foods. The Dietary Reference Intake for sodium is 1.5\xa0grams per day, but most people in the United States consume more than 2.3\xa0grams per day, the minimum amount that promotes hypertension; this in turn causes 7.6 million premature deaths worldwide.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22615598',
'title': 'Sodium in biology',
'section': 'Section::::Sodium distribution in species.:Humans.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 717,
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'passage_text': 'The minimum physiological requirement for sodium is between 115 and 500 milligrams per day depending on sweating due to physical activity, and whether the person is adapted to the climate. Sodium chloride is the principal source of sodium in the diet, and is used as seasoning and preservative, such as for pickling and jerky; most of it comes from processed foods. The Adequate Intake for sodium is 1.2 to 1.5\xa0grams per day, but on average people in the United States consume 3.4\xa0grams per day, the minimum amount that promotes hypertension. (Note that salt contains about 39.3% sodium by massthe rest being chlorine and other trace chemicals; thus the UL of 2.3g sodium would be about 5.9g of saltabout 1 teaspoon)\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34900600',
'title': 'Health effects of salt',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 202,
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'passage_text': 'As an essential nutrient, sodium is involved in numerous cellular and organ functions. Salt intake that is too low, below 3 g per day, may also increase risk for cardiovascular disease and early death.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '666',
'title': 'Alkali metal',
'section': 'Section::::Occurrence.:On Earth.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 1086,
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'passage_text': "Sodium and potassium are very abundant in earth, both being among the ten most common elements in Earth's crust; sodium makes up approximately 2.6% of the Earth's crust measured by weight, making it the sixth most abundant element overall and the most abundant alkali metal. Potassium makes up approximately 1.5% of the Earth's crust and is the seventh most abundant element. Sodium is found in many different minerals, of which the most common is ordinary salt (sodium chloride), which occurs in vast quantities dissolved in seawater. Other solid deposits include halite, amphibole, cryolite, nitratine, and zeolite. Many of these solid deposits occur as a result of ancient seas evaporating, which still occurs now in places such as Utah's Great Salt Lake and the Dead Sea. Despite their near-equal abundance in Earth's crust, sodium is far more common than potassium in the ocean, both because potassium's larger size makes its salts less soluble, and because potassium is bound by silicates in soil and what potassium leaches is absorbed far more readily by plant life than sodium.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11787655',
'title': 'Alkali soil',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 986,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::3. Many sodium salts are used in industrial and domestic applications such as Sodium carbonate, Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda), Sodium sulphate, Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), Sodium hypochlorite (bleaching powder), etc. in huge quantities. These salts are mainly produced from Sodium chloride (common salt). All the sodium in these salts enter into the river / ground water during their production process or consumption enhancing water sodicity. The total global consumption of sodium chloride is 270 million tons in the year 2010. This is nearly equal to the salt load in the mighty Amazon River. Man made sodium salts contribution is nearly 7% of total salt load of all the rivers. Sodium salt load problem aggravates in the downstream of intensively cultivated river basins located in China, India, Egypt, Pakistan, west Asia, Australia, western US, etc. due to accumulation of salts in the remaining water after meeting various transpiration and evaporation losses.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26826',
'title': 'Sodium',
'section': 'Section::::Biological role.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 49,
'end_character': 1036,
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'passage_text': 'In humans, sodium is an essential mineral that regulates blood volume, blood pressure, osmotic equilibrium and pH; the minimum physiological requirement for sodium is 500 milligrams per day. Sodium chloride is the principal source of sodium in the diet, and is used as seasoning and preservative in such commodities as pickled preserves and jerky; for Americans, most sodium chloride comes from processed foods. Other sources of sodium are its natural occurrence in food and such food additives as monosodium glutamate (MSG), sodium nitrite, sodium saccharin, baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), and sodium benzoate. The US Institute of Medicine set its Tolerable Upper Intake Level for sodium at 2.3\xa0grams per day, but the average person in the United States consumes 3.4\xa0grams per day. Studies have found that lowering sodium intake by 2\xa0g per day tends to lower systolic blood pressure by about two to four mm\xa0Hg. It has been estimated that such a decrease in sodium intake would lead to between 9 and 17% fewer cases of hypertension.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does 50% sodium salt exist?',
'selftext': 'As sodium is a fundamental ingredient to the molecular structure of salt with a 1:1 relationship, how does Morton or other salt companies create the same amount of salt but with something like 50% less sodium?',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Well since salt is 50% Sodium and 50% Chloride technically speaking all salt is 50% sodium.',
'They displace sodium chloride with potassium chloride. It doesn’t taste exactly the same, which is why light salt tastes a bit strange.\n\nSource: _URL_0_',
'"Salt" is the name of a wide variety of compounds. Sodium Chloride is table salt, but other like potassium iodide are also salt.\n\nLow sodium salt is just a salt that uses no or less sodium. ',
'We call NaCl "salt" like we call ethanol "alcohol"; there are many kinds of both salt and alcohol, but most people are only familiar with a few of them. \n\n50% sodium salt is just regular NaCl mixed with another salt, usually KCl. It\'s a bit ironic that people without sodium-sensitive medical conditions turn to it for health reasons because KCl can actually be harder to get rid of, especially for diabetics, and can be *more* detrimental to health than NaCl. This is a very common theme; chemistry illiteracy is so rampant that people often run from something relatively harmless to embrace something else that can be worse.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8skrco',
'query': 'how does 50% sodium salt exist?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '42526',
'title': 'Etching',
'section': 'Section::::Faults.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 71,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 71,
'end_character': 407,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': '"Foul-bite" or "over-biting" is common in etching, and is the effect of minuscule amounts of acid leaking through the ground to create minor pitting and burning on the surface. This incidental roughening may be removed by smoothing and polishing the surface, but artists often leave faux-bite, or deliberately court it by handling the plate roughly, because it is viewed as a desirable mark of the process.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31300435',
'title': 'Sliding criterion (geotechnical engineering)',
'section': 'Section::::Sliding-angle.:Roughness small scale ("Rs").\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 316,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The first term "rough", "smooth", or "polished" is established by feeling the surface of the discontinuity; "rough" hurts when fingers are moved over the surface with some (little) force, "smooth" feels that there is resistance to the fingers, while "polished" gives a feeling about similar to the surface of glass.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28967920',
'title': 'Rough with the Smooth',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 207,
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'passage_text': '"Rough with the Smooth" is a song by the British singer Shara Nelson. It was the first single released from her second solo album "Friendly Fire" in 1995. The single peaked at no.30 on the UK Singles Chart.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '867815',
'title': 'Petrissage',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 343,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Petrissage (from French "pétrir", "to knead") are massage movements with applied pressure which are deep and compress the underlying muscles. Kneading, wringing, skin rolling and pick-up-and-squeeze are the petrissage movements. They are all performed with the padded palmar surface of the hand, the surface of the finger and also the thumbs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6501227',
'title': 'Bit mouthpiece',
'section': 'Section::::Bits without joints.:Straight-bar and Mullen mouth.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 624,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Action: The mullen mouth and straight bar are fairly similar in action, placing pressure on the tongue, lips, and bars. The mullen provides extra space for the tongue, instead of constantly pushing into it, resulting in more tongue relief, and making it more comfortable, but the mullen does not have as high of a port as a curb, thus does not offer full tongue relief. This bit is generally considered a very mild mouthpiece, although this varies according to the type of bit leverage (snaffle, pelham or curb), and improper use may make it harsh, since the majority of the bit pressure is applied on the sensitive tongue.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6325194',
'title': 'Distortion (music)',
'section': 'Section::::Theory and circuits.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
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'passage_text': '"Soft clipping" gradually flattens the peaks of a signal which creates a number of higher harmonics which share a harmonic relationship with the original tone. "Hard clipping" flattens peaks abruptly, resulting in higher power in higher harmonics. As clipping increases a tone input progressively begins to resemble a square wave, which has odd number harmonics. This is generally described as sounding "harsh".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2293147',
'title': 'Bottle scraper',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'The scraper is made of a long shaft, frequently around in length. On one side is a small flexible rubber spatula head roughly across set perpendicular to the shaft. The head is flexible and usually has a rounded half-circle shape one side useful for scraping round bottles and jars and a flat side with two right angles useful for scraping out cartons. The head is flexible so that it can be pushed into and pulled out of bottles whose mouth is smaller than the fully expanded head of the scraper but larger than the shaft.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'When you suck on an M & M, why does it feel smooth, then rough, then smooth again?',
'selftext': "If you haven't tried it before, try it now. Go on, you deserve it. Notice how it feels smooth, then feels rough, and then the rough kinda licks off? Yeah, please ELI5 why this is.",
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The smooth part is likely the candy glaze, the rough would be the actual shell of the m & m and then the chocolate.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'dtclmy',
'query': 'when you suck on an m & m, why does it feel smooth, then rough, then smooth again?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '145478',
'title': 'TIFF',
'section': 'Section::::Features and options.:BigTIFF.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 63,
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'passage_text': 'The TIFF file formats use 32-bit offsets, which limits file size to around 4 GiB. Some implementations even use a signed 32-bit offset, running into issues around 2 GiB already. BigTIFF is a TIFF variant file format which uses 64-bit offsets and supports much larger files. The BigTIFF file format specification was implemented in 2007 in development releases of LibTIFF version 4.0, which was finally released as stable in December 2011. Support for BigTIFF file formats by applications is limited.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'passage_text': "TIFF is a flexible, adaptable file format for handling images and data within a single file, by including the header tags (size, definition, image-data arrangement, applied image compression) defining the image's geometry. A TIFF file, for example, can be a container holding JPEG (lossy) and PackBits (lossless) compressed images. A TIFF file also can include a vector-based clipping path (outlines, croppings, image frames). The ability to store image data in a lossless format makes a TIFF file a useful image archive, because, unlike standard JPEG files, a TIFF file using lossless compression (or none) may be edited and re-saved without losing image quality. This is not the case when using the TIFF as a container holding compressed JPEG. Other TIFF options are layers and pages.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24306',
'title': 'Portable Network Graphics',
'section': 'Section::::File size and optimization software.:Compared to GIF.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 137,
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'passage_text': "Compared to GIF files, a PNG file with the same information (256 colors, no ancillary chunks/metadata), compressed by an effective compressor is normally smaller than a GIF image. Depending on the file and the compressor, PNG may range from somewhat smaller (10%) to significantly smaller (50%) to somewhat larger (5%), but is rarely significantly larger for large images. This is attributed to the performance of PNG's DEFLATE compared to GIF's LZW, and because the added precompression layer of PNG's predictive filters take account of the 2-dimensional image structure to further compress files; as filtered data encodes differences between pixels, they will tend to cluster closer to 0, rather than being spread across all possible values, and thus be more easily compressed by DEFLATE. However, some versions of Adobe Photoshop, CorelDRAW and MS Paint provide poor PNG compression, creating the impression that GIF is more efficient.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42815625',
'title': 'Design of the FAT file system',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The FAT file system is a legacy file system which is simple and robust. It offers good performance even in very light-weight implementations, but cannot deliver the same performance, reliability and scalability as some modern file systems. It is, however, supported for compatibility reasons by nearly all currently developed operating systems for personal computers and many home computers, mobile devices and embedded systems, and thus is a well suited format for data exchange between computers and devices of almost any type and age from 1981 through the present.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5118708',
'title': 'JPEG XR',
'section': 'Section::::Description.:Container format.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Being TIFF-based, this format inherits all of the limitations of the TIFF format including the 4 GB file-size limit, which according to the HD Photo specification "will be addressed in a future update".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24642251',
'title': 'Mod deflate',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The mod_deflate module does not have a lower bound for file size, so it attempts to compress files that are too small to benefit from compression. This results in files smaller than approximately 120 bytes becoming larger when processed by mod_deflate.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16928980',
'title': 'File spanning',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'This is useful when saving large files onto smaller volumes or breaking large files up into smaller files for network messages of limited size (email, newsgroups). It also allows the creation of parity files such as parity archive (PAR) to verify and restore missing or corrupted package files. Another advantage with this is coping with file size limits on some file systems of removable media, or coping with volume size limits of things like floppy disks.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why are tiff files so large?',
'selftext': 'I have a Panasonic G85 that produces 18MP raw files. But if I edit in PS, even without adding layers, the resultant tiff files are around 150MP. Where is all this extra data coming from?',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['1. TIFF (also known as TIF), file types ending in .tif\nTIFF stands for Tagged Image File Format. TIFF images create very large file sizes. TIFF images are uncompressed and thus contain a lot of detailed image data (which is why the files are so big) TIFFs are also extremely flexible in terms of color (they can be grayscale, or CMYK for print, or RGB for web) and content (layers, image tags).\nTIFF is the most common file type used in photo software (such as Photoshop), as well as page layout software (such as Quark and InDesign), again because a TIFF contains a lot of image data.\n\nSource: _URL_0_',
' > 18MP \n\n > 150MP\n\nI\'m guessing that the first is actually meant to read MP, while the second should probably read "MB"? Because "MP" means "MegaPixel" (million pixels), while "MB" means "Mega Bytes" (million/ 2^(20) bytes).\n\nSo let\'s take a look at how much that actually is: \n150/18 = 8.333…\n\nSo for every pixel, there are eight and a bit bytes used. Let\'s just call it an even eight and attribute the rest to metadata (when was the photo taken, what were the iso, shutter etc. settings, maybe GPS coordinates, etc.).\n\nDepending on your colour scheme (RGB/ CMYK/ RGBa/ …) and bit-depth (8-bit/ 16-bit/ 24-bit ("true colour") / …), this leaves between one and two bytes per pixel and colour channel. That actually sounds very reasonable. Heck, it isn\'t even enough to give you true-colour RGB - that would need 3\\*3=9 bytes per pixel (three colour channels, each of which having a precision of 24 bits = 8 bytes).\n\n & #x200B;\n\nThe reason other formats like jpeg or png will generally produce far smaller files is that they utilize (lossy) compression, which simply means that they don\'t save a colour value for every single pixel but instead try to save space by doing thing like saving "the next five pixels all have this colour: \\[…\\]" (very simplified).'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'dfmq7e',
'query': 'why are tiff files so large?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '19377820',
'title': 'Stampede',
'section': 'Section::::Human stampedes and crushes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'Crushes often occur during religious pilgrimages and large entertainment events, as they tend to involve dense crowds, with people closely surrounded on all sides. Human stampedes and crushes also occur in episodes of panic (e.g. in response to a fire or explosion) as people try to get away.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3619875',
'title': 'Crush (American game show)',
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'passage_text': 'Crush is a game show which aired on USA Network from March to August 2000. It was hosted by Andrew Krasny and was known as "The show that begs for an answer to the question, "Should friends try love?".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6134005',
'title': 'Crush (Dave Matthews Band song)',
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'passage_text': '"Crush" is a song by the Dave Matthews Band, released as the third single from their album "Before These Crowded Streets". As a single, it reached #11 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart, #75 on the Billboard Hot 100, #38 on the Top 40 Mainstream, and #20 on the Adult Top 40. As the album version is over eight minutes in length, the song time was cut almost in half for radio airplay. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30271284',
'title': 'Crush injury',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'Crush Injury is damage to structures as a result of crushing. Crush syndrome is a systemic result of rhabdomyolysis and subsequent release of cell contents.. The severity of crush syndrome is dependant on the duration and magnitude of the crush injury as well as the bulk of muscle affected. It can result from both short duration, high magnitude injuries (such as being crushed by a building) or from low magnitude, long duration injuries such as coma or drug induced immobility.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11353966',
'title': 'Crush (video game)',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Crush is a platformer-puzzle video game developed by Kuju Entertainment\'s Zoë Mode studio and published by Sega in 2007 for the PlayStation Portable. Its protagonist is Danny, a young man suffering from insomnia, who uses an experimental device to explore his mind and discover the cause of his sleeplessness. Each level of the game, representing events from Danny\'s life and inspired by artists such as Tim Burton and M.C. Escher, requires the player to control Danny as he collects his "lost marbles" and other thoughts.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19377820',
'title': 'Stampede',
'section': 'Section::::Human stampedes and crushes.:Crushes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': 'Among causes of fatal crushes, sometimes described as "crazes", is when a large crowd is trying to get "toward" something; typically occurring when members at the back of a large crowd continue pushing forward not knowing that those at the front are being crushed, or because of something that forces them to move.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2217772',
'title': 'Crush syndrome',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Crush syndrome (also traumatic rhabdomyolysis or Bywaters\' syndrome) is a medical condition characterized by major shock and renal failure after a crushing injury to skeletal muscle. Crush "injury" is compression of extremities or other parts of the body that causes muscle swelling and/or neurological disturbances in the affected areas of the body, while crush "syndrome" is localized crush injury with systemic manifestations. Cases occur commonly in catastrophes such as earthquakes, to victims that have been trapped under fallen or moving masonry.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do we develop crushes on people?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Psychology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['you see someone you find attractive and then you get a bone bone and decide that you want to make a hooman with them',
'Lots of different reasons. Most influential factors include:\n- Proximity: You’re more likely to have a crush on someone who you have multiple classes with each day than you are to have a crush on someone who lives across the country.\n\n- Pheromones: Chemical signals, so to speak, that indicate a good genetic match or a person who is ovulating, to name a couple examples (there’s been a study where people use unscented soaps and deodorants and wear the same white t-shirt to bed every night for a week and then different people come to the lab and sniff the shirts to decide which person they find most attractive based on pheromones more or less. Heterosexual men prefer the shirts of women who are ovulating, and also like the smell of shirts worn by homosexual men the least)\n\n- Similar Levels of Attractiveness: This applies a bit more to the kind of person you actually end up in a relationship in as opposed to a crush. But a person tends to pursue people who are about the same level of attractiveness as they themselves are. This way, you protect your ego because you perceive the crush to be less likely to reject you. There are obviously exceptions to this (20 year old women dating wealthy 70 year old men, as an extreme example)\n\n- Admirable Qualities: That person has some sort of qualities that you would like to adopt in yourself or associate with your internal image of your ideal self. A person who is socially awkward and anxious and wishes they weren’t, for example, might have a secret crush on the outgoing, friendly person who strikes up conversations with the people who look like they could use a friend. This has a limitation: our egos come first - we don’t want people who we perceive as being so much better than ourselves that we feel inferior.\n\n- Time: The more time you spend with a person (similar to proximity), the more you start to really pay attention to a person. Think of the experiment where complete strangers stare into each other’s eyes for minutes at a time, and by the end of it, they feel a bit more comfortable with them even if they never exchange words. \n\n\nThere are a looooot more but these are the most commonly observed in lab settings\n\n\nSource: Psychology of Relationships and Intimacy class in college; also have a degree in psychology.\n\nEdit: Pressed enter between each bullet for better readability'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'ebnkco',
'query': 'how do we develop crushes on people?',
'query_type': 'Psychology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '843005',
'title': 'Runts',
'section': 'Section::::Ingredients and nutrition information.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Serv size: 12 pieces, servings: about 3.5, amount per serving calories: 60, total fat: 0 g (0% DV) Sodium: 0\xa0mg (0% DV) total carb: 14 g (5% DV) sugars: 13 g protein: 0 g (Percent daily values (DV) are based on a 2,000 calorie diet.)\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31164570',
'title': 'Integrated Child Development Services',
'section': 'Section::::Implementation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'For nutritional purposes ICDS provides 500 kilocalories (with 12-15 gm \xa0grams of protein) every day to every child below 6 years of age. For adolescent girls it is up to 500 kilo calories with up to 25\xa0grams of protein everyday.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1074264',
'title': 'Glycemic load',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': "Glycemic load of a 100g serving of food can be calculated as its carbohydrate content measured in grams (g), multiplied by the food's GI, and divided by 100. For example, watermelon has a GI of 72. A 100\xa0g serving of watermelon has 5\xa0g of available carbohydrates (it contains a lot of water), making the calculation 5 × 72/100=3.6, so the GL is 4. A food with a GI of 90 and 8\xa0g of available carbohydrates has a GL of 7.2 (8 × 90/100=7.2), while a food with a GI of just 6 and with 120\xa0g of carbohydrate also has a GL of 7.2 (120 × 6/100=7.2).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1229612',
'title': 'Mashed pumpkin',
'section': 'Section::::Nutritional information.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 275,
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'passage_text': 'A single cup of unseasoned mashed pumpkin contains only 49 calories, but has 564 mg of potassium, 5,000 mcg of beta-carotene, 853 mcg of alpha-carotene, 3,500 mcg of beta-cryptoxanthin, 2,400 mcg of lutein and zeaxanthin, 12,000 IUs of vitamin A, and 2.5 g of dietary fiber.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '147809',
'title': 'Mochi',
'section': 'Section::::Nutrition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 43,
'end_character': 207,
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'passage_text': 'A single serving of 44.0 g has 96 Calories (kilocalories), 1.0 g of fat, but no trans or saturated fat, 1.0\xa0mg of sodium, 22.0 g of carbohydrates, 0 g of dietary fiber, 6.0 g of sugar, and 1.0 g of protein.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '228541',
'title': 'Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats',
'section': 'Section::::National varieties.:Krembo.:Nutritional information.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The average krembo weighs 25\xa0grams (0.92\xa0ounces) and has 115 calories. According to the fine print on packing foil, per 100\xa0g of krembo there are 419 calories, 3.2\xa0g protein, 64\xa0g carbohydrates (of which 54\xa0g are sugars); 16.7% Fats (of which 13.9% are poly-saturated fatty acids, less than 0.5% are trans fatty acids) and 67\xa0mg sodium.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46573',
'title': 'Oat',
'section': 'Section::::Health.:Protein.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
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'end_character': 260,
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'passage_text': 'Oat protein is nearly equivalent in quality to soy protein, which World Health Organization research has shown to be equal to meat, milk and egg protein. The protein content of the hull-less oat kernel (groat) ranges from 12 to 24%, the highest among cereals.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'if a 213g potato has .2g of fat, 4.3g of protein, and 37g of carbs, what is the other 171.5g?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Net carbs? If yes, most of the rest is fiber',
"Water, fibre, and other things that humans don't digest into energy."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8u2m40',
'query': 'if a 213g potato has .2g of fat, 4.3g of protein, and 37g of carbs, what is the other 171.5g?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '18427873',
'title': 'Focus recovery based on the linear canonical transform',
'section': 'Section::::Depth of field and perceptual focus.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In photography, depth of field (DOF) means an effective focal length. It is usually used for stressing an object and deemphasizing the background (and/or the foreground). The important measure related to DOF is the lens aperture. Decreasing the diameter of aperture increases focus and lowers resolution and vice versa.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13208662',
'title': 'Lenses for SLR and DSLR cameras',
'section': 'Section::::Aperture and depth of field.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The aperture affects not only the amount of light that passes through the lens, but also the depth of field of the resulting image: a larger aperture (a smaller f-number, e.g. f/2.0) will have a shallow depth of field, while a smaller aperture (a larger f-number, e.g. f/11) will have a greater depth of field.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52648',
'title': 'Camera',
'section': 'Section::::Physics.:Exposure control.:Aperture.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
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'passage_text': 'Adjustment of the lens opening measured as f-number, which controls the amount of light passing through the lens. Aperture also has an effect on depth of field and diffraction\xa0– the higher the f-number, the smaller the opening, the less light, the greater the depth of field, and the more the diffraction blur. The focal length divided by the f-number gives the effective aperture diameter.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37583418',
'title': 'Glossary of video terms',
'section': 'Section::::D.:Depth of Field.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The in-focus range of a lens or optical system around an item of interest. It is measured from the distance behind an object of interest, to the distance in front of the object of interest, when the viewing lens is specifically focused on the object of interest. Depth of field depends on subject-to-camera distance, focal length of the lens, and f-stop.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10750774',
'title': 'Tilted plane focus',
'section': 'Section::::Depth of field.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'Depth of field is an effect that permits bringing objects into focus at varying distances from the camera, and at varying depth between each other, into the field of view. A short lens, as explained above, will bring objects into focus that are relatively close to the camera, but it will also keep focus at greater distances between objects. A telephoto lens will be very shallow in its gamut of focus.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2165927',
'title': 'Depth of focus',
'section': 'Section::::"Depth of focus" versus "depth of field".\n',
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'passage_text': 'The same factors that determine depth of field also determine depth of focus, but these factors can have different effects than they have in depth of field. Both depth of field and depth of focus increase with smaller apertures. For distant subjects (beyond macro range), depth of focus is relatively insensitive to focal length and subject distance, for a fixed "f"-number. In the macro region, depth of focus increases with longer focal length or closer subject distance, while depth of field decreases.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47474',
'title': 'Aperture',
'section': 'Section::::In photography.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A device called a diaphragm usually serves as the aperture stop, and controls the aperture. The diaphragm functions much like the iris of the eye\xa0– it controls the effective diameter of the lens opening. Reducing the aperture size increases the depth of field, which describes the extent to which subject matter lying closer than or farther from the actual plane of focus appears to be in focus. In general, the smaller the aperture (the larger the f-number), the greater the distance from the plane of focus the subject matter may be while still appearing in focus.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What are apertures, f-stops, How does depth of field work, and how does lens measurement factor into the equation?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['An ideal lens focuses light from a single plane (called the focal plane) onto its sensor. However, that\'s not super useful, as we often want to take pictures of things that are thick. As it turns out, there is a region around the focal plane where the image is still well focused. This is called the "field" of the photo, and the "depth of field" (DOF) measures the thickness of this region from the point nearest the camera that is well focused to the farthest point that is well focused.\n\nAs it turns out, actual lenses are not ideal lenses. This matters when it comes to DOF. At small apertures, much less light enters the lens, and it all enters through the middle part of the lens. The result is a larger DOF. In fact, you can make pictures with no lens at all using a pinhole camera. The aperture is so small that the DOF is essentially infinite. Since the amount of light that comes through is similarly small, you need a very bright scene.\n\nSince aperture effects both amount of light and DOF, it\'s not exactly a DOF control. As less light comes through, more integration time (or exposure time if you\'re still thinking of a film camera) is required to get an image.\n\nf-number (or f-stop) is a ratio of aperture to focal length. This is a camera-specific idea, but the exposure time for similar f-stops is similar. This was a more interesting parameter when light meters were separate from cameras. Almost all modern cameras use through-the-lens metering and automatic (or at least semi-automatic programs) to select appropriate f-stops and exposure times.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'bwwd2v',
'query': 'what are apertures, f-stops, how does depth of field work, and how does lens measurement factor into the equation?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '18502271',
'title': 'Embouchure collapse',
'section': 'Section::::Mouthpiece pressure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': "Many brass instrumentalists argue that excessive mouthpiece pressure is a major cause of embouchure problems and can be a factor in causing embouchure collapse. However, the pressure of the mouthpiece is not static during playing: it increases the higher in the register a player plays and the louder volume level. Also, a little mouthpiece pressure is essential to provide a seal between the player's embouchure and the instrument; without this, all the air would escape before entering the instrument and no sound would be emitted (brass instruments are dependent on an airflow to produce sound).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4940',
'title': 'Brass instrument',
'section': 'Section::::Sound production in brass instruments.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 84,
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'passage_text': "Because the player of a brass instrument has direct control of the prime vibrator (the lips), brass instruments exploit the player's ability to select the harmonic at which the instrument's column of air vibrates. By making the instrument about twice as long as the equivalent woodwind instrument and starting with the second harmonic, players can get a good range of notes simply by varying the tension of their lips (see embouchure).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7100',
'title': 'Cornet',
'section': 'Section::::Playing technique.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': 'Like the trumpet and all other modern brass wind instruments, the cornet makes a sound when the player vibrates ("buzzes") the lips in the mouthpiece, creating a vibrating column of air in the tubing. The frequency of the air column\'s vibration can be modified by changing the lip tension and aperture or "embouchure", and by altering the tongue position to change the shape of the oral cavity, thereby increasing or decreasing the speed of the airstream. In addition, the column of air can be lengthened by engaging one or more valves, thus lowering the pitch. Double and triple tonguing are also possible.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10365',
'title': 'Embouchure',
'section': 'Section::::Brass embouchure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': "While performing on a brass instrument, the sound is produced by the player buzzing his or her lips into a mouthpiece. Pitches are changed in part through altering the amount of muscular contraction in the lip formation. The performer's use of the air, tightening of cheek and jaw muscles, as well as tongue manipulation can affect how the embouchure works.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3247450',
'title': 'Horn (acoustic)',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Horn-loaded musical instruments.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
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'passage_text': 'This has the effect of providing both the "brassy" sound of horn instruments versus woodwinds or even metal instruments which lack a flare, and also of increasing the perceived loudness of the instrument, as harmonics in the range to which the ear is most sensitive are now delivered more efficiently. However, this enhanced radiation in the higher frequencies means by definition less energy imparted to the standing waves, and thus less stable and well-defined notes in the higher registers, making the instrument more difficult to play.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4940',
'title': 'Brass instrument',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'A brass instrument is a musical instrument that produces sound by sympathetic vibration of air in a tubular resonator in sympathy with the vibration of the player\'s lips. Brass instruments are also called "labrosones", literally meaning "lip-vibrated instruments".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10455311',
'title': 'History of primitive, ancient Western and non-Western trumpets',
'section': 'Section::::Etruria and Ancient Rome.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 67,
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'passage_text': 'Like the Greek "salpinx" the Roman trumpets were not regarded as musical instruments. Among the tems used to describe the tone of the "tuba", for instance, were "horribilis" (“horrible”), "terribilis" (“terrible”), "raucus" (“raucous”), "rudis" (“coarse”), "strepens" (“noisy”) and "stridulus" (“shrieking”). When sounding their instruments, the "tubicines" sometimes girded their cheeks with the "capistrum" (“muzzle”) which "aulos" (“flute”) players used to prevent their cheeks from being puffed out unduly.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why do brass instruments only emit a sound when pursing your lips? Why can't you just blow into them and make sound?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['There needs to be some kind of vibration. Your lips vibrate in the mouthpeice and the instrument basically amplifies that vibration. If you just blow all you do is move air though a bunch of tubes. A saxaphone is brass but is considered a woodwind instrument because they have a wooden reed that emits the vibration.',
'Sound is really just the air vibrating. In order for anything to make sound, it must make the air vibrate. A piano makes sound because a hammer hits a string, and the string vibrates, and then that causes the air to vibrate too. This basically the way all \'string\' instruments (like the guitar, violin or cello) work.\n\nThe other large class of musical instruments are the wind instruments. Some of these wind instruments work when you just blow into them (like a recorder), and some don\'t, but all of them must make vibrations. The instruments that work when you just blow into them work in two steps: first your breath passes though some device so that is makes a "whushing" sound. This sound contains a very large range of musical notes, all sitting on top of each other. Then this "whushing" sound enters a tube. The tube will only allow a particular musical note to come out: the longer the tube, the lower the note. Here, the air inside the tube is like the string in string instruments, it vibrates at a particular frequency, and this is the sound you hear.\n\nLots of instruments that you blow into, however, do not work this way. Many of them require you to make a particular note first, like a clarinet or a trumpet. Here, you make a note with your lips (or with the reed in a clarinet) and then this note moves into the tubes of the instrument, which again, will only vibrate at a given note, depending on the length of the pipe.\n\nSo why can\'t you make a "whushing" noise, and have a trumpet or clarinet work? You probably could, (especially in a clarinet) it just wouldn\'t be very loud. Because of the different materials/construction different wind instruments are better at filtering out all the unwanted notes in the "whushing" noise, and leaving and making louder, the note you want.\n\nThis all comes down to an idea in physics called resonance, that you should probably look up!'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '6pkxoc',
'query': "why do brass instruments only emit a sound when pursing your lips? why can't you just blow into them and make sound?",
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '878855',
'title': 'Naga fireball',
'section': 'Section::::Explanations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'A similar explanation involves a similar phenomenon in plasma physics. A free-floating plasma orb, created when surface electricity (e.g., from a capacitor) is discharged into a solution. However, most plasma ball experiments are conducted using high voltage capacitors, microwave oscillators, or microwave ovens, not under natural conditions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '870889',
'title': 'Plasma globe',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'A plasma globe or plasma lamp (also called plasma ball, dome, sphere, tube or orb, depending on shape) is a clear glass container filled with a mixture of various noble gases with a high-voltage electrode in the center of the container.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32004278',
'title': 'Surface modification of biomaterials with proteins',
'section': 'Section::::Fabrication techniques.:Plasma treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
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'end_paragraph_id': 40,
'end_character': 676,
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'passage_text': 'Plasma techniques are especially useful because they can deposit ultra thin (a few nm), adherent, conformal coatings. Glow discharge plasma is created by filling a vacuum with a low-pressure gas (ex. argon, ammonia, or oxygen). The gas is then excited using microwaves or current which ionizes it. The ionized gas is then thrown onto a surface at a high velocity where the energy produced physically and chemically changes the surface. After the changes occur, the ionized plasma gas is able to react with the surface to make it ready for protein adhesion. However, the surfaces may lose mechanical strength or other inherent properties because of the high amounts of energy.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1251318',
'title': 'Plasma window',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Plasma is any gas whose atoms or molecules have been ionized, and is a separate phase of matter. This is most commonly achieved by heating the gas to extremely high temperatures, although other methods exist. Plasma becomes increasingly viscous at higher temperatures, to the point where other matter has trouble passing through.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '751638',
'title': 'Reactive-ion etching',
'section': 'Section::::Method of operation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 322,
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'passage_text': 'Plasma is initiated in the system by applying a strong RF (radio frequency) electromagnetic field to the wafer platter. The field is typically set to a frequency of 13.56 Megahertz, applied at a few hundred watts. The oscillating electric field ionizes the gas molecules by stripping them of electrons, creating a plasma.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22063454',
'title': 'General Fusion',
'section': 'Section::::Technology.:Power plant design.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 303,
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'passage_text': 'The outside of the sphere is covered with steam pistons, which push the liquid metal and collapse the vortex, thereby compressing the plasma. The compression increases the temperature of the plasma to the point where the deuterium and tritium nuclei fuse, releasing energy in the form of fast neutrons.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30747793',
'title': 'Plasma polymerization',
'section': 'Section::::Basic operating mechanism.:Glow discharge.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 925,
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'passage_text': 'Plasma consists of a mixture of electrons, ions, radicals, neutrals and photons. Some of these species are in local thermodynamic equilibrium, while others are not. Even for simple gases like argon this mixture can be complex. For plasmas of organic monomers, the complexity can rapidly increase as some components of the plasma fragment, while others interact and form larger species. Glow discharge is a technique in polymerization which forms free electrons which gain energy from an electric field, and then lose energy through collisions with neutral molecules in the gas phase. This leads to many chemically reactive species, which then lead to a plasma polymerization reaction. The electric discharge process for plasma polymerization is the “low-temperature plasma” method, because higher temperatures cause degradation. These plasmas are formed by a direct current, alternating current or radio frequency generator.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "what's happening inside of a plasma ball?",
'selftext': "I was have one and was wondering what the plasma and light was and why it's attracted to objects outside of the glass.",
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Inside a plasma ball high voltage is used to strip electrons away from atoms of a noble gas (usually neon or argon). Plasma is a state of matter comprising these free electrons. Light (release of photons) happens whenever electrons change orbitals.\n\nThe stream of electrons are negatively charged and looking for a place to "go". Your body is a conductor so when you touch the globe you are presenting a path for these free electrons to go to.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '6ek466',
'query': "what's happening inside of a plasma ball?",
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '40102006',
'title': 'Cốc Cốc',
'section': 'Section::::Features.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Files are downloaded in multiple streams, which under certain conditions can accelerate download speeds by up to eight times, depending on the bandwidth of the Internet connections and the speed at which the server sends files. At present, an option to increase or decrease the downloading speed is not provided.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40102006',
'title': 'Cốc Cốc',
'section': 'Section::::User feedback and issues.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 369,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Using multi thread download similar to Internet Download Manager, the browser is supposed to download at just the same speed as Internet Download Manager, however there are reports of cases where it failed to perform up to expectation, because the actual acceleration depends on the bandwidth of the Internet, and the speed at which the server sends files.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15044355',
'title': 'Project Dakota',
'section': 'Section::::Purpose.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 217,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Users with a slow connection to the Internet who want to avoid slow download times by using a faster connection on another computer to download Project Dakota, and burn it to a CD, DVD or USB flash drive.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32881',
'title': 'Warez',
'section': 'Section::::File formats of warez.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 67,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 67,
'end_character': 343,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- In the case of One-click hosting websites downloading multiple files from one or several sources can significantly increase download speeds. This is because even if the source(s) provides slow download speeds on individual disks, downloading several disks simultaneously will allow the user to achieve much greater download rates.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '265666',
'title': 'Bram Cohen',
'section': 'Section::::Early life and career.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'speeding up the download time, especially for users with faster download than upload speeds. Thus, the more popular a file is, the faster a user will be able to download it, since many people will be downloading it at the same time, and these people will also be uploading the data to other users.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24767575',
'title': 'Torrent file',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 695,
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'passage_text': 'Each file to be distributed is divided into small information chunks called "pieces". Downloading peers achieve high download speeds by requesting multiple pieces from different computers simultaneously in the swarm. Once obtained, these pieces are usually immediately made available for download by others in the swarm. In this way, the burden on the network is spread among the downloaders, rather than concentrating at a central distribution hub or cluster. As long as all the pieces are available, peers (downloaders and uploaders) can come and go; no one peer needs to have all the chunks, or to even stay connected to the swarm in order for distribution to continue among the other peers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3725091',
'title': 'CoDeeN',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "For rare files this system could be slightly slower than downloading the file itself. Especially for non-cacheable content, you may as well go to the origin host. The system's speed is also subject to the constraint of number of participating proxies.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do download and upload speeds actually work,(I.e how do they limit the speed of download through your cables)',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['They limit the speed of the download by limiting how many bits per second are allowed to transfer through the wire to you. Someone, somewhere tracks all the bits that go into your house, and counts those bits. Every second, that count "refreshes," but if that count reaches the max rate, they stop sending traffic through until the next second.\n\nBasically, if your cable supports 10MBPS, they don\'t limit it by somehow making your cable support 5MBPS, they just transmit 5MB in half a second, then transmit 0MB for the next half a second.',
'I always assumed it had more to do with the physical meaning of "bandwidth" rather than the way we measure it in the computer world (digital transfer rate - i.e. Bits per second). I could be terribly wrong, so input is welcome. I\'m also no pro, so I may jack up terminology.\n\n"Bandwidth" refers to a range of frequencies. Data (signals) is transferred over a cable using a certain frequency. Think of a dump truck. You fill it up with dirt and drive it across town but your max speed is limited by the street\'s speed limit. If you need to quickly move 5 loads of dirt, the people on both ends have to wait on you while you drive back and forth. That\'s not very fast. The solution? Fill up 5 trucks *at the same time* and drive them *at the same time* and you move 5 loads in the same time you could have moved one. It\'s similar with sending signals - you can only send the signals so fast, and then you have to wait before you send more. Solution? Connect 5 wires and send data over them all at the same time. Luckily, instead of adding more wires, you can use the same wire as long as you can use more than one frequency. If you can use 5 frequencies then you can send 5 different signals, each with their own frequency, *at the same time.* We can mostly thank Jospeh Fourier for this.\n\nAlmost 200 years ago some guy named Joseph Fourier realized that you can take multiple frequencies, mash them together to make one signal, then take them back apart, and end up with the exact same original frequencies. So now we can take 5 frequencies, upload/send data over each one, mash them together, shoot them through an Ethernet cable, and have a device on the other end that pulls them apart and receives the exact data you sent on each one. Alternatively, your computer can download/listen for the signal, split it apart into each frequency, and get that info from each frequency. (I think this is how cable worked - the cable company sends you all the channels down one wire, and when you turn the channel your TV just filters out the other frequencies and displays the one you wanted. Surely there\'s more to it, but I think that\'s the basics of cable tv, and explains why your neighbor could steal your cable!)\n\n**Wrapping up** (I promise)\n\nYour router/modem takes signals from all the computers connected to it, works that Fourier magic on those signals, and shoots the combined/composite signal to a magical cable in your wall that connects your house to the internet. That cable that brings internet to your house is connected (in my case anyway) to a big green box up the street. All of your neighbors\' magic internet cables are also tied in there. I imagine that box kind of like a huge router (just like the one in your house). That big box takes signals from you and your neighbors, works it\'s Fourier magic on those signals, and sends it up the next wire. A group of those boxes all plug into an even bigger one, and so on until it connects back to the ISP. \n\nGo back to the dump truck example. If the dirt is the data, and each truck is another frequency, then the road is the wire. Even if you buy a million trucks, the road can only fit so many. Again, easy solution - upgrade the road by making it bigger. But that costs money! Instead, just make certain customers pay more money if they want their dirt faster. If you have 4 customers and one pays for quicker dirt delivery speed, then you can send 2 trucks together for his delivery and the other customers each get one truck for their delivery. \n\nApply that analogy:\n\nEach cable can only carry a certain range of frequencies (something in physics explains this), so those boxes do eventually max out data transfer. This can be fixed by using bigger, better boxes and cables all the way to the ISP, but it gets way too expensive. The solution?? --- > make a customer pay more money in order to have more frequencies available to them. So now you give the ISP more money, and they push a button that tells the box up the street to allow you to use a bigger *range of frequencies,* which we now know that a certain range of frequencies is also referred to as a *bandwidth.* Since downloading is the majority of internet traffic, they assign you many more frequencies for download than they do for upload. Once you run out of frequencies to use, you spend time waiting on your computer to finish using the current ones so that you can use them for something else.\n\nBoom. Done.\n\nI\'m fairly positive that this is how it works, but it could all be monitored and regulated. Heck if I actually know haha'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '5yvh3n',
'query': 'how do download and upload speeds actually work,(i.e how do they limit the speed of download through your cables)',
'query_type': 'Technology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '8748548',
'title': 'Fixed-income attribution',
'section': 'Section::::Yield curve attribution.:Yield curve attribution.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Since the yield of virtually any fixed-income instrument is affected by changes in the shape of the Treasury curve, it is not surprising that traders examine future and past performance in the light of changes to this curve.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '469806',
'title': 'Treasury stock',
'section': 'Section::::Accounting for treasury stock.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
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'end_paragraph_id': 21,
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'passage_text': 'Another common way for accounting for treasury stock is the par value method. In the par value method, when the stock is purchased back from the market, the books will reflect the action as a retirement of the shares. Therefore, common stock is debited and treasury stock is credited. However, when the treasury stock is resold back to the market the entry in the books will be the same as the cost method.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '469806',
'title': 'Treasury stock',
'section': 'Section::::Accounting for treasury stock.\n',
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'passage_text': 'One way of accounting for treasury stock is with the cost method. In this method, the paid-in capital account is reduced in the balance sheet when the treasury stock is bought. When the treasury stock is sold back on the open market, the paid-in capital is either debited or credited if it is sold for less or more than the initial cost respectively.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4868219',
'title': 'Earnings yield',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'The earnings yield can be used to compare the earnings of a stock, sector or the whole market against bond yields. Generally, the earnings yields of equities are higher than the yield of risk-free treasury bonds. Some of this may result in dividends, while some may be kept as retained earnings. The market price of stocks may increase or decrease, reflecting the additional risk involved in equity investments. The average P/E ratio for U.S. stocks from 1900 to 2005 is 14, which equates to an earnings yield of over 7%.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58508',
'title': 'Contango',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'because there are few holders who can make an arbitrage profit by selling the spot and buying back the future. A market that is steeply backwardated—"i.e.", one where there is a very steep premium for material available for immediate delivery—often indicates a perception of a current "shortage" in the underlying commodity. By the same token, a market that is deeply in contango may indicate a perception of a current supply "surplus" in the commodity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '146719',
'title': 'Subsidy',
'section': 'Section::::Economic effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
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'passage_text': 'Assuming the market is in a perfectly competitive equilibrium, a subsidy increases the supply of the good beyond the equilibrium competitive quantity. The imbalance creates deadweight loss. Deadweight loss from a subsidy is the amount by which the cost of the subsidy exceeds the gains of the subsidy. The magnitude of the deadweight loss is dependent on the size of the subsidy. This is considered a market failure, or inefficiency.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29269618',
'title': 'Causes of the Great Recession',
'section': 'Section::::Other factors.:Credit creation as a cause.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 196,
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'passage_text': 'A positively sloped yield curve allows Primary Dealers (such as large investment banks) in the Federal Reserve system to fund themselves with cheap short term money while lending out at higher long-term rates. This strategy is profitable so long as the yield curve remains positively sloped. However, it creates a liquidity risk if the yield curve were to become inverted and banks would have to refund themselves at expensive short term rates while losing money on longer term loans.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is Treasury yields and why does it cause the market to slide?',
'selftext': "What does it mean when the news reports that US Treasury yields? What's the Treasury's relationship with the market that causes it to slide over the week? I've tried to read up about it, but it just gets more confusing. I was surprise to find that there are 3-month US treasury, 1-year US treasury, 2-year treasury, and so on. What are they? The one that has gone up recently is the 10-year treasury. Why that 10-year treasury but not other intervals of treasuries? And why does that 10-year treasury have such impact to the market? So there so many questions running in my mind. It will be great if someone can explain this to me. Thanks!",
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["First all the quick answers:\n\nTreasuries are US government debt. Yields are how much interest the US government will pay lenders to loan money to them for a certain period of time. 10-year treasuries are the long term benchmark rate, they're the bench mark because they're a very liquid market. All the other rates are just different terms (pretty similar to a 3-year, 5-year, or 7-year car loan) the government can get more money for less interest by offering a variety of terms. \n\nNow the why:\n\nTreasuries are like the basic unit of investing. The US government has a very good reputation with investors, so treasuries are the safest return one can get over a period of time. \n\nThat means that when treasury rates rise, all other investments need to adjust (because if riskier investments don't provide at least that much return, investors are better off selling the other investment and buying the treasury). Sort of like an employer known to hire essentially everyone paying more than other more selective employers, the selective employer is going to have to keep their wages higher than the employer who hires anyone if they want to keep getting employees. \n\nSo when treasury yields rise, all other investment income rates also have to rise, and that means most investment prices fall. ",
'The National debt that you often hear about? That is the result of the government selling bonds to investors. The government collects money now, and agrees to pay it back down the road with interest.\n\nThese bonds are called Treasury Bills, or T-bills. The yield is the % of interest they pay out to buyers. The time frame is how long the money is loaned for, ie. a 10 year treasury gets paid back after 10 years. The longer the timeline, the higher the risk that things like inflation will counteract the interest gains, so longer term bonds pay a higher interest rate then shorter ones, where the external risks are better known. An increase in yield means that an investor get more money for the same (super low) risk investment.\n\nIf, as an investor I have the choice of low risk 2% return or higher risk 5% return, I may be more likely to take the higher risk. If the low risk option pays 4% vs. high risk 5%, I am a lot more likely to choose the safe option. So I might sell high risk stock and buy low risk T-bills instead. Less demand for stocks (more sellers than buyers) causes their price to fall.',
'Some of the other comments have glossed over what yield actually is, and why it rises/falls.\n\nA bond is a special kind of fixed interest loan where you borrow some money, pay interest only for a number of years, then pay back the full amount of the loan in one single final payment. For example, the US treasury takes out a loan for $1000 over 10 years at 1%pa interest. They pay back $10 (interest) each year, then after 10 years, they pay back the full $1000.\n\nWhat if you lend the treasury $1000 for 10 years, then 2 years later you need that $1000 back? Treasury won\'t give it back early, but you can sell the loan to somebody else. You might find someone willing to pay you back the full $1000. That person will then get the remaining $10 yearly payments and the final $1000 payment. From this person\'s point of view, they have lent the treasury $1000 for 8 years at 1% interest. \n\nHowever, maybe you can\'t find anyone willing to pay back the full $1000. So, desperate for money you agree to sell the loan to someone who will only pay you $900. However as the new owner of the loan, they are still entitled to the full $10 annual payments and the full $1000 final payment. This is basically the same thing as earning a higher rate of interest. In fact, from this person\'s point of view, they have lent treasury $900 for 8 years at something closer to 2.5% interest.\n\nThis effective interest rate is called the yield. It matters because anyone wanting to sell an 8 year treasury bond at the same time as you are trying to offload your one must offer an effective interest rate equal to 2.5% to compete with you. Especially, even the US treasury won\'t be able to sell new bonds for 8 years unless they offer an interest rate of 2.5%.\n\nThe yield is a reflection of how willing people are to buy "second hand" loans at any particular time. \n\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2221807',
'title': 'Clinical control group',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "If a drug is being tested, the control group will frequently be given a placebo. This is done as a double blind test, as neither the healthcare professional nor the patient know if they are receiving the drug under test or a placebo, and don't find out which substance was administered until after the experiment is concluded.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1243554',
'title': 'Pharmacovigilance',
'section': 'Section::::Risk management.:Risk/benefit profile of drugs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 77,
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'passage_text': 'The variables in a clinical trial are specified and controlled, but a clinical trial can never tell you the whole story of the effects of a drug in all situations. In fact, nothing could tell you the whole story, but a clinical trial must tell you enough; "enough" being determined by legislation and by contemporary judgements about the acceptable balance of benefit and harm. Ultimately, when a drug is marketed it may be used in patient populations that were not studied during clinical trials (children, the elderly, pregnant women, patients with co-morbidities not found in the clinical trial population, etc.) and a different set of warnings, precautions or contraindications (where the drug should not be used at all) for the product\'s labeling may be necessary in order to maintain a positive risk/benefit profile in all known populations using the drug.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17537',
'title': 'Lysergic acid diethylamide',
'section': 'Section::::Research.:Psychedelic therapy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 124,
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'passage_text': 'Two recent reviews concluded that conclusions drawn from most of these early trials are unreliable due to serious methodological flaws. These include the absence of adequate control groups, lack of followup, and vague criteria for therapeutic outcome. In many cases studies failed to convincingly demonstrate whether the drug or the therapeutic interaction was responsible for any beneficial effects.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4402358',
'title': 'Theralizumab',
'section': 'Section::::Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency view.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
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'passage_text': 'In December 2006, the final report of the Expert Group on Phase One Clinical Trials was published. It found that the trial had not considered what constituted a safe dose in humans, and that then-current law had not required it. It made 22 recommendations, including the need for independent expert advice before a high-risk study was allowed, testing only one volunteer at a time (sequential inclusion of participants) in case there were rapid ill effects, and administering drugs slowly by infusion rather than as an injection.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24931',
'title': 'Psychotherapy',
'section': 'Section::::Effects.:Evaluation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 92,
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'passage_text': "One issue with trials is what to use as a placebo treatment group or non-treatment control group. Often, this group includes patients on a waiting list, or those receiving some kind of regular non-specific contact or support. Researchers must consider how best to match the use of inert tablets or sham treatments in placebo-controlled studies in pharmaceutical trials. Several interpretations and differing assumptions and language remain. Another issue is the attempt to standardize and manualize therapies and link them to specific symptoms of diagnostic categories, making them more amenable to research. Some report that this may reduce efficacy or gloss over individual needs. Fonagy and Roth's opinion is that the benefits of the evidence-based approach outweighs the difficulties.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7096313',
'title': 'Controlling for a variable',
'section': 'Section::::Experiments.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In controlled experiments of medical treatment options on humans, researchers randomly assign individuals to a treatment group or control group. This is done to reduce the confounding effect of irrelevant variables that are not being studied, such as the placebo effect. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46232572',
'title': 'In silico clinical trials',
'section': 'Section::::Rationale.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Predicting low-frequency side effects has been difficult, because such side effects need not become apparent until the treatment is adopted by many patients. The appearance of severe side-effects in phase three often causes development to stop, for ethical and economic reasons. Also, in recent years many candidate drugs failed in phase 3 trials because of lack of efficacy rather than for safety reasons. One reason for failure is that traditional trials aim to establish efficacy and safety for most subjects, rather than for individual subjects, and so efficacy is determined by a statistic of central tendency for the trial. Traditional trials do not adapt the treatment to the covariates of subjects: \n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why during medical trials both control and subject group are told they are receiving experimental drug instead both being told they receive placebo?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Telling people you\'re feeding them sugar pills when in fact they\'re taking an experimental drug with possibly disastrous side effects is considered unethical, as it will make them more likely to shrug off bleeding from their ears and eyes as "probably just allergies or something." \n\nTelling people you\'re feeding them an experimental drug when in fact you\'re just giving them sugar pills is less likely to do any harm. ',
'Adding to the other comment, when it eventually goes public, the people will be told they are receiving the actual drug and not just a placebo. It helps both groups stay in the correct state of mind',
"AFAIK during clinical trials participants are not told anything about which of the two they're getting. As far as they know, they could either be getting the real drug or the placebo, and they won't be told which it is/was until after the trial is completed. Telling people they're getting the real drug when they're not (which would be true for the control group) would be very unethical. Did you hear/read somewhere that this was how it worked? ",
'I’ve never heard of a study where the subjects are told they definitively are going to get one or the other, and possibly take the other. This would be considered unethical. An ethical study is one where the subjects are told they *may* get the placebo or drug beforehand. Thereon the best kind of subject is where both the subjects and researchers don’t know who got what until the end. Now having said all that I can answer the question. The power of suggestion is quite strong and the psychosomatic effects (mind effecting the body) of either a placebo or nocebo (opposite of placebo - where you perceive a negative effect from something which shouldn’t normally), can really make or break a study. In that sense it wouldn’t be a good control if you said everyone was told it was the drug or not. Because you couldn’t tell that it actually was the drug or not, or a placebo or nocebo. Again, this is why the best studies are when subjects and researchers only know who was given what until after the study. In that sense you will only be looking at raw data in all possible circumstances. What your looking at then, is a subject who only reports what they feel/effects, completely unknown. Sure there will be people who make up there own minds, but because it’s not already based on a prejudiced expectation of what they ‘believe’ the pill to be, the data is much more valuable. '],
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'query': 'why during medical trials both control and subject group are told they are receiving experimental drug instead both being told they receive placebo?',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '854900',
'title': 'Amphicar',
'section': 'Section::::Powertrain.\n',
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'passage_text': "The Amphicar's engine was mounted at the rear of the craft, driving the rear wheels through a 4-speed manual transmission. For use in the water, the same engine drove a pair of reversible propellers at the rear, with a second gear lever engaging forward or reverse drive. Once in the water, the main gear lever would normally be left in neutral. By engaging first gear as well as drive to the propellers when approaching a boat ramp, the Amphicar could drive itself out of the water.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '574964',
'title': 'Motorboat',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Expansion.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A motorboat has one engine or more that propel the vessel over the top of the water. Boat engines vary in shape, size and type. Engines are installed either inboard or outboard. Inboard engines are part of the boat construction, while outboatboard engines are secured to the transom and hangs off the back of the boat. Motorboat engines run on gasoline or diesel and fuel. Engines come in various types. Engines vary in fuel type such as: gasoline, diesel, gas turbine, rotary combustion or steam. Motorboats are commonly used for recreation, sport or racing. Boat racing is a sport where drivers and engineers compete for fastest boat. The American Powerboat Association (APBA) splits the sport into categories. The categories include: inboard, inboard endurance, professional outboard, stock outboard, unlimited outboard performance craft, drag, modified outboard and offshore. Engines and hulls categorize racing. The two types of hull shape are runabout and hydroplane. Runabout is a v-shape and hydroplane is flat and stepped. The type of hull used depends on the type of water the boat is in and how the boat is being used. Hulls can be made of wood, fiberglass or metal but most hulls today are fiberglass.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '156481',
'title': 'Amphibious vehicle',
'section': 'Section::::General technical notes.\n',
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'passage_text': 'For propulsion in or on the water some vehicles simply make do by spinning their wheels or tracks, while others can power their way forward more effectively using (additional) screw propeller(s) or water jet(s). Most amphibians will work only as a displacement hull when in the water – only a small number of designs have the capability to raise out of the water when speed is gained, to achieve high velocity hydroplaning, skimming over the water surface like speedboats.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3799760',
'title': 'Radio-controlled boat',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Racing power boats.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Power boats are typically Fast electric or internal combustion, (ignition engine or glow plug R/C engine based) and some are steam powered (conventional type, and also flash steam). (At one time some boats used engines working on the compression ignition principle. These were not diesels in the true sense of the word but the modelling fraternity frequently referred to them as such. A few enthusiasts still operate such engines.) The power is commonly used to rotate a submerged propeller, aircraft propeller or jet which in turn provide the thrust to move the craft. Typically power boats have two controls, rudder, outboard motor or stern drive and throttle control. Powered scale boats will often have additional remote-controlled functions to improve realism, e.g. sounding fog horns, rotating radar antennae etc. Some of the more sophisticated powered racing boats may also have additional remote-controlled functions. These may include remote mixture control allowing the driver to optimise the fuel/air mixture during a race. Another function occasionally implemented for racing boats using a surface piercing propellor is remote control of depth or angle of thrust. There are three main types of power boat. RTR(ready-to-run), ARTR(almost-ready-to-run), and kit versions are available. All thoroughbred racing boats are made from kits and the builders add their own gear and radio.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '751892',
'title': 'USS Adder',
'section': 'Section::::Design.\n',
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'passage_text': 'For surface running, they were powered by one gasoline engine that drove the single propeller. When submerged the propeller was driven by a electric motor. The boats could reach on the surface and underwater.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '751942',
'title': 'USS Moccasin (SS-5)',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
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'passage_text': 'For surface running, they were powered by one gasoline engine that drove the single propeller shaft. When submerged the propeller was driven by a electric motor. The boats could reach on the surface and underwater.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '574964',
'title': 'Motorboat',
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'passage_text': 'A motorboat, speedboat, or powerboat is a boat which is powered by an engine. Some motorboats are fitted with inboard engines, others have an outboard motor installed on the rear, containing the internal combustion engine, the gearbox and the propeller in one portable unit.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do motor boat engines not get water logged?',
'selftext': "Any time that there's moving parts, especially in a circular motion, wouldn't the water find a way in? Or are the moving parts so disconnected from the engine that it just doesn't reach it?",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Same reason your car motor doesn't get water logged when you drive in rain or puddles.\n\nThe motor is not in the water. It's spins a shaft which is also attached to a propeller, that goes into the water. ",
"The actual motor is well above the waterline, usually at least 1-2 feet. Like on this outboard boat for example \n\n_URL_0_\n\nThe actual motor part is in that black plastic housing, there's possibly a gear box and shaft that goes down to the actual propeller. In theory water could get into the housing for the shaft, proper maintenance of the shaft seals, and a lot of marine rated grease will protect them from water damage. The grease lubricates any moving parts, but also fills any gaps with grease where water could enter. ",
"On large sailboats with internal motors there is a thing called a stuffing box. Between the water and the engine is a box like compartment that contains a grease infused material that keeps water out yet is slippery enough to allow the shaft to spin. The compartment on my boat is six or eight inches deep, and it is stuffed tightly so there is basically no room for water to enter. One interesting aspect of this is that if there isn't a tiny bit of water coming through, like a drip a minute, the grease can dry out. So the box is made so it can be tightened or loosened. Eventually you run out of room to tighten and you have to pull the boat out of the water and replace the material. "],
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'query': 'how do motor boat engines not get water logged?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '233996',
'title': 'Hostel',
'section': 'Section::::Communal accommodation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Noise can make sleeping difficult on occasions, whether from snoring, talking and social activities in the lounge, people staying up to read with the light on, someone either returning late from bars, or leaving early, or the proximity of so many people. To mitigate this, some wear earplugs or eye-covering sleeping masks.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24044309',
'title': 'Sleep induction',
'section': 'Section::::Darkness and quiet.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Dim or dark surroundings with a peaceful, quiet sound level are conducive to sleep. Retiring to a bedroom, drawing the curtains to block out daylight and closing the door are common methods of achieving this. When this is not possible, such as on an airplane, other methods may be used, such as masks and earplugs for sleeping which airlines commonly issue to passengers for this purpose.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1268981',
'title': 'Sleep hygiene',
'section': 'Section::::Recommendations.:Sleep environment.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Arranging a sleep environment that is quiet, very dark, and cool is recommended. Noises, light, and uncomfortable temperatures have been shown to disrupt continuous sleep. Other recommendations that are frequently made, though less studied, include selecting comfortable mattresses, bedding, and pillows, and eliminating a visible bedroom clock, to prevent focusing on time passing when trying to fall asleep.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '945775',
'title': 'Earplug',
'section': 'Section::::Types and use cases.:Sleep.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
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'passage_text': "Earplugs for sleeping are made to be as comfortable as possible while blocking external sounds that may prevent or disrupt sleep. Specialized earplugs for such noises as a partner's snoring may have sound-dampening enhancements that enable the user to still hear other noises, such as an alarm clock.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '497973',
'title': 'Fire alarm notification appliance',
'section': 'Section::::Effectiveness.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'More recent research suggests that strobe lights are not effective at waking sleeping adults with hearing loss and suggest that a different alarm tone is much more effective. Individuals in the hearing loss community are seeking changes to improved awakening methods.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38500724',
'title': 'Electronic media and sleep',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'A 2010 review concluded that "the use of electronic media by children and adolescents does have a negative impact on their sleep, although the precise effects and mechanisms remain unclear", with the most consistent results associating excessive media use with shorter sleep duration and delayed bed times. A 2016 meta-analysis found that "Bedtime access and use of media devices was significantly associated with inadequate sleep quantity; poor sleep quality; and excessive daytime sleepiness".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39026769',
'title': 'Light pollution in Hong Kong',
'section': 'Section::::Effects.:On neighbourhoods.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'In heavily mixed residential developments such as Mong Kok and Sham Shui Po, some residents have trouble sleeping as they have strong neon lights shining through their bedroom windows, emitted by billboards. Some precincts have been described as being lit up like football stadiums.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is it easier to fall asleep to background noise (radio, TV etc.) than just the plain dark?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['In my experience, a little background noise (white noise) helps cut out any outside noise that might wake you up ',
"This happens because when there's noise around us we feel that someone is near us.\nThus we feel safe and can let go of the tension and fall asleep.\nThis is an evolutionary thing and has been embedded in our DNA. Humans are primarily social animals and keep each other safe.",
"If everything is silent, you are able to hear every noise - the person walking past outside, a family member moving about and other fairly normal noises become prominent and obvious, so you hear them and have to decode them to figure out of they are dangerous - you are deciding whether you need to kick in your 'fight or flight' response and act, or whether the sound is normal and not a worry - for example whether the sound of someone walking past is your neighbor coming home from a bar late at night, or someone nefarious lurking outside your house. Is that humming noise the natural sound of the fridge, or is it something that has been left on accidentally?\n\nWhite noise (or other familiar sound) covers all of this up and let's you relax - if you cannot hear the sound of someone walking past outside over the natural sound in your home then you won't have to go through the evaluation process to determine if it is a danger or not.",
'Another reason is because of hearing damage. If you have tinnitus you might hear a constant sounds that aren’t there; often a high pitched ringing or whine. Background noise can cover this perceived sound and be more comfortable for sleeping. ',
"All of the other comments are totally accurate, but I'm surprised no one's said this: When it's completely silent, many people's brains make an attempt to fill the void with thoughts. So, instead of sleeping, you're now having an existential crisis, or wondering what would've happened if you asked that one girl out, in 3rd grade."],
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'query_id': 'a2ai3x',
'query': 'why is it easier to fall asleep to background noise (radio, tv etc.) than just the plain dark?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '25101',
'title': 'Pittsburgh',
'section': 'Section::::Health care.:Health discoveries.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The Lancet published a 2012 UPMC study of two 9 year quadriplegics being able to move a robotic arm by thought, to pick up objects, shake hands, and even eat. Wiring the brain around spine damage to restore arm and leg muscle function was successful using robotic arms controlled via an embedded computer to translate signals near a small group of neurons with 200 needles.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '72750',
'title': 'Prosthesis',
'section': 'Section::::Current technology and manufacturing.:Myoelectric.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 128,
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'passage_text': 'A myoelectric prosthesis uses the electrical tension generated every time a muscle contracts, as information. This tension can be captured from voluntarily contracted muscles by electrodes applied on the skin to control the movements of the prosthesis, such as elbow flexion/extension, wrist supination/pronation (rotation) or opening/closing of the fingers. A prosthesis of this type utilizes the residual neuromuscular system of the human body to control the functions of an electric powered prosthetic hand, wrist, elbow or foot. This is different from an electric switch prosthesis, which requires straps and/or cables actuated by body movements to actuate or operate switches that control the movements of the prosthesis. There is no clear evidence concluding that myoelectric upper extremity prostheses function better than body-powered prostheses. Advantages to using a myoelectric upper extremity prosthesis include the potential for improvement in cosmetic appeal (this type of prosthesis may have a more natural look), may be better for light everyday activities, and may be beneficial for people experiencing phantom limb pain. When compared to a body-powered prosthesis, a myoelectric prosthesis may not be as durable, may have a longer training time, may require more adjustments, may need more maintenance, and does not provide feedback to the user.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2291786',
'title': 'Jesse Sullivan',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'His bionic arm, a prototype developed by the Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago, differs from most other prostheses, in that it does not use pull cables or nub switches to function and instead uses micro-computers to perform a much wider range of complex motions. It is also the first prototype which enables him to actually sense pressure.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37974009',
'title': 'Bebionic',
'section': 'Section::::Technology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'The bionic hand is said to receive instructions from sensors that detect the movement of the muscles in the patient’s arm. These instructions are processed, which are then directed to the 337 mechanical parts, which are present within this bionic hand that eventually, mimic natural human movements. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13536160',
'title': 'Proto 2',
'section': 'Section::::How it works.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Researchers are experimenting with injectable myoelectric sensors (IMES) that detect muscle activity and wirelessly transmit commands to the prosthetic arm- in order to eliminate the bulkiness. A wire coil wrapped over the shoulder supplies wireless power to the implants and relays signals to computers in the prosthetic that decipher the command and tell the arm to move. The team is also considering implanting electrodes directly on nerves. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '228284',
'title': 'Radial nerve',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The radial nerve and its branches provide motor innervation to the dorsal arm muscles (the triceps brachii and the anconeus) and the extrinsic extensors of the wrists and hands; it also provides cutaneous sensory innervation to most of the back of the hand, except for the back of the little finger and adjacent half of the ring finger (which are innervated by the ulnar nerve).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '237439',
'title': 'Flexor digitorum profundus muscle',
'section': 'Section::::Function.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The lumbricals, intrinsic muscles of the hand, attach to the tendon of flexor digitorum profundus. Thus, the flexor muscle is used to aid the lumbrical muscles in their role as extensors of the interphalangeal joints. As the lumbrical muscles originate on the palmar side of the hand and attach on the dorsal aponeurosis, power is transferred from the flexor digitorum profundus muscle to fully extend the fingers as well as flex the metacarpophalangeal joints.\n',
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'title': 'How are amputees able to control the fingers in their bionic arm ?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Conventional myoelectric prostheses, what 99% of the bionic hands on the market use, are controlled by two inputs. Two sensors on the forearm (in the case of a below elbow amputee) pick up muscle signals. The amputee can either open or close the hand. Programming in the hand and using a variety of combinations of input codes can trigger different grips. For example, triggering open and close at the same time can engage one grip. Holding an open signal for a fixed time can trigger another grip. Sending a very fast/strong open signal can teigger a third grip. Same with a close impluse. \n\nWith practice, it can become somewhat natural. \n\n\nPattern recognition uses many more electrode sensors to pickup more fine movements that can directly pickup more detailed inputs from the remaining muscles, but it still is not at the individual finger control level yet. \n\nTo control 5 individual fingers of flexing and extending. You need 10 different inputs. This level of detail is only possible with inplanted electrodes. To control every joint of each finger like you can with your natural hand, you will need about 35 different inputs.',
'The company I work at actually exclusively works on this!\n\n/u/WashingtonFierce post is incorrect, we do not yet have commercial technology designed specifically to physically interact with the brain and detect limb movement. The amount of time, money, and risk is prohibitively monumental. Imagine being an ethics review board member having to review an experiment about splitting a subject\'s head open to insert a sensor that you may or may not know will work effectively and reliably unless you try.\n\n/u/TheLazyD0G has more or less explained it correctly, and I can add some additional info.\n\n* Your brain sends signals to nerves in the arm, and the nerves are connected to the arm muscles. What actually happens when your arm muscle contracts is a bunch of sodium and Potassium ions moving about the cell walls of your muscles. Since these ions have positive charges to them, their movement generates a very very tiny voltage. The two sensors that sit in the prosthetic socket and touch the forearm are sensitive enough to pick up this change in voltage. This concept is called [EMG](_URL_1_).\n\n* [So depending on the voltage change, the sensors can detect how hard you\'re flexing, or even at all.](_URL_2_)\n\n* [The way the hands are programmed are in that they cycle through different pre-set grip modes, and the patient can only open and close them in the different modes.](_URL_0_) The bebionic3, for example, you start out in Tripod grip (so you only close index, middle, and thumb) and can only close and open in that formation. You have to press the button on the back to change to Power grasp, and then you can only open and close them in a fist. You then have to press the button, AGAIN, to go into another grip, say Precision grasp, and then you can only open and close the thumb and index finger together. In a sense, they\'re just hand-shaped swiss army knives.\n\n\n\n* The patient opens and closes them by flexing their limb in one direction or another. Imagine flexing your wrist towards your chest. That\'s close. Now flex your wrist away from you. That\'s open.\n\n* This can get tedious (how many times did I have to press the button?) and can get frustrating if you make a mistake in a high-pressure situation (e.g. getting change into your wallet after the cashier hands it to you)\n\n* The pattern recognition that /u/TheLazyD0G mentions attempts to use multiple (3+) sensors and machine learning to have the arm change the grip based on which hand gesture you trained it to do earlier. However, this concept is still bogged down by the hand\'s programming of only changing between different pre-set gestures.\n\n* We have not yet achieved the level of fineness in detecting individual finger movements, largely to the concept of "Crosstalk". With the current size of these skin sensors, the region of muscle they observe can\'t distinguish whether a movement was for one finger versus another. Implantable sensors can theoretically solve this issue, but research into them so far have been very preliminary.\n\nLet me know if you have other questions!',
'Depends on the exact type of bionic arm; but in general, the bionic limbs got sensors somewhere in the body (sometimes at the stump itself, sometimes elsewhere in the body) that measures either muscle contraction or nerve/neuron activity directly and interprets the different signals into limb position or movement velocity. Some variations are more intuitive to control than others, but in general over time the person learns how to control it with a bit more dexterity.',
'None of y’all ELI5. Either that or your 5 year olds are are intellectual prodigy.\n\nAhem...\n\nNERVES AND WIRES.\n\nWe control our fingers with NERVES like we control most things in our body.\n\nNerves are like wires that go down our arms from our brain to our fingers in a bundle.\n\nIf we loose an arm by accident, the wires are still in our arm bit we still have, they just don’t go to any fingers anymore. The best doctors find the out these finger control wires... nerves... and make them go to the arm muscles on the arm bit that we still have instead.\n\nNow when we think of moving our fingers, our arm skin moves instead, just a little bit.\n\nThey make the robot arm scan the real arm where the wires have been put by the doctor to move the skin! The cup bit where it attaches has the sensors.\n\nWhen the robot arm senses the arm skin make a move, it moves the robot fingers instead!\n\nThey swap the lost human wires in the arm with robot WIRES!\n\nEDIT: Thx for the gold stranger! First one! I need to find the ELI5 for what it means now...'],
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'query': 'how are amputees able to control the fingers in their bionic arm ?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '464990',
'title': 'Student loan',
'section': 'Section::::United States.:Criticism.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In coverage through established media outlets, many borrowers have expressed feelings of victimization by the student loan corporations. There is a comparison between these accounts and the college credit card trend in America during the 2000s, though the amounts owed by students on their student loans are almost always higher than the amount owed on credit cards. Many anecdotal accounts of the hardships caused by excessive student loan debt levels are chronicled by the organization Student Loan Justice which is founded and led by consumer rights advocate and author Alan Collinge. Student loans cannot be discharged in a bankruptcy proceeding unless the debtor can demonstrate "undue hardship." After the passage of the bankruptcy reform bill of 2005, even private student loans are not discharged during bankruptcy. This provided a credit risk free loan for the lender, averaging 7 percent a year.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3861448',
'title': 'Debt settlement',
'section': 'Section::::Common objections.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
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'passage_text': 'Damages credit - Credit reports will show evidence of debt settlements and the associated FICO scores will be lowered temporarily as a result. However, if a "paid in full" letter is obtained from the creditor, the debtor\'s credit report should show no sign of a debt settlement. Additionally, as debtors settle their accounts the score starts to go back up again. Some Debt Settlement companies offer Credit Repair in their programs in order to erase some of the negative remarks on credit reports.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '178748',
'title': 'Debt relief',
'section': 'Section::::Personal debt relief.:Contemporary.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
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'passage_text': 'The increasing size of the non-housing personal debt market and ease with which one can obtain personal credit has led to some consumers falling behind on payments. As of Q3 2017, student loans have the highest rates of serious delinquency (90 or more days delinquent) with approximately 9.6% of all student loan debt falling into this bucket. Credit card debt and auto loan debt have serious delinquency rates of 4.6% and 2.4% respectively. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '631175',
'title': 'Payday loan',
'section': "Section::::Proponents' stance and counterarguments.:Markets provide services otherwise unavailable.\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
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'passage_text': 'These arguments are countered in two ways. First, the history of borrowers turning to illegal or dangerous sources of credit seems to have little basis in fact according to Robert Mayer\'s 2012 "Loan Sharks, Interest-Rate Caps, and Deregulation". Outside of specific contexts, interest rates caps had the effect of allowing small loans in most areas without an increase of "loan sharking". Next, since 80% of payday borrowers will roll their loan over at least one time because their income prevents them from paying the principal within the repayment period, they often report turning to friends or family members to help repay the loan according to a 2012 report from the Center for Financial Services Innovation. In addition, there appears to be no evidence of unmet demand for small dollar credit in states which prohibit or strictly limit payday lending.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1476274',
'title': 'Credit history',
'section': 'Section::::Adverse credit.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Credit scores assess the likelihood that a borrower will repay a loan or other credit obligation based on factors like their borrowing and repayment history, the types of credit they have taken out and the overall length of their credit history. The higher the score, the better the credit history and the higher the probability that the loan will be repaid on time. When creditors report an excessive number of late payments, or trouble with collecting payments, the score suffers. Similarly, when adverse judgments and collection agency activity are reported, the score decreases even more. Repeated delinquencies or public record entries can lower the score and trigger what is called a negative credit rating or adverse credit history.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3842655',
'title': 'Credit score',
'section': 'Section::::By country.:United Kingdom.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 54,
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'passage_text': 'It is very difficult for a consumer to know in advance whether they have a high enough credit score to be accepted for credit with a given lender. This situation is due to the complexity and structure of credit scoring, which differs from one lender to another.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19264478',
'title': 'Alternative data',
'section': 'Section::::Alternative data for credit in North America.:United States.:Current use of alternative data.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Since the financial crisis of late 2008, many Americans have struggled with the negative change to their credit score. Reduced credit lines resulting in a new group of consumers in need of liquidity forced this growing consumer segment to seek alternative financial services providers. Businesses relying on traditional credit reports to make credit decisions have had limited to no visibility on the new credit usage behaviors of this growing portion because alternative data is not information that the traditional bureaus capture or tend to report.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why can paying off your student loans hurt your credit score? It seems like it would be a good thing.',
'selftext': 'Any information that would help explain credit scores would be very much appreciated.',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Part of a credit score is being able to prove you can pay off debt, which requires having debt to begin with. That’s why people who have never had a credit card or loan generally don’t have good credit. Without any debt, you can’t prove you have the ability to pay it off, hence the lower score.\n\nTo summarize, lots of debt = bad / no debt = bad / some debt = good',
"Making payments on time on your student loans is good. Everything in your credit report ages out over time. The day you make your last payment is the local maximum for your credit score, if you don't have any other transactions. Years later, your score will be lower, because your last good report will be older.\n\nSo, if you run off to be homeless in the forest and live your life with cash, you don't have a very good credit score. This sorta makes sense, you might be an anti-social nutcase that wouldn't pay back the money if someone loaned it to you. It's not proof you are, but it's uncertainty that you might.\n\nSo, you need to make sure that there are good reports every month. And you need to relationship between the credit limit and the actual payments is favorable. There are many, many weights used in the calculation, all of which are proprietary to keep people from gaming the system.",
"A credit score is an indicator of how good a customer you would be to creditors. Part of that is proving that you can pay your bills on time, which is why missed payments or having too much debt can cause damage to a credit score. But another part of it is showing that you're actually willing to take on debt in the first place, and proving that you can manage it and pay it. So if you're ever in a position where you have no debt whatsoever, it can adversely affect your score as well. After all, creditors want to know that you'll actually be a customer - someone who never takes anything on credit is someone they'll never earn money from.\n\nThis means that there's a weird limbo where having too much debt is bad and having too little debt is also bad. If you're hoping to improve your credit score, having some debt - like a car loan or modest credit card usage - is important, because it helps establish you as a customer that people should want to lend to.",
'A [search](_URL_0_). Near but not identical threads.',
'Paying off student loans early doesn\'t "hurt" your credit score, but it does have an opportunity cost where your credit score could have been higher if you would have paid them over time. \n\nSomeone that has made consistent and regular payments for 10+ years is more valuable than someone that zeroed their loans 5 years ago and hasn\'t had to keep steady payments since. \n\nThe bank KNOWS the 10+ year guy can handle regular payments and has a proven track record of making sure there\'s always enough in the checking account to make his payments, even if they\'re unemployed. \n\nThe 5 year guy is probably good too, but the bank doesn\'t KNOW if he can keep his payments regular. For all they know he\'s a chronic gambler that got lucky 5 years ago and paid off his debts. If they give him a loan today he could go lose it all on black at the casino and miss payments. \n\nWith all that said, pay off your loans in order of highest interest. If you\'re under 30 everything you buy is going to be debt financed anyway, so you\'re going to be building a history no matter what. Just be smart and zero the 20% credit card before zeroing your 3% student loans. ',
'The most important thing to know here is that there\'s a common misconception of what a credit score actually means. \n\nMany people think it\'s a number that says if you repay your debts. And while that\'s true it\'s not the only reason the score exists.\n\nThe score is actually a store representing how likely the lender is to make money from you. A big part of that is the likelihood that you will default (therefore the bank loses the money they lent you). But also if you repay loans before significant interest is paid, the bank doesn\'t make any money off the transaction. \n\nThis is the key. Pay off your loans early and the bank won\'t make any money off you. That makes you a bad customer because they are not likely to make much profit. Loans always have costs, there\'s an innate risk but also the money they spend to evaluate the transaction and determine if they want to lend you money. If you constantly repay loans before the banks can recoup those costs, you actually become someone they don\'t want to lend money too!\n\nSo the credit score is a score the bank can look at and ask themselves "if we loan this guy money, will we make a profit in the deal?". The truth is that the actual score is far too little information for most banks and most take the actual underlying data on your credit report and use it to generate their own internal score for you as a client. But the ultimate indicator is not exclusively the risk of default, it\'s the potential for profit. Defult is just one element of profit potential.',
"Paying off your student loans won't hurt your credit very much, and its not something you should worry about.\n\nif you are making a payment on time every month, that shows you are reliable. Once the loan is repaid, you are no longer making a monthly payment. You might have become unreliable. Maybe you lost your job. Its hard for the bank to know. Unknown = risk. Risk = lower credit score.\n\nI don't think you'll see this affect if you have other bills and pay those bills on time.\n\n"],
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'query_id': 'b5s4wd',
'query': 'why can paying off your student loans hurt your credit score? it seems like it would be a good thing.',
'query_type': 'Economics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '234857',
'title': 'Yawn',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'During a yawn, the tensor tympani muscle in the middle ear contracts, creating a rumbling noise from within the head. Yawning is sometimes accompanied, in humans and other animals, by an instinctive act of stretching several parts of the body, including arms, neck, shoulders and back.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '234857',
'title': 'Yawn',
'section': 'Section::::Proposed causes.\n',
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'passage_text': "A similar hypothesis suggests yawning is used for regulation of body temperature. Similarly, Guttmann and Dopart (2011) found, that, when a subject wearing earplugs yawned, a breeze is heard, caused by the flux of the air moving between the subject's ear and the environment. Guttmann and Dopart determined that a yawn causes one of three possible situations to occur: the brain cools down due to an influx or outflux of oxygen, the pressure in the brain is reduced by an outflux of oxygen, or the pressure of the brain is increased by an influx of air caused by increased cranial space.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '485578',
'title': 'Exhalation',
'section': 'Section::::Brain involvement.:Involuntary expiration.:Yawning.\n',
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'passage_text': "Yawning is considered a non-respiratory gas movement. A non-respiratory gas movement is another process that moves air in and out of the lungs that don't include breathing. Yawning is a reflex that tends to disrupt the normal breathing rhythm and is believed to be contagious as well. The reason why we yawn is unknown, but some think we yawn as a way to regulate the body’s levels of O and CO. Studies done in a controlled environment with different levels of O and CO have disproved that hypothesis. Although there isn’t a concrete explanation as to why we yawn, others think people exhale as a cooling mechanism for our brains. Studies on animals have supported this idea and it is possible humans could be linked to it as well. What is known is that yawning does ventilate all the alveoli in the lungs.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '234857',
'title': 'Yawn',
'section': 'Section::::Proposed causes.\n',
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'passage_text': "One study states that yawning occurs when one's blood contains increased amounts of carbon dioxide and therefore becomes in need of the influx of oxygen (or expulsion of carbon dioxide) that a yawn can provide. Yawning may, in fact, reduce oxygen intake compared to normal respiration. However, neither providing more oxygen nor reducing carbon dioxide in air decreased yawning.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '234857',
'title': 'Yawn',
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'passage_text': 'Yawning ("oscitation") most often occurs in adults immediately before and after sleep, during tedious activities and as a result of its contagious quality. It is commonly associated with tiredness, stress, sleepiness, or even boredom and hunger. In humans, yawning is often triggered by others yawning (e.g. seeing a person yawning, talking to someone on the phone who is yawning) and is a typical example of positive feedback. This "contagious" yawning has also been observed in chimpanzees, dogs, cats, and reptiles (including birds), and can occur across species. Approximately 20 psychological reasons for yawning have been proposed by scholars, but there is little agreement on the primacy of any one.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '234857',
'title': 'Yawn',
'section': 'Section::::Proposed causes.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Still another hypothesis suggests yawns are caused by the same chemicals (neurotransmitters) in the brain that affect emotions, mood, appetite, and other phenomena. These chemicals include serotonin, dopamine, glutamic acid, and nitric oxide. As more (or fewer) of these compounds are activated in the brain, the frequency of yawning increases. Conversely, a greater presence in the brain of opioid neurotransmitters, such as endorphins, reduces the frequency of yawning. Individuals in opioid withdrawal exhibit a greatly increased frequency of yawning. Patients taking the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) Paxil (paroxetine HCl) or Celexa (citalopram) have been observed yawning more often. Excessive yawning is more common during the first three months of taking the SSRIs. Anecdotal reports by users of psilocybin mushrooms often describe a marked stimulation of yawning while inebriated, often associated with excess lacrimation (eyes producing tears) and nasal mucosal stimulation, especially while "peaking" (undergoing the most intense portion of the psilocybin experience). While opioids have been demonstrated to reduce this yawning and lacrimation provoked by psilocybin, it is not clear that the same pathways that induce yawning as a symptom of opioid abstinence in habituated users are the mode of action in yawning in mushroom users. While, even, opioid-dependent users of psilocybin on stable opioid therapy often report yawning and excess lacrimation while undergoing this entheogenic mushroom experience, there are no reports on mushrooms in the literature regarding habituated users experiencing other typical opioid withdrawal symptoms, such as cramping, physical pain, anxiety, gooseflesh, etc.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '234857',
'title': 'Yawn',
'section': 'Section::::Proposed causes.\n',
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'passage_text': "Another notion states that yawning is the body's way of controlling brain temperature. In 2007, researchers, including a professor of psychology from the University of Albany, proposed yawning may be a means to keep the brain cool. Mammalian brains operate best within a narrow temperature range. In two experiments, subjects with cold packs attached to their foreheads and subjects asked to breathe strictly-nasally exhibited reduced contagious-yawning when watching videos of people yawning. \n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'what makes our ears ‘clog’ in high altitudes and what makes them pop by yawning?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Im pretty sure when there’s low air pressure it messes around with how your inner ear functions and yawning sorta stretches it making it “pop”.',
'Air in your middle ear is at a higher pressure than the surrounding air; popping is allowing that air to equilibrate with surrounding air (via a connection to the throat).',
'When you go from a lower altitude to a higher altitude, the ambient air pressure decreases. Because the air inside of your eardrum is semi-trapped (you can clear them) it expands as you go higher and puts pressure on the eardrum. When you yawn/chew/etc it helps open up the eustachian tubes that go from the backside of your eardrum to your throat and equalize the pressure.\n\nSource: I have 2200+ skydives and had to clear my ears a lot. '],
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'query': 'what makes our ears ‘clog’ in high altitudes and what makes them pop by yawning?',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '18290',
'title': 'Light-emitting diode',
'section': 'Section::::Colors.\n',
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'passage_text': 'By selection of different semiconductor materials, single-color LEDs can be made that emit light in a narrow band of wavelengths from near-infrared through the visible spectrum and into the ultraviolet range. As the wavelengths become shorter, because of the larger band gap of these semiconductors, the operating voltage of the LED increases. \n',
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'title': 'Light-emitting diode',
'section': 'Section::::Colors.:White.:RGB systems.\n',
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'passage_text': "Multicolor LEDs also offer a new means to form light of different colors. Most perceivable colors can be formed by mixing different amounts of three primary colors. This allows precise dynamic color control. However, this type of LED's emission power decays exponentially with rising temperature,\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44234',
'title': 'Stage lighting',
'section': 'Section::::Qualities in lighting.:Color.\n',
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'passage_text': 'LED fixtures create color through additive color mixing with red, green, blue, and in some cases amber, LEDs at different intensities. This type of color mixing is often used with borderlights and cyclorama lights.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18290',
'title': 'Light-emitting diode',
'section': 'Section::::Colors.:White.:Phosphor-based LEDs.\n',
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'passage_text': "This method involves coating LEDs of one color (mostly blue LEDs made of InGaN) with phosphors of different colors to form white light; the resultant LEDs are called phosphor-based or phosphor-converted white LEDs (pcLEDs). A fraction of the blue light undergoes the Stokes shift, which transforms it from shorter wavelengths to longer. Depending on the original LED's color, various color phosphors are used. Using several phosphor layers of distinct colors broadens the emitted spectrum, effectively raising the color rendering index (CRI).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8969693',
'title': 'Grow light',
'section': 'Section::::Common types.:Light emitting diodes (LEDs).\n',
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'passage_text': 'Individual LEDs usually provide only a single narrow range of colors, and so different color LEDs are mixed in grow lights in proportions depending on the intended use. It is known from the study of photomorphogenesis that green, red, far-red and blue light spectra have an effect on root formation, plant growth, and flowering, but there are not enough scientific studies or field-tested trials using LED grow lights to recommended specific color ratios for optimal plant growth under LED grow lights. It has been shown that many plants will grow normally if given both red and blue light. However, many studies indicate that red and blue light only provides the most cost efficient method of growth, plant growth is still better under light supplemented with green.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '118396',
'title': 'Band gap',
'section': 'Section::::In semiconductor physics.:Light Emitting Diodes and Laser Diodes.\n',
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'passage_text': 'LEDs and laser diodes usually emit photons with energy close to and slightly larger than the band gap of the semiconductor material from which they are made. Therefore, as the band gap energy increases, the LED or laser color changes from infrared to red, through the rainbow to violet, then to UV.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '952677',
'title': 'Backlight',
'section': 'Section::::Usage.:LED backlights.\n',
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'passage_text': 'RGB LEDs can deliver an enormous color gamut to screens. When using three separate LEDs (additive color) the backlight can produce a color spectrum that closely matches the color filters in the LCD pixels themselves. In this way, the filter passband can be narrowed so that each color component lets only a very narrow band of spectrum through the LCD. This improves the efficiency of the display since less light is blocked when white is displayed. Also, the actual red, green, and blue points can be moved farther out so that the display is capable of reproducing more vivid colors.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does an LED change colors?',
'selftext': 'Is there any mechanical or physical change? Are there multiple different colored LEDs in each "bulb" that are illuminated in various configurations to produce each color (similar to an RGB display)? Or can one unit actually produce light of variable wavelengths?',
'category': 'Technology',
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'answers': ["A color changing LED isn't one LED in a package but three LEDs along with a small computer to drive them. The LED is made up of red, green and blue LEDs each of which can be controlled by a microcontroller. Since the two legs on the LED that supply the power are connected to the microcontroller and not the LED elements a current limit resistor is not required.\n\nThe microcontroller is able to turn each of the colors on or off, so if the red LED is turned on then the output from the color changing LED is red. When the blue LED is turned on it is blue, if both the blue and red LEDs are turned on then the color changing LED is a shade of purple (called magenta). Similarly combining red with green gives yellow and blue & green gives cyan.\n\nAlthough the color changing LED uses the six colors mentioned above, it slowly changes from one to another. This is still done using the three basic red, green & blue elements. If the red LED is combined with the blue LED, but the blue LED is only driven at 50% of its normal brightness then a color half way between red and magenta is generated.\n\nWhilst the red LED is left turned on, if the blue LED is slowly taken from 0% brightness to 100% brightness then the color will gradually change from red to magenta.\n\nIf a standard LED is turned on and off very quickly, say 100 times every second then as far as the human eye is concerned it looks like it is constantly on. If the amount of time the LED is on for is the same as the time it is off for then it will be on for 50% of the time and 50% of its full brightness.\n\nThis same method can be done with the three LED elements inside the color changing LED. This means it is possible to combine any amount of the red, green and blue to give the desired color. Looking once again at the change from red to magenta, if the blue LED starts mainly turned off, goes to being on and off in even amounts and then to mainly being on then the the color will change as required.\n\n[Source](_URL_0_)",
'Multicolor LEDs generally have an element for each color. There are RGB LEDs as well. Color can also be slightly adjusted by changing the operating voltage. \n\nEdit. Each element color, they can then be turned on in combinations to make other colors. ',
'Masters Electrical Engineering. Most RGB LED have all three colors in them. You then light a specific one my applying power to the color you want. If you look at large LEDs that can do RGB, they have 4 prongs coming off. You then power the prong you want an bam! Color. One for ground, and then each color gets a prong. If you make a super small RGB LED and then combine a bunch into a massive array, you get a tv.\n\nYou can do it with a single light source, then apply a polarizing filter. The filter is controlled by a small current. This can produce colors as well and is the idea behind LCD displays.',
'An older style of multi-colour LED is the type that have a red and a green LED in the one package. They usually have three legs. \n\nDespite having a red and green LED, they can actually display a third colour. Light them both and you get yellow, because red and green light combined give you yellow light. ',
'As most have said, they typically contain a red, green, and blue LED in one package. \n\nJust wanted to point out: this is also how a TV or computer monitor works. There is a red, green, and blue pixel in a pattern over and over.\n\nBy controlling each color, you can basically make any color.',
"Here's a [close-up of a surface mount RGB LED](_URL_0_) that shows you what's going on inside.\n\nYou get different colors by combining the red, green and blue in student quantities. To dim one of the colors, you switch it on and off very quickly. The higher the ratio of on time to off time, the brighter it is.\n\nThey'll often have a diffusing cover to blend the colors together.",
'Wow thanks everyone! That would have taken me hours of googling and synthesizing information from multiple sources. This is more than I wanted which is even better. '],
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'query': 'how does an led change colors?',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '857766',
'title': 'Annual percentage rate',
'section': 'Section::::Failings in the United States.:Dependence on loan period.\n',
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'passage_text': 'APR is dependent on the time period for which the loan is calculated. That is, the APR for a 30-year loan cannot be compared to the APR for a 20-year loan. APR "can" be used to show the relative impact of different payment schedules (such as balloon payments or biweekly payments instead of straight monthly payments), but most standard APR calculators have difficulty with those calculations.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '25957483',
'title': 'Race to the Top',
'section': 'Section::::Results.\n',
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'passage_text': 'APR\'s are created for each state to document the progress toward the annual and four-year targets set forth in the grantees\' applications. Because the performance measures included in the applications are indicators of success in improving student outcomes, the APR is one way to hold states accountable for meeting targets in improving student outcomes. An APR also includes reports and updates on laws, statutes, regulations, and/or guidelines that impact reform plans, as well as progress in meeting the "absolute priority" and "competitive preference priority", which emphasize a comprehensive focus on reform and an emphasis on STEM education. The APR includes updates on progress in meeting the invitation priorities in the approved plans (innovations for improving early learning outcomes; expansiouun and adaptation of statewide longitudinal data systems; P-20 coordination, vertical and horizontal alignment; and school-level conditions for reform, innovation, and learning).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '550823',
'title': 'Australian Prudential Regulation Authority',
'section': 'Section::::Regulatory scope.\n',
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'passage_text': 'APRA oversees banks, credit unions, building societies, friendly societies, general insurance, health insurance, reinsurance, and life insurance companies, and most members of the superannuation industry. It ensures that these institutions keep their financial promises; that is, that they will remain financially sound and able to meet their obligations to depositors, fund members and policy holders. It was established on 1 July 1998. APRA is funded largely by the industries that it supervises. APRA currently supervises institutions holding A$5.4 trillion in assets for Australian depositors, policyholders and superannuation fund members.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '857766',
'title': 'Annual percentage rate',
'section': 'Section::::Multiple definitions of effective APR.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The nominal APR is calculated as: the rate, for a payment period, multiplied by the number of payment periods in a year. However, the exact legal definition of "effective APR", or EAR, can vary greatly in each jurisdiction, depending on the type of fees included, such as participation fees, loan origination fees, monthly service charges, or late fees. The effective APR has been called the "mathematically-true" interest rate for each year.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2903621',
'title': 'African Peer Review Mechanism',
'section': "Section::::Africa's Self- Assessment for Good Governance.\n",
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'passage_text': 'APRM is a tool for sharing experiences, reinforcing best practices, identifying deficiencies, and assessing capacity-building needs to foster policies, standards and practices that lead to political stability, high economic growth, sustainable development and accelerated sub-regional and continental economic integration.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '857766',
'title': 'Annual percentage rate',
'section': 'Section::::Multiple definitions of effective APR.:United States.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In the U.S., the calculation and disclosure of APR is governed by the Truth in Lending Act (which is implemented by the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB) in Regulation Z of the Act). In general, APR in the United States is expressed as the periodic (for instance, monthly) interest rate times the number of compounding periods in a year (also known as the nominal interest rate); since the APR must include certain non-interest charges and fees, it requires more detailed calculation. The APR must be disclosed to the borrower within 3 days of applying for a mortgage. This information is typically mailed to the borrower and the APR is found on the truth in lending disclosure statement, which also includes an amortization schedule.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '489450',
'title': 'Automatic Packet Reporting System',
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'passage_text': 'APRS has been developed since the late 1980s by Bob Bruninga, call sign WB4APR, currently a senior research engineer at the United States Naval Academy. He still maintains the main APRS Web site. The initialism "APRS" was derived from his call sign.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is an APR?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
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'answers': ["It's the price of money. If you want 100 dollars, I'll give it to you for 120$ a year from now. That's a 20% APR, give some not ELI5 assumptions,imo. ",
'APR is annual percentage rate, or otherwise, simple interest. For example, if you have a $10 loan for the year with 50% APR, that is 50% of $10 = $5. So you owe both the principal amount ($10) plus interest ($5) = $15. \n',
"Its a specific way of calculating interest to permit fair comparisons. It's often mandated by governments that is should be quoted alongside any other interest statement as otherwise a loan can be made to look a better deal than it actually is. It usually also has to incorporate any fees charged.\n\nTake /u/squadm-nkey's example but you had to pay back the $120 in 12 monthly payments of $10. That might be advertised as 20% interest. However you only had the first $10 for 1 month, the second for 2 and so on. Averaging it out You borrowed $100 for only 6 months. So its closer to 40% (41.3) when calculated as the APR.\n ",
"You've got the complete answer already, but split up over multiple posts so I'll just collate things into one coherent story.\n\nAPR stands for annual percentage rate, and its purpose is to provide a standardized way of comparing compound interest rates with different periods. \n\nThe way compound interest works is that you start with an initial amount, an annual interest rate is specified (a percentage), an a compounding rate is specified (a length of time called a period), and then once per period, the initial amount is increased by the annual rate divided by the compounding rate. Importantly, the higher the compounding rate is, the faster interest with a given rate accrues.\n\nFor example, if you start with $100 and get 30% interest compounded monthly, each month you get 30/12=2.5% interest, so at the end of a year you'll have $100 increased by 2.5% twelve times, or a total of $134.49.\n\nIf I asked if whether you'd rather get 30% interest compounded monthly or 30.5% interest compounded monthly, obviously you'd take the 30.5%. But what if the alternative wasn't 30.5% compounded monthly but 30.5% compounded *quarterly*? Is that still better?\n\nIf you punch in the numbers from the example above, that would be $100 increased by 30.5/4=7.625% four times, which is only $134.17 -- a higher interest rate, but the lower compounding rate makes it pay out less in the long run.\n\nOkay, what about 29.5% compounded weekly, or daily, or any number of tiny tweaks to both the interest rate and the compounding rate? How can people possibly expect you to do this kind of calculation every time just to figure out when one interest rate/schedule is better than another?\n\nThey don't -- you just look at the total percentage each one would return over the course of a year, which is exactly what APR measures. For example, the APR of the two examples given above are approximately 34.49% and 34.17%, so obviously the first one is better. ",
"Mortgage Banking Professional here. Lots of misinformation about this floating around. It is not the rate your interest compounds. It is the total cost of a loan including any fees incurred. This is why you are generally given an interest rate and an APR. If a loan or credit card has no fees attached the APR and rate would be the same. \n\nIt is very important to know what both numbers are. One of the most underhanded tactics I see in my industry is giving a great low rate, and attaching a ton of fees. So typically you would see a Rate of 4% and an APR of 4.457% or something like that. You could compare that to a Rate of 4.375 and an APR of 4.505. Logic would say the lower APR is a better loan right? Not really. What you should be analyzing is the difference between the rate and the APR. That difference is the cost in up front fees and it gets added to your loan amount, which means you start out with a higher loan balance and thus end up paying interest on those fees. \n\nIdeally you want the APR and the interest rate to be as close as possible. This would indicate you aren't getting a huge upfront charge to borrow the money.\n\ntl:dr APR is a calculation of all fees *and* interest expressed as a rate percentile\n\n"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '7zmgqa',
'query': 'what is an apr?',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '33784314',
'title': 'Social stress',
'section': 'Section::::Mental health.:Anxiety.\n',
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'passage_text': "The biological basis for anxiety disorders is rooted in the consistent activation of the stress response. Fear, which is the defining emotion of an anxiety disorder, occurs when someone perceives a situation (a stressor) as threatening. This activates the stress response. If a person has difficulty regulating this stress response, it may activate inappropriately. Stress can therefore arise when a real stressor is not present or when something isn't actually threatening. This can lead to the development of an anxiety disorder (panic attacks, social anxiety, OCD, etc.). Social anxiety disorder is defined as the fear of being judged or evaluated by others, even if no such threat is actually present.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '922',
'title': 'Anxiety',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Anxiety disorders.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Anxiety disorders are a group of mental disorders characterized by exaggerated feelings of anxiety and fear responses. Anxiety is a worry about future events and fear is a reaction to current events. These feelings may cause physical symptoms, such as a fast heart rate and shakiness. There are a number of anxiety disorders: including generalized anxiety disorder, specific phobia, social anxiety disorder, separation anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, panic disorder, and selective mutism. The disorder differs by what results in the symptoms. People often have more than one anxiety disorder.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '57688',
'title': 'Anxiety disorder',
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'passage_text': 'Anxiety disorders are a group of mental disorders characterized by significant feelings of anxiety and fear. Anxiety is a worry about future events, and fear is a reaction to current events. These feelings may cause physical symptoms, such as a fast heart rate and shakiness. There are several anxiety disorders, including generalized anxiety disorder, specific phobia, social anxiety disorder, separation anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, panic disorder, and selective mutism. The disorder differs by what results in the symptoms. People often have more than one anxiety disorder.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20448627',
'title': 'Mixed anxiety–depressive disorder',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Mixed anxiety–depressive disorder (MADD) is a diagnostic category defining patients who have both anxiety and depressive symptoms of limited and equal intensity accompanied by at least some autonomic features. Autonomic features are involuntary physical symptoms usually caused by an overactive nervous system, such as panic attacks or intestinal distress. The World Health Organization\'s ICD-10 describes "Mixed anxiety and depressive disorder": "...when symptoms of anxiety and depression are both present, but neither is clearly predominant, and neither type of symptom is present to the extent that justifies a diagnosis if considered separately. When both anxiety and depressive symptoms are present and severe enough to justify individual diagnoses, both diagnoses should be recorded and this category should not be used."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '57688',
'title': 'Anxiety disorder',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.:Differential diagnosis.\n',
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'passage_text': "The diagnosis of an anxiety disorder requires first ruling out an underlying medical cause. Diseases that may present similar to an anxiety disorder, including certain endocrine diseases (hypo- and hyperthyroidism, hyperprolactinemia), metabolic disorders (diabetes), deficiency states (low levels of vitamin D, B2, B12, folic acid), gastrointestinal diseases (celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity, inflammatory bowel disease), heart diseases, blood diseases (anemia), and brain degenerative diseases (Parkinson's disease, dementia, multiple sclerosis, Huntington's disease).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19356',
'title': 'Mental disorder',
'section': 'Section::::Classifications.:Disorders.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Anxiety or fear that interferes with normal functioning may be classified as an anxiety disorder. Commonly recognized categories include specific phobias, generalized anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, agoraphobia, obsessive-compulsive disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20449321',
'title': 'Communication apprehension',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Situation anxiety.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Situational anxiety is a psychological reaction of a person due to a specific situation that may not have any relation with the person or context. This anxiety is triggered by a special combination of audience and context that involves different dimensions and creates a unique scenario. As an example we can see a first date. Although a person may not suffer from communication apprehension; the situation of being with a person that they have feelings for, on a new environment, and being the first time they experience this situation, can increase the stress levels and create communication apprehension.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does General Anxiety Disorder actually work, and why is it thought to occur? Is it "all mental" or chemical?',
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'category': 'Biology',
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'answers': ["there is no difference between mental and chemical. there is no difference between physical illness and mental illness, they all take place in this physical world made of chemicals.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nas to how it works: we don't exactly know. we don't understand the brain enough to explain most mental illnesses or their medications. we just know that some things help and some things don't. why? we have theories, but they are all big question-marks that can be completely outdated next year. we estimate that about 1/3 of it is genetical 'weakness' that gets activated by something you experience. what that something is depends wildly per person. "],
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'query': 'how does general anxiety disorder actually work, and why is it thought to occur? is it "all mental" or chemical?',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '192926',
'title': 'Vostok 2',
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'passage_text': 'The flight was an almost complete success, marred only by a heater that had inadvertently been turned off prior to liftoff and that allowed the inside temperature to drop to , a bout of space sickness, and a troublesome re-entry when the reentry module failed to separate cleanly from its service module.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '455201',
'title': 'Spaceplane',
'section': 'Section::::Challenges.:Atmospheric reentry.\n',
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'passage_text': "Orbital spacecraft reentering the Earth's atmosphere must shed significant velocity, resulting in extreme heating. For example, the Space Shuttle thermal protection system (TPS) protects the orbiter's interior structure from surface temperatures that reach as high as , well above the melting point of steel. Suborbital spaceplanes fly lower energy trajectories that do not put as much stress on the spacecraft thermal protection system.\n",
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'title': 'Sharp Edge Flight Experiment',
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'passage_text': "During re-entry of spacecraft into the earth's atmosphere, the high velocity of the spacecraft together with friction and displacement of air molecules leads to temperatures of over 2000\xa0°C. In order to not burn up, spaceships need very expensive and sometimes failing heat shields.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6890573',
'title': 'Liquid cooling and ventilation garment',
'section': 'Section::::Space applications.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Because the space environment is essentially a vacuum, heat cannot be lost through heat convection, and can only be directly dissipated through thermal radiation, a much slower process. Thus, even though the environment of space can be extremely cold, excessive heat build-up is inevitable. Without an LCVG, there would be no means by which to expel this heat, and it would affect not only EVA performance, but the health of the suit occupant as well. The LCVG used with the Apollo/Skylab A7L suit could remove heat at a rate of approximately 586 watts.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '403717',
'title': 'Space Shuttle Challenger disaster',
'section': 'Section::::Pre-launch conditions.:Ice.\n',
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'passage_text': "The Thiokol engineers had also argued that the low overnight temperatures of the evening prior to launch would almost certainly result in SRB temperatures below their redline of . Ice had accumulated all over the launch pad, raising concerns that ice could damage the shuttle upon lift-off. The Kennedy Ice Team inadvertently pointed an infrared camera at the aft field joint of the right SRB and found the temperature to be only . This was believed to be the result of supercooled air blowing on the joint from the liquid oxygen (LOX) tank vent. It was much lower than the air temperature and far below the design specifications for the O-rings. The low reading was later determined to be erroneous, the error caused by not following the temperature probe manufacturer's instructions. Tests and adjusted calculations later confirmed that the temperature of the joint was not substantially different from the ambient temperature.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56437',
'title': 'Infrared astronomy',
'section': 'Section::::Infrared technology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 303,
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'passage_text': 'Low temperature is often achieved by a coolant, which can run out. Space missions have either ended or shifted to "warm" observations when the coolant supply used up. For example, WISE ran out of coolant in October 2010, about ten months after being launched. (See also NICMOS, Spitzer Space Telescope)\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1852572',
'title': 'Marangoni effect',
'section': 'Section::::Significance to transport phenomena.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 1329,
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'passage_text': 'Under earth conditions, the effect of gravity causing natural convection in a system with a temperature gradient along a fluid/fluid interface is usually much stronger than the Marangoni effect. Many experiments (ESA MASER 1-3) have been conducted under microgravity conditions aboard sounding rockets to observe the Marangoni effect without the influence of gravity. Research on heat pipes performed on the International Space Station revealed that whilst heat pipes exposed to a temperature gradient on Earth cause the inner fluid to evaporate at one end and migrate along the pipe, thus drying the hot end, in space (where the effects of gravity can be ignored) the opposite happens and the hot end of the pipe is flooded with liquid. This is due to the Marangoni effect, together with capillary action. The fluid is drawn to the hot end of the tube by capillary action. But the bulk of the liquid still ends up as a droplet a short distance away from the hottest part of the tube, explained by Marangoni flow. The temperature gradients in axial and radial directions makes the fluid flow away from the hot end and the walls of the tube, towards the center axis. The liquid forms a droplet with a small contact area with the tube walls, a thin film circulating liquid between the cooler droplet and the liquid at the hot end.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What causes extreme heat on atmosphere re-entry and was this discovered prior to the first mission or a lesson learned later?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Not exactly air friction. Friction would be the air rubbing against the body so much as to raise the temperature to extremes. But what happens is different. \n\nIn the upper atmosphere air is very thin - is not dense at all. As a body falls through that atmosphere at staggering speeds, the few air particles there are literally can't get out of the way fast enough. As the air density increases, that same issue causes the air to compress until, much like a diesel engine, it heats to the point of combustion. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6gexjc',
'query': 'what causes extreme heat on atmosphere re-entry and was this discovered prior to the first mission or a lesson learned later?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '17355007',
'title': 'Electricity pricing',
'section': 'Section::::Price comparison across countries.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
'end_character': 403,
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'passage_text': 'For example, in 2012, Hawaii residents had the highest average residential electricity rate in the United States (37.34¢/kWh), while Louisiana residents had the lowest average residential electricity costs (8.37¢/kWh). Even in the contiguous United States, the gap is significant with New York residents having the highest average residential electricity rates in the lower 48 U.S. states (17.62¢/kWh).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '212253',
'title': 'Electric power distribution',
'section': 'Section::::Secondary distribution.:Regional variations.:100–120 volt systems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 41,
'end_character': 283,
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'passage_text': "Most of the Americas use 60\xa0Hz AC, the 120/240 volt split phase system domestically and three phase for larger installations. North American transformers usually power homes at 240 volts, similar to Europe's 230 volts. It is the split-phase that allows use of 120 volts in the home.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33457759',
'title': 'Electrical burn',
'section': 'Section::::Prevention.:Basic electrical safety.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
'end_character': 555,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Not inquiring about the voltage when traveling abroad for those residing in the Americas, Japan, and Taiwan (countries with 110-125 volts). This includes inter-American travel, as a few countries commonly use 220-240 volts. A matching electrical socket (power mains) does "not" necessarily mean the voltage is the same as one\'s home country. The doubling of voltage results in a very dangerous four-fold increase in power and heat. Not checking that dual-voltage small appliances have been adjusted correctly for 220-240 volts is also unsafe.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7320252',
'title': 'Muja Power Station',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 366,
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'passage_text': 'In household consumer terms, this equates to of emitted for each one kilowatt-hour (kWh), or , of electricity produced and fed into the electricity grid. That is, Muja Power Station emits slightly more per kilowatt-hour of electricity produced than nearby Collie Power Station () and much more than Bluewaters Power Station () based on estimates for the same year.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7320485',
'title': 'Collie Power Station',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 381,
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'passage_text': 'In household consumer terms, this equates to of emitted for each one kilowatt-hour (kWh), or , of electricity produced and fed into the electricity grid. That is, Collie Power Station emits slightly less per kilowatt-hour of electricity produced than nearby closing Muja Power Station () but more than also nearby Bluewaters Power Station () based on estimates for the same year.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38824',
'title': 'Electric power transmission',
'section': 'Section::::Overhead transmission.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 422,
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'passage_text': 'Today, transmission-level voltages are usually considered to be 110\xa0kV and above. Lower voltages, such as 66\xa0kV and 33\xa0kV, are usually considered subtransmission voltages, but are occasionally used on long lines with light loads. Voltages less than 33\xa0kV are usually used for distribution. Voltages above 765\xa0kV are considered extra high voltage and require different designs compared to equipment used at lower voltages.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48516470',
'title': 'Low-voltage network',
'section': 'Section::::Design considerations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'Most of differences in the layout and design of low-voltage networks are dictated by the mains voltage rating. In Europe and most of the world 220–240\xa0V is the dominant choice, while in North America 120\xa0V is the standard.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why are wall outlets 110V or 220V? Those seem like such arbitrary values; why not 100V?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["In many parts of the world, electric companies sprung up, each making their own flavor of power (certain voltage, amperage, cycles per second, etc.). This caused one really big problem: you buy a lamp and it works in your house, then you move to another part of town, and it won't work because the power is different.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nAt some point, it was necessary to standardize the way power works so that there was interchangeability, technicians didn't require retraining, etc. In the end, 110/220 were completely arbitrary. It could have been 150 or 200 for all that matters, as long as everyone used the same one in the same country.",
"It was tough in the early days of electricity to figure out what was the best voltage. Edison liked DC, it worked well but required heavy wires and could only be sent short distances from the generating station. \nWestinghouse and Tesla liked AC which didn't require heavy wiring, but was more dangerous to work with and required heavy transformers, but it could be sent long distances with ease. \n\nSo many different schemes were tried, and they settled on 110v as a good balance between wire thickness and distance and dangerousness. \n\nPlus it probably just fit well with the generators they had built. That's why a lot of things end up like that. Some guy built something and arbitrarily picked a figure because it made it easier to build and therefore cheaper than all the competitors.",
"you may be surprised to find out that the power coming out of your outlets isn't actually 110/220/whatever the standard is in your area.\n\ndon't recommend this to people without some background in working with electricity, but you can check an outlet with a multimeter designed for the job - has to be one designed to handle wall socket currents, cheap shit will explode in your hands, don't do it.\n\nI can see anything from 100V to 116V in Toronto in the same house on the same day.\n\nTokyo had clean power, never budged from 100v.",
'This might not be a simple ELI5, but the history is based off of common 1.5V battery cells and 6V DC power supplies before AC was widely implemented. Any combination of power could then be made with multiples of 6V (6V, 12V, 48V, etc) and they were sometimes rounded for simplicity. Thus 6V x 40 DC batteries = 240V. \n\nBut through the AC and DC "War of Currents" between Edison and Tesla, Tesla won with an implementation of AC and originally planned 240V but decided 120V (half of 240) was safer in the household and more efficient at 60Hz. 240V was originally chosen technically because of phases and less line loss during transmission, but probably more detail than needed for ELI5. \n\n120V was also thought to be enough to power most household appliances and probably more importantly the original filament light bulb was designed to be used between 100V and 130V. This alone might be the easiest ELI5 reason - everyone in that day and age wanted lights like today\'s cellphone. \n\nAdditionally, all US homes are still fed with 240V at the main panel (2 hot legs) but most outlets except for dryers, ovens, etc only get one hot leg and therefore 120V power. \n\nThe US then standardized on 120V and AC beat out DC. \n\nMost of the rest of the world just chose 240V, which is arguably more efficient and accomplishes the same thing. In cases like when England rebuilt after WW2 it was that 240V was more efficient for transmission and therefore required less copper wiring so economics played a big part of that decision. \n \nYou can find out more technical detail, but this is probably enough for ELI5.',
'They are not quite arbitrary, but their origins are a bit involved.\n\nYou see before AC became the way to distribute power DC power was common for this purpose in the very early days. Actually some of the last remnants of that old way managed to last up until a few years ago when the last remaining parts of Thomas Edison\'s DC grid in New York were taken offline.\n\nDC isn\'t really as good for distributing power as AC, so when Tesla introduced DC current it caught on.\n\nThe original voltages for the AC grid were based on the voltages of the DC grid. It started out as 240V and was later reduced to 120V for safety reasons and eventually ended up as 110V in North America.\n\nOther places use different voltages and frequencies but they are all based on the early grid and usually end up being 110V to 120V or 220V to 240V with 50Hz or 60Hz.\n\nThe question is then why did early AC grid use a number like 120V instead of 100V.\n\nApparently this is because they wanted to remain compatible with earlier battery based systems. Those batteries even in those days came in multiples of 1.5V you get larger batteries by connecting smaller ones together. The term "battery" in fact implies having a battery of cells providing electricity. 6V was a common combination of four 1.5V cells and connecting a round number like twenty of those 6V batteries together ends you up with 120V.\n\nthe 1.5 volt battery came from the first commercially successful dry cell sold in larger numbers. It was the first thing close to a standard for voltages anyone had ever had and its descendants still provide standards for us today.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'bzld7h',
'query': 'why are wall outlets 110v or 220v? those seem like such arbitrary values; why not 100v?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '574544',
'title': 'Circular motion',
'section': 'Section::::Non-uniform.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 67,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 67,
'end_character': 596,
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'passage_text': "The reason why the object does not fall down when subjected to only downward forces is a simple one. Think about what keeps an object up after it is thrown. Once an object is thrown into the air, there is only the downward force of earth's gravity that acts on the object. That does not mean that once an object is thrown in the air, it will fall instantly. What keeps that object up in the air is its velocity. The first of Newton's laws of motion states that an object's inertia keeps it in motion, and since the object in the air has a velocity, it will tend to keep moving in that direction.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36920393',
'title': 'History of experiments',
'section': 'Section::::Galileo Galilei.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 218,
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'passage_text': "These results supported Galileo's hypothesis that objects of different weights, when measured at the same point in their fall, are falling at the same speed because they experience the same gravitational acceleration.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '268475',
'title': 'Two New Sciences',
'section': 'Section::::The two new sciences.:The motion of objects.:The law of falling bodies.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 49,
'end_character': 634,
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'passage_text': 'While Aristotle had observed that heavier objects fall more quickly than lighter ones, in "Two New Sciences" Galileo postulated that this was due "not" to inherently stronger forces acting on the heavier objects, but to the countervailing forces of air resistance and friction. To compensate, he conducted experiments using a shallowly inclined ramp, smoothed so as to eliminate as much friction as possible, on which he rolled down balls of different weights. In this manner, he was able to provide empirical evidence that matter accelerates vertically downward at a constant rate, regardless of mass, due to the effects of gravity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '256662',
'title': 'Terminal velocity',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 960,
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'passage_text': "As the speed of an object increases, so does the drag force acting on it, which also depends on the substance it is passing through (for example air or water). At some speed, the drag or force of resistance will equal the gravitational pull on the object (buoyancy is considered below). At this point the object ceases to accelerate and continues falling at a constant speed called the terminal velocity (also called settling velocity). An object moving downward faster than the terminal velocity (for example because it was thrown downwards, it fell from a thinner part of the atmosphere, or it changed shape) will slow down until it reaches the terminal velocity. Drag depends on the projected area, here, the object's cross-section or silhouette in a horizontal plane. An object with a large projected area relative to its mass, such as a parachute, has a lower terminal velocity than one with a small projected area relative to its mass, such as a bullet.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1730659',
'title': 'Square–cube law',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Engineering.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 228,
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'passage_text': 'This is why large vehicles perform poorly in crash tests and why there are limits to how high buildings can be built. Similarly, the larger an object is, the less other objects would resist its motion, causing its deceleration.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28505459',
'title': 'S-1 Gard',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 839,
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'passage_text': "Because of Bernoulli's principle, a decrease in air pressure between a larger object (such as a transit bus or large truck) and a smaller object (such as a pedestrian or cyclist) is created when passing in close proximity, resulting in a force that pulls the smaller object towards the larger object. The greater the velocity of the larger object, and the greater the difference in mass of the two objects, the greater the force. This principle accounts for accidents wherein, for instance, a cyclist being closely passed by a moving bus is pulled toward the bus, loses control and is thrown under the path of the wheels. The curvature of the guard is designed to counteract Bernoulli's principle by producing a net outward pressure away from the direction of travel of the bus, in addition to physically pushing an object out of the way.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27569419',
'title': 'Stream competency',
'section': 'Section::::Importance of Velocity.:Lift.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 35,
'end_character': 416,
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'passage_text': "Velocity differences between the bottom and tops of particles can lead to lift. Water is allowed to flow above the particle but not below resulting in a zero and non-zero velocity at the bottom and top of the particle respectively. The difference in velocities results in a pressure gradient that imparts a lifting force on the particle. If this force is greater than the particle's weight, it will begin transport.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "If things with different mass fall at the same velocity, why do heavier things cause more 'damage' when they land?",
'selftext': 'For example: a 1kg plastic ball falling on you would slightly hurt as opposed to a 1 ton one falling on you would crush you.',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Force = mass x acceleration\n\nAs you point out, objects fall at the same rate, i.e. acceleration is constant. So, for falling objects, force is proportional to mass. Using your example, a 1 ton (1,000 kg) ball will hit with exactly 1,000 times more force than the 1kg ball.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '66zmb2',
'query': "if things with different mass fall at the same velocity, why do heavier things cause more 'damage' when they land?",
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '11464105',
'title': 'In-cell charge control',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 264,
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'passage_text': 'The charge control consists of a pressure switch built into the cell, which disconnects the charging current when the internal cell pressure rises above a certain limit (usually 200 to 300 psi or 1.4 to 2.1 MPa). This prevents overcharging and damage to the cell.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41834',
'title': 'Uninterruptible power supply',
'section': 'Section::::Batteries.:Common battery characteristics and load testing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 93,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 93,
'end_character': 527,
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'passage_text': 'If a battery has been completely discharged (e.g. the car lights were left on overnight) and next is given a fast charge for only a few minutes, then during the short charging time it develops only a charge near the interface. The battery voltage may rise to be close to the charger voltage so that the charging current decreases significantly. After a few hours this interface charge will spread to the volume of the electrode and electrolyte, leading to an interface charge so low that it may be insufficient to start a car.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '201495',
'title': 'Lead–acid battery',
'section': 'Section::::Cycles.:Fast and slow charge and discharge.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 73,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 73,
'end_character': 840,
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'passage_text': 'Consider a battery that has been completely discharged (such as occurs when leaving the car lights on overnight, a current draw of about 6 amps). If it then is given a fast charge for only a few minutes, the battery plates charge only near the interface between the plates and the electrolyte. In this case the battery voltage might rise to a value near that of the charger voltage; this causes the charging current to decrease significantly. After a few hours this interface charge will spread to the volume of the electrode and electrolyte; this leads to an interface charge so low that it may be insufficient to start the car. As long as the charging voltage stays below the gassing voltage (about 14.4 volts in a normal lead–acid battery), battery damage is unlikely, and in time the battery should return to a nominally charged state.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12186381',
'title': 'Citroën Berlingo électrique',
'section': 'Section::::Design quirks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 383,
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'passage_text': "The manual does not indicate that removing the charging plug before it is fully charged can illuminate the 'Electrical Fault Light' which stays on until a full trickle charge is performed. This can be quite disconcerting as the manual states the car has to be taken to the dealer to reset the problem. Also, one cannot, or should not, perform a fast charge when it is in this state.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20126231',
'title': 'Quartz fiber dosimeter',
'section': 'Section::::Theory of operation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 418,
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'passage_text': 'The charger is a small box, usually powered by a battery. It contains an electronic circuit that steps the battery voltage up to the high voltage needed for charging. The box has a fixture that requires one to press the end of the dosimeter on the charging electrode. Some chargers include a light to illuminate the measurement electrode, so that measurement, logging and recharging can occur with one routine motion.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10592503',
'title': 'Charging station',
'section': 'Section::::Residential charging.:Mode 1: Domestic socket and extension cord.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 47,
'end_character': 243,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- As the charging socket shares a feeder from the switchboard with other sockets (no dedicated circuit) if the sum of consumptions exceeds the protection limit (in general 16\xa0A), the circuit-breaker will trip, stopping the charging.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '57218370',
'title': 'USB hardware',
'section': 'Section::::Power.:Faster-charging standards.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 106,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 106,
'end_character': 245,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'When a device detects it is plugged into a charger with a compatible faster-charging standard, the device pulls more current or the device tells the charger to increase the voltage or both to increase power (the details vary between standards).\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'how does a charger charge your phone for a split second after it was removed from the socket?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The charger has electrical storage components inside of it called capacitors, and these components can store electricity for a very short time after being disconnected from the power supply.\n\nFor the same reason, you should not go poking around inside an old television with a screwdriver, unless it has been unplugged for a very long time.',
'It contains a *capacitor,* a little power holding device, which is loaded up with power from the outlet. It takes a moment to finish unloading into your phone.',
"Do you think because the icon shows charging that it is actually charging?\n\nOr the software just hasn't updated the screen yet?",
'While folks have mentioned capacitors, on a phone charger they are pretty small, they are used as filters to smooth out the AC or switching noise from the rectification or buck stage. More energy comes from the magnetic fields in the transformer as they collapse after removing mains power. Even so, this will all happen in milliseconds. \n\nThe most likely reason is that it takes the charging function of the phone some time to measure the incoming power, debounce it in case it was just a glitch, time out and update the UI. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'b6cj5m',
'query': 'how does a charger charge your phone for a split second after it was removed from the socket?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3597377',
'title': 'Magnetosphere particle motion',
'section': 'Section::::Motion of charged particles.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 347,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Because the magnetic force is perpendicular to the velocity, it performs no work and requires no energy—nor does it provide any. Thus magnetic fields (like the Earth's) can profoundly affect particle motion in them, but need no energy input to maintain their effect. Particles may also get steered around, but their total energy remains the same.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36563',
'title': 'Magnetic field',
'section': 'Section::::Magnetic field and electric currents.:Magnetic field due to moving charges and electric currents.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 70,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 70,
'end_character': 218,
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'passage_text': 'All moving charged particles produce magnetic fields. Moving point charges, such as electrons, produce complicated but well known magnetic fields that depend on the charge, velocity, and acceleration of the particles.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '316167',
'title': 'Simple Magnetic Overunity Toy',
'section': 'Section::::Analysis of operation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 568,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The magnetostatic field produced by any arrangement of stationary permanent magnets is a conservative field. This means any magnetic object which moves in a closed-loop path in the field, like the ball in this device, gains no energy from the field, and in the absence of friction ends with the same total energy (kinetic plus potential) it started with. Since any moving object is also subject to friction forces, which dissipate the kinetic energy as it moves, the ball will always end a cycle with less energy than it started with, and will eventually stop moving.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '385621',
'title': 'Plasma diagnostics',
'section': 'Section::::Invasive probe methods.:Magnetic (B-dot) probe.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 466,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'If the magnetic field in the plasma is not stationary, either because the plasma as a whole is transient or because the fields are periodic (radio-frequency heating), the rate of change of the magnetic field with time (formula_1, read "B-dot") can be measured locally with a loop or coil of wire. Such coils exploit Faraday\'s law, whereby a changing magnetic field induces an electric field. The induced voltage can be measured and recorded with common instruments.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '570662',
'title': 'Wireless power transfer',
'section': 'Section::::Field regions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 756,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Electric and magnetic fields are created by charged particles in matter such as electrons. A stationary charge creates an electrostatic field in the space around it. A steady current of charges (direct current, DC) creates a static magnetic field around it. The above fields contain energy, but cannot carry power because they are static. However time-varying fields can carry power. Accelerating electric charges, such as are found in an alternating current (AC) of electrons in a wire, create time-varying electric and magnetic fields in the space around them. These fields can exert oscillating forces on the electrons in a receiving "antenna", causing them to move back and forth. These represent alternating current which can be used to power a load.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11887250',
'title': 'Stellar magnetic field',
'section': 'Section::::Field generation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 928,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The magnetic field of a rotating body of conductive gas or liquid develops self-amplifying electric currents, and thus a self-generated magnetic field, due to a combination of differential rotation (different angular velocity of different parts of body), Coriolis forces and induction. The distribution of currents can be quite complicated, with numerous open and closed loops, and thus the magnetic field of these currents in their immediate vicinity is also quite twisted. At large distances, however, the magnetic fields of currents flowing in opposite directions cancel out and only a net dipole field survives, slowly diminishing with distance. Because the major currents flow in the direction of conductive mass motion (equatorial currents), the major component of the generated magnetic field is the dipole field of the equatorial current loop, thus producing magnetic poles near the geographic poles of a rotating body.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31439',
'title': 'Tokamak',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Magnetic confinement.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 428,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Sakharov's concern about the electrodes led him to consider using magnetic confinement instead of electrostatic. In the case of a magnetic field, the particles will circle around the lines of force. As the particles are moving at high speed, their resulting paths look like a helix. If one arranges a magnetic field so lines of force are parallel and close together, the particles orbiting adjacent lines may collide, and fuse.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does a magnetic field do no work on a stationary particle but yet electric field does work on it?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The electric field (ac) is moving so the stationary particle has motion with respect to the electric field creating work. The magnetic field is stationary and thus is stationary with respect to the stationary particle so no work is done.',
"A magnetic field does no work on a point charge under any circumstances. The magnetic force on a stationary charge is zero. If the charge is moving, then there is a magnetic force of q**v**x**B**, which is always perpendicular to **v**, so it doesn't do any work."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9njare',
'query': 'why does a magnetic field do no work on a stationary particle but yet electric field does work on it?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3042704',
'title': 'Coracobrachialis muscle',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical significance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 881,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "The overuse of the coracobrachialis can lead to stiffening of the muscle. Common causes of injury include chest workouts or activities that require one to press the arm very tight towards the body, e.g. work on the rings in gymnastics. Symptoms of overuse or injury are pain in the arm and shoulder, radiating down to the back of the hand. In more severe cases, the musculocutaneous nerve can get trapped, causing disturbances in sensation to the skin on the radial part of the forearm and weakened flexion of the elbow, as the nerve also supplies the biceps brachii and brachialis muscles. Actual rupture to the coracobrachialis muscle is extremely rare. Very few case reports exist in the literature, and it is reported to be caused by direct trauma to the contracted muscle. Avulsion of the muscle's origin from the coracoid as a result of indirect forces is even more unusual.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2349982',
'title': 'List of flexors of the human body',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 239,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In anatomy, flexion (from the Latin verb "flectere", to bend) is a joint movement that decreases the angle between the bones that converge at the joint. For example, your elbow joint flexes when you bring your hand closer to the shoulder.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8403532',
'title': 'Shoulder arthritis',
'section': 'Section::::Symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 389,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The main symptom of shoulder arthritis is pain; this is due to the grinding of the bones against each other because of the lack of cartilage. Pain usually occurs in the front of the shoulder and is worse with motion. People with shoulder arthritis will also experience moderate to severe weakness, stiffness developing over many years, and the inability to sleep on the affected shoulder.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4057221',
'title': 'Anatomical terms of motion',
'section': 'Section::::General motion.:Flexion and extension.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 553,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': '"Flexion" describes a bending movement that "decreases" the angle between a segment and its proximal segment. For example, bending the elbow, or clenching a hand into a fist, are examples of flexion. When sitting down, the knees are flexed. When a joint can move forward and backward, such as the neck and trunk, flexion refers to movement in the anterior direction. When the chin is against the chest, the head is flexed, and the trunk is flexed when a person leans forward. Flexion of the shoulder or hip refers to movement of the arm or leg forward.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '788074',
'title': 'Physical strength',
'section': 'Section::::Strength capability.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 342,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Skeletal muscles produce reactive forces and moments at the joints. To avoid injury or fatigue, when person is performing a task, such as pushing or lifting a load, the external moments created at the joints due to the load at the hand and the weight of the body segments must be ideally less than the muscular moment strengths at the joint.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1549780',
'title': 'Arm wrestling',
'section': 'Section::::Associated injury.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 33,
'end_character': 577,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Arm wrestling puts enormous torque/torsion stress on the upper arm's humerus bone to a degree seen in few other physical activities. Most people's bones are not accustomed to being significantly stressed in this direction, and severe injuries can occur. The arm typically fails because of a diagonal break at or below the midpoint between the shoulder and the elbow; this is known as the 'break arm' position. The most common injury is the humeral shaft fracture. Other common injuries also include shoulder injuries, muscle strain, and less commonly pectoralis major rupture.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17605520',
'title': 'Ulnar claw',
'section': 'Section::::Prevention.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 224,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Massaging the forearm muscles also alleviates the tightness that occurs with muscles exertion. Stretching allows the muscles more flexibility, decreasing interference with the innervations of the ulnar nerve to the fingers.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does your arm shake when you flex really hard?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['When you stretch or flex your muscles, they can affect the body’s nervous system, which in effect controls the body’s muscle movements. When the body becomes overly stressed, it can cause involuntary muscle spasms.\n\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'b5uxhv',
'query': 'why does your arm shake when you flex really hard?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '25916521',
'title': 'Plasma (physics)',
'section': 'Section::::Properties and parameters.:Definition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 283,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Plasma is a state of matter in which an ionized gaseous substance becomes highly electrically conductive to the point that long-range electric and magnetic fields dominate the behaviour of the matter. The plasma state can be contrasted with the other states: solid, liquid, and gas.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30747793',
'title': 'Plasma polymerization',
'section': 'Section::::Basic operating mechanism.:Glow discharge.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 925,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Plasma consists of a mixture of electrons, ions, radicals, neutrals and photons. Some of these species are in local thermodynamic equilibrium, while others are not. Even for simple gases like argon this mixture can be complex. For plasmas of organic monomers, the complexity can rapidly increase as some components of the plasma fragment, while others interact and form larger species. Glow discharge is a technique in polymerization which forms free electrons which gain energy from an electric field, and then lose energy through collisions with neutral molecules in the gas phase. This leads to many chemically reactive species, which then lead to a plasma polymerization reaction. The electric discharge process for plasma polymerization is the “low-temperature plasma” method, because higher temperatures cause degradation. These plasmas are formed by a direct current, alternating current or radio frequency generator.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1391009',
'title': 'Plasma stealth',
'section': 'Section::::Plasma and its properties.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 635,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A plasma is a "quasineutral" (total electrical charge is close to zero) mix of ions (atoms which have been ionized, and therefore possess a net positive charge), electrons, and neutral particles (un-ionized atoms or molecules). Most plasmas are only partially ionized, in fact, the ionization degree of common plasma devices like fluorescent lamp is fairly low ( less than 1%). Almost all the matter in the universe is very low density plasma: solids, liquids and gases are uncommon away from planetary bodies. Plasmas have many technological applications, from fluorescent lighting to plasma processing for semiconductor manufacture.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6207',
'title': 'Electric current',
'section': 'Section::::Conduction mechanisms in various media.:Gases and plasmas.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 61,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 61,
'end_character': 602,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Plasma is the state of matter where some of the electrons in a gas are stripped or "ionized" from their molecules or atoms. A plasma can be formed by high temperature, or by application of a high electric or alternating magnetic field as noted above. Due to their lower mass, the electrons in a plasma accelerate more quickly in response to an electric field than the heavier positive ions, and hence carry the bulk of the current. The free ions recombine to create new chemical compounds (for example, breaking atmospheric oxygen into single oxygen [O → 2O], which then recombine creating ozone [O]).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8603211',
'title': 'Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition',
'section': 'Section::::Discharges for processes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 1128,
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'passage_text': 'A plasma is any gas in which a significant percentage of the atoms or molecules are ionized. Fractional ionization in plasmas used for deposition and related materials processing varies from about 10 in typical capacitive discharges to as high as 5–10% in high density inductive plasmas. Processing plasmas are typically operated at pressures of a few millitorr to a few torr, although arc discharges and inductive plasmas can be ignited at atmospheric pressure. Plasmas with low fractional ionization are of great interest for materials processing because electrons are so light, compared to atoms and molecules, that energy exchange between the electrons and neutral gas is very inefficient. Therefore, the electrons can be maintained at very high equivalent temperatures – tens of thousands of kelvins, equivalent to several electronvolts average energy—while the neutral atoms remain at the ambient temperature. These energetic electrons can induce many processes that would otherwise be very improbable at low temperatures, such as dissociation of precursor molecules and the creation of large quantities of free radicals.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55017',
'title': 'Fusion power',
'section': 'Section::::Methods.:Plasma behavior.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 37,
'end_character': 303,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Plasma is an ionized gas that conducts electricity. In bulk, it is modeled using magnetohydrodynamics, which is a combination of the Navier–Stokes equations governing fluids and Maxwell's equations governing how magnetic and electric fields behave. Fusion exploits several plasma properties, including:\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37461',
'title': 'State of matter',
'section': 'Section::::The four fundamental states.:Plasma.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 432,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Like a gas, plasma does not have definite shape or volume. Unlike gases, plasmas are electrically conductive, produce magnetic fields and electric currents, and respond strongly to electromagnetic forces. Positively charged nuclei swim in a "sea" of freely-moving disassociated electrons, similar to the way such charges exist in conductive metal, where this electron "sea" allows matter in the plasma state to conduct electricity.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Plasma, in the electrical sense. Why is it its own state/phase?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Plasma forms when you heat up a gas to really high temperatures. The electrons get ripped away from the atoms due to their high energy. This is called ionization. This makes plasma highly electrically conductive. Plasma is its own state of matter because its properties are so fundamentally different from a gas, in the same way that a liquid's properties are fundamentally different than a solid's.",
'The biggest reason is because atoms no longer retain their electrons, which makes it respond to electrical and magnetic forces much more strongly than other matter. The biggest results of this are that it is highly conductive to electricity (practically no resistance whatsoever), and it tends to flow in ways far different from gasses. ',
"Plasma is different from solids, liquids, and gasses.\n\nIn a solid the atoms or molecules are fixed in a static structure, and while for instance a conductor might be able to trade electrons between atoms, the nuclei do not move.\n\nIn a liquid the nuclei are moving around but the atoms or molecules generally are staying stuck together. They are in contact but not fixed in place, and so able to conform to the shape of their container.\n\nA gas has mobile nuclei but the atoms or molecules aren't stuck together, instead just bouncing around their container frantically.\n\nIn the case of a plasma the material has been given so much energy that the electrons are no longer bound to their nuclei. Instead you just have a sort of soup of nuclei and electrons all whizzing about. Molecules are of course no longer possible and there are just elemental nuclei without any exclusive claim to specific electrons.",
'Is fire a plasma or gas?'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7mwr6r',
'query': 'plasma, in the electrical sense. why is it its own state/phase?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2476314',
'title': 'Smith–Magenis syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 276,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Disrupted sleep patterns are characteristic of Smith–Magenis syndrome, typically beginning early in life. Affected people may be very sleepy during the day, but have trouble falling asleep and awaken several times each night, due to an inverted circadian rhythm of melatonin.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27834',
'title': 'Sleep',
'section': 'Section::::Disorders.:Obstructive sleep apnea.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 79,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 79,
'end_character': 421,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Diagnosing sleep apnea usually requires a professional sleep study performed in a sleep clinic, because the episodes of wakefulness caused by the disorder are extremely brief and patients usually do not remember experiencing them. Instead, many patients simply feel tired after getting several hours of sleep and have no idea why. Major risk factors for sleep apnea include chronic fatigue, old age, obesity and snoring.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28278287',
'title': 'Sleep state misperception',
'section': 'Section::::Symptoms and diagnosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 342,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Finally, on the opposite end of the spectrum, other patients may report feeling that they have slept much longer than is observed. It has been proposed that this experience be subclassified under sleep state misperception as "positive sleep state misperception", "reverse sleep state misperception", and "negative sleep state misperception".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1315495',
'title': 'Non-24-hour sleep–wake disorder',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Sighted.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 493,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'People with the disorder may have an especially hard time adjusting to changes in "regular" sleep–wake cycles, such as vacations, stress, evening activities, time changes like daylight saving time, travel to different time zones, illness, medications (especially stimulants or sedatives), changes in daylight hours in different seasons, and growth spurts, which are typically known to cause fatigue. They also show lower sleep propensity after total sleep deprivation than do normal sleepers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15514352',
'title': 'Hours of service',
'section': 'Section::::Purpose.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 1230,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Circadian rhythm effects describe the tendency for humans to experience a normal cycle in attentiveness and sleepiness through the 24-hour day. Those with a conventional sleep pattern (sleeping for seven or eight\xa0hours at night) experience periods of maximum fatigue in the early hours of the morning and a lesser period in the early afternoon. During the low points of this cycle, one experiences reduced attentiveness. During the high points, it is difficult to sleep soundly. The cycle is anchored in part by ambient lighting (darkness causes a person\'s body to release the hormone melatonin, which induces sleep), and by a person\'s imposed pattern of regular sleeping and waking times. The influence of the day-night cycle is never fully displaced (standard artificial lighting is not strong enough to inhibit the release of melatonin), and the performance of night shift workers usually suffers. Circadian rhythms are persistent, and can only be shifted by one to two\xa0hours forward or backward per day. Changing the starting time of a work shift by more than these amounts will reduce attentiveness, which is common after the first night shift following a "weekend" break during which conventional sleep times were followed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39197315',
'title': 'Thelma Van Rensburg',
'section': 'Section::::Examples of work.:Existential Angst.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 592,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Occasionally, late at night, while trying to sleep and failing, people experience an anxiety of existence, they are aware of their entire body, the entire world, and the whole of reality itself. It\'s like waking from a dream, or a light going on, or a giant ""You are here"" sign appearing in the sky. The mere fact that I\'m actually real and actually breathing suddenly hits me in the head with a thwack. It leaves me giddy. It causes a brief surge of clammy, bubbling anxiety, like the opening stages of a panic attack. The moment soon passes, but while it lasts it\'s strangely terrifying.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29560139',
'title': 'Sleep inversion',
'section': 'Section::::Symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 418,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Individuals with the delayed sleep phase type of the disorder exhibit habitually late sleep hours and an inability to change their sleeping schedule consistently. They often show sleepiness during the desired wake period of their days. Their actual phase of sleep is normal. Once they fall asleep, they stay asleep for a normal period of time, albeit a period of time that starts and stops at an abnormally late time.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'After the initial sleepiness feeling, why do we suddenly feel more alert after a few hours pass your normal sleeping time before you suddenly feel lethargic and sleepy again?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['A certain sleep writer suggests it\'s because there is a metabolitic release timed to coincide with the early part of sleep intended to for the heavy lifting your lymphatic and endocrine systems will do in the early part of sleep. Apparently this is the "second wind" we feel at approximately 10pm, and being asleep at this point results in higher quality sleep.\n\nThis is the only thing I\'ve come up with on the topic so far. It seams reasonable that one\'s body would benefit from a release of energy for homonal/repair/immune function that does happen during sleep; however, I traced the reference chain back finally back to an Ayurvedic medicine writer, and haven\'t found any peer-reviewed empirical research on the topic (yet), so I think the jury is still out on this one.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '684rxj',
'query': 'after the initial sleepiness feeling, why do we suddenly feel more alert after a few hours pass your normal sleeping time before you suddenly feel lethargic and sleepy again?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1014',
'title': 'Alcohol',
'section': 'Section::::Production.:Biological routes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 47,
'end_character': 391,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Several species of the benign bacteria in the intestine use fermentation as a form of anaerobic metabolism. This metabolic reaction produces ethanol as a waste product. Thus, human bodies contain some quantity of alcohol endogenously produced by these bacteria. In rare cases, this can be sufficient to cause "auto-brewery syndrome" in which intoxicating quantities of alcohol are produced.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10834',
'title': 'Food preservation',
'section': 'Section::::Traditional techniques.:Fermentation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 44,
'end_character': 647,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Fermentation is the microbial conversion of starch and sugars into alcohol. Not only can fermentation produce alcohol, but it can also be a valuable preservation technique. Fermentation can also make foods more nutritious and palatable. For example, drinking water in the Middle Ages was dangerous because it often contained pathogens that could spread disease. When the water is made into beer, the boiling during the brewing process kills any bacteria in the water that could make people sick. Additionally, the water now has the nutrients from the barley and other ingredients, and the microorganisms can also produce vitamins as they ferment.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52893218',
'title': 'Industrial microbiology',
'section': 'Section::::Food industry application.:Fermentation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 249,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': '_Fermentation is a reaction where sugar can be converted into a gas, alcohols or acids. _Microorganisms like yeast and bacteria are used to massively produce the many things. Drinking alcohol also known as ethanol is produced by yeast and bacteria.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39357',
'title': 'Tequila',
'section': 'Section::::Fermentation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 596,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Unlike other tequila production steps, fermentation is one of the few steps out of the control of human beings. Fermentation is the conversion of sugars and carbohydrates to alcohol through yeast in anerobic conditions, meaning that oxygen is not present during the process. Fermentation is also carried out in a non-aseptic environment which increases the bacterial activity of tequila. The participation of microorganisms from the environment (yeasts and bacteria) makes fermentation a spontaneous process which gives rise to many byproducts that contribute to the flavor and aroma of tequila.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32078038',
'title': 'Liebig–Pasteur dispute',
'section': 'Section::::Liebig’s position.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 379,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Liebig formulated his own theory claiming that the production of alcohol was not a biological process but a chemical process, discrediting the idea that fermentation could occur due to microscopic organisms. He believed that vibrations emanating from the decomposition of organic matter would spread to the sugar resulting in the production of solely carbon dioxide and alcohol.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1088286',
'title': 'Ethanol fermentation',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 502,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Ethanol fermentation, also called alcoholic fermentation, is a biological process which converts sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose into cellular energy, producing ethanol and carbon dioxide as by-products. Because yeasts perform this conversion in the absence of oxygen, alcoholic fermentation is considered an anaerobic process. It also takes place in some species of fish (including goldfish and carp) where (along with lactic acid fermentation) it provides energy when oxygen is scarce.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '89198',
'title': 'Alcohol dehydrogenase',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Yeast and bacteria.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 41,
'end_character': 539,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In yeast and many bacteria, alcohol dehydrogenase plays an important part in fermentation: Pyruvate resulting from glycolysis is converted to acetaldehyde and carbon dioxide, and the acetaldehyde is then reduced to ethanol by an alcohol dehydrogenase called ADH1. The purpose of this latter step is the regeneration of NAD, so that the energy-generating glycolysis can continue. Humans exploit this process to produce alcoholic beverages, by letting yeast ferment various fruits or grains. Yeast can produce and consume their own alcohol.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do fermented foods turn into alcohol and cause intoxication?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Yeast. Yeast is a microscopic fungi that is intentionally added to the process of making alcoholic drinks. It consumes the sugars, and excrete alcohol. As the alcohol content rises, the yeast dies off. They also produce CO2, which is why beer is carbonated (at least traditionally, now its added)\n\nSo beer is essentially fungal shit',
'When yeast or other bacteria breakdown the sugars in the food, it produces ethanol and carbon dioxide.\n\nWhen there are still yeast and/or bacteria present in the finished product (kombucha, for example) the process is continuing, and depending on a number of factors (time, temperature, etc.) more alcohol will be produced. So if a product is not paturized, depending on shipping and storing conditions, the level of alcohol the food contains may vary. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8snsj8',
'query': 'why do fermented foods turn into alcohol and cause intoxication?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2909',
'title': 'Albinism in humans',
'section': 'Section::::Genetics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
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'passage_text': 'Oculocutaneous albinism is generally the result of the biological inheritance of genetically recessive alleles (genes) passed from both parents of an individual such as OCA1 and OCA2. A mutation in the human TRP-1 gene may result in the deregulation of melanocyte tyrosinase enzymes, a change that is hypothesized to promote brown versus black melanin synthesis, resulting in a third oculocutaneous albinism (OCA) genotype, ″OCA3″. Some rare forms are inherited from only one parent. There are other genetic mutations which are proven to be associated with albinism. All alterations, however, lead to changes in melanin production in the body. Some of these are associated with increased risk of skin cancer .\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2909',
'title': 'Albinism in humans',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Albinism results from inheritance of recessive gene alleles and is known to affect all vertebrates, including humans. It is due to absence or defect of tyrosinase, a copper-containing enzyme involved in the production of melanin. It is the opposite of melanism. Unlike humans, other animals have multiple pigments and for these, albinism is considered to be a hereditary condition characterised by the absence of melanin in particular, in the eyes, skin, hair, scales, feathers or cuticle. While an organism with complete absence of melanin is called an albino, an organism with only a diminished amount of melanin is described as leucistic or albinoid. The term is from the Latin "albus", "white".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45105839',
'title': 'Albinism',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Albinism is the "congenital absence of any pigmentation or coloration in a person, animal or plant, resulting in white hair, feathers, scales and skin and pink eyes in mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish and other small invertebrates as well." Varied use and interpretation of the terms mean that written reports of albinistic animals can be difficult to verify. Albinism can reduce the survivability of an animal; for example, it has been suggested that albino alligators have an average survival span of only 24 hours due to the lack of protection from UV and their lack of camouflage to avoid predators. Albino animals have characteristic pink or red eyes because the lack of pigment in the iris allows the blood vessels of the retina to be visible. Familiar albino animals include in-bred strains of laboratory animals (rats, mice and rabbits), but populations of naturally occurring albino animals exist in the wild, e.g. Mexican cave tetra. Albinism is a well-recognized phenomenon in molluscs, both in the shell and in the soft parts. It has been claimed by some, e.g. that "albinism" can occur for a number of reasons aside from inheritance, including genetic mutations, diet, living conditions, age, disease, or injury. However, this is contrary to definitions where the condition is inherited.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2404069',
'title': 'Leucism',
'section': 'Section::::Details.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 638,
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'passage_text': 'A further difference between albinism and leucism is in eye colour. Due to the lack of melanin production in both the retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) and iris, those affected by albinism typically have red eyes due to the underlying blood vessels showing through. In contrast, most leucistic animals have normally coloured eyes. This is because the melanocytes of the RPE are not derived from the neural crest, instead an outpouching of the neural tube generates the optic cup which, in turn, forms the retina. As these cells are from an independent developmental origin, they are typically unaffected by the genetic cause of leucism.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2909',
'title': 'Albinism in humans',
'section': 'Section::::Genetics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The chance of offspring with albinism resulting from the pairing of an organism with albinism and one without albinism is low. However, because organisms (including humans) can be carriers of genes for albinism without exhibiting any traits, albinistic offspring can be produced by two non-albinistic parents. Albinism usually occurs with equal frequency in both sexes. An exception to this is ocular albinism, which it is passed on to offspring through X-linked inheritance. Thus, ocular albinism occurs more frequently in males as they have a single X and Y chromosome, unlike females, whose genetics are characterized by two X\xa0chromosomes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6005446',
'title': 'White (horse)',
'section': 'Section::::Albinism.:Types of albinism in humans and other animals.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
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'passage_text': 'The best-known type of albinism is OCA1A, which impairs tyrosinase production. In other mammals, the diagnosis of albinism is based on the impairment of tyrosinase production through defects in the "Color" ("C") gene. Mice and other mammals without tyrosinase have unpigmented pink skin, unpigmented white hair, unpigmented reddish eyes, and some form of vision impairment. No mutations of the tyrosinase or "C" gene are known in horses.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '944625',
'title': 'Plumage',
'section': 'Section::::Abnormal plumages.:Albinism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 359,
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'passage_text': 'Several kinds of albinism in chickens has been described: A complete albinism controlled by an autosomal recessive gene and two different kinds of partial albinism. One of the partial albinisms is sex-linked and the other is autosomal recessive. A fourth kind of albinism severely reduce pigmentation in the eyes, but only dilutes the pigment in the plumage.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Albinism seems like a very disadvantageous mutation. How has it continued in the animal kingdom?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['A mutation can appear more than once in time. Albino animals pretty much never have albino parents, it just appears randomly and likely subsides again as the chances of reproduction are lowered. The parents have instead carried an albino gene, without being albino themselves.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'dkn6ah',
'query': 'albinism seems like a very disadvantageous mutation. how has it continued in the animal kingdom?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '513844',
'title': 'Emoji',
'section': 'Section::::Emoji communications problems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
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'passage_text': "The second problem relates to technology and branding. When an author of a message picks an emoji from a list, it is normally encoded in a non-graphical manner during the transmission, and if the author and the reader do not use the same software or operating system for their devices, the reader's device may visualize the same emoji in a different way. Small changes to a character's look may completely alter its perceived meaning with the receiver.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '513844',
'title': 'Emoji',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 576,
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'passage_text': 'Journalists have noted that the ambiguity of emoji has allowed them to take on culture-specific meanings not present in the original glyphs. For example, has been described as being used in English-language communities to signify "non-caring fabulousness" and "anything from shutting haters down to a sense of accomplishment". Unicode manuals sometimes provide notes on auxiliary meanings of an object to guide designers on how emoji may be used, for example noting that some users may expect to stand for "a reserved or ticketed seat, as for an airplane, train, or theater".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '513844',
'title': 'Emoji',
'section': 'Section::::Implementation.:Apple.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 65,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 65,
'end_character': 604,
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'passage_text': 'Apple first introduced emoji to their desktop operating system with the release of OS X 10.7 Lion, in 2011. Users can view emoji characters sent through email and messaging applications, which are commonly shared by mobile users, as well as any other application. Users can create emoji symbols using the "Characters" special input panel from almost any native application by selecting the "Edit" menu and pulling down to "Special Characters", or by the key combination . The desktop OS uses the Apple Color Emoji font that was introduced earlier in iOS. This provides users with full color pictographs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '513844',
'title': 'Emoji',
'section': 'Section::::Emoji communications problems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 256,
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'passage_text': 'Research has shown that emoji are often misunderstood. In some cases, this misunderstanding is related to how the actual emoji design is interpreted by the viewer; in other cases, the emoji that was sent is not shown in the same way on the receiving side.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50696877',
'title': 'IOS 10',
'section': 'Section::::App features.:Messages.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 115,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 115,
'end_character': 322,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'New emojis have been added, as well as additional features related to emoji. Emojis appear 3x bigger if messages are sent with up to three emojis and no text, the keyboard can now predict emojis to use, and an emoji replacement feature attempts to match words in messages and replace them with emojis of the same meaning.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55114493',
'title': 'Emoji domain',
'section': 'Section::::Problems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 365,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Another problem is that emojis can look different depending on the operating system, applications, and fonts used. Not all browsers support emoji domains. On Google Chrome and Firefox, emoji display as Punycode in the address bar. In Safari, on the other hand, emoji are visible in the address bar. Emoji domains are also visible in Google and Bing search results.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '64105',
'title': 'Typeface',
'section': 'Section::::Non-character typefaces.:Emoji.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 102,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 102,
'end_character': 973,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Emoji are pictograms that can be used and displayed inline with text. They are similar to previous symbol typefaces, but with a much larger range of characters, such as symbols for common objects, animals, food types, weather and emotions. Originally developed in Japan, they are now commonly installed on many computer and smartphone operating systems. Following standardisation and inclusion in the Unicode standard, allowing them to be used internationally, the number of Emoji characters has rapidly increased to meet the demands of an expanded range of cultures using them; unlike many previous symbol typefaces, they are interchangeable with the ability to display the pictures of the same meaning in a range of fonts on different operating systems. The popularity of emoji has meant that characters have sometimes gained culture-specific meanings not inherent to the design. Both colour and monochrome emoji typefaces exist, as well as at least one animated design.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do emojis show up differently on iOS vs Android devices?',
'selftext': "Why aren't there universal emojis?",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Well consider it like a different font type. It still conveys the same information, but it is a separate style. ',
"When your phone sends text back and forth, it's encoded as numbers. These are standard, so 33 is !, 65 is A, and 128512 is 😀. All your phone gets are these numbers, and to show them, your phone has a list of little pictures for all these characters that it puts on the screen. The pictures should all be similar, but there's no reason why each company has to use exactly the same pictures. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5shonw',
'query': 'why do emojis show up differently on ios vs android devices?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '8578085',
'title': 'Electron affinity (data page)',
'section': 'Section::::Elements.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 463,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Electron affinity can be defined in two equivalent ways. First, as the energy that is released by adding an electron to an isolated gaseous atom. The second (reverse) definition is that electron affinity is the energy required to remove an electron from a singly charged gaseous negative ion. Either convention can be used. Whereas ionization energies are always concerned with the formation of positive ions, electron affinities are the negative ion equivalent.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '197964',
'title': 'Electron affinity',
'section': 'Section::::Measurement and use of electron affinity.:Sign convention.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'Equivalently, electron affinity can also be defined as the amount of energy "required" to detach an electron from the atom while it holds a single-excess-electron thus making the atom a negative ion, i.e. the energy change for the process\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9707',
'title': 'Electronegativity',
'section': 'Section::::Methods of calculation.:Mulliken electronegativity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 363,
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'passage_text': 'Robert S. Mulliken proposed that the arithmetic mean of the first ionization energy (E) and the electron affinity (E) should be a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract electrons. As this definition is not dependent on an arbitrary relative scale, it has also been termed absolute electronegativity, with the units of kilojoules per mole or electronvolts.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '197964',
'title': 'Electron affinity',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'In chemistry and atomic physics, the electron affinity ("E") of an atom or molecule is defined as the amount of energy "released" or "spent" when an electron is added to a neutral atom or molecule in the gaseous state to form a negative ion.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '59613',
'title': 'Ionization energy',
'section': 'Section::::Vertical and adiabatic ionization energy in molecules.:Adiabatic ionization energy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 48,
'end_character': 362,
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'passage_text': 'The adiabatic ionization energy of a molecule is the "minimum" amount of energy required to remove an electron from a neutral molecule, i.e. the difference between the energy of the vibrational ground state of the neutral species (v" = 0 level) and that of the positive ion (v\' = 0). The specific equilibrium geometry of each species does not affect this value.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '197964',
'title': 'Electron affinity',
'section': 'Section::::"Electron affinity" as defined in solid state physics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
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'passage_text': 'In the field of solid state physics, the electron affinity is defined differently than in chemistry and atomic physics. For a semiconductor-vacuum interface (that is, the surface of a semiconductor), electron affinity, typically denoted by "E" or "χ", is defined as the energy obtained by moving an electron from the vacuum just outside the semiconductor to the bottom of the conduction band just inside the semiconductor:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23053',
'title': 'Periodic table',
'section': 'Section::::Periodic trends and patterns.:Electron affinity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 38,
'end_character': 462,
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'passage_text': 'The electron affinity of an atom is the amount of energy released when an electron is added to a neutral atom to form a negative ion. Although electron affinity varies greatly, some patterns emerge. Generally, nonmetals have more positive electron affinity values than metals. Chlorine most strongly attracts an extra electron. The electron affinities of the noble gases have not been measured conclusively, so they may or may not have slightly negative values.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How to best describe/explain ionization energy and electron affinity?',
'selftext': "I have a science test tomorrow about ionization energy and electron affinity (more specifically surrounding Sodium Chloride) and I have absolutely no clue how to explain these concepts. I understand them broadly speaking, but I feel like my science teacher won't take vague explanations as an answer on a unit final. Can anyone help me out a bit?",
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Ionization energy is the amount of energy that must go into an atom to remove an electron. As you remove more electrons, the amount of energy required becomes larger and larger because of the effective nuclear charge. This pulls the electrons closer and closer to the nucleus, which results in higher energy to pull it off. Once all the valence electrons are removed, the ionization energy increases substantially.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nElectron affinity is basically the opposite. It's the energy that's released when an electron is added to an atom.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nIn the context of NaCl, not much energy is required to remove an electron from a sodium atom, and a lot of energy is released when an electron is added to a chlorine atom (in fact, it has the highest electron affinity in the periodic table). "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'a0f116',
'query': 'how to best describe/explain ionization energy and electron affinity?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '44815546',
'title': 'Grand tack hypothesis',
'section': 'Section::::Scope of the grand tack hypothesis.:Absent super-Earths.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 1330,
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'passage_text': "The absence of close orbiting super-Earths in the Solar System may also be the result of Jupiter's inward migration. As Jupiter migrates inward, planetesimals are captured in its mean-motion resonances, causing their orbits to shrink and their eccentricities to grow. A collisional cascade follows as their relative velocities became large enough to produce catastrophic impacts. The resulting debris then spirals inward toward the Sun due to drag from the gas disk. If there were super-Earths in the early Solar System, they would have caught much of this debris in resonances and could have been driven into the Sun ahead of it. The current terrestrial planets would then form from planetesimals left behind when Jupiter reversed course. However, the migration of close orbiting super-Earths into the Sun could be avoided if the debris coalesced into larger objects, reducing gas drag; and if the protoplanetary disk had an inner cavity, their inward migration could be halted near its edge. If no planets had yet formed in the inner Solar System, the destruction of the larger bodies during the collisional cascade could have left the remaining debris small enough to be pushed outward by the solar wind, which would have been much stronger during the early Solar System, leaving little to form planets inside Mercury's orbit.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30647',
'title': 'Tidal acceleration',
'section': 'Section::::Other cases of tidal acceleration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 33,
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'passage_text': "Most natural satellites of the planets undergo tidal acceleration to some degree (usually small), except for the two classes of tidally decelerated bodies. In most cases, however, the effect is small enough that even after billions of years most satellites will not actually be lost. The effect is probably most pronounced for Mars's second moon Deimos, which may become an Earth-crossing asteroid after it leaks out of Mars's grip.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2592906',
'title': 'Planetary habitability',
'section': 'Section::::Suitable star systems.:A stable habitable zone.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 538,
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'passage_text': 'Second, no large-mass body such as a gas giant should be present in or relatively close to the HZ, thus disrupting the formation of Earth-size bodies. The matter in the asteroid belt, for example, appears to have been unable to accrete into a planet due to orbital resonances with Jupiter; if the giant had appeared in the region that is now between the orbits of Venus and Mars, Earth would almost certainly not have developed in its present form. However a gas giant inside the HZ might have habitable moons under the right conditions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58935753',
'title': 'The Wandering Earth',
'section': 'Section::::Plot.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 975,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'As Earth passes by Jupiter to make use of gravity assist, a "gravitational spike" causes devastating earthquakes that disable many thrusters across the globe and pull the Earth dangerously close. The four escape amidst the chaos and attempt to make their way out in Han Zi\'ang\'s truck, but the truck is requisitioned for a rescue mission by the military rescue team CN171-11; they are to transport a lighter core, an engine component, to restart the planetary thruster engine in Hangzhou, supervised by soldiers led by Wang Lei. In the remnants of Shanghai, they lose their vehicle, and while transporting the component up the ruins of the Shanghai Tower Han Zi\'ang is killed. With news that the Hangzhou thruster was fully compromised and the city was completely destroyed, the group is downcast. However they later find a new vehicle where the on-board engineer, Li Yiyi, convinces them to transport a lighter core to repair a larger planetary thruster engine in Sulawesi.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '827792',
'title': 'Rare Earth hypothesis',
'section': 'Section::::Requirements for complex life.:The right location in the right kind of galaxy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 320,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::3. Gravitational perturbation of planets and planetesimals by nearby stars becomes less likely as the density of stars decreases. Hence the further a planet lies from the Galactic Center or a spiral arm, the less likely it is to be struck by a large bolide which could extinguish all complex life on a planet.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9422452',
'title': 'Galactic tide',
'section': 'Section::::Effects on bodies within a galaxy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 412,
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'passage_text': "The Sun's gravity is sufficiently weak at such a distance that these small galactic perturbations may be enough to dislodge some planetesimals from such distant orbits, sending them towards the Sun and planets by significantly reducing their perihelia. Such a body, being composed of a rock and ice mixture, would become a comet when subjected to the increased solar radiation present in the inner Solar System.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1219210',
'title': '38th parallel structures',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "Interest in the possibility of serial impacts on Earth was piqued by observations of comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 impacting on Jupiter in 1994. It is estimated, however, that the likelihood of such an event on Earth is vanishingly small because the Earth's weaker gravitational field is much less able than Jupiter's to pull a speeding object close enough to be torn apart by tidal forces. However, evidence of serial impacts on the Moon can be seen in several chains of craters.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What would happen if a massive planet came very close to earth, as in, would our gravity change?',
'selftext': 'Also, if we jumped, while on earth, would we be in the air longer because the other planet also had gravity pulling us up?',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The planets would disrupt each others orbit, draw each other closer together and then shoot apart again, over and over and over like this for years as gravity ripped chunks off of each with every pass, each time getting closer together. \n\nThose chunks would hit both planets turning them into lifeless balls of molten rock before finally slamming together completely, most of which would eventually cool down forming a solid mass, a new planet. The remainder of the materials would orbit around the new planet for a while, most of it raining down in the form of giant meteors, until they too eventually merge together and form a moon.\n\nThat's actually how Earth and the Moon were formed.",
"Gravity is very distance dependent, and decreases by the square of distance. The Sun is obviously influencing the Earth, but doesn't do anything to us personally, because we're so close to Earth. \n\nSo if some rouge planet zipped by us at the distance of, say, the moon, we wouldn't notice it at the individual level - we'd still be way closer to earth. \n\nHowever, the Earth is really big. So it notices gravity differently. It would likely cause earthquakes and volcanic eruptions and super crazy tides that would result in basically worldwide Tsunami like effects (tides that are double or triple their typical height). \n\nAnd that would be just if a planet zipped by once. If it got too close and stayed close, it would destroy everything. ",
'I started to say "No", but then I realised the answer could be Yes.\n\nAt first I thought that the earth would be ripped apart long before the rogue planet could get close enough to have any measurable effect on our weight, but it turns out that\'s not the case!\n\nImagine a giant planet the mass of Jupiter, but denser. If it were as close to the earth as the moon is, the gravitational attraction between [the planet and a 100kg person](_URL_1_) would be about 78N, roughly equivalent to an 8% difference. So when the rogue was directly overhead, our 100kg person would weigh only 92kg, and when it was directly beneath them, they would weigh 108kg.\n\nWe\'d definitely notice that.\n\nThe distance to the moon is about 400,000 kilometres, [well beyond the Roche limit for fluids](_URL_0_) (the atmosphere and oceans). The solid earth wouldn\'t start to pull apart until this Jupiter-like rogue was roughly 150.000 kilometres away. (About 80,000 km from the top of its atmosphere, 150,000km to its centre.) So in principle, we could live long enough to notice the gravitational attraction.\n\nBut in reality, if such a planet entered the solar system, we\'d probably be wiped out by incoming comets and asteroids long before it got to us.\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9okjl4',
'query': 'what would happen if a massive planet came very close to earth, as in, would our gravity change?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '82804',
'title': 'Convergent evolution',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In morphology, analogous traits arise when different species live in similar ways and/or a similar environment, and so face the same environmental factors. When occupying similar ecological niches (that is, a distinctive way of life) similar problems can lead to similar solutions. The British anatomist Richard Owen was the first to identify the fundamental difference between analogies and homologies.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '67244',
'title': 'Ecological niche',
'section': 'Section::::Parameters.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
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'passage_text': 'The different dimensions, or "plot axes", of a niche represent different biotic and abiotic variables. These factors may include descriptions of the organism\'s life history, habitat, trophic position (place in the food chain), and geographic range. According to the competitive exclusion principle, no two species can occupy the same niche in the same environment for a long time. The parameters of a realized niche are described by the realized niche width of that species. Some plants and animals, called specialists, need specific habitats and surroundings to survive, such as the spotted owl, which lives specifically in old growth forests. Other plants and animals, called generalists, are not as particular and can survive in a range of conditions, for example the dandelion.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15668264',
'title': 'Geoplanidae',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Because of their strict ecological requirements, some species have been proposed as indicators of the conservation state of their habitats. They are generally animals with low vagility (dispersal ability) and with very specific habitat requirements, so they can be also used to accurately determine the distribution of ecozones. Today the fauna of these animals is being studied to select conservation priorities in the Atlantic rainforest in Brazil.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18071',
'title': 'Llama',
'section': 'Section::::Characteristics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
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'passage_text': 'In essential structural characteristics, as well as in general appearance and habits, all the animals of this genus very closely resemble each other, so whether they should be considered as belonging to one, two, or more species is a matter of controversy among naturalists.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '67244',
'title': 'Ecological niche',
'section': 'Section::::Grinnellian niche.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 668,
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'passage_text': 'This perspective of niche allows for the existence of both ecological equivalents and empty niches. An ecological equivalent to an organism is an organism from a different taxonomic group exhibiting similar adaptations in a similar habitat, an example being the different succulents found in American and African deserts, cactus and euphorbia, respectively. As another example, the anole lizards of the Greater Antilles are a rare example of convergent evolution, adaptive radiation, and the existence of ecological equivalents: the anole lizards evolved in similar microhabitats independently of each other and resulted in the same ecomorphs across all four islands.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2142816',
'title': 'Borrelia burgdorferi',
'section': 'Section::::Evolution.:Multiple-niche polymorphism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
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'end_paragraph_id': 36,
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'passage_text': 'Ecological niches are all of the variables in an environment, such as the resources, competitors, and responses, that contribute to the organism\'s fitness. Multiple-niche polymorphism states that diversity is maintained within a population due to the varying amount of possible niches and environments. Therefore, the more various niches the more likelihood of polymophrism and diversity. For "B. burgdorferi", varying vertebrae niches, such deer and mice, can affect the overall balancing selection for variants.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '168041',
'title': 'Anatomical terms of location',
'section': 'Section::::Introduction.:Standard anatomical position.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 529,
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'passage_text': 'Because animals can change orientation with respect to their environment, and because appendages like limbs and tentacles can change position with respect to the main body, positional descriptive terms need to refer to the animal as in its standard anatomical position. All descriptions are with respect to the organism in its standard anatomical position, even when the organism in question has appendages in another position. This helps avoid confusion in terminology when referring to the same organism in different postures.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do animals in a particular ecological niche often look so similar even if they are completely unrelated?',
'selftext': 'For example why do birds and the now extinct flying reptiles share such strong similarities as far as appearances go? Why did marine reptiles look like either fish or whales?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['This is a concept called "convergent evolution." Basically, if the pressures on one creature were such that flight was advantageous to survival in a particular environment, those same pressures could easily select for similar variations should they happen to randomly arise in another species. \n\nThis is particularly true for those filing the same niche, as the pressures will be particularly similar. ',
"Convergent evolution happens because optimal solutions exist.\n\nIe. if you want to move through the water efficiently it's effective to have a hydrodynamic shape, a propulsion method and a steering method.\n\nThere are many different ways of achieving this. That's why there are some pretty exotic solutions, like the way a squid will take in water and then squirt it out to propel itself forward or a flat eel with a body shaped like one big paddle.\n\nBut one of the simplest and most effective solutions is having a torpedo shaped body, with a big paddle for propulsion at the rear end and a number of fins to use as control surfaces.\n\nWhich is why the archetypical shark, whale, seal and ichthyosaur all more or less look the same. For entirely different species, evolution keeps resulting in a fairly optimal solution.\n\nAlong the same lines, specific needs create specific shapes. So while a torpedo with paddles might be an ideal shape for animals that swim in open waters, specific needs will just as easily see them evolve away from that basic shape. For instance flatfish. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '73hcgu',
'query': 'why do animals in a particular ecological niche often look so similar even if they are completely unrelated?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '8055330',
'title': 'Muscle coactivation',
'section': 'Section::::Function.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Muscle coactivation allows muscle groups surrounding a joint to become more stable. This is due to both muscles (or sets of muscles) contracting at the same time, which produces compression on the joint. The joint is able to become stiffer and more stable due to this action. For example, when the bicep and the triceps coactivate, the elbow becomes more stable. This stabilization mechanism is also important for unexpected loads impeded on the joint, allowing the muscles to coactivate and provide stability to the joint in a quick fashion. This mechanism is controlled neuromuscularly, which allows the muscle(s) to contract. This occurs through a motor neuron sending a signal (through creating action potentials) to the muscle fiber to contract by releasing Acetylcholine. When signals are sent to all muscle fibers in a muscle group, the muscle group will contract as a whole.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11280915',
'title': 'Frailty syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Components.:Muscle weakness.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 44,
'end_character': 387,
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'passage_text': 'Muscle weakness, also known as muscle fatigue, (or "lack of strength") refers to the inability to exert force with one\'s skeletal muscles. Weakness often follows muscle atrophy and a decrease in activity, such as after a long bout of bedrest as a result of an illness. There is also a gradual onset of muscle weakness as a result of sarcopenia - the age-related loss of skeletal muscle.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3266190',
'title': 'Muscle weakness',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Peripheral muscle fatigue.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
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'end_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': 'Though not universally used, "metabolic fatigue" is a common alternative term for peripheral muscle weakness, because of the reduction in contractile force due to the direct or indirect effects of the reduction of substrates or accumulation of metabolites within the muscle fiber. This can occur through a simple lack of energy to fuel contraction, or through interference with the ability of Ca to stimulate actin and myosin to contract.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3779092',
'title': 'Muscles of the hip',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.:Gluteal group.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'The gluteal muscles include the gluteus maximus, gluteus medius, gluteus minimus, and tensor fasciae latae. They cover the lateral surface of the ilium. The gluteus maximus, which forms most of the muscle of the buttocks, originates primarily on the ilium and sacrum and inserts on the gluteal tuberosity of the femur as well as the iliotibial tract, a tract of strong fibrous tissue that runs along the lateral thigh to the tibia and fibula. The gluteus medius and gluteus minimus originate anterior to the gluteus maximus on the ilium and both insert on the greater trochanter of the femur. The tensor fasciae latae shares its origin with the gluteus maximus at the ilium and also shares the insertion at the iliotibial tract.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47670171',
'title': 'Muscle imbalance',
'section': 'Section::::Prognosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'In terms of selective muscle weakness or poor flexibility muscular imbalance is frequently regarded as an etiological factor in the onset of musculoskeletal disorders. There are a variety of areas that can be affected, each causing different symptoms hence there are also different treatments available, but in general cases muscle strengthening techniques were developed for the use on the weak or tight muscles.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '424433',
'title': 'Weakness',
'section': 'Section::::Differential diagnosis.:Types.:Peripheral muscle fatigue.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 435,
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'passage_text': 'Though not universally used, "metabolic fatigue" is a common alternative term for peripheral muscle weakness, because of the reduction in contractile force due to the direct or indirect effects of the reduction of substrates or accumulation of metabolites within the myocytes. This can occur through a simple lack of energy to fuel contraction, or through interference with the ability of Ca to stimulate actin and myosin to contract.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18447032',
'title': 'Muscle contracture',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'For example, in the case of partial paralysis (i.e. poliomyelitis) the loss of strength and muscle control tend to be greater in some muscles than in others, leading to an imbalance between the various muscle groups around specific joints. Case in point: when the muscles which dorsiflex (flex the foot upward) are less functional than the muscles which plantarflex (flex the foot downward) a contracture occurs, giving the foot a progressively downward angle and loss of flexibility. Various interventions can slow, stop, or even reverse muscle contractures, ranging from physical therapy to surgery. A common cause for having the ankle lose its flexibility in this manner is from having sheets tucked in at the foot of the bed when sleeping. The weight of the sheets keep the feet plantarflexed all night. Correcting this by not tucking the sheets in at the foot of the bed, or by sleeping with the feet hanging off the bed when in the prone position, is part of correcting this imbalance.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do glute muscles become weak?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The same way any other muscle gets weaker. Over time and extended periods of low use, they deteriorate and lose mass.'],
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'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'bidy74',
'query': 'how do glute muscles become weak?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '494866',
'title': 'Diver communications',
'section': 'Section::::Hand signals.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "Hand signals are a form of sign system used by divers to communicate when underwater. Hand signals are useful whenever divers can see each other, and some can also be used in poor visibility if in close proximity, when the recipient can feel the shape of the signaller's hand and thereby identify the signal being given. At night the signal can be illuminated by the diver's light. Hand signals are the primary method of underwater communication for recreational scuba divers, and are also in general use by professional divers, usually as a secondary method.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32596250',
'title': 'Day and night camera',
'section': '',
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'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'A day and night camera is a security camera that can see the picture during the day hours, when there is enough sunlight, and during the night in total darkness or minimum illumination. A day and night camera has special lenses that allow infrared emission produced by infrared LEDs and reflected from objects to go through and reach a CCD or CMOS chip inside the camera. As a result, the end user can see picture in total darkness at the distance of infrared emission produced by LEDs. A day and night camera can have infrared LEDs mounted on its housing or can accept the emission, produced by an infrared turret. Day and night cameras often have modifications in their digital signal processor (DSP) that compensates for the difference in illumination between day and night modes. HDR technology may also be used in more expensive models to compensate for the difference in illumination between shaded and lighted areas of surveillance.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1761236',
'title': '40-meter band',
'section': 'Section::::Usage.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 684,
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'passage_text': 'The band is most useful for inter-continental communication for one or two hours before sunset, during the night and for one or two hours after sunrise. It is extremely useful for short to medium distance contacts from local contacts out to a range of 500–1500\xa0km (300–1000 miles) or more, depending on conditions, during the day. In higher latitudes, daytime intercontinental communication is also possible during the short days of winter, for example a good path often opens between Japan and northern Europe in the hours leading up to European midday from late November through late January, with a long path opening to the west coast of the United States and Canada after midday.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25126575',
'title': 'Matzo Ball',
'section': 'Section::::Events.:Logistics.:Tickets and crowd.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
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'passage_text': 'Rudnick has observed that the best use of the night is to speak to many potential romantic or business contacts over the course of the night, and to follow up and stay in touch with them over the following months to see what develops, instead of spending the entire night talking with only one person.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '74845',
'title': 'Contact lens',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Functions.:Corrective contact lenses.:Other types of vision correction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 33,
'end_character': 263,
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'passage_text': 'ChromaGen contact lenses have been used and shown to have some limitations with vision at night although otherwise producing significant improvements in color vision. An earlier study showed very significant improvements in color vision and patient satisfaction.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19244343',
'title': 'Balisor',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 352,
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'passage_text': 'High voltage power cables, particularly those close to airports, need to be visible day and night. During the day, brightly coloured balls positioned along the length of the cables are sufficient, but during the night, lighting is necessary. These beacons provide this lighting by glowing red, the standard colour used in aviation for warning beacons.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15022',
'title': 'Infrared',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Night vision.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 44,
'end_character': 505,
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'passage_text': ' Infrared is used in night vision equipment when there is insufficient visible light to see. Night vision devices operate through a process involving the conversion of ambient light photons into electrons that are then amplified by a chemical and electrical process and then converted back into visible light. Infrared light sources can be used to augment the available ambient light for conversion by night vision devices, increasing in-the-dark visibility without actually using a visible light source.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do night contacts work?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['My understanding is they reshape the eye. The degree of how concave or convex the lens of the eye causes near sightedness or far sightedness. Sleep contacts temporarily shape your eyes back to neutral. '],
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'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5wx6g9',
'query': 'how do night contacts work?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '26957755',
'title': 'Space travel using constant acceleration',
'section': 'Section::::Interstellar travel.:Feasibility.\n',
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'passage_text': "A related issue is drag. If the near light-speed space craft is interacting with matter or energy that is moving slowly in the planetary reference frame—solar wind, magnetic fields, cosmic microwave background radiation—this will cause drag which will bleed off a portion of the engine's acceleration.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37839',
'title': 'Ion thruster',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': "Ion thrust engines are practical only in the vacuum of space and cannot take vehicles through the atmosphere because ion engines do not work in the presence of ions outside the engine. Additionally, the engine's minuscule thrust cannot overcome any significant air resistance. Spacecraft rely on conventional chemical rockets to initially reach orbit.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '155758',
'title': 'Gravity assist',
'section': 'Section::::Limits.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
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'end_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': "Another limitation is the atmosphere, if any, of the available planet. The closer the spacecraft can approach, the faster its periapsis speed as gravity accelerates the spacecraft, allowing for more kinetic energy to be gained from a rocket burn. However, if a spacecraft gets too deep into the atmosphere, the energy lost to drag can exceed that gained from the planet's gravity. On the other hand, the atmosphere can be used to accomplish aerobraking. There have also been theoretical proposals to use aerodynamic lift as the spacecraft flies through the atmosphere. This maneuver, called an aerogravity assist, could bend the trajectory through a larger angle than gravity alone, and hence increase the gain in energy.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32185736',
'title': 'Jitter (optics)',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'For spacecraft, operation in a vacuum often means low mechanical damping. Meanwhile, spacecraft are compact and rigid, to withstand high launch loads. Jitter, then, is transmitted easily and often a limiting factor for high-resolution optics. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2860340',
'title': 'Electrodynamic tether',
'section': 'Section::::Tether propulsion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'end_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'As part of a "tether propulsion" system, crafts can use long, strong conductors (though not all tethers are conductive) to change the orbits of spacecraft. It has the potential to make space travel significantly cheaper. When direct current is applied to the tether, it exerts a Lorentz force against the magnetic field, and the tether exerts a force on the vehicle. It can be used either to accelerate or brake an orbiting spacecraft. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '49553622',
'title': 'DEEP-IN',
'section': 'Section::::Technology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'DEEP-IN would use an array of small lasers to focus a stream of photons onto reflectors on spacecraft, eliminating the need for spacecraft to carry propellant and therefore significantly lowering their mass. Photon momentum would be translated to the spacecraft, and reflectors enable a theoretical twofold increase in momentum transfer compared to a blackbody surface. The project anticipates it could carry femtosatellites weighing grams at approximately 0.25 times the speed of light, and still have significant maximum speed on larger spacecraft.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12718563',
'title': 'Gravity turn',
'section': 'Section::::Use in orbital redirection.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
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'passage_text': "For spacecraft missions where large changes in the direction of flight are necessary, direct propulsion by the spacecraft may not be feasible due to the large delta-v requirement. In these cases it may be possible to perform a flyby of a nearby planet or moon, using its gravitational attraction to alter the ship's direction of flight. Although this maneuver is very similar to the gravitational slingshot it differs in that a slingshot often implies a change in both speed and direction whereas the gravity turn only changes the direction of flight.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "If in the vacuum of space there are no exterior forces acing on a spacecraft, why can't we continuously speed up the craft to light speed with constant thrust?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It takes more and more energy to constantly accelerate a spacecraft. This means that as you approach C the amount of energy that you need to go faster approaches infinity. Sadly humans do not have access to infinite energy so we can never actually reach C.',
'Because of relativity, from your point of view on the ship it may seem like you are always accelerating but from the point of view of someone back on Earth, you will never reach the speed of light. From their perspective, the closer you get to the speed of light the more slowly you would seem to age, the more your length would contract in the direction you are moving and the more your mass would increase. Theoretically, your mass would become infinite if you could reach the speed of light. Since the amount of energy needed accelerate an object is proportional to its mass, you would need an infinite amount of energy to accelerate up to the speed of light.',
'The main major problem is it would take a massive amount of energy (i.e. fuel) to be able to produce enough overall thrust to even get *close* to the speed of light (ignoring relativistic implications of doing this). That fuel has to somehow be contained in a single spacecraft and that massive spacecraft has to be launched from Earth while also hauling that massive payload.\n\n > Why not just build the spaceship *in* space?\n\nIt would still require astronomical resources to ferry enough building materials, crew, and fuel using smaller crafts spread over hundreds of trips up to the theoretical shipyard. \n\nThe sheer amount of time it would take to accomplish the feat of building and launching such a spacecraft using existing technologies and fuel sources would probably equal the amount of time it will take humanity to discover new technologies that can accomplish the same thing cheaper and faster.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5vle6l',
'query': "if in the vacuum of space there are no exterior forces acing on a spacecraft, why can't we continuously speed up the craft to light speed with constant thrust?",
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
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'title': 'Vitamin D deficiency',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Initial phase.:Single-dose therapy.\n',
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'passage_text': "Alternatively, a single-dose therapy is used for instance if there are concerns regarding the patient's compliance. The single-dose therapy can be given as an injection, but is normally given in form of an oral medication.\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '19933497',
'title': 'Infusion therapy',
'section': 'Section::::Treatments.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Infusion therapy involves the administration of medication through a needle or catheter. Typically, "infusion therapy" means that a drug is administered intravenously or subcutaneously. The term may pertain where drugs are provided through other non-oral routes of administration, such as intramuscular injection and epidural administration (into the membranes surrounding the spinal cord).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6447865',
'title': 'Drug injection',
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'passage_text': 'A wide variety of drugs are injected, often opioids: these may include legally prescribed medicines and medication such as morphine, as well as stronger compounds often favored in recreational drug use, which are often illegal. Although there are various methods of taking drugs, injection is favoured by some people as the full effects of the drug are experienced very quickly, typically in five to ten seconds. It also bypasses first-pass metabolism in the liver, resulting in higher bioavailability and efficiency for many drugs (such as morphine or diacetylmorphine/heroin; roughly two-thirds of which is destroyed in the liver when consumed orally) than oral ingestion would. The effect is that the person gets a stronger (yet shorter-acting) effect from the same amount of the drug. Drug injection is therefore often related to substance dependence. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40542151',
'title': 'History and culture of substituted amphetamines',
'section': 'Section::::Illicit drug culture.:Recreational use.:Recreational routes of administration.:Injection.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 54,
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'passage_text': 'Drug injection via intravenous administration, intramuscular administration, or subcutaneous administration carries relatively greater risks than other methods of administration. The doses used by recreational intravenous users vary widely, with a range of 1–200\xa0times the doses used therapeutically (i.e., up to several grams). Intravenous users risk developing pulmonary embolism (PE), a blockage of the main artery of the lung or one of its branches, and commonly develop skin rashes or infections at the site of injection. As with the injection of any drug, if a group of users share a common needle without sterilization procedures, blood-borne diseases, such as HIV or hepatitis, can be transmitted. The level of needle sharing among methamphetamine users is similar to that among other drug-injection users.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3378502',
'title': 'Palifermin',
'section': 'Section::::Administration.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Palifermin is administered via intravenous bolus injection. The drug comes as a lyophilized powder that must be reconstituted with sterile water for injection before it may be administered. It is given for three days before, and three days after chemotherapy is undergone. However, it is important that the drug is not administered within 24 hours of the actual chemotherapy process. This drug is most commonly dosed in a hospital setting, but can be taken at home as per specific instructions regarding preparation and storage from a doctor. The recommended dosage consists of 60\xa0µg/kg/day.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24210413',
'title': 'Heroin-assisted treatment',
'section': 'Section::::Criticism.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In the case of heroin-assisted treatment however, users are provided with a form of pharmaceutical-grade heroin injection solution which doctors consider fit for injection. And as doctors refrain from drastic changes in dose and provide post-injection monitoring, overdoses are rare and can be quickly treated with opioid antagonists like naloxone. Thus, patients in heroin-assisted treatment are relieved from the major complex of problems that defines illicit heroin use. Synthetic heroin taken under the aforementioned conditions is not neurotoxic and has few long-term side effects beside constipation and dependency. And while it had been speculated that the availability of such treatment options might change public perception of the risks associated with drug use and might lead to an increase in illicit drug use, the incidence of heroin abuse in Switzerland has declined sharply since the introduction of heroin-assisted treatment. As a study published in The Lancet concluded:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6190706',
'title': 'Ranibizumab',
'section': 'Section::::Administration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'The drug is injected intravitreally (into the vitreous humour of the eye) once a month. If monthly injections are not feasible, the regimen may be reduced to 1 injection every 3 months after the first 4 months.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How is a single injection of a drug able to provide months of therapy?',
'selftext': 'My wife is getting a single shot of a drug that will stop her production of estrogen for a full three months. I read about "once a year" injections that can provide months of relief for various conditions. How can a single dose of a medication remain metabolically active for months at a time?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Esterification of an injectable steroid basically accomplishes one thing, it slows the release of the parent steroid from the site of injection. \nThis happens because the ester will notably lower the water solubility of the steroid, and increase its lipid (fat) solubility. This will cause the drug to form a deposit in the muscle tissue, from which it will slowly enter into circulation as it is picked up in small quantities by the blood. Generally, the longer the ester chain, the lower the water solubility of the compound, and the longer it will take to for the full dosage to reach general circulation.'],
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'query_id': '7lc8hh',
'query': 'how is a single injection of a drug able to provide months of therapy?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '334816',
'title': 'Route of administration',
'section': 'Section::::Choice of routes.:Parenteral.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 68,
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'passage_text': 'Disadvantages of injections include potential pain or discomfort for the patient and the requirement of trained staff using aseptic techniques for administration. However, in some cases, patients are taught to self-inject, such as SC injection of insulin in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. As the drug is delivered to the site of action extremely rapidly with IV injection, there is a risk of overdose if the dose has been calculated incorrectly, and there is an increased risk of side effects if the drug is administered too rapidly.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '665909',
'title': 'Injection (medicine)',
'section': 'Section::::Intravenous injection.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'Intravenous injections involve needle insertion directly into the vein and the substance is directly delivered into the bloodstream. In medicine and drug use, this route of administration is the fastest way to get the desired effects since the medication moves immediately into blood circulation and to the rest of the body. This type of injection is the most common and often associated with drug use.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8127859',
'title': 'Absorption (skin)',
'section': 'Section::::Measurement of skin absorption.:Indirect measurement.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
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'passage_text': 'It is sometimes impossible for humane reasons to apply a drug to the skin and measure its absorption. Sarin, a nerve gas, can be absorbed through intact skin and be lethal at low concentrations. Thus if one needs to assess the risk of Sarin exposure one must take skin absorption and other routes into account but one cannot ethically test Sarin on human subjects; thus ways of modeling the risk from skin exposure of the agent have been found. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6447865',
'title': 'Drug injection',
'section': 'Section::::Procedure.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The preferred injection site is the crook of the elbow (i.e., the Median cubital vein), on the user\'s non-writing hand. Other users opt to use the Basilic vein; while it may be easier to "hit", caution must be exercised as two nerves run parallel to the vein, increasing the chance of nerve damage, as well as the chance of an arterial "nick".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1065865',
'title': 'Subcutaneous tissue',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical significance.:Injection.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Injection into the subcutaneous tissue is a route of administration used for drugs such as insulin: because it is highly vascular, the tissue absorbs drugs quickly. Subcutaneous injection is believed to be the most effective manner to administer some drugs, such as human growth hormones. Just as the subcutaneous tissue can store fat, it can also provide good storage space for drugs that need to be released gradually because there is limited blood flow. "Skin popping" is a slang term that includes this method of administration, and is usually used in association with recreational drugs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '290517',
'title': 'Gamma globulin',
'section': 'Section::::Use as medical treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'Injections are most commonly used on patients having been exposed to hepatitis A or measles, or to make a kidney donor and a recipient compatible regardless of blood type or tissue match. Injections are also used to boost immunity in patients unable to produce gamma globulins naturally because of an immune deficiency, such as X-linked agammaglobulinemia and hyper IgM syndrome. Such injections are less common in modern medical practice than they were previously, and injections of gamma globulin previously recommended for travelers have largely been replaced by the use of hepatitis A vaccine.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21354316',
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'passage_text': 'Injection site reactions are allergic reactions that result in cutaneous necrosis that may occur at sites of medication injection, typically presenting in one of two forms, (1) those associated with intravenous infusion or (2) those related to intramuscular injection. Intra muscular injections may produce a syndrome called livedo dermatitis.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why is it harder to find veins for injection on someone who's feeling nervous about it ?",
'selftext': 'I was given an injection with a baby needle on my elbow pit. The nurse had to switch veins 4 times (twice in left arm, twice in right arm) and still didn\'t manage to give me the injection. I was told it was because I felt nervous so it made my veins "disappeared". How is that possible ?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Nervousness causes high blood pressure. One of the causes of high blood pressure is constriction of the blood vessels thus making them smaller and hard to find. Add in the fact that not everyone has the same body make-up, I.e. some people may just have naturally smaller/less flexible veins or their veins don’t run in exactly the same way, can also contribute.',
'Likely to do with vasoconstriction, which is the narrowing of blood vessels. When you get nervous, your body releases adrenaline into the bloodstream. This serves several purposes but one of the effects of adrenaline is vasoconstriction. This could lead to a smaller target for the nurse to hit with a needle. Also, adrenaline can cause increased body movement which can make it more difficult to be accurate with the needle.',
'So, from a theoretical perspective:\n\nYour body goes through something called sympathetic stimulus during stressful situations - it is colloquially called a "fight or flight" reaction. The body does several things with this, it reduces blood flow to your gut (don\'t need to be digesting things when running from a tiger), activates insulin (to get glucose into your muscles, where you are gonna need it to run from a tiger), dilated the pupils (so you can see the tiger better), increases blood flow to your heart, and increases heart rate (definitely need that with tigers around), and *decreases* peripheral blood flow (to prioritise the central organs, like your heart and lungs) by constricting your veins. Smaller tubes, less blood in them, more blood for your heart. This increases your blood pressure too.\n\nFrom a practical perspective, the venous constriction is actually relatively small, certainly compared to other factors affecting how easy it is to get a needle in, like hydration.\n\nYour nervous disposition also has an effect on the person putting the needle in. I am massively needle-phobic, and I really hate cannulating other needle-phobes, cos I know what they are going through, and it makes me feel under massive pressure to get the vein first time, which inevitably makes me miss.'],
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'query_id': 'fgy10d',
'query': "why is it harder to find veins for injection on someone who's feeling nervous about it ?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '18842323',
'title': 'Sea',
'section': 'Section::::Physical science.:Seawater.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The amount of light that penetrates the sea depends on the angle of the sun, the weather conditions and the turbidity of the water. Much light gets reflected at the surface, and red light gets absorbed in the top few metres. Yellow and green light reach greater depths, and blue and violet light may penetrate as deep as . There is insufficient light for photosynthesis and plant growth beyond a depth of about .\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24951890',
'title': 'Oceanic zone',
'section': 'Section::::Marine life.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Oceanographers have divided the ocean into zones based on how far light reaches. All of the light zones can be found in the oceanic zone. The epipelagic zone is the one closest to the surface and is the best lit. It extends to 100 meters and contains both phytoplankton and zooplankton that can support larger organisms like marine mammals and some types of fish. Past 100 meters, not enough light penetrates the water to support life, and no plant life exists.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '305265',
'title': 'Underwater environment',
'section': 'Section::::Physical characteristics.:Penetration of light.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': 'With increasing depth underwater, sunlight is absorbed, and the amount of visible light diminishes. Because absorption is greater for long wavelengths (red end of the visible spectrum) than for short wavelengths (blue end of the visible spectrum), the colour spectrum is rapidly altered with increasing depth. White objects at the surface appear bluish underwater, and red objects appear dark, even black. Although light penetration will be less if water is turbid, in the very clear water of the open ocean less than 25% of the surface light reaches a depth of 10\xa0m (33\xa0feet). At 100\xa0m (330\xa0ft) the light present from the sun is normally about 0.5% of that at the surface.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24951890',
'title': 'Oceanic zone',
'section': 'Section::::Sub zones.\n',
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'passage_text': '54% of the ocean lies in the bathypelagic (aphotic) zone into which no light penetrates. This is also called the midnight zone and the deep ocean. Due to the complete lack of sunlight, photosynthesis cannot occur and the only light source is bioluminescence. Water pressure is very intense and the temperatures are near freezing (range ).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15575',
'title': 'Geography of Japan',
'section': 'Section::::Oceanography and Seabed of Japan.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 93,
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'passage_text': "Most of the marine resources are invisible when traveling on the surface. Underwater vision is very limited in the ocean. Light penetrates the ocean until about in the sunlight (euphotic) zone. After that sunlight and visibility decreases rapidly in the twilight (dysphotic) zone. The water can also be murky. At a depth of there is perpetual darkness in the midnight (aphotic) zone. So other methods must be used for humans to see in the ocean. Eventually you'll reach the seabed \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8557676',
'title': 'Demersal zone',
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'passage_text': 'Being just above the ocean floor, the demersal zone is variable in depth and can be part of the photic zone where light can penetrate and photosynthetic organisms grow, or the aphotic zone, which begins between depths of roughly and extends to the ocean depths, where no light penetrates.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '62332',
'title': 'Deep sea fish',
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'passage_text': 'The epipelagic zone (0–200m) is the area where light penetrates the water and photosynthesis occurs. This is also known as the photic zone. Because this typically extends only a few hundred meters below the water, the deep sea, about 90% of the ocean volume, is in darkness. The deep sea is also an extremely hostile environment, with temperatures that rarely exceed 3\xa0°C (37.4\xa0°F) and fall as low as −1.8\xa0°C (28.76\xa0°F) (with the exception of hydrothermal vent ecosystems that can exceed 350\xa0°C, or 662\xa0°F), low oxygen levels, and pressures between 20 and 1,000 atmospheres (between 2 and 100 megapascals).\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does light only penetrate 1000 meters of the ocean and not the entire ocean?',
'selftext': 'I read that light is detectable at a depth of 1000 meters, but photosynthesis is only possible at 200 meters. The verbiage used by the article I read was "significant light is only present at above 200 meters," but does "significant" mean the energy of the photons at that depth is diminished or simply that the frequency of photons hitting the sensors is decreased? Is photonic energy simply absorbed by the ocean to the point where photons can no longer exist? Or does the "wave" of light energy dissipate into the ocean like a sound or shockwave would? Moreover, are there other methods of gathering information through the medium of water that are more effective than light? For example, is the effective range of SONAR greater than that of, say, a light source? What about low wavelength vs high wavelength light? Sorry if it seems like I\'m asking for a 101 in photons and electromagnetic energy, never learned this stuff in physics. Thanks in advance.',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Roughly speaking, every metre of water will reduce the light by a fraction. Let's say that after 10m half the light is gone. After 20m, only a quarter would be left. After 100m, only a thousandth of the light would be getting through. (Number pulled out of my thin air.) In practice, presence of creatures/debris/different pressures/etc will affect it, but broadly speaking it will decrease exponentially with depth.\n\nSonar is a wave in the water itself. As it propagates differently, it does not decay exponentially in the same way, allowing it to potentially propagate far longer distances. How it does propagate is rather complicated, and dependant upon a lot of variables, especially the frequency. Most frequencies would not work, sonar uses frequencies specially chosen for how well they function at the task.",
"Light runs into stuff and bounces off stuff. At some point there's no more light to continue.\n\nSame thing happens in space too. Space isn't completely empty, and over a large enough distance, the light can be obscured.",
"because water isn't 100% clear. it's pretty straightforward. just like paper isn't 100% transparent, or your hands aren't 100% transparent.\n",
'No one seems to be answering your question with photons:\n\nThink about light from the sun as a hail of lots of photons.\n\nEach photon travels until it hits something. Some things can “bounce” photons off them, some things just suck in the photon.\n\nLots of photons from the sun make it through the air and start travelling into the water. But seawater has stuff floating in it that absorbs photons. For each metre of water, some photons will hit something, and some will make it through without hitting anything.\n\nIf you look for photons 300 metres deep in the sea, you will only find the very lucky photons who made it through 300 metres of water without hitting anything, and hardly any photons are that lucky.\n\nEdit: I just thought of a good analogy – it’s like a crazy guy spraying a machine gun around in a forest. Bullets stop when they hit a tree, but some bullets can go quite far before they hit a tree. If you can get a mile away from the crazy machine gun guy, your chances of getting hit go down to practically zero.\n\nEdit 2: please stop accusing me of being an American.',
'The spectrum also dissapears in order from lowest to highest frequency. one color every 10 meters or so. \n\nROYGBIV\n\nSO at 50 meters its kind of blue green. ',
'Light or visible light is a spectrum, we will call it X.\n\nThe photosynthetic spectrum is a subset, we will call it Y.\n\nIt is possible for X to penetrate far deeper than Y. And for Y to require more energy to occur whereas simply detecting X requires far less energy.\n\n_URL_0_\n\n\n\n_URL_1_',
"Simply speaking there's only so many photons per square unit of measure. \n\nAs we travel deeper in the ocean, we pass more things. \n\nEach of those are dodged by photons until they are not.\n\nYou run out of photons eventually.",
"Here's something that nobody seems to answer: water isn't completely transparent, it's just very, very translucent. Even if the water was completely free of particles, after about 200-300m you wouldn't be able to see any light. Only a true vacuum can transmit 100% of the light that passes through it. And a true vacuum doesnt actually exist anywhere in nature that we know of. We can get close in a laboratory, but that's it. Even deep space sucks up light, because all of it has a tiny tiny bit of matter floating around in it, like a couple atoms per square foot or something. But that's enough to reduce light, if you look at it with enough space between it and you. That's one reason why, incidentally, that some stars appear brighter than others. If outer space didnt diminish light whatsoever, the entire sky on average would be aapproximately as bright as the sun. Any physical matter sucks up photons, given enough of it. It just takes about 300m of water to see that it's not actually transparent.\n\nAs for photosynthesis, it's a process that requires a minimum threshold of light to make it happen. Without that minimum amount of light, there isn't enough energy to break/create the chemical bonds that are required for that process.",
'Photon energy is determined by the frequency (color). When light get weeker in the ocean, it\'s the number of photons getting smaller.\n\nThe reduce of photon numbers in water could be scattering (thinking of photons bounced away by particles in water) and absorbtion by either water or other stuff in the water. Scattering and absorbtion are both frequency dependent.\n\n"significant light is only present at above 200 meters," means for most frequencies, the photon numbers are much smaller after 200m.\n',
"I felt everyone else is explaining it complicatedly. The sea has lots of particles floating around and they take in some of the light. Now imagine a really fine siv. You can see through it but if you take 3 or 4 of them it makes it really hard to see all the way through. The particles are small but over so many metres of them they add up and crisscross each other that the light can't get through.",
"Easiest way to think about it. Let's say you are walking forward, through a forest and cannot turn left or right. But not just you, you and a million people.\n\nIf the forest is only a few trees thick, then there's a high chance you can make it without hitting a tree. So a few trees thick forest maybe 800k would make it without hitting a tree.\n\nBut add another row of trees. And another. And so on. Eventually the chances that even a single person could walk through the forest becomes 0 because there's too many trees in the way.\n\nSame goes for atoms and light. The light flies through and the atoms of water because there's mostly empty space. But once it goes through enough water the chances of light not hitting an atom becomes 0.",
'The deeper you go, the more dense the water becomes, making it harder for individual photons to travel a clear line to the bottom. Eventually the photons collide, or bounce and reflect and that is where the absence, or lessening of light occurs. Think of it (when there is no light) as throwing pebbles at a fine mesh, the holes are too small and it is to dense (in thsi case, compact) for the larger particles (represented from the pebbles) to penetrate this mesh. This is why clean shallow water is crystal clear and light as opposed to its darker forms in deeper spots. Sorry for bad English.',
"How does light make the ~93 million mile journey through space without the same thing happening? (There's lots of space dust/debris)",
"In space it is a tight ray. *makes tube with hands*\n\n\n\nWhen it hits the air, it has to wiggle through it. *Wiggles fingers like rain* That's called 'Diffusion'.\n\n\n\nWater is like 100 times thicker than air, so it diffuses faster. *spirit fingers*\n\n\n\nSONAR is an effective but messy way to detect things underwater. The S in SONAR stands for 'sound'. Light is made of photons. Water is made of Atoms. Photons have to go into an Atom and then warm it up enough to drive another Photon out, if it doesn't then it becomes heat. \n\n\n\n\nSound is a wave of energy that moves many Atoms. It's like with a train, when you push on the rear car it pushes all the ones in front of it. That force works on water Atoms too. If there is enough force it will bounce off solid objects and you can use the speed of sound underwater and the time it took for your sound to get there and back. SONAR can harm living things. There are different types of SONAR to try and make them safer to use. \n\n\n\nLIDAR is a fusion of the two. It uses a high intensity beam that bounces off objects to a receiver. It uses math and triangles to calculate distance. This technology is still young though.\n\n"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '8m527b',
'query': 'why does light only penetrate 1000 meters of the ocean and not the entire ocean?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '17141740',
'title': 'Radio art',
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'passage_text': 'The artist who works in radio art is not necessarily a trained DJ, programmer, producer, or engineer, but one who uses sound to make art. The radio medium can be used in ways which are different from what it was intended for. In that sense, the way the message is transmitted and received by an audience is as important as the message itself. "As an aural art form it reaffirms that it\'s not just what we say, but the way we say it." In Victoria Fenner\'s words, "Radio art is art which is specifically composed for the medium of radio and is uniquely suited to be transmitted via the airwaves." \n',
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'title': 'Radio art',
'section': 'Section::::Art radio and webradio.\n',
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'passage_text': 'An art radio is a radio station that would dedicate every second of its transmission time to radio art. Although this kind of project can seem utopian in the traditional state of radio, there are few lasting experiences in the underground or community side such as London\'s ResonanceFM which intend to make radio with art and promote the "art of listening".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15066092',
'title': 'Radia',
'section': 'Section::::Shows.:Production.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 213,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Usually each member radio station commissions an artist from their local artistic community and gives him/her carte blanche for producing a show. In that sense, Radia uses radio as a gallery for sound art pieces.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17141740',
'title': 'Radio art',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 613,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Artists use (i.e. radio transmission, airwaves...) to communicate artistic compositions for interpretation – exposing their audience to alternate means to experiencing their art through sound verses visualization. Radio Art contributes to new media art - a digitally driven art movement growing in response to the informative technological revolution we live in. “From the artist's point of view radio is an environment to be entered into and acted upon, a site for various cultural voices to meet, converse, and merge in. These artists cross disciplines, raid all genres and recontextualize them into hybrids.” \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17141740',
'title': 'Radio art',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 588,
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'passage_text': 'Radio art projects can be collaborative including various professional sources, unifying an audio broadcast with science, experimentation, geography, entertainment, etc." Some have approached radio as an architectural space to be constructed sonically and linguistically; or as the site of an event, an arena, or stage. Some used it as a gathering place, or a conduit, a means to create community. Other artists have employed the media landscape itself as the narrative, while others looked into the body as the site and the source; the voicebox, the larynx become medium and metaphor." \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52150772',
'title': 'Transmission Arts',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 395,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Transmission Arts, also sometimes known as Radio art, are defined "as a multiplicity of practices and media working with the idea of transmission or the physical properties of the Electromagnetic spectrum (radio). Transmission works often manifest themselves in participatory live art or time-based art, and include, but are not limited to, sound, video, light, installation, and performance." \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '156659',
'title': 'Announcer',
'section': 'Section::::Radio.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 625,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Radio announcers are often known as disc jockeys (DJs). While some read from scripts, others completely ad-lib. These DJs’ tasks consist of on-air interviewing, taking/responding to listener requests, running contests, and making remarks about various subjects like the weather, traffic, sports, and other news. Most radio announcers announce the artists and titles of songs, but don’t necessarily choose what song airs on the radio. Many stations have a management teams who select the songs ahead of time. Today radio stations have DJs update the station’s website with music, guest interviews, show schedules, and photos.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do radio stations broadcast album art?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Radio stations have extra radio bandwidth that they don't need for the audio alone. They can use this bandwidth to send additional data to your radio such as the station name, song title, artist, or I guess the album art. It's essentially sending data over a wireless internet connection, point-to-point from the station to your radio. This is not an efficient connection though due to the distance and interference, so its uses are limited. \n \nYou usually need a radio capable of receiving this kind of data (and a station properly equipped) otherwise your radio doesn't know how to interpret this data and display it for you. It would just think it was noise and ignore that part of the signal. This system is also heavily regulated in how it can be used."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5ng3cs',
'query': 'how do radio stations broadcast album art?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2014537',
'title': 'Alvis Stalwart',
'section': 'Section::::Design.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 731,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'However, this system causes "wind up" in the transmission (inter-component stress) as all the wheels are forced to rotate at the same speed, which during cornering is impossible. This led to rapid wear and breakage of the bevel gear boxes if the vehicle was used on firm surfaces, such as tarmac or concrete – in off-road conditions, the natural \'slip\' of a loose surface, such as mud or gravel reduced wind up. This problem is of special concern for modern-day Stalwart owners – to get a vehicle to a show either requires moving it by low-loader or driving it on the road, risking damage to the transmission. Alternatively, the front and rear driveshafts can be removed, eliminating wind up at the expense of off-road capability.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '459689',
'title': 'Warning sign',
'section': 'Section::::Modern traffic warning sign shapes and colors.:Crosswinds or Side winds.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 92,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 92,
'end_character': 253,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Flying socks, as indicated by a windsock on red triangle or yellow diamond signs, indicate locations where a strong side wind may cause the trajectory of the moving vehicle to change drastically, perhaps even "flying" across lanes, causing an accident.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '134252',
'title': 'Lewisberry, Pennsylvania',
'section': 'Section::::Gravity Hill.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 368,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The intersection of Pennsylvania Route 177 and Pleasant View Road near the borough is said to allow an automobile in neutral to drift uphill. According to legend, this effect is caused by the ghosts of children once killed in a bus accident, who push the car uphill to prevent similar occurrences. However, the phenomenon is caused by a gravity hill optical illusion.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1156993',
'title': 'Rolling',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 331,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Most land vehicles use wheels and therefore rolling for displacement. Slip should be kept to a minimum (approximating pure rolling), otherwise loss of control and an accident may result. This may happen when the road is covered in snow, sand, or oil, when taking a turn at high speed or attempting to brake or accelerate suddenly.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '885929',
'title': 'Chesapeake Bay Bridge–Tunnel',
'section': 'Section::::Operations, maintenance, and regulations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 51,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 51,
'end_character': 326,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Strong winds have blown over certain vehicles. Therefore, some vehicles are banned when the wind speed exceeds . Level 6 wind restrictions with hurricane-force winds (at least , i.e. approaching the wind speed of a Category 1 hurricane, which is at least ), and other inclement weather conditions ban all traffic.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25948',
'title': 'Refraction',
'section': 'Section::::Light.:Atmospheric refraction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 329,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Air temperature variations close to the surface can give rise to other optical phenomena, such as mirages and Fata Morgana. Most commonly, air heated by a hot road on a sunny day deflects light approaching at a shallow angle towards a viewer. This makes the road appear reflecting, giving an illusion of water covering the road.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4968735',
'title': 'Laurens van den Acker',
'section': 'Section::::Others.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 33,
'end_character': 410,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Richard Blackburn wrote in an article in Sydney Morning Herald that van den Acker \'still has some of the sketches\' of cars \'he penned as a five-year-old, with smoke bellowing from exhausts and cartoon-like lines depicting the wind. He keeps them because they "capture the emotion of motion". In layman\'s terms that means creating forms and surfaces that look as if they\'re moving when they\'re standing still.\'\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'When I’m driving, the wind can blow my car all over the road. When I’m parked, the wind can’t move my car one inch. Why?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["But it does move your car. If you're driving down the road and a gust of wind hits the side of your car it's going to push it off to the side until you correct it. That's because your car is already in motion but it's shifted slightly to the side during that motion. However while it's parked that same gust of wind will cause it to rock back and forth a bit. The only difference is that it doesn't feel as extreme because you're not in motion. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'a7gt32',
'query': 'when i’m driving, the wind can blow my car all over the road. when i’m parked, the wind can’t move my car one inch. why?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1277015',
'title': 'Steering law',
'section': 'Section::::The steering law in human–computer interaction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 297,
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'passage_text': 'which says that the instantaneous speed of the user is proportional to the width of the tunnel. This makes intuitive sense if we consider the analogous task of driving a car down a road: the wider the road, the faster we can drive and still stay on the road, even if there are curves in the road.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '54560065',
'title': 'Traffic in Metro Manila',
'section': 'Section::::Effects.:Environmental effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 60,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 60,
'end_character': 549,
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'passage_text': 'The more cars there are on the road, the more pollution is emitted into the air. This is because motor vehicles are one of the main sources of pollution in the world. On the other hand, there is an inverse relationship between the moving speed of traffic and air pollution. The slower the traffic moves, the more pollution is emitted into the air. This is due to the fact that cars burn the most fuel when accelerating to get up to speed. More gas is used up whenever there is an on and off pressing on the gas and break pedals during traffic jams.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2581346',
'title': 'Vauxhall Prince Henry',
'section': 'Section::::Road test.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 698,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': '"The engine is by no means silent. Exhaust and tappet noise with a continuous if subdued howl of pinions all merge with other unidentifiable sounds but there is no suggestion these noises may not be maintained so long as the driver wishes with unflagging regularity for hour after hour. The seat puts the driver up high and its easy to underestimate road speed. It is one thing to go fast in a straight line but quite another to cover a distance at high average speed. This car has truly amazing roadholding, it is high and narrow yet it passes through roundabouts almost as if there were none there. It is the designer\'s perfect balance of the whole chassis which makes this phenomenon possible."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20491903',
'title': 'Velocity',
'section': 'Section::::Constant velocity vs acceleration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 236,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'For example, a car moving at a constant 20 kilometres per hour in a circular path has a constant speed, but does not have a constant velocity because its direction changes. Hence, the car is considered to be undergoing an acceleration.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '898506',
'title': 'Fastback',
'section': 'Section::::Definition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 357,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'More specifically, "Road & Track" have defined the fastback as "A closed body style, usually a coupe but sometimes a sedan, with a roof sloped gradually in an unbroken line from the windshield to the rear edge of the car. A fastback naturally lends itself to a hatchback configuration and many have it, but not all hatchbacks are fastbacks and vice versa."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '236721',
'title': 'Crumple zone',
'section': 'Section::::Function.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 664,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "When a vehicle and all its contents, including passengers and luggage are travelling at speed, they have inertia / momentum, which means that they will continue forward with that direction and speed (Newton's first law of motion). In the event of a sudden deceleration of a rigid framed vehicle due to impact, unrestrained vehicle contents will continue forwards at their previous speed due to inertia, and impact the vehicle interior, with a force equivalent to many times their normal weight due to gravity. The purpose of crumple zones is to slow down the collision and to absorb energy to reduce the difference in speeds between the vehicle and its occupants.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27232354',
'title': 'Nagel–Schreckenberg model',
'section': 'Section::::Outline of the model.:Example simulation in the state with traffic jams.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 433,
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'passage_text': "So, the Nagel–Schreckenberg model includes the effect of cars getting in each other's way and so slowing each other down. The average velocity at this density is a little over 1, while at low density it is a little less than the maximum velocity of 5. It also shows that this is a collective phenomenon in which cars bunch up into traffic jams. When jamming occurs the distribution of cars along the road becomes highly non-uniform.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why does the speed of a car seem slower when I'm inside it rather than outside?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Relativity!!!\nwhen you are in a car you are in car's frame (in other words you are moving with speed of car) and when you look from window all objects have a speed equals to object's speed minus car's speed (vector addition) which slows down everything which seems to you like car is moving slow"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5xo4jx',
'query': "why does the speed of a car seem slower when i'm inside it rather than outside?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3077180',
'title': 'Rumen',
'section': 'Section::::Stratification and mixing of digesta.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 497,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Water and saliva enter through the rumen to form a liquid pool. Liquid will ultimately escape from the reticulorumen from absorption through the wall, or through passing through the reticulo-omosal orifice, as digesta does. However, since liquid cannot be trapped in the mat as digesta can, liquid passes through the rumen much more quickly than digesta does. Liquid often acts as a carrier for very small digesta particles, such that the dynamics of small particles is similar to that of liquid.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '66254',
'title': 'Drinking',
'section': 'Section::::Methods: Humans & Animals.:In humans.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 559,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'When a liquid enters a human mouth, the swallowing process is completed by peristalsis which delivers the liquid to the stomach; much of the activity is abetted by gravity. The liquid may be poured from the hands or drinkware may be used as vessels. Drinking can also be performed by acts of inhalation, typically when imbibing hot liquids or drinking from a spoon. Infants employ a method of suction wherein the lips are pressed tight around a source, as in breastfeeding: a combination of breath and tongue movement creates a vacuum which draws in liquid. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14434367',
'title': 'Fluid compartments',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 516,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "The human body and even its individual body fluids may be conceptually divided into various fluid compartments, which, although not literally anatomic compartments, do represent a real division in terms of how portions of the body's water, solutes, and suspended elements are segregated. The two main fluid compartments are the intracellular and extracellular compartments. The intracellular compartment is the space within the organism's cells; it is separated from the extracellular compartment by cell membranes.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '231030',
'title': 'Baleen whale',
'section': 'Section::::Anatomy.:Internal systems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 40,
'end_character': 1251,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "When sieved from the water, food is swallowed and travels through the esophagus where it enters a three-chambered-stomach. The first compartment is known as the fore-stomach; this is where food gets ground up into an acidic liquid, which is then squirted into the main stomach. Like in humans, the food is mixed with hydrochloric acid and protein-digesting enzymes. Then, the partly digested food is moved into the third stomach, where it meets fat-digesting enzymes, and is then mixed with an alkaline liquid to neutralize the acid from the fore-stomach to prevent damage to the intestinal tract. Their intestinal tract is highly adapted to absorb the most nutrients from food; the walls are folded and contain copious blood vessels, allowing for a greater surface area over which digested food and water can be absorbed. Baleen whales get the water they need from their food; however, the salt content of most of their prey (invertebrates) are similar to that of seawater, whereas the salt content of a whale's blood is considerably lower (three times lower) than that of seawater. The whale kidney is adapted to excreting excess salt; however, while producing urine more concentrated than seawater, it wastes a lot of water which must be replaced.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36604500',
'title': 'Vacuum filler',
'section': 'Section::::Objective.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 901,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In the food sector, moving or transporting fluids is achieved with the aid of pump technology. Colloquially, this is known as filling or portioning. Various different types of pumps are used, depending on the type of filling products to be moved. Vacuum fillers with vane cell feed systems and vacuum feeding are commonly used for viscous products. The products are transported with the aid of a hopper with a feeding device, a vane cell feed system under a vacuum and appropriate volume expulsion in the pump housing. This is basically a volumetric feed principle, which means that a certain weight is defined via a volume. In addition to the vane cell feed systems, also known as rotary vane pumps, there are also screw feed systems with feed augers, toothed wheel feed systems and evacuated lifting cylinders. With all these systems, transportation is achieved via volume expulsion under a vacuum.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2429234',
'title': 'Fluid balance',
'section': 'Section::::Routes of fluid loss and gain.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 257,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Fluid can leave the body in many ways. Fluid can enter the body as preformed water, ingested food and drink and to a lesser extent as metabolic water which is produced as a by-product of aerobic respiration (cellular respiration) and dehydration synthesis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '572635',
'title': 'Intestinal villus',
'section': 'Section::::Function.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 401,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'There are also enzymes (enterocyte digestive enzyme) on the surface for digestion. Villus capillaries collect amino acids and simple sugars taken up by the villi into the blood stream. Villus lacteals (lymph capillary) collect absorbed chylomicrons, which are lipoproteins composed of triglycerides, cholesterol and amphipathic proteins, and are taken to the rest of the body through the lymph fluid.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'how does the body correctly sort food and fluid (especially when you eat and drink together)?',
'selftext': 'For example I have seen some eating contests where the participants eat huge quantities of food and drink water to held them “down” it quickly. When it gets down your food pipes* how does the stomach and bladder get their individual shares of what’s been consumed?? *forgot the sciency name.',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The bladder is not directly connected to the digestive system, so there\'s no "sorting" involved. The small intestine extracts water and nutrients from the food in to the blood, with the help of friendly bacteria, and you poop out what\'s not used with a lot of dead bacteria. The kidneys, on the other hand, filter impurities and waste products out of the blood, with some water, and sends them to your bladder. ',
" > When it gets down your food pipes* how does the stomach and bladder get their individual shares of what’s been consumed??\n\nThe sorting happens in the intestines. It makes intuitive sense that the solids you eat become poop and the liquids you drink become pee, but that isn't actually true! \n\nEverything you swallow goes to your stomach, where it all gets mixed and broken down into a soup-like consistency. Then it goes to the intestines. Your intestines absorb the water out of it (including water that used to be in solid food), and absorb the nutrients. What's left over at the end of all this absorbing is poop. Poop also contains a lot of old, dead cells from the intestinal walls, and bacteria. \n\nAll the water and nutrients that got absorbed will flow around in your bloodstream, going where they need to go. Once this is done, the extra water is filtered out by the kidneys, because a lot of the waste products we need to pee out (like urea) have to be dissolved in water. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7ch067',
'query': 'how does the body correctly sort food and fluid (especially when you eat and drink together)?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2013448',
'title': 'Scrubber',
'section': 'Section::::Bacteria spread.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
'end_character': 310,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Poorly maintained scrubbers have the potential to spread disease-causing bacteria. The problem is a result of inadequate cleaning. For example, the cause of a 2005 outbreak of Legionnaires' disease in Norway was just a few infected scrubbers. The outbreak caused 10 deaths and more than 50 cases of infection.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31613602',
'title': 'Bed bug control techniques',
'section': 'Section::::Contaminated belongings.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 39,
'end_character': 480,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Disposal of items from the contaminated area can reduce the population of bed bugs and unhatched eggs. Removal of items such as mattresses, box springs, couches etc. is costly and usually insufficient to eradicate infestation because of eggs and adults hiding in surrounding areas. If the entire infestation is not eliminated prior to bringing new or cleaned personal and household items back into a home, these items will likely become infested and require additional treatment.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10438113',
'title': 'Ralstonia solanacearum',
'section': 'Section::::Management.:Banana.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 51,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 51,
'end_character': 256,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Exclusion of the disease where it is not present is the only effective means of control. If an area does become infected, all of the infected plants must be eliminated, which is why strong sanitation practices must be used to reduce the spread of disease.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41271227',
'title': 'Bacterial blight of cassava',
'section': 'Section::::Management.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 383,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Seeds are known to be able harbor the pathogen, but successful sanitation measures have been described. Infected seed immersed in water at 60\xa0°C showed no sign of bacterial survival while the seed showed no reduction in germination potential. Furthermore, the sanitation of tools and big machinery are crucial to avoid the infection of healthy plants through mechanical inoculation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23937771',
'title': 'Scarification (botany)',
'section': 'Section::::Common uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 692,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Because scarified seeds tend to germinate more often and in less time than unaltered seeds, scarification finds use not just in industry but on the small scale. In home gardens, for example, the seeds of plants which are otherwise difficult to grow from seed may be made viable through scarification. The thawing and freezing of water, fire and smoke and chemical reactions in nature are what allow seeds to germinate but we can speed the process up by using the various methods described thus far. The common objective is opening the testa and allow air and water into the seed. In horticulture, scarification is often used to facilitate the controlled and uniform germination of seed lots.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2196984',
'title': 'Schistosoma haematobium',
'section': 'Section::::Prevention.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 444,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The main cause of schistomiasis is the dumping of human waste into water supplies. Hygienic disposal of waste would be sufficient to eliminate the disease. Water for drinking bathing should be boiled in endemic regions. Infested water should be avoided. However, agricultural activities such as fishing and rice cultivation involve long contact with water, making avoidance impractical. Systematic eradication of snails is an effective method.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11128398',
'title': 'Pythium aphanidermatum',
'section': 'Section::::Management.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 692,
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'passage_text': 'Several cultural management methods can be effective in avoiding disease caused by "Pythium aphanidermatum". The pathogen thrives in a moist environment, so it is important to prevent an excessive amount of moisture from building up in the plant media Irrigation that is too frequent and usage of soil that has poor drainage are common mistakes that result in inoculation. In addition, poor ventilation and insufficient exposure to sunlight can cause the plants themselves to accumulate moisture, potentially spreading disease. Sanitation of the soil using chemical treatment and minimizing the amount of plant debris in which the pathogen can survive is also an effective cultural practice.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why are germs so difficult to wash off, and yet so easy to spread?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Because even a tiny bit that gets off or that remains can then apread to cover the whole surface in a relatively small timeframe, since when bacteria multiplies, its population size basically just straight up doubles.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'b8i8i9',
'query': 'why are germs so difficult to wash off, and yet so easy to spread?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1957492',
'title': 'Red-bellied macaw',
'section': 'Section::::Aviculture.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 228,
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'passage_text': 'Because of lack of commercial availability of moriche palm nuts, shelled unsalted peanuts have been used as a staple in the diet of captive birds. They must not be fed commercial bird seed, especially fatty seed like Sunflower.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '202240',
'title': 'Bivalvia',
'section': 'Section::::Other uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 102,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 102,
'end_character': 201,
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'passage_text': 'Crushed shells are added as a calcareous supplement to the diet of laying poultry. Oyster shell and cockle shell are often used for this purpose and are obtained as a by-product from other industries.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2500337',
'title': 'Full Belly Project',
'section': 'Section::::Universal Nut Sheller.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'end_character': 554,
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'passage_text': 'The major limiting factor for growing peanuts has always been the time- and labor-intensive process of hand-shelling peanuts, a job usually relegated to women and children. Overcoming this technical obstacle has been a goal of agricultural research for some years. When Dr. T. Williams, Senior Research Scientist at University of Georgia and an expert on all 15,000 cultivars of peanuts, was first approached by Jock Brandis, the project\'s engineer, he stated that an affordable peanut sheller is considered the "holy grail of sustainable development". \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5178037',
'title': 'Mixed nuts',
'section': 'Section::::Composition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Because they are relatively inexpensive, peanuts are typically a major ingredient in mixed nuts, although they are viewed as less fancy than other nuts; often "deluxe mixed nuts" are advertised as containing no peanuts. "Alrifai", a brand in the Middle East, Identifies the expensive nuts as kernels. In 2006, a batch of "deluxe" mixed nuts was recalled because peanuts had crept into the mix. The move was not to save face: peanuts are the ingredient of mixed nuts most commonly associated with life-threatening food allergies.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2508572',
'title': 'Universal nut sheller',
'section': 'Section::::Problems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'The universal nut sheller has been less than successful in Ghana. First hand accounts relate almost universal breakage. Users can mitigate this breakage by pouring the nuts through initially at very broad settings and only later at finer settings, this practice does not eliminate the breakage and destroys the efficiency aspect. Groundnut shelling tends to be a social activity everyone engages in during their down time and there is rarely a need for a peanut sheller.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55602',
'title': 'Peanut',
'section': 'Section::::Industrial use.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 87,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 87,
'end_character': 479,
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'passage_text': 'Peanuts have a variety of industrial end uses. Paint, varnish, lubricating oil, leather dressings, furniture polish, insecticides, and nitroglycerin are made from peanut oil. Soap is made from saponified oil, and many cosmetics contain peanut oil and its derivatives. The protein portion is used in the manufacture of some textile fibers. Peanut shells are used in the manufacture of plastic, wallboard, abrasives, fuel, cellulose (used in rayon and paper), and mucilage (glue).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55602',
'title': 'Peanut',
'section': 'Section::::Food.:Cuisine.:West Africa.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 72,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 72,
'end_character': 502,
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'passage_text': 'Peanuts grow well in southern Mali and adjacent regions of the Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Nigeria, and Senegal; peanuts are similar in both agricultural and culinary qualities to the Bambara groundnut native to the region, and West Africans have adopted the crop as a staple. Peanut sauce, prepared with onions, garlic, peanut butter/paste, and vegetables such as carrots, cabbage, and cauliflower, can be vegetarian (the peanuts supplying ample protein) or prepared with meat, usually chicken.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why peanuts without shells are way cheaper than peanuts with shells if it takes labor to shell them?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Could be a matter of scale / volume. I would imagine nearly all of the peanuts consumed are shelled to be eaten or made into peanut butter. Shelled peanuts are sold in comparatively much smaller volume. When you produce something in very large quantities, you are able to take advantage of "economies of scale" that drive the price way down. This is in part because your fixed costs (e.g. Production equipment) are spread out over much more output. ',
"The ones you buy shelled are taken from peanuts unfit to be sold with the shell on. Think damaged, discolored or otherwise just not great looking peanut shells. Same idea with baby carrots. They're cut from larger carrots that are discolored, misshapen etc.",
"3 things come to mind: economy of scale, where it's cheaper to process the nuts than it is to quality control the shells\n\n2- as said, shells may have a use elsewhere, and could make shelling them worthwhile\n3- container sizes: 200gm of unshelled peanuts probably takes up quite a lot less space than 200g of shelled peanuts, lowering the cost of logistics and storage. ",
'Maybe the majority of the peanut usage goes to shelled peanuts and their products leaving a lesser amount to be sold unshelled, making them more expensive. Idk, just a guess.',
'However, peanuts inside the shells are pure peanuts, and have not been handled, or licked by rats.',
"My fiance worked in a peanut shelling plant for years and it basically boils down to them wanting to get equal profits from shelled vs. unshelled.\n\nOnce the peanuts are shelled, they're graded and sold for different prices. There's splits, jumbos, mediums, #1s, etc. I forget all the names, but there's a few more. Even the hulls and 1416s (aka the smallest bits that fall through the sorting screens) can be sold for things like livestock feed and some other random things.\n\nSo basically, if they break the peanuts up and grade them, they can potentially make a lot more money sending them off to different places. If they get sold whole, then they have to set a price that will somewhat match up with what they would be worth sorted and graded.\n\nTo add, peanut shelling plants really aren't that different from the plants that sort whole peanuts. They all go through similar sorting machines to grade them by size/weight/color/etc. The main difference is that a shelling plant has to send the nuts through the sheller bars (which is what shells them). So there's really not that much more labor involved between the two.\n\nNOTE: This is a very rough transcript of how my fiance explained it to me, as I asked him about it before. Also a friendly note that if you ate anything from Mars that included peanuts in the past few years, he probably touched them.",
'Why is unshelled the word that means "has a shell", and shelled the word for "without a shell" shouldn\'t it be the other way around? Or perhaps "shelled" and "deshelled"? ',
"I'm really confused, in your example the shelled peanuts are almost half the price of unshelled ones, in direct contrast to the title..."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '62sz94',
'query': 'why peanuts without shells are way cheaper than peanuts with shells if it takes labor to shell them?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '6127880',
'title': 'Motorola Fone',
'section': 'Section::::F3.:Display technology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': "The characteristics of the display were fairly restrictive. The text display contained only two lines of six characters each, making the use of text messaging (SMS) and data services less practical than on standard LCD displays. The display used a fixed 'digital clock' style font, with no functionality for changing between upper case and lower case text. All SMSs sent by the F3 were received entirely in lower case, and each character of any SMS received by the F3 is displayed in whichever case made the most sense using the font. Also, the non-alphabetic characters were severely limited due to this display, as the phone could only provide support for the following characters:\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34776038',
'title': 'Messages (Apple)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'The mobile version of Messages on iOS used on iPhone and iPad also supports SMS and MMS due to replacing the older text messaging Text app since iOS 3. Users can tell the difference between a message via SMS and one sent over iMessage as the bubbles will appear either green (SMS) or blue (iMessage).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5426470',
'title': 'SMS gateway',
'section': 'Section::::Email clients.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
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'passage_text': 'Text messages can be sent from a personal computer to mobile devices via an SMS gateway or Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) gateway, using most popular email client programs, such as Outlook, Thunderbird, and so on. The messages must be sent in ASCII "text-only" mode. If they are sent in HTML mode, or using non-ASCII characters, they will most likely appear as nonsense on the recipient\'s mobile telephone.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18619244',
'title': 'SMS language',
'section': 'Section::::Linguistic properties and style.:Paralinguistic and prosodic features.:Capitalization.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 47,
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'passage_text': 'Most SMS messages have done away with capitalization. Use of capitalizations on the first word of a message may in fact, not be intentional, and may likely be due to the default capitalization setting of devices.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18619244',
'title': 'SMS language',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Features of early mobile phone messaging encouraged users to use abbreviations. Text entry was difficult, requiring multiple key presses on a small keypad to generate each letter, and messages were generally limited to 160 characters. Additionally, SMS language made text messages quicker to compose.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1227007',
'title': 'Nokia 5210',
'section': 'Section::::Bugs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 250,
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'passage_text': 'Some versions of the Nokia 5210 firmware, particularly the Arabic models, contains a bug with the Arabic language text, that occurs when user tries to type SMS, the space between words in Arabic becomes a small rectangular symbol instead of a space.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33369891',
'title': 'IMessage',
'section': 'Section::::Features.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 516,
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'passage_text': "In Messages, the user's sent communication is aligned to the right, with replies from other people on the left. A user can see if the other iMessage user is typing a message. A pale gray ellipsis appears in the text bubble of the other user when a reply is started. It is also possible to start a conversation on one iOS device and continue it on another. On iPhones, green buttons and text bubbles indicate SMS-based communication; on all iOS devices, blue buttons and text bubbles indicate iMessage communication.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why SMS messages cannot come in Bold/Italic/Underlined, etc',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Technically, they can. \nBut the support for such formatting has to be widespread and unified between phone hardware manufacturers for it to be useful, which is obviously not the case now.\nAlso, the SMS protocol has been designed with a limited message length in mind, adding the formatting would make the message even shorter.'],
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'query_id': '7ey3t3',
'query': 'why sms messages cannot come in bold/italic/underlined, etc',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '38286',
'title': 'Inflation',
'section': 'Section::::Controlling inflation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 104,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 104,
'end_character': 540,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Higher interest rates reduce the economy’s money supply because fewer people seek loans. When banks make loans, the loan proceeds are generally deposited in bank accounts that are part of the money supply. Therefore, when a person pays back a loan and no other loans are made to replace it, the amount of bank deposits and hence the money supply decrease. For example, in the early 1980s, when the federal funds rate exceeded 15 percent, the quantity of Federal Reserve dollars fell 8.1 percent, from US$8.6\xa0trillion down to $7.9\xa0trillion.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22099091',
'title': 'Subprime mortgage crisis solutions debate',
'section': 'Section::::Liquidity.:Lower interest rates.:Arguments for lower interest rates.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
'end_character': 542,
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'passage_text': 'Lower interest rates may also help banks "earn their way out" of financial difficulties, because banks can borrow at very low interest rates from depositors and lend at higher rates for mortgages or credit cards. In other words, the "spread" between bank borrowing costs and revenues from lending increases. For example, a large U.S. bank reported in February 2009 that its average cost to borrow from depositors was 0.91%, with a net interest margin (spread) of 4.83%. Profits help banks build back equity or capital lost during the crisis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2679986',
'title': 'Hard money loan',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 370,
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'passage_text': 'The interest rates on hard money loans are typically higher than the rates charged for traditional business loans. The interest rates could range from 10% to 18%. Despite this, such loan options are popular among real estate investors for their fast approvals, higher flexibility, less tedious documentation procedures and, at times, the only option for securing funds.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5191572',
'title': 'Credit rationing',
'section': 'Section::::Equilibrium credit rationing – Stiglitz and Weiss.:Pure credit rationing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 496,
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'passage_text': "This situation should show that the interest rate has two effects on banks' expected return. On the one hand, higher interest rates imply that, for a given loan, the repayment (if it does take place) will be higher, and this increases bank profits; this is the direct effect. On the other hand, and crucially for credit rationing, a higher interest rate might mean that the safe types are not anymore willing to accept the loans, and drop out of the market; this is the adverse selection effect.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '464990',
'title': 'Student loan',
'section': 'Section::::United States.:Repayment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Federal student loan interest rates are established by Congress and listed in § 20 U.S.C. § 1087E(b). Because the interest rates are established by Congress, interest rates are a political decision. In 2010, the federal student loan program ran a multibillion-dollar "negative subsidy", or profit, for the federal government. Loans to graduate and professional students are especially profitable because of high interest rates and low default rates. Usually, the net flow of the default rate on student loans are strongly related to the nontraditional issuer and the flowing price of the tangible assets, unlike buildings or land. However, in contrast to the positive correlation with the borrower, a change in the price normally leads to negative influence on default rate. These two aspects have been used to explain the Great Recession of student loan default, which had grown to nearly thirty percent.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10905128',
'title': 'Student loans in the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Federal loans.:Loans to students.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 43,
'end_character': 800,
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'passage_text': 'Unsubsidized federal student loans are also guaranteed by the U.S. Government, but the government, while controlling (setting) the interest rate, does not pay interest for the student; rather, the interest accrues during college. Nearly all students are eligible for these loans regardless of financial need (on need, see Expected Family Contribution). Those who borrow $10,000 during college owe $10,000 plus interest upon graduation. For example, those who borrowed $10,000 and had $2,000 accrue in interest owe $12,000. Interest begins accruing on the $12,000, i.e., there is interest on the interest. The accrued interest is "capitalized" into the loan amount, and the borrower begins making payments on the accumulated total. Students can pay the interest while still in college, but few do so.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '146738',
'title': 'Interest',
'section': 'Section::::Market interest rates.:Opportunity cost and deferred consumption.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 93,
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'end_paragraph_id': 93,
'end_character': 331,
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'passage_text': "Charging interest equal to inflation preserves the lender's purchasing power, but does not compensate for the time value of money in real terms. The lender may prefer to invest in another product rather than consume. The return they might obtain from competing investments is a factor in determining the interest rate they demand.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why are interest rates so low for me if I deposit money, but so high for students who lend it?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["I think you mean high for students to borrow...\n\nHere's the deal - generally, banks make money by holding on to some people's money and then lending it out to other people. Their profit is based on the difference in the interest rates. They incentivize people depositing money by giving them interest, but they make the money they give out (and then some)by charging interest for loans.\n\nNow, the interest rate they charge for a loan is not the same for all people borrowing money. Some people will borrow money and then not pay it all back. Part of what the bank will do is assess risk, and charge higher interest rates for riskier loans.",
"Because you're a very small fry and the bank makes almost no money on your deposit. And you want *services*, like ATM fee forgiveness, customer service, cash back credit cards, and just putting up with your smell is going to cost you half a percent!\n\nPeople with very large accounts can get 'OK' interest rates on a deposit - up to 4% for multi-millionaires who decide to keep millions in cash on hand. Because multi-millions makes a lot more for the bank than small fry's do and they don't require much more in the way of *services*.\n\nAnd students get juicy bank anal lovin' because they are risks. The *real* risk is just about zero because the government buys the loans, but they like to pretend students are a big risk to lend money to. So they jack up the rate to pay for the students who can't ever find good jobs, sell the loans off to the government to eliminate the risk, and laugh all the way to the bank, only they are the bank, so they are just enjoying a hearty laugh at how they forced you to work through the motherhood years and now you're a haggard old crone and can't afford a 3rd mortgage to coax one of your rotten eggs into becoming a baby."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7aoke6',
'query': 'why are interest rates so low for me if i deposit money, but so high for students who lend it?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '212101',
'title': 'Diffuse sky radiation',
'section': 'Section::::Under an overcast sky.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 509,
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'passage_text': "There is essentially no direct sunlight under an overcast sky, so all light is then diffuse sky radiation. The flux of light is not very wavelength-dependent because the cloud droplets are larger than the light's wavelength and scatter all colors approximately equally. The light passes through the translucent clouds in a manner similar to frosted glass. The intensity ranges (roughly) from of direct sunlight for relatively thin clouds down to of direct sunlight under the extreme of thickest storm clouds.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1077335',
'title': 'Polar stratospheric cloud',
'section': 'Section::::Formation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 250,
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'passage_text': 'Forward-scattering of sunlight within the clouds produces a pearly-white appearance. Particles within the optically thin clouds cause colored interference fringes by diffraction. The visibility of the colors may be enhanced with a polarising filter.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28779877',
'title': 'Atmospheric optics',
'section': 'Section::::Cloud coloration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 693,
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'passage_text': 'As a tropospheric cloud matures, the dense water droplets may combine to produce larger droplets, which may combine to form droplets large enough to fall as rain. By this process of accumulation, the space between droplets becomes increasingly larger, permitting light to penetrate farther into the cloud. If the cloud is sufficiently large and the droplets within are spaced far enough apart, it may be that a percentage of the light which enters the cloud is not reflected back out before it is absorbed. A simple example of this is being able to see farther in heavy rain than in heavy fog. This process of reflection/absorption is what causes the range of cloud color from white to black.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '174823',
'title': 'Dark nebula',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Dark clouds appear so because of sub-micrometre-sized dust particles, coated with frozen carbon monoxide and nitrogen, which effectively block the passage of light at visible wavelengths. Also present are molecular hydrogen, atomic helium, CO (CO with oxygen as the O isotope), CS, NH (ammonia), HCO (formaldehyde), c-CH (cyclopropenylidene) and a molecular ion NH (diazenylium), all of which are relatively transparent. These clouds are the spawning grounds of stars and planets, and understanding their development is essential to understanding star formation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47515',
'title': 'Cloud',
'section': 'Section::::Luminance, reflectivity, and coloration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 121,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 121,
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'passage_text': "The luminance or brightness of a cloud is determined by how light is reflected, scattered, and transmitted by the cloud's particles. Its brightness may also be affected by the presence of haze or photometeors such as halos and rainbows. In the troposphere, dense, deep clouds exhibit a high reflectance (70% to 95%) throughout the visible spectrum. Tiny particles of water are densely packed and sunlight cannot penetrate far into the cloud before it is reflected out, giving a cloud its characteristic white color, especially when viewed from the top. Cloud droplets tend to scatter light efficiently, so that the intensity of the solar radiation decreases with depth into the gases. As a result, the cloud base can vary from a very light to very-dark-grey depending on the cloud's thickness and how much light is being reflected or transmitted back to the observer. High thin tropospheric clouds reflect less light because of the comparatively low concentration of constituent ice crystals or supercooled water droplets which results in a slightly off-white appearance. However, a thick dense ice-crystal cloud appears brilliant white with pronounced grey shading because of its greater reflectivity.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17599355',
'title': 'White',
'section': 'Section::::Scientific understanding (Color science).:Why snow, clouds and beaches are white.\n',
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'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 58,
'end_character': 352,
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'passage_text': 'Clouds are white for the same reason as ice. They are composed of water droplets or ice crystals mixed with air, very little light that strikes them is absorbed, and most of the light is scattered, appearing to the eye as white. Shadows of other clouds above can make clouds look gray, and some clouds have their own shadow on the bottom of the cloud.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1077335',
'title': 'Polar stratospheric cloud',
'section': 'Section::::Formation.\n',
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'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Due to their high altitude and the curvature of the surface of the Earth, these clouds will receive sunlight from below the horizon and reflect it to the ground, shining brightly well before dawn or after dusk.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How can clouds can get in the way of the sun, but don't block out the light?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Clouds do not block the sun, they change the speed of the light and defuse the light coming though them from the sun. This is why the tops of thunderclouds look like they are glowing while the bottom are dark, the light has slowed so far down it is no longer defuses. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'bakrge',
'query': "how can clouds can get in the way of the sun, but don't block out the light?",
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '12465661',
'title': 'Acquired taste',
'section': 'Section::::Acquiring the taste.:General acquisition of tastes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 668,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The process of acquiring a taste can involve developmental maturation, genetics (of both taste sensitivity and personality), family example, and biochemical reward properties of foods. Infants are born preferring sweet foods and rejecting sour and bitter tastes, and they develop a preference for salt at approximately 4 months. Neophobia (fear of novelty) tends to vary with age in predictable, but not linear, ways. Babies just beginning to eat solid foods generally accept a wide variety of foods, toddlers and young children are relatively neophobic towards food, and older children, adults, and the elderly are often adventurous eaters with wide-ranging tastes. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28949931',
'title': 'Birgitte Thott',
'section': 'Section::::Unpublished achievements.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 906,
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'passage_text': 'On young girls not being encouraged to have an education: No one whets their appetite to the sweetness found there. No one tells them what delicious food there is for the soul, what effective remedy against all their frailties it is to have a little understanding of bad and good. There are many, and this I have heard often, who would rather impress upon young maidens that poring over books will make them objects of derision.On education for young boys:But young male children are treated completely differently. They are enticed into study by the reward and honour they are told they can thereby attain; [...] they are impelled to attend school by their parents or guardians whether they like it or not. There are so many learned men who sweat and toil to educate and teach them [...] neither exertion nor expense is spared at the institutions of education [...] in order to lead the students onwards.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '892333',
'title': 'Schultüte',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 407,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The only custom that changed in the latter half of the 20th century is that fewer sweets seem to appear in the "Schultüte", with more practical gifts such as crayons and pencils, small toys, CDs, books and even articles of clothing replacing the traditional chocolates and candies/sweets. These are traditionally given by grandparents who also take the child out to dinner the evening before school begins.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39164260',
'title': 'Sweetened beverage',
'section': 'Section::::In the United States.:Influence of the household and media/advertisement.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 47,
'end_character': 565,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Taste preferences and eating behaviors in children are molded at a young age by factors, such as parents\' habits and advertisements. One study compared what adults and children considered when choosing beverages. For the most part, adults considered whether beverages had sugar, caffeine, and additives. Some of the 7- to 10-year-old children in the study also mentioned "additives" and "caffeine", which may be unfamiliar terms to them. This showed the possibility of the parents\' influence on their children\'s decision-making on food choice and eating behaviors.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1240221',
'title': 'Yōkan',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 220,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'One of the most popular Japanese sweets, it evolved further during the Edo period as sugar became more available. It can be stored for long periods of time without refrigeration unless opened, and is a staple gift item.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19793706',
'title': 'Kandmool',
'section': 'Section::::Indian context.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 315,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The vegetables like potatoes and sweet potatoes are considered rich energy source while being light to digest. This is the reason that many people consume them during fast. In the ancient times sages who used to live in forests or ashram in the search of divine truth or salvation used to survive only on kandmool.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6541938',
'title': 'Lexical-gustatory synesthesia',
'section': 'Section::::Experimental studies.:Case studies.:JIW.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 653,
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'passage_text': 'JIW’s tastes are largely correlated to foods that he would have eaten as a child. He is around ten times more likely to associate a word to the taste of chocolate than he would to the taste of something he experienced as an adult, such as beer or coffee. For example, when JIW hears a common word such as "this", he experiences the tastes of ‘bread soaked in tomato soup’. Bread and tomato soup would have been common flavors JIW experienced in his childhood. It is hypothesized that some or all forms of lexical-gustatory synesthesia may trigger during early childhood development and lead to the over-representation of the flavors of childhood foods.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why did I prefer eating sweets as kid but now as I got older I prefer savory food.',
'selftext': 'For example on Thanksgiving. I get more excited for the main meal than dessert.',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Children prefer sweet foods because, as a general rule, sweet foods contain more energy and children need more calories in relation to their body weight. Children also have more tastebuds and dislike bitter tastes because they experience them more intensely.',
'\nSo, the first commenter had a somewhat close answer but I am going to break this down a little more and correct a few things. \n\nSo, as a child you most likely received sugary things a rewards or for doing something good and of course Halloween. Because these treats are associated with good behaviour or a happy moment, and think about the amount of sugar in a birthday cake! With that being said, as we move into adulthood, our tastes change. We don\'t fully understand why this happens, as to whether it is a psychological response or just a simple change of mind. In addition, as you grow up you began to explore taste and textures of different foods. You can I\'m sure you can think of two restaurants that serve the same kind of food, but you prefer one over the other. That is just a simple choice, but it is inspired by your previous experience at the good one and the bad one. \n\nSo I hate to sound harsh here, but first, children do not have more taste buds than adults. We are born with the same amount, and the cells are constantly regenerating, but the amount stays the same. Sweet foods do contain high amounts of calories, but they are empty calories that only provide a fraction of the caloric intake needed for growth and development. Balanced diet is key in growth. \n\nI hope that helps, and think of the fun quip "It\'s an acquired taste". You might try something you would never have thought to try and you might like it, while everyone else says ew that\'s gross!\n\nQualifier: I am a Medical Doctor'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6a2d5x',
'query': 'why did i prefer eating sweets as kid but now as i got older i prefer savory food.',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '39230876',
'title': 'Death during consensual sex',
'section': 'Section::::Health and physiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 303,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Sexual intimacy, as well as orgasms, increases levels of the hormone oxytocin, also known as "the love hormone", which helps people bond and build trust. Sexual activity is also known as one of many mood repair strategies, which means it can be used to help dissipate feelings of sadness or depression.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15179951',
'title': 'Human sexuality',
'section': 'Section::::Psychological aspects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 56,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 56,
'end_character': 311,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Other than the need to procreate, there are many other reasons people have sex. According to one study conducted on college students (Meston & Buss, 2007), the four main reasons for sexual activities are; physical attraction, as a means to an end, to increase emotional connection, and to alleviate insecurity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9022677',
'title': 'Sexual obsessions',
'section': 'Section::::Obsessive-compulsive disorder.:Sexual focus.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 480,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Because sex carries significant emotional, moral, and religious importance, it often becomes a magnet for obsessions in people predisposed to OCD. Common themes include unfaithfulness, deviant behaviors, pedophilia, the unfaithfulness or suitability of one's partner, and thoughts combining religion and sex. People with sexual obsessions may have legitimate concerns about their attractiveness, potency, or partner, which can serve as an unconscious catalyst for the obsessions.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9064442',
'title': 'Adolescent sexuality in the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Psychological effects.:Effects on relationships.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 48,
'end_character': 346,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'When engaging in sexual acts the body produces oxytocin, a chemical produced in the brain to promote feelings of connection and love. Production of oxytocin increases during the adolescent years. It has a larger effect on girls, suggesting it may make them care more about relationships and feel connections with others more intensely than boys.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11545',
'title': 'Feedback',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Biology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 46,
'end_character': 453,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In psychology, the body receives a stimulus from the environment or internally that causes the release of hormones. Release of hormones then may cause more of those hormones to be released, causing a positive feedback loop. This cycle is also found in certain behaviour. For example, "shame loops" occur in people who blush easily. When they realize that they are blushing, they become even more embarrassed, which leads to further blushing, and so on.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35215336',
'title': 'Mood repair strategies',
'section': 'Section::::Techniques.:Sex.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 1005,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Sex is a form of direct tension reduction, which puts it in the same category as things like the consumption of drugs and alcohol. Generally engaging in sexual intercourse is a much safer and less destructive alternative to the other direct tension reducing measures. To those in a healthy, committed relationship it can prove to be a very beneficial mood repair strategy. Sexual intercourse’s main purpose in mood repair is the releasing of tension. It activates the release of oxytocin in the brain that serves to calm nerves, relax muscles, and induce brief euphoria. These results each have a positive effect on unwanted moods and in combination they present a powerful reaction. The second major reason that sex constitutes as a mood repair strategy is because of the feelings of closeness it creates between the two people engaging in the action. The intimacy involved in sex serves as an important counter to the feelings of loneliness and isolation that often contribute to sadness or depression.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '54301172',
'title': 'Well-being contributing factors',
'section': 'Section::::Biological factors.:Neurology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 49,
'end_character': 490,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'It is generally accepted that happiness is at least in part mediated through dopaminergic, adrenergic and serotonergic metabolism. A correlation has been found between hormone levels and happiness. SSRIs, such as Prozac, are used to adjust the levels of serotonin in the clinically unhappy. Researchers, such as Alexander, have indicated that many peoples usage of narcotics may be the unwitting result of attempts to readjust hormone levels to cope with situations that make them unhappy.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does sex, for most people, feel good. I understand the release of hormones but why are they released.',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Evolution reinforces the genetic traits that cause an animal to reproduce more often. If there was no incentive or reward for a species to mate, it would quickly die out. It'd be outbred and starved of resources by species that mate more frequently.\n\nOrgasm is nature's reward for propagating the species.",
'A lot of questions about biology can be answered this way:\n\n"Is there a good evolutionary reason why people who had that trait would be more successful than those who didn\'t?"\n\nIn the case of sex feeling good, yes.\n\nImagine at some point a bunch of human ancestors had a certain amount of sex. Then one was born with a mutation that released extra endorphins during sex, making it extra pleasurable. That leads to that individual having more sex and having more offspring, passing on that gene.\n\nOver time, that gene is *selected for*, meaning that eventually most individuals have that gene.\n\nSo why does sex feel good?\n\nBecause if it didn\'t, your ancestors wouldn\'t have had as much sex, and then you wouldn\'t be here today to ask that question.\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '65xz0c',
'query': 'why does sex, for most people, feel good. i understand the release of hormones but why are they released.',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '943964',
'title': 'Casualty lifting',
'section': 'Section::::Preparation of the stretcher.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 364,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A blanket is often used since hypothermia is a major risk for a casualty. The blanket must be wrapped around the casualty to avoid the heat leak from below (this is not necessary when the stretcher has a mattress, e.g. a vacuum mattress, or in case of an ambulance stretcher). For this purpose, the blanket is put before the lifting, and folded in a specific way:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9627207',
'title': 'Blanket party',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 687,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A blanket party is a form of corporal punishment or hazing conducted within a peer group, most frequently within the military or military academies. The victim (usually asleep in bed) is restrained by having a blanket flung over him and held down, while other members of the group strike the victim repeatedly with improvised flails, most often a sock or bath towel containing something solid, such as a bar of soap, or another rolled up sock. Other weapons which could be used were entrenching tools or a bunk adapter (a piece of pipe used to connect a bunk bed to another). Blows to the head were avoided, as these would likely be both fatal and leave injuries visible to authorities.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1510939',
'title': 'Comfort object',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 319,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A comfort object, transitional object, or security blanket is an item used to provide psychological comfort, especially in unusual or unique situations, or at bedtime for children. Among toddlers, comfort objects may take the form of a blanket, a stuffed animal, or a favorite toy, and may be referred to by nicknames.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45466549',
'title': 'Rescue toboggan',
'section': 'Section::::Design.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 332,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'After first aid or other initial medical treatment, the patient is placed in the toboggan wrapped in a vacuum mattress or insulating pads, and wrapped with a windproof blanket. Heat reflective emergency blankets reflect thermal radiation and heating packs, hot water bottles, or electric blankets might be used to warm the patient.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45366516',
'title': 'School Safety Preparedness Drill',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 334,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'During the SSPD the schools prepare for a earthquake scenario and when the shaking starts the children along with staff perform a Drop Cover Hold on under sturdy tables and desks preparing to save themselves from falling objects. When the shaking stops everybody evacuates to a pre-designated assembly area followed by a debriefing. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50536497',
'title': 'Safety drill',
'section': 'Section::::Earthquake drill.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
'end_character': 334,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'During the SSPD the schools prepare for a earthquake scenario and when the shaking starts the children along with staff perform a Drop Cover Hold on under sturdy tables and desks preparing to save themselves from falling objects. When the shaking stops everybody evacuates to a pre-designated assembly area followed by a debriefing. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56241227',
'title': 'Poncho tent',
'section': 'Section::::Use cases.:Emergency.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 569,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'An emergency shelter is one that would be used in an emergency situation. That generally means that the situation wasn\'t specifically planned for. It may have been prepared for "just in case". For example, if a person was planning on sleeping outside in the wilderness, they should bring either a fold-able tent or a tarp as these will be more effective. If someone was not specifically planning on sleeping outside, they may carry an emergency blanket or poncho "just in case" knowing that they could be used as a shelter if they were stuck in an emergency situation.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why do emergency services wrap people in a blanket, if they're in shock? what does this do?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Preventing hypothermia, and psychological comfort. Avast ye! Yer not alone in askin', and kind strangers have explained:\n\n1. [ELI5:Why is it after a person is saved from a fire, they are wrapped in a blanket afterwards? ](_URL_0_) ^(_66 comments_)\n1. [ELI5: Why is it that people are given the grey 'safety blankets' after traumatic events? ](_URL_1_) ^(_14 comments_)\n1. [[ELI5] How do shock blankets work? ](_URL_2_) ^(_4 comments_)\n"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8pgdju',
'query': "why do emergency services wrap people in a blanket, if they're in shock? what does this do?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '54023742',
'title': 'Guard goose',
'section': 'Section::::Goose behavior.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 231,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The same aggressive, territorial behavior can be utilized in the guard capacity. Geese are intelligent enough to discern unusual people or sounds from usual stimuli. Their loud honking will alert humans when the geese are alarmed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2736310',
'title': 'Domestic goose',
'section': 'Section::::Origins and characteristics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 489,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Like their wild ancestors, domestic geese are very protective of their offspring and other members of the flock. The gander will normally place himself between any perceived threat and his family. Owing to their highly aggressive nature, loud call and sensitivity to unusual movements, geese can contribute towards the security of a property. In late 1950s South Vietnam, the VNAF used flocks of geese to guard their parked aircraft at night due to the noise they would make at intruders.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '218972',
'title': 'Canada goose',
'section': 'Section::::Survival.:Predators.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 55,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 55,
'end_character': 1617,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Once they reach adulthood, due to their large size and often aggressive behavior, Canada geese are rarely preyed on, although prior injury may make them more vulnerable to natural predators. Beyond humans, adults can be taken by coyotes and grey wolves ("Canis lupus"). Avian predators that are known to kill adults, as well as young geese, include snowy owls ("Bubo scandiacus"), golden eagles ("Aquila chrysaetos") and bald eagles ("Haliaeetus leucocephalus") and, though rarely on large adult geese, great horned owls ("Bubo virginianus"), peregrine falcons ("Falco peregrinus"), and gyrfalcons ("Falco rusticolus"). Adults are quite vigorous at displacing potential predators from the nest site, with predator prevention usually falling to the larger male of the pair. Males usually attempt to draw attention of approaching predators and toll (mob terrestrial predators without physical contact) often in accompaniment with males of other goose species. Eagles of both species frequently cause geese to fly off en masse from some distance, though in other instances, geese may seem unconcerned at perched bald eagles nearby, seemingly only reacting if the eagle is displaying active hunting behavior. Canada geese are quite wary of humans where they are regularly hunted and killed, but can otherwise become habituated to fearlessness towards humans, especially where they are fed by them. This often leads to the geese becoming overly aggressive towards humans, and large groups of the birds may be considered a nuisance if they are causing persistent issues to humans and other animals in the surrounding area.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '218972',
'title': 'Canada goose',
'section': 'Section::::Relationship with humans.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 64,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 64,
'end_character': 251,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Geese have a tendency to attack humans when they feel themselves or their goslings to be threatened. First, the geese stand erect, spread their wings, and produce a hissing sound. Next, the geese charge. They may then bite or attack with their wings.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '218972',
'title': 'Canada goose',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 485,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Extremely successful at living in human-altered areas, Canada geese have proven able to establish breeding colonies in urban and cultivated areas, which provide food and few natural predators. The success of this common park species has led to its often being considered a pest species because of its depredation of crops and its noise, droppings, aggressive territorial behavior towards both humans and other animals, and its habit of begging for food (caused by human hand feeding).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10536491',
'title': 'Nuisance wildlife management',
'section': 'Section::::Characteristics of nuisance species.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 415,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Typically, species that are most likely to be considered a nuisance by humans have the following characteristics. First, they are adaptable to fragmented habitat. Animals such as Canada geese ("Branta canadensis") love ponds with low sloping banks leading to lush green grass. Humans love this sort of landscaping too, so it is not surprising that Canada geese have thrived (not to mention the decline in hunting).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28363272',
'title': 'Bird trapping',
'section': 'Section::::Restraint and handling of trapped birds.:Waterfowl and long billed birds.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 424,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Ducks, geese and other water birds can use their wings and bills to batter handlers and inflict potentially significant injuries. Loons, grebes and herons have long, sharp beaks, which they will stab at the face of a handler. These could inflict serious injury. To restrain a captured waterfowl, the handlers can grasp the base of the neck and hold the wings back and immobile, much like they would a domestic waterfowl. ()\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How can geese be so intimidating to bigger animals? Would a human be able to do the same?',
'selftext': "It is pretty easy to find videos of geese standing their ground or even straight up attacking bigger animals, usually cows. Why does it work? As far as I know, geese don't have bright colors indicating venom, or big fangs, big talons, super lound cries. Where does this intimidation come from? Why do animals avoid them at all? Would I, a human, be able to scare the sh\\*t out of a herd of cows by opening my arms and screaming at them too? Example: [Geese scaring a few cows]( URL_0 )",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["I'm no animal behavior expert, but no animal wants to get injured. If you have nothing to gain from a fight, probably best to not get in a fight with something that is aggressive. If you can come up with a convincing display or sound, many animals aren't gonna fuck with you. Note that I said *many*.",
'Well, in the video you linked to, its not really because the cattle is scared. Its more like a little brother nagging the older brother, but the older brothers knows hes gonna get in trouble if he hits the little brother, so he kinda fucks off.\n\nBut, the way geese usually scare other animals, is by making themselves larger, usually by spreading their wings out. With those wings, they have a pretty mean slap, and along with their teeth (they have pretty sharp teeth) they can bite themselves out of many situations.\n\nYou as a human could do the same to scare away bigger things, just think of how dudes puff their chests when fronting other dudes. Its to become bigger and scarier.',
'If you look like you know how to handle yourself in a fight and approach someone accordingly the average person will back down. It also helps to understand tone of voice.',
"I think cows dont really care about humans because they've been around them for so long. However most wild cats, you are not supposed to turn your back on them. You are supposed to make yourself appear big and throw rocks if you can to appear as a threat",
"I don't know if you've ever been attacked by a goose. But they are mean motherfuckers and they can hurt you. Plus zero fear, a 5' wingspan, and usually hang out in gangs. That strategy also tends to work for humans wanting to intimidate others.",
"Geese bite hard and their beaks have serrated edges so they can bite off chunks of flesh if they get really mad. Also they have strong wings and have been known to break a person's arm just by flapping into them. They can be herded by waving arms, flapping clothing, clapping and loud noises. Waving a stick at them also works but hitting them with a stick can make them furious. Hot tip, when herding geese with a stick, point the stick where you don't want the geese to go; otherwise just hold it vertically in front of you with your hands at chest height and let it swing from side to side.\n\nYou definitely can herd cows (and sheep, horses, goats etc) by waving your arms at them and making a lot of noise. ***DO NOT TRY THIS WITH A BULL OR A STALLION especially if you are between bull/stallion and a female of the species.*** Bulls and stallions generally have massively developed shoulders and necks.",
'There\'s a group somewhere in Africa that "hunts" by walking up to Lions and stealing their kills. They carry themselves with so much confidence that even lions don\'t fuck with them. I could probably find the video but I\'m sure it\'s easy enough to find using Google.',
"Most animals, especially those that don't hunt, generally really can not be bothered with conflict. So if you make loud enough noises, act that you are bigger than you are, and act aggressive, they'll back off. Why? Because... They'd rather be somewhere else doing something else than dealing with you.",
'Most animals even predators are scared of humans. They would rather retreat. Geese arnt scared. They will attack they dont retreat. This is true for several animals. Emus and moose off the top of my head.',
'Without medicine, any injury you take is a risk of you either diying or be injured enough that you cannot Hunt anymore and you still die, but of starving.\n\nSo Animals, even big scary ones, have a Natural instinct to run from confrontation if it Is not necessary.\n\nSome other animal exploit this instinct by showing themselves as aggressive. What they are saying is "look dude, you Will probably eat me, but I Will not go down without seriously hurting you".\n\nMany animals waching this will back off because it\'s not worth it.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'extuhx',
'query': 'how can geese be so intimidating to bigger animals? would a human be able to do the same?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '635183',
'title': 'Grind',
'section': 'Section::::Process.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'A sharp object works by concentrating forces which creates a high pressure due to the very small area of the edge, but high pressures can nick a thin blade or even cause it to roll over into a rounded tube when it is used against hard materials. An irregular material or angled cut is also likely to apply much more torque to hollow-ground blades due to the "lip" formed on either side of the edge. More blade material can be included directly behind the cutting edge to reinforce it, but during sharpening some proportion of this material must be removed to reshape the edge, making the process more time-consuming. Also, any object being cut must be moved aside to make way for this wider blade section, and any force distributed to the grind surface reduces the pressure applied at the edge.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2254028',
'title': 'Leather carving',
'section': 'Section::::Method.:Swivel knife cuts.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
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'passage_text': 'When the leather has been properly cased, the swivel knife is used to make the bold cuts that form the backbone of the carved image. These cuts are made to a depth of up to approximately half the thickness of the leather being used, depending on the effect desired by the leather worker. Care must be taken during this step to keep the swivel knife vertical at all times, as any tilt is detrimental to the ability of the leather to be properly stamped later in the carving process.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5587478',
'title': 'Knife sharpening',
'section': 'Section::::Stropping.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
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'passage_text': 'Stropping a knife is a finishing step. This is often done with a leather strap, either clean or impregnated with abrasive compounds (e.g. chromium(III) oxide or diamond), but can be done on paper, cardstock, cloth, or even bare skin in a pinch. It removes little or no metal material, but produces a very sharp edge by either straightening or very slightly reshaping the edge. Stropping may bring a somewhat sharp blade to "like new" condition.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1076403',
'title': 'Woodturning',
'section': 'Section::::Tools.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
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'passage_text': "Woodturning tools must be sharpened more frequently than other edged woodworking tools to maintain a clean cut because the wood passes at great speed. Sharpening is usually accomplished with the aid of mechanical devices such as powered sharpening wheels and abrasives. This sharpening process requires either skill of the craftsman, or one of the many available sharpening jigs, which facilitate maintaining a specific bevel on the tool. As with any mechanical sharpening method, overheating or blueing is a danger to be avoided as it will ruin the steel's temper, rendering the steel too soft to maintain a sharp edge. When this happens, the blued area must then be ground away to expose fresh steel and the tool must then have the bevel reestablished and the edge re-honed. High speed steel is not prone to blueing (overheating) whereas carbon steel blues easily, requiring frequent quenching in water or oil to avoid losing temper.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37872117',
'title': 'Honing oil',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'In the context of hand blade sharpening, honing oil is used on a sharpening stone to protect the stone, carry away the debris (swarf), and to more efficiently produce a keen edge on a metal blade such as a knife. In a machine shop it also carries away excess heat and depending on composition, may prevent unintentional tearing and welding of the metal. Or when used with materials such as soft copper, it may have extra additives to prevent stone loading, or metal deactivators to prevent staining of copper containing alloys. To achieve maximum cutting rates and abrasive life with petroleum (mineral) based machining oils when honing difficult materials like stainless steel, a higher level of surface active lubricity agents are combined with sulfur extreme pressure additives. Industrial honing oil is typically available in: 5 gal pails, 55 gal drums, 275 gal and 330 gal totes, while home knife honing oils are typically available in 1 oz, 4 oz, and 12 oz. bottles.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2685821',
'title': 'Sharpening',
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'passage_text': 'Sharpening is the process of creating or refining a sharp edge of appropriate shape on a tool or implement designed for cutting. Sharpening is done by grinding away material on the implement with an abrasive substance harder than the material of the implement, followed sometimes by processes to polish the sharp surface to increase smoothness and to correct small mechanical deformations without regrinding.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47129698',
'title': 'Splitting band knife',
'section': 'Section::::Sectors and use.:Tannery sector.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': 'The blades which are mostly used in this sector are rectified on both edge and surfaces in order to guarantee the best splitting, that means a constance in the thickness of the leather that is produced/split (rectification of surfaces), and also to guarantee the maximum linearity during the splitting process ( back edge); the blade must run as stable as possible without oscillations at all, which could create defects on the leather. Moreover, blades are used to be provided pre-bevelled in order to save time to start the blade running up once it is fitted on the splitting machine.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does stropping a blade with leather make it sharper?',
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'answers': ['If you look at a metal blade under strong magnification you\'ll see "burrs" that look like saw teeth. They alternate in direction. After repeated use they get out of line and mangled. Using a leather strop realigns them and makes for a smoother cut or shave. It\'s pretty much the same as using a whetstone for a knife or sword.\n\n & #x200B;\n\n & #x200B;',
'Basically, when you use a blade, the edge gets tiny imperfections which bring the edge out of alignment. Stropping realigns the edge of the blade without removing any material like a stone would.\n\n[This](_URL_0_) website is great for visualising what is actually happening, as it has pictures of blade edges using a scanning electron microscope so you can really see what is going on at each stage of sharpening.',
'A blade get dull because the edge get uneven. Part of the material get bend and part get dislodges.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nA strop can bend back some part back. It can also push around material in a process called burnishing. You can also have abrasion removing of material like you do with a file but a lott less that happen primary if you add som abrasive compound to the strap.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nYou can see images with microscopes that show damages an and the fix with by stropping at [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)',
'it does two things.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nFirst it will align the edge. Imagine your blade has a microscopic ding in the edge so if you look at it straight on the edge, the edge is it shaped like an "S" instead of an "l". Imagine this "S" shape and you apply a sanding block to the side of the "S" to remove the material.\n\nS < --\\[block\\]\n\nWhat happens? The sanding block will grind away the high spots and you have something left over that looks like this instead.\n\n;\n\nInstead of a straight edge now you\'ve made small serrations in the edge. To fix this you have to grind away all of the old edge until you form a new straight edge.\n\nWhat the strop does is instead of grinding away the material, because it is softer than the steel, it pushes on the material It works like a rolling pin where high spots in the edge get more pressure and you eventually "push" the material back straight without grinding away material. Now your edge is shaped like an "l" again and will be razor sharp again without grinding away material.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nThe second use for a strop is to de-burr and hone the edge. When you sharpen a blade you rub a harder material against the steel to remove microscopic bits of metal. It\'s like when you rub a spot on your favorite sweater and all those little pills of material show up. The same thing is happening on the edge of the blade, little pills of steels are forming on the edge where you are sharpening it. People will put a very fine polishing compound on the strop so after sharpening on a stone the now rub it on the strop which will remove the pills of steel off the edge and the polishing compound polishes the edge to a mirror finish.'],
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'query': 'why does stropping a blade with leather make it sharper?',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '19151199',
'title': 'Winter rest',
'section': 'Section::::Animals.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'Winter rest in an animal is different from true hibernation, since the metabolism is not reduced drastically. The body temperature is not significantly lowered, however the heart rate is reduced. This means that animals like the raccoon can quickly become active again if temperatures rise or the snow melts. Other animals that winter rest are badgers and brown bears.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3126927',
'title': 'Chionophile',
'section': 'Section::::Polar regions.:Polar adaptations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'Normally when colder conditions arrive, animals go into a state of suspended animation called hibernation, when they go into a state of inactivity for long periods of time, which they do not come out of until more suitable conditions for them to survive in arrive. However, when animals live in an environment that is inhospitable for much of the year, then hibernation is not necessary. One of the few animals that does so are lemmings, which have a mass migration after they come out of dormancy. However, most animals living in the arctic would still be active, even during the most brutal times of winter. Aquatic animals such as Greenland shark, wolf fish, Atlantic cod, Atlantic halibut and Arctic char must cope with the sub-zero temperatures in their waters. Some aquatic mammals, such as walrus, seal, sea lion, narwhals, beluga whales and killer whales, can store fat called blubber that they use to help keep warm in the icy waters. Some ungulates that live in frigid conditions often have pads under their hooves to help have a stronger tension on the icy ground or to help in climbing up on rocky terrain. But mammals that already have a pad under their foot such as polar bears, wolverines, Arctic wolves and Arctic foxes will have fur under their pads to help keep their flesh concealed from the cold. Other mammals such as the musk oxen can keep warm by growing long, shaggy fur to help insulate heat. And this can be quickly shed off when warmer temperatures arrive. But with the snowshoe hare it will change the color of its fur from white to brown or with patches of brown when it sheds off its winter coat. This is to help camouflage itself in its new environment to match with the dirt during the summer or back again when it regrows its longer white fur to match with the snow during the winter.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9278157',
'title': 'In the Grip of Winter',
'section': 'Section::::Plot summary.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'As winter approaches Toad, Adder, and the hedgehogs go into hibernation, while the rest of the animals prepare for winter. However the winter is harsh and kills most of the field mice and voles, while making it difficult for the rest of the other animals to find food. Whistler and his mate help Fox, Vixen, Weasel, and Badger by bringing them fish; while the Great White Stag brings hay for the rabbits, hares, field mice, and voles.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34061',
'title': 'Winter',
'section': 'Section::::Ecological reckoning and activity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Hibernation is a state of reduced metabolic activity during the winter. Some animals "sleep" during winter and only come out when the warm weather returns; e.g., gophers, frogs, snakes, and bats.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3213407',
'title': 'Archaic Southwest',
'section': 'Section::::Archaic era.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'As the climate warmed at the end of the Ice Age, mammoths and large animals such as horses and camels began to disappear. Hunter/gatherers gradually adapted to these changes, supplementing their diet with a variety of plant foods and smaller game. The Archaic people used nets and the atlatl to hunt water fowl, ducks, small animals and antelope. Hunting was especially important in winter and spring months when plant foods were scarce.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19151199',
'title': 'Winter rest',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Winter rest (from the German term "Winterruhe") is a state of reduced activity of plants and warm-blooded animals living in extratropical regions of the world during the more hostile environmental conditions of winter. In this state, they save energy during cold weather while they have limited access to food sources.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '66811',
'title': 'Seasonal affective disorder',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'In many species, activity is diminished during the winter months in response to the reduction in available food, the reduction of sunlight (especially for diurnal animals) and the difficulties of surviving in cold weather. Hibernation is an extreme example, but even species that do not hibernate often exhibit changes in behavior during the winter. Presumably, food was scarce during most of human prehistory, and a tendency toward low mood during the winter months would have been adaptive by reducing the need for calorie intake. The preponderance of women with SAD suggests that the response may also somehow regulate reproduction.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What would happen to animals that sleep during the winter if there where a sudden ice age?',
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'category': 'Biology',
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'answers': ["They'd quite possibly die from the unusual weather conditions, as would many animals that don't hibernate. A 'sudden ice age' would be a very traumatic event for any and all ecosystems. ",
"Wait, aren't we still technically in an ice age? \n\nAs hard as our species is trying, there is still ice at the poles etc",
"Ice ages are never quite that sudden. You'd never have a situation where an animal enters hibernation, and then it is winter for a hundred years.\n\nIncrease, winters gradually get longer and harsher over hundreds, sometimes thousands of years. In that time, the animals either adapt, migrate, or go extinct."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '6oxlgu',
'query': 'what would happen to animals that sleep during the winter if there where a sudden ice age?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1353595',
'title': 'Yoplait',
'section': 'Section::::Community involvement.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
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'passage_text': 'The American franchise of Yoplait added a rim on the bottom of the yogurt containers to keep animals such as skunks from accidentally getting their heads caught. A label was added to the container stating: "Protect Wildlife: Crush Cup Before Disposal."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '956351',
'title': 'Calpis',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The beverage has a light, somewhat milky, and slightly acidic flavor, similar to plain or vanilla flavored yogurt or Yakult. Its ingredients include water, nonfat dry milk and lactic acid, and is produced by lactic acid fermentation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6339151',
'title': 'Clabber (food)',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Clabber is a type of soured milk. It is produced by allowing unpasteurized milk to turn sour (ferment) at a specific humidity and temperature. Over time, the milk thickens or curdles into a yogurt-like substance with a strong, sour flavor. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5785864',
'title': 'Müller (company)',
'section': 'Section::::Products.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Müller Corner (German: "Joghurt mit der Ecke", lit. "Yogurt with the Corner"), launched in the 1980s, is a range of yogurts. There are three main varieties: "Fruit", "Healthy Balance" and "Crunch!". Within each of these divisions, a number of flavours are produced, for instance Fruit Corners are available in Blackberry & Raspberry, Blueberry, Cherry, Peach & Apricot, Raspberry and Strawberry flavours. The name "corner" is in reference to the design of the product. In many of the varieties, the yogurt is plain and unflavoured. It comes with an attached portion of \'flavour\', fruit compote for example, to add to the plain yogurt.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8236448',
'title': 'Strained yogurt',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "Strained yogurt, Greek yogurt, yogurt cheese, or sack yoghurt is yogurt that has been strained to remove most of its whey, resulting in a thicker consistency than unstrained yogurt, while preserving yogurt's distinctive sour taste. Like many types of yogurt, strained yogurt is often made from milk that has been enriched by boiling off some of its water content, or by adding extra butterfat and powdered milk. In Europe and North America, it is often made from low-fat or fat-free milk. In Iceland, a similar product named skyr is made.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47863662',
'title': 'Gram flour',
'section': 'Section::::Other uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'In the form of a paste with water or dahi (yogurt), it is also popular as a facial exfoliant in the Indian Subcontinent. When mixed with an equal proportion of water, it can be used as an egg replacement in vegan cooking.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8236448',
'title': 'Strained yogurt',
'section': 'Section::::Variations by area.:Asia.:Indian subcontinent.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In the Indian subcontinent, regular unstrained yogurt ("curd"), made from cow or water buffalo milk, is often sold in disposable clay bowls called kulhar. Kept for a couple of hours in its clay pot, some of the water evaporates through the unglazed clay\'s pores. It also cools the curd due to evaporation.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is the yogurt on the rim of the cup always a little different in texture from the rest of the yogurt?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["You mean the stuff that's seperate from the rest right? It's a smaller quantity and is exposed to the bit of air inside the container so it dries out.\n\nIt's a little thicker because of a lower moisture content."],
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'query_id': 'd8g181',
'query': 'why is the yogurt on the rim of the cup always a little different in texture from the rest of the yogurt?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '20510214',
'title': 'Activity-dependent plasticity',
'section': 'Section::::Structure of neurons.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'Neurons are the basic functional unit of the brain and process and transmit information through signals. Many different types of neurons can be identified based on their function, such as sensory neurons or motor neurons. Each responds to specific stimuli and sends respective and appropriate chemical signals to other neurons. The basic structure of a neuron is shown here on the right and consists of a nucleus that contains genetic information; the cell body, or the soma, which is equipped with dendritic branches that mostly receive the incoming inputs from other neurons; a long, thin axon that bears axon terminals which carry the output information to other neurons. The dendrites and axons are interfaced through a small connection called a synapse. This component of the neuron contains a variety of chemical messengers and proteins that allow for the transmission of information. It is the variety of proteins and effect of the signal that fundamentally lead to the plasticity feature.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2208074',
'title': 'Neurophilosophy',
'section': 'Section::::The indirectness of studies of mind and brain.:Single unit recordings.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
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'passage_text': 'It is commonly understood in neuroscience that information is encoded in the brain by the firing patterns of neurons. Many of the philosophical questions surrounding the neural code are related to questions about representation and computation that are discussed below. There are other methodological questions including whether neurons represent information through an average firing rate or whether there is information represented by the temporal dynamics. There are similar questions about whether neurons represent information individually or as a population.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '162435',
'title': 'Mind uploading',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The human brain contains, on average, about 86 billion nerve cells called neurons, each individually linked to other neurons by way of connectors called axons and dendrites. Signals at the junctures (synapses) of these connections are transmitted by the release and detection of chemicals known as neurotransmitters. The established neuroscientific consensus is that the human mind is largely an emergent property of the information processing of this neural network.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '797527',
'title': 'Homomorphic filtering',
'section': 'Section::::Neural decoding.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
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'passage_text': 'How individual neurons or networks encode information is the subject of numerous studies and research. In central nervous system it mainly happens by altering the spike firing rate (frequency encoding) or relative spike timing (time encoding) .\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38156432',
'title': 'CoDi',
'section': 'Section::::Cell interaction during signaling.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'information by accepting information from any neighbor. They give their output, (e.g. a Boolean OR operation on the binary inputs) only to the neighbor specified by their own gate. In this way, dendritic cells collect and "sum" neural signals, until the final sum of collected neural signals reaches the neuron cell.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21120',
'title': 'Neuron',
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'passage_text': 'Most neurons receive signals via the dendrites and soma and send out signals down the axon. At the majority of synapses, signals cross from the axon of one neuron to a dendrite of another. However, synapses can connect an axon to another axon or a dendrite to another dendrite.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9210345',
'title': 'Gaussian adaptation',
'section': 'Section::::The evolution in the brain.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
'end_character': 470,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In the figure below the brain stem is supposed to deliver Gaussian distributed signal patterns. This may be possible since certain neurons fire at random (Kandel et al.). The stem also constitutes a disordered structure surrounded by more ordered shells (Bergström, 1969), and according to the central limit theorem the sum of signals from many neurons may be Gaussian distributed. The triangular boxes represent synapses and the boxes with the + sign are cell kernels.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Inside the brain, how do a bunch of neurons translate to a piece of information?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["This is an interesting question. The answer is I don't know, no one knows, and if you figure it out, can I get an invite to your Nobel acceptance.\n\nCertain neurons are activated when we do certain things. Let's use vision as an example. When we see something, our primary visual cortex activates. Soon after, other areas in our visual streams activate somewhat sequentially. Through experiments, we know some of these experiments are sensitive to color, others are sensitive to motion, others are sensitive to faces. Somehow, all of these brain areas activating leads to our understanding of an object as an object. How? We don't know. If you're more specific about your question, I can give you more specific answers. But your question is just too general to get a very specific answer, since we don't know that much about the brain."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9ocpzk',
'query': 'inside the brain, how do a bunch of neurons translate to a piece of information?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '21699593',
'title': 'Paper and ink testing',
'section': 'Section::::Paper test.:Mechanical properties.:Compressibility.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 47,
'end_character': 269,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The degree of\xa0reduction in thickness under compressive forces or pressure is known as compressibility of the paper. It influences the ability of paper to change its surface contour and conform to make contact with the printing plate or blanket during print production.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23988563',
'title': 'Postage stamp paper',
'section': 'Section::::Paper characteristics.:Shrinkage.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 1090,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Shrinkage is a characteristic of paper because of the nature of cellulose fibers. The cellulose fiber is hygroscopic and acts like a sponge when immersed in water. The fibers expand in their width and not in their length. With handmade paper, because there is no direction associated with the fibers, the paper expands and shrinks unevenly in both the length and width of the finished sheet. With machine-made paper, because there is a direction to the fibers, the paper shrinks unevenly, that is, less in its length (in the direction of the fibers) and more in its width (in the direction opposite of the fibers). This characteristic is important to the printer because certain printing techniques required the paper to be dampened prior to printing. As such, when the paper dried, the uneven shrinkage of machine-made paper would produce an image of different proportions than the die that created it. The differences in appearance between wet and dry printed stamps can sometimes be quite noticeable, with dry printed stamps generally having sharper images on stiffer and thicker paper.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7005434',
'title': 'Inkjet paper',
'section': 'Section::::Comparison to standard office paper.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 370,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Paper is manufactured by forming pulp fibers into a mat on an open mesh screen (a deckle), and then drying and pressing this mat into paper. Large areas of inkjet color, such as in graphics and photographs, soak the paper fibers with so much moisture that they swell and return to their original shape before pressing, resulting in a wavy buckling of the paper surface.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3435592',
'title': 'Gum bichromate',
'section': 'Section::::Darkroom technique.:Stretching and sizing paper.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 49,
'end_character': 542,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Stretching (pre-shrinking) paper is necessary if you are printing more than one color or multiple times with the same color to build up density. If your paper is not sized (most watercolour papers are, though to varying degrees) it’s also advisable to size the paper to help minimize staining. A gelatin size (coating) prevents the unhardened dichromate from permeating the paper fibers. Without stretching, the paper will change shape between layer printings. Make lots of sized paper at one time. Label all paper with pencil after sizing. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21182020',
'title': 'History of paper',
'section': 'Section::::Precursors: papyrus.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 252,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Paper contrasts with papyrus in that the plant material is broken down through maceration or disintegration before the paper is pressed. This produces a much more even surface, and no natural weak direction in the material which falls apart over time.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '64219',
'title': "Bernoulli's principle",
'section': "Section::::Misapplications of Bernoulli's principle in common classroom demonstrations.\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 87,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 87,
'end_character': 541,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "A correct explanation of why the paper rises would observe that the plume follows the curve of the paper and that a curved streamline will develop a pressure gradient perpendicular to the direction of flow, with the lower pressure on the inside of the curve. Bernoulli's principle predicts that the decrease in pressure is associated with an increase in speed, i.e. that as the air passes over the paper it speeds up and moves faster than it was moving when it left the demonstrator's mouth. But this is not apparent from the demonstration.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7849',
'title': 'Crystallographic defect',
'section': 'Section::::Line defects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 451,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Edge dislocations are caused by the termination of a plane of atoms in the middle of a crystal. In such a case, the adjacent planes are not straight, but instead bend around the edge of the terminating plane so that the crystal structure is perfectly ordered on either side. The analogy with a stack of paper is apt: if a half a piece of paper is inserted in a stack of paper, the defect in the stack is only noticeable at the edge of the half sheet.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What exactly happens when we bend paper? Why is it permanent?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["[Here's what paper looks like under a microscope.](_URL_0_) These are ~~collagen~~ cellulose fibers that came from the pulp of the trees used and they all kinda mesh and weave together all tangled up - giving paper its strength. When you crease a fold, the fibers that get bunched up on the inside of the crease force the fibers on the outside of the crease to stretch and tear. If you then crease the fold the other way, you now break the fibers on this side, leaving only a thin layer of fibers in the middle to hold the two sides together (and making it now relatively easy to tear apart). \n\nSame thing if you've ever had to use a piece of bread as a hotdog bun; the bottom of the bread always breaks in half. ",
'materials have 2 regions. Plastic and Elastic. Elastic means it can snap back to its original form. Plastic is permanently changing the properties of a material. Some materials have a higher elastic region which means they can take more abuse before causing permanent damage.\n\nYou can flex a piece of acrylic quite a bit before it permanently stays bent, or press your hand and squeeze an aluminum coke can and watch it snap back into its original shape. Press it too hard and now its bent, and changed forever. These materials have high elastic regions. Bending paper will also retain its original shape, until you crease it, crossing into the plastic region. Once something enters the plastic region, it is now permanently that shape and will never return to its original form. ',
"Imagine breaking a branch, but on a smaller level. If the branch is fairly new (not dry), it can be hard to break. One side will splinter while the other side still holds the two halves together. If you try to bend it back together, the first (splintered) side will still be broken, so it can't ever go back to how it was before. The same thing happens with paper; on a smaller scale than you can probably see, one side of the paper rips apart a little bit while the rest of it hold both halves together."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '93500e',
'query': 'what exactly happens when we bend paper? why is it permanent?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '55604987',
'title': 'Human rights and encryption',
'section': 'Section::::Encryption in media and communication.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 461,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "BULLET::::2. Encryption provided by service providers can prevent unauthorized third party access, but the service provider implementing it would still have access to the relevant user data. End-to-end encryption is an encryption technique that refers to encryption that also prevents service providers themselves from having access to the user's communications. The implementation of these forms of encryption have sparked the most debate since the year 2000.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1065362',
'title': 'End-to-end encryption',
'section': 'Section::::Modern usage.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 280,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Some non-E2EE systems, such as Lavabit and Hushmail, have described themselves as offering "end-to-end" encryption when they did not. Other systems, such as Telegram and Google Allo, have been criticized for not having end-to-end encryption, which they offer, enabled by default.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44204924',
'title': 'Crypto Wars',
'section': 'Section::::Messengers with end-to-end encryption and responsible encryption.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 41,
'end_character': 992,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In October 2017, Deputy Attorney General Rod Rosenstein called for responsible encryption as a solution to the ongoing problem of "going dark". This refers to wiretapping court orders and police measures increasingly becoming ineffective as strong end-to-end encryption are increasingly added to widespread messenger products. Responsible encryption means that companies need to introduce key escrow that allows them to provide their customers with a way to recover their encrypted data if they forget their password, so that it is not lost forever. According to Rosenstein\'s reasoning, it would be irresponsible to leave the user helpless in such a case. As a pleasant side effect, this would allow a judge to issue a search warrant instructing the company to decrypt the data, which the company would then be able to comply with. In contrast to previous proposals, the decentral storage of key recovery material by companies instead of government agencies would be an additional safeguard.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1065362',
'title': 'End-to-end encryption',
'section': 'Section::::Modern usage.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 324,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Some encrypted backup and file sharing services provide client-side encryption. The encryption they offer is here not referred to as end-to-end encryption, because the services are not meant for sharing messages between users. However, the term "end-to-end encryption" is often used as a synonym for client-side encryption.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37704260',
'title': 'Draft Communications Data Bill',
'section': 'Section::::Controversy.:Weakening encryption.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 47,
'end_character': 244,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Experts have made it clear that weakening or banning encryption would be extremely dangerous and damaging to the safety of the economic Internet environment and could have great repercussion on the information stored online and how it is used.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37704260',
'title': 'Draft Communications Data Bill',
'section': 'Section::::Controversy.:Weakening encryption.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 44,
'end_character': 381,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Former UK Prime Minister David Cameron openly expressed a desire for encryption to be weakened or encrypted data to be easily accessible to legal forces in order to tackle terrorism and crime. This viewpoint has been widely addressed as uninformed and greatly dangerous to the privacy and information of the general public because of the dangers that this initiative would entail.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44204924',
'title': 'Crypto Wars',
'section': 'Section::::Export of cryptography from the United States.:PC era.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 875,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Legal challenges by Peter Junger and other civil libertarians and privacy advocates, the widespread availability of encryption software outside the U.S., and the perception by many companies that adverse publicity about weak encryption was limiting their sales and the growth of e-commerce, led to a series of relaxations in US export controls, culminating in 1996 in President Bill Clinton signing the Executive order 13026 transferring the commercial encryption from the Munition List to the Commerce Control List. Furthermore, the order stated that, "the software shall not be considered or treated as \'technology\'" in the sense of Export Administration Regulations. This order permitted the United States Department of Commerce to implement rules that greatly simplified the export of proprietary and open source software containing cryptography, which they did in 2000.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How would the EARN IT act negatively affect end to end encryption?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Hopefully a simple example:\n\nNo matter how good a safe you install to store your valuables, the government wants the safe manufacturer to make a door at the back with a key available to the government. This is just in case, the government feels that you might be storing something illegal in the safe. This means the safety provided by the safe is only as strong as the "back door". \n\nThe problem is similar for encryption. Any time (for software) you try to make a "back door" available, it becomes the vulnerable point for hackers. And what is worse, if the method for breaking the "back door" is found, ALL messages are potentially vulnerable. \n\nThis is like the government asking for a "skeleton key" for all the safes - if anyone steals or copies the key, then every safe built is now vulnerable to the thief.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'fupvfr',
'query': 'how would the earn it act negatively affect end to end encryption?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3313446',
'title': 'Capital gains tax in Australia',
'section': 'Section::::Rollovers.:Demergers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 140,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 140,
'end_character': 519,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "When a company spins off part of its business as a new separate company and gives shareholders new shares in that new company, the taxpayer's cost base of the original shares is split between the original and the new holding. The company advises the appropriate proportions and the shareholder would allocate the original cost base between the two entities. The new holding is taken to be acquired at the date of demerger. The cost base of the original shareholding is reduced by the cost base of the new shareholding.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2007225',
'title': 'Consolidation (business)',
'section': 'Section::::Accounting treatment (US GAAP).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 255,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A parent company can acquire another company by purchasing its net assets or by purchasing a majority share of its common stock. Regardless of the method of acquisition; direct costs, costs of issuing securities and indirect costs are treated as follows:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8399656',
'title': 'For-profit corporation',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 934,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "This kind of a company makes shares of ownership available to the general public. The purchasers of those shares then become the company's shareholders; shareholders have bought a portion of ownership of the corporation by giving away certain amount of money (differentiating from company to company) or assets of a particular value. Such organizations are usually not aided by the government as they are working for private financial gains, unlike a non-profit organization, which exists to serve a mission. The nature of a for-profit corporation is such that it is required to pay applicable taxes and register with the state. Any donation which they receive will also be subject to the tax policies of the concerned country. As these organizations are all corporations and have a separate identity from their owners the owners are not in their personal capacity required to satisfy any debts which the company might owe to anyone.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15137812',
'title': 'United Kingdom company law',
'section': 'Section::::Companies and the general law.:Capital regulations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 30,
'end_character': 3268,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The third, and practically most important strategy for creditor protection, was to require that dividends and other returns to shareholders could only be made, generally speaking, if a company had profits. The concept of "profit" is defined by law as having assets above the amount that shareholders, who initially bought shares from the company, contributed in return for their shares. For example, a company could launch its business with 1000 shares (for public companies, called an "IPO" or initial public offering) each with a nominal value of 1 penny, and an issue price of £1. Shareholders would buy the £1 shares, and if all are sold, £1000 would become the company\'s "legal capital". Profits are whatever the company makes on top of that £1000, though as a company continues to trade, the market price of shares could well be going up to £2 or £10, or indeed fall to 50 pence or some other number. The Companies Act 2006 states in section 830 that dividends, or any other kind of distribution, can only be given out from surplus profits beyond the legal capital. It is generally the decision of the board of directors, affirmed by a shareholder resolution, whether to declare a dividend or perhaps simply retain the earnings and invest them back into the business to grow and expand. The calculation of companies\' assets and liabilities, losses and profits, will follow the Generally Accepted Accounting Principles in the UK, but this is not an objective, scientific process: a variety of different accounting methods can be used which can lead to different assessments of when a profit exists. The prohibition on falling below the legal capital applies to "distributions" in any form, and so "disguised" distributions are also caught. This has been held to include, for example, an unwarranted salary payment to a director\'s wife when she had not worked, and a transfer of a property within a company group at half its market value. A general principle, however, recently expounded in "Progress Property Co Ltd v Moorgarth Group Ltd" is that if a transaction is negotiated in good faith and at arm\'s length, then it may not be unwound, and this is apparently so even if it means that creditors have been "ripped off". If distributions are made without meeting the law\'s criteria, then a company has a claim to recover the money from any recipients. They are liable as constructive trustees, which probably mirrors the general principles of any action in unjust enrichment. This means that liability is probably strict, subject to a change of position defence, and the rules of tracing will apply if assets wrongfully paid out of the company have been passed on. For example, in "It’s A Wrap (UK) Ltd v Gula" the directors of a bankrupt company argued that they had been unaware that dividend payments they paid themselves were unlawful (as there had not in fact been profits) because their tax advisers had said it was okay. The Court of Appeal held that ignorance of the law was not a defence. A contravention existed so long as one ought to have known of the facts that show a dividend would contravene the law. Directors can similarly be liable for breach of duty, and so to restore the money wrongfully paid away, if they failed to take reasonable care.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3380384',
'title': 'Parent company',
'section': 'Section::::By country.:United Kingdom.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 803,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "In the United Kingdom, it is generally held that an organisation holding a 'controlling stake' in a company (a holding of over 51% of the stock) is in effect the de facto parent company of the firm, having overriding material influence over the held company's operations, even if no formal full takeover has been enacted. Once a full takeover or purchase is enacted, the held company is seen to have ceased to operate as an independent entity but to have become a tending subsidiary of the purchasing company, which, in turn, becomes the parent company of the subsidiary. (A holding below 50% could be sufficient to give a parent company material influence if they are the largest individual shareholder or if they are placed in control of the running of the operation by non-operational shareholders.)\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3313446',
'title': 'Capital gains tax in Australia',
'section': 'Section::::Specific assets.:Share rights.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 100,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 100,
'end_character': 277,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Rights or options issued by the company allowing existing shareholders to buy new shares are treated as being acquired for nil cost at the same time as the shares were acquired. If sold then the proceeds are a capital gain (or not a capital gain if those shares were pre-CGT).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3744262',
'title': 'Tax consolidation',
'section': 'Section::::Group relief.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 596,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Under the UK scheme, a company's losses may be surrendered to a related company if several conditions are met. The companies must be 75% owned companies. For this purpose, a parent company and its subsidiaries qualify if the parent company owns at least 75% of the ordinary share capital of the subsidiary(ies) and have a beneficial interest in at least 75% of any distributions of earnings or upon winding up. Alternative similar rules apply for certain corsortia and branches. Under European Court of Justice rulings incorporated into UK law, the parent company need not be resident in the UK.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If one company buys out another company for a monetary fee, wouldn’t the money go back to the parent company, therefore the parent company essentially gained capital for free since they own the other company? How does that work?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['No, because when the company is bought it is bought from its owners. You know, the shareholders? They get the money from the buyout.\n\nThe only way it would stay with the company is if the company owned itself which is silly.',
"Nope. A company, just like most stuff, have an owner. This is confusing, because when you buy a car from Tesla, the money goes to the company. This is because the company owned the car.\n\nHowever, you buy Tesla the company, the money doesn't go to the company (that will be stupid, like you pointed that out) the money will go to the previous owner of the company, in this case, Elon Musk and a few other owner. ",
'To keep it simple;\nWhen you see a "buyout" that amount of money is being paid to the original owners of the company, whether divided by the shares if a public company or all to one person if a private company, not the company itself.\n\nIt\'s essentially the price paid by a new owner to obtain ownership from the old.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7r7a6k',
'query': 'if one company buys out another company for a monetary fee, wouldn’t the money go back to the parent company, therefore the parent company essentially gained capital for free since they own the other company? how does that work?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2075077',
'title': 'John G. Cramer',
'section': 'Section::::Writing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 406,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Cramer\'s simulation of the sound of the Big Bang, created using Mathematica, attracted some mainstream press attention in late 2003 and again in 2013. The simulation originated with an "Alternate View" article, "BOOMERanG and the Sound of the Big Bang" (January 2001). Cramer describes the sound as "rather like a large jet plane 100 feet off the ground flying over your house in the middle of the night."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8464879',
'title': 'The Big Bang (TV series)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 275,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "The Big Bang is a CITV science show broadcast from 15 April 1996 – 8 September 2004 and produced by Yorkshire Television. It is notable for being one of CITV's longest-running science programmes. The aim of the programme was to make science fun and interesting for children.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3338992',
'title': 'Noise (video)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 478,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Noise, in analog video and television, is a random dot pixel pattern of static displayed when no transmission signal is obtained by the antenna receiver of television sets and other display devices. The random pattern superimposed on the picture, visible as a random flicker of "dots" or "snow", is the result of electronic noise and radiated electromagnetic noise accidentally picked up by the antenna. This effect is most commonly seen with analog TV sets or blank VHS tapes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2655280',
'title': 'Image noise',
'section': 'Section::::Video noise.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 40,
'end_character': 367,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "In video and television, noise refers to the random dot pattern that is superimposed on the picture as a result of electronic noise, the 'snow' that is seen with poor (analog) television reception or on VHS tapes. Interference and static are other forms of noise, in the sense that they are unwanted, though not random, which can affect radio and television signals.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11995898',
'title': 'Boom! (TV series)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 566,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Boom! is an American reality television series that aired on Spike TV in 2005 and was hosted by Kourtney Klein. It featured a group of demolition experts using explosives to destroy objects such as trailers, houses, boats and cars. Often, the suggestions on what should be blown up were sent in by home viewers via a "BOOM! Mailbag". Each episode covered obtaining the materials (such as the item to be destroyed), cleaning, gutting, and rigging the thing with explosives, and then making the final countdown and pushing the detonator, and watching the devastation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '318514',
'title': 'Robert Woodrow Wilson',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'While working on a new type of antenna at Bell Labs in Holmdel Township, New Jersey, they found a source of noise in the atmosphere that they could not explain. After removing all potential sources of noise, including pigeon droppings on the antenna, the noise was finally identified as CMB, which served as important corroboration of the Big Bang theory.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3365785',
'title': 'Tragedy (Bee Gees song)',
'section': 'Section::::Origin.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'In 1979, NBC aired "The Bee Gees Special", which showed how the sound effect for the explosion was created. Barry cupped his hands over a microphone and made an exploding sound with his mouth. Several of these sounds were then mixed together creating one large boom heard on the record.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How is TV static from the big bang?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It's residual energy that is still dissipating. In the grand scheme of the universe our lives are a mere split second, there are things at work that are bigger and take longer then we can comprehend.",
"Most of the TV static is from the amplifier itself; only ~1% of that is cosmic background radiation. CBR is spread across a pretty wide band, 0.3 GHz to 630 GHz, which broadcast TV is within that band. It's also really quiet, which is why almost all the static is local (part of the TV circuit itself) electrical noise.",
"I'm guessing your really asking how there could still be left over effects from the big bang. \n\nStatic exists because TV antennas pick up light waves of a certain frequency that overlap with frequency of waves from somewhere out there in space. \n\nIt turns out those waves from out there are actually the big bang happening. \n\n**How could the light from the big bang be just reaching us now?**\n\nWell, light travels fast - but it turns out something travels faster - the expansion of space itself. [inflation](_URL_0_) is the process of more space being created between the stars. \n\nHave you ever asked where the big bang took place? Like, what park of the sky it would be in? Well, it was all of space, so it took place everywhere. Everywhere was just a lot smaller back then. As all of space expanded away from itself, some parts actually did so at *faster* than the speed of light. This means there are parts of space who's light will never reach us and some parts (going a little slower) who's light is only now reaching us. The electromagnetic radiation (light waves) from the dawn of time travel across the universe to come to rest in your antenna and make a gentle hiss and some soothing snow. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '7c3acd',
'query': 'how is tv static from the big bang?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '33158074',
'title': 'Lemma (psycholinguistics)',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'When a person produces a word, they are essentially turning their thoughts into sounds, a process known as lexicalisation. In many psycholinguistic models this is considered to be at least a two-stage process. The first stage deals with semantics and syntax; the result of the first stage is an abstract notion of a word that represents a meaning and contains information about how the word can be used in a sentence. It does not, however, contain information about how the word is pronounced. The second stage deals with the phonology of the word; it attaches information about the sounds that will have to be uttered. The result of the first stage is the lemma in this model; the result of the second stage is referred to as the lexeme.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14241792',
'title': 'TRACE (psycholinguistics)',
'section': 'Section::::Key findings.:Lexical basis of segmentation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': "Speakers usually don't leave pauses in between words when speaking, yet listeners seem to have no difficulty hearing speech as a sequence of words. This is known as the segmentation problem, and is one of the oldest problems in the psychology of language. TRACE proposed the following solution, backed up by simulations. When words become activated and recognized, this reveals the location of word boundaries. Stronger word activation leads to greater confidence about word boundaries, which informs the hearer of where to expect the next word to begin.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2302106',
'title': 'Speech delay',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
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'passage_text': 'At times, speech delay and impairment is caused by a physical disruption in the mouth such as a deformed frenulum, lips, or palate. If the motion or ability to form words and appropriate sounds is disrupted, the child may be slow to pick up words and lack the ability to shape their mouth and tongue in the formation of words.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14241792',
'title': 'TRACE (psycholinguistics)',
'section': 'Section::::Key findings.:Time-course of word recognition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'It is generally accepted in psycholinguistics that (1) when the beginning of a word is heard, a set of words that share the same initial sound become activated in memory, (2) the words that are activated compete with each other while more and more of the word is heard, (3) at some point, due to both the auditory input and the lexical competition, one word is recognized.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '261070',
'title': 'Total physical response',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': "A reasonable hypothesis is that the brain and the nervous system are biologically programmed to acquire language, either the first or the second in a particular sequence and in a particular mode. The sequence is listening before speaking and the mode is to synchronise language with the individual's body.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '51996406',
'title': 'The Interpretive Theory of Translation',
'section': 'Section::::Basic Principles.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'ITT adds one further element, deverbalization, to comprehension and reformulation, the two translation stages usually described: Most of the sounds or graphic signs disappear as soon as comprehension sets in. We all experience deverbalization in everyday communication: we keep in mind facts, notions, events conveyed by words, but we do not retain these words in our memory. The ITT found support for this postulate in neuropsychology, which suggests that language and thought are located in different areas in the brain. Anticipation of sense, which often occurs in oral communication and oral translation, is one more proof that, in context and situation, a full verbal support is not always necessary for comprehension to take place.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21442872',
'title': 'Maestro I',
'section': 'Section::::Historical context.:Psychological phenomenon.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "A delay in a dialogue operation causes an involuntary break in the thinking process and thus in the programmer's work. Fred Brooks calls this phenomenon in the landmark paper No Silver Bullet. This is caused by the way short-term memory functions in the brain. Atkinson & Shiffrin proposed a model in 1968 that stipulates that information entering short-term memory fades away in 18–20 seconds if it is no longer attended to. Another important factor is the recency effect which causes a person to remember the last few things better than the things in the middle or the beginning of a time period. Thus, when delays occur in the work, the programmer tends to lose the thread of his or her thoughts.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is happening to our brain when we go to speak and the start of the words get switched?',
'selftext': 'It isn\'t that the words I speak don\'t make any sense but that the first letter/s for each word get switched around e.g. I may go to say "what is you phone number" but it comes out as "none phumber" . Not sure if this is the best example but it has happened to me few times lately and I find it very strange!',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["My dad used to say that you are sixing up your myllables! I was 5 when he first told me that so it fits in this sub (kinda, sorry I'm not helpful). ",
'The basic idea is that your brain has to go through a bunch of steps to put together sounds and words into a sentence, and sometimes it messes up a step. Linguists call these slips of the tongue "speech errors." Linguists study them to figure out how our brains store and combine all the parts of a sentence.\n\nWe know that people make speech errors regularly, every day. We also know people are more likely to make speech errors when they\'re tired, nervous, or drunk. But we actually don\'t know exactly what happens when you make a slip of the tongue, because we still don\'t know the details of how our brains store or combine words in the first place. \n\n\n\nSource: undergrad in linguistics and cognitive science\n\nReferences: _URL_0_\n_URL_1_'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '8eut4h',
'query': 'what is happening to our brain when we go to speak and the start of the words get switched?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '305122',
'title': 'Peripheral vision',
'section': 'Section::::Characteristics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'Peripheral vision is weak in humans, especially at distinguishing detail, color, and shape. This is because the density of receptor and ganglion cells in the retina is greater at the center and lowest at the edges, and, moreover, the representation in the visual cortex is much smaller than that of the fovea (see visual system for an explanation of these concepts). The distribution of receptor cells across the retina is different between the two main types, rod cells and cone cells. Rod cells are unable to distinguish color and peak in density in the near periphery (at 18° eccentricity), while cone cell density is highest in the very center, the fovea, and from there declines rapidly (by an inverse linear function).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1157448',
'title': 'Accommodation reflex',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'A near object (for example, a computer screen) appears large in the field of vision, and the eye receives light from wide angles. When moving focus from a distant to a near object, the eyes converge. The ciliary muscle constricts making the lens thicker, shortening its focal length. The pupil constricts in order to prevent strongly diverging light rays hitting the periphery of the cornea and the lens from entering the eye and creating a blurred image.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '305122',
'title': 'Peripheral vision',
'section': 'Section::::Characteristics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'The distinctions between foveal (sometimes also called central) and peripheral vision are reflected in subtle physiological and anatomical differences in the visual cortex. Different visual areas contribute to the processing of visual information coming from different parts of the visual field, and a complex of visual areas located along the banks of the interhemispheric fissure (a deep groove that separates the two brain hemispheres) has been linked to peripheral vision. It has been suggested that these areas are important for fast reactions to visual stimuli in the periphery, and monitoring body position relative to gravity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '276115',
'title': 'Jumping spider',
'section': 'Section::::Vision.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'The principal, anterior median, eyes have high resolution (11 min visual angle), but the field of vision is narrow, from 2 to 5°. The central region of the retina, where acuity is highest, is no more than six or seven receptor rows wide. However, the eye can scan objects off the direct axis of vision. As the lens is attached to the carapace, the eye\'s scanning movements are restricted to its retina through a complicated pattern of translations and rotations. This dynamic adjustment is a means of compensation for the narrowness of the static field of vision. It is analogous to the way most primates move their eyes to focus images of interest onto the "fovea centralis". Such movements within the jumping spider\'s eyes are visible from outside when the attention of the spider is directed to various targets.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '404646',
'title': 'Far-sightedness',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Far-sightedness, also known as hyperopia, is a condition of the eye in which light is focused behind, instead of on, the retina. This results in close objects appearing blurry, while far objects may appear normal. As the condition worsens, objects at all distances may be blurry. Other symptoms may include headaches and eye strain. People may also experience accommodative dysfunction, binocular dysfunction, amblyopia, and strabismus.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17141106',
'title': 'Eye testing using speckle',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'If the observer is near-sighted, the image of the surface is formed in front of the retina. Since the speckle pattern is perceived by the brain to be on the retina, the effect is of parallax; the speckle pattern appears to be nearer to the eye than the surface and hence moves in the same direction as the surface, but faster than the surface. If the observer is far-sighted, the speckles appear to move in the opposite direction as the surface, since in this case the surface image is focused behind the retina. The apparent speed of motion of the speckles increases with the magnitude of the defect of the eye.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1070221',
'title': 'Human eye',
'section': 'Section::::Vision.:Optokinetic reflex.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
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'passage_text': 'The Optokinetic reflex (or optokinetic nystagmus) stabilizes the image on the retina through visual feedback. It is induced when the entire visual scene drifts across the retina, eliciting eye rotation in the same direction and at a velocity that minimizes the motion of the image on the retina. When the gaze direction deviates too far from the forward heading, a compensatory saccade is induced to reset the gaze to the centre of the visual field.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How come peripheral vision is blurrier or less clear than whatever you're directly focusing on?",
'selftext': 'And less and less clear the further in your periphery it gets',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The brain can only handle so much information at once. In fact, only a tiny area of vision is ever clear, if you look at the middle of your phone keyboard the letters on the side already are not clear. But you know what\'s there because it\'s held in very short term memory.\n\nFun fact, your peripheral vision is also black and white because color sensitive cells in your eye are only right in the middle. But your brain knows what color most things are so it fills it in with "fake" color.\n\nEdit: your brain also only NEEDS a small amount of information at one time. It\'s so good at filling in gaps that between the brain and how quickly eyes move there\'s really no evolutionary need for your entire field of vision to be crystal clear\n\nEdit 2: another fun fact. Because your peripheral vision does not have color receptors, it can have more brightness receptors. Your peripheral vision is brighter than your straight ahead vision.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'fwvcbi',
'query': "how come peripheral vision is blurrier or less clear than whatever you're directly focusing on?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '709339',
'title': 'Holden Camira',
'section': 'Section::::Common problems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The cylinder head was prone to warping, especially when the car was driven frequently. This problem was more pronounced in the later fuel injected models, due to increased engine temperatures and greater stress on that component.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '142564',
'title': 'Citroën SM',
'section': 'Section::::Demise.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 51,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'While the oil shock certainly affected sales, many far more profligate cars were introduced at the same time the SM ceased production, including the hydropneumatically suspended Mercedes-Benz 450SEL 6.9. Peugeot even introduced a V6 powered car of similar displacement and fuel consumption in 1975, the 604. In the U.S. (the main export market for the SM), the SM was actually an economical vehicle relative to its competitors. However, the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) imposed new automotive design regulations in 1974, effectively banning the Citroën from the U.S. market.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4628528',
'title': 'Car of Tomorrow',
'section': 'Section::::Debut.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
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'passage_text': "Another major problem has been that the safety foam used in the side of the car has caught fire, engulfing the driver's cockpit with smoke. NASCAR decided to make modifications before the April 21 Subway Fresh Fit 500 in Avondale, Arizona. An additional side effect of the foam occurred during side-impacts, as Brian Vickers experienced at Watkins Glen, when the foam would be sheared out of the car leaving debris on the racetrack.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23639',
'title': 'Gasoline',
'section': 'Section::::History.:United States, 1918–1929.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
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'passage_text': 'The automobile industry reacted to the increase in thermally cracked gasoline with alarm. Thermal cracking produced large amounts of both mono- and diolefins (unsaturated hydrocarbons), which increased the risk of gumming. Also the volatility was decreasing to the point that fuel did not vaporize and was sticking to spark plugs and fouling them, creating hard starting and rough running in winter and sticking to cylinder walls, bypassing the pistons and rings and going into the crankcase oil. One journal stated, "...on a multi-cylinder engine in a high-priced car we are diluting the oil in the crankcase as much as 40 percent in a 200-mile run, as the analysis of the oil in the oil-pan shows."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10210397',
'title': 'Miller Reese Hutchison',
'section': 'Section::::Hearing aids.:Other inventions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
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'passage_text': 'Another danger caused by the increased number of automobiles was carbon monoxide (CO). Motorists would sometimes pass out or die in high-traffic tunnels, for example, from the odorless gas. In 1924 he announced an additive to gasoline that would allow cleaner combustion with fewer harmful fumes. The additive was marketed as Hutch-Olene, but never caught on.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1617053',
'title': 'Energy Tax Act',
'section': 'Section::::Gas Guzzler Tax.:Market impact.\n',
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'passage_text': "Critics of the Gas Guzzler Tax contend that the increased fuel economy of the US passenger car fleet observed since 1978 must be considered in the context of the increased market share of mid-size and full-size SUVs. Many consumers' stated reasons for SUV purchase (comfort, interior room, and a perception of safety based on the vehicle's size) also apply to the now-obsolete American full-size car as produced from the 1920s through the 70s; critics contend that the dominance of the modern SUV is a direct result of the Gas Guzzler Tax.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '602419',
'title': 'Citroën LNA',
'section': 'Section::::Citroën LN (1976–1978).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'end_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'There was evidence of defensiveness at the press launch, possibly because a car that looked like a Peugeot, but was assembled at a Citroën plant and fitted with a Citroën engine, sharply refuted assurances that the two marques would retain their individuality. Those assurances had been provided by the same press departments just a few months earlier, when Citroën had again run out of money and Peugeot had taken control. When pressed, Citroën explained that the LN project had been rushed through because of "the need to supply customers and the [dealership] network with a model to strengthen Citroën\'s position at the lower end of the market" which was hardly a ringing endorsement of a range which at the time included the Ami and the Dyane as well as the venerable 2CV which would continue in production long after any of the others. Citroën made it clear that this would not happen again. They stayed true to this until the 1996 Citroën Saxo.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "What causes a car's head gasket to blow and why do certain car brands seem to have a bigger issue with this than other brands?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Alot of factors going into a head gasket blowing but the most prevent is design, especially the motor design, how much HP, amount of stress on motor and so on. The reason so many subaru\'s blow head gaskets is the design of the "boxer engine" where the pistons go outward putting more stress. ',
"For manufacturing reasons, the cylinder head is fabricated as a separate piece of metal than the cylinder body. These two pieces of metal are bolted together, to enable maintenance, at a point where there are very high combustion gas pressures. These high pressures are essential to generate power with the engine, so the assembly must contain them. Neither metal has infinite stiffness and there are only a few bolts holding the head to the cylinder. This combination could easily allow combustion gas pressures to separate the two pieces of metal at the seam and allow gas to leak out - causing mischief. To resist this a compressible gasket is installed between the two pieces of metal and compressed by the bolts. The compression forces the gasket to conform to the gap between the two metal objects elastically, so that further pressure from combustion gas further compresses the gasket making the seal tighter rather than letting gas out. It's a great design, everybody uses it.\n\nSome manufacturers produce parts with higher precision than others. Larger gaps allow the combustion gas to apply more pressure, allowing the gas force to exceed the strength of the gasket material. \n\nSome manufacturers make engines with larger displacement than others. This encourages performance boosting behaviors which also can lead to pressures that exceed the gasket material strength."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'a664dd',
'query': "what causes a car's head gasket to blow and why do certain car brands seem to have a bigger issue with this than other brands?",
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '11846',
'title': 'Guitar',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The guitar is a fretted musical instrument that usually has six strings. It is typically played with both hands by strumming or plucking the strings with either a guitar pick or the finger(s)/fingernails of one hand, while simultaneously fretting (pressing the strings against the frets) with the fingers of the other hand. The sound of the vibrating strings is projected either acoustically, by means of the hollow chamber of the guitar (for an acoustic guitar), or through an electrical amplifier and a speaker.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34499138',
'title': 'Jackson Guldan Co.',
'section': 'Section::::Adjustomatic Acoustic Guitars.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Most acoustic guitars on the second-hand market are the Adjustomatic brand, noted by the fact that the guitar comes apart in two pieces - the neck and the body, through the clever and simple use of a long screw that holds the neck to the body. A threaded bolt turns against a small piece of 90-degree angle iron to allow the musician to easily adjust the string action, that is, the closeness of the strings to the fretboard on the neck. The guitar can be disassembled, reassembled and string action set with the use of a simple screwdriver.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4320023',
'title': 'Finger vibrato',
'section': 'Section::::Guitar.:Sound.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
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'passage_text': 'When a string is bent, the sound it creates is much smoother than would be otherwise, even using other legato techniques such as hammer-ons, pull-offs, or finger slides. String bending on the guitar was first used in blues to mimic the smooth sound of a slide guitar. It has since become an integral part of playing lead guitar. Some masters of string bending on guitar include David Gilmour, Tony Iommi, Brian May, T-Bone Walker, B. B. King, and Eric Clapton, as well as many other blues, country, and jazz-influenced guitarists. To facilitate his extensive string bending, Clapton used to substitute an unwound banjo string for the third string on his guitar. At that time, no set of light-gauge strings with an unwound third string was available.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6231032',
'title': 'Acoustic guitar',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "Guitar strings may be plucked individually with a pick or fingertip, or strummed to play chords. Plucking a string causes it to vibrate at a fundamental pitch determined by the string's length, mass, and tension. (Overtones are also present, closely related to harmonics of the fundamental pitch.) The string causes the soundboard and the air enclosed by the sound box to vibrate. As these have their own resonances, they amplify some overtones more strongly than others, affecting the timbre of the resulting sound.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17639321',
'title': 'Springtime (guitar)',
'section': 'Section::::Technical information.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'The string set up of the guitar is 1 bass string, 3 wound guitar strings for the chords and a cluster of 3 unwound strings tuned off-key unison, causing a rapid vibrating tone. Each group of strings has its own individual output for three amplifiers to preserve tonal interference. The sound simulates three musicians at once; a bass player, a rhythm guitarist and a solo guitarist or a Greek electric bouzouki. The instrument also is fitted with a so-called tailed bridge (as on a Fender Jaguar) to increase overtone possibilities. The electronics contain switches to change the 3-way system to stereo or mono if fewer amplifiers are available.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16970450',
'title': '3rd bridge',
'section': 'Section::::Physical explanation and examples.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'On a standard guitar, the string is held above the soundboard by two nodes: the "nut" (near the headstock) and the "bridge" (near the player\'s right hand on a standard guitar). A player sounding a note on a standard guitar vibrates a single portion of the string (between the nut and the bridge or between their fretting finger and the bridge).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11846',
'title': 'Guitar',
'section': 'Section::::Construction.:Components.:Body.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 68,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "In acoustic guitars, string vibration is transmitted through the bridge and saddle to the body via sound board. The sound board is typically made of tone woods such as spruce or cedar. Timbers for tone woods are chosen for both strength and ability to transfer mechanical energy from the strings to the air within the guitar body. Sound is further shaped by the characteristics of the guitar body's resonant cavity. In expensive instruments, the entire body is made of wood. In inexpensive instruments, the back may be made of plastic.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do guitar pickups get the strings sound?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Magnets.\n\nDo people ever google something before just vomiting their thoughts here?\n\n_URL_0_',
'Inside the pickups are magnets wrapped in coils of wire with an electric charge running through them. Those magnets are what "pickup" the vibrations',
'Magnets.\n\nIt works in the same way that moving a metallic object (the strings) near a magnetic coil (the pickups) generates power fluctuations (frequencies) in the copper coil wound around each magnet in the pickup. These can then be passed onto the amplifier and played through a speaker.\n\nSpeakers/amplifiers work in the reverse way, using electronic frequencies to make a magnet move on a diaphragm and generate pressure waves in the air that you perceive as sound.\n\nEssentially the pickup translates the vibrations of the string into electronic frequencies that the amp translates back into vibration.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'favv2y',
'query': 'how do guitar pickups get the strings sound?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '9351',
'title': 'Economy of Egypt',
'section': 'Section::::Reform era.:The financial sector.:Exchange rate policy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 45,
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'end_paragraph_id': 45,
'end_character': 530,
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'passage_text': 'The exchange rate has been linked to the US dollar since the 1950s. Several regimes were adopted including initially the conventional peg in the sixties, regular crawling peg in the seventies and the eighties and crawling bands in the nineties. Over that time period, there were several exchange rate markets including black market, parallel market and the official market. With the turn of the new millennium, Egypt introduced a managed float regime and successfully unified the Pound exchange rate vis-à-vis foreign currencies.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4394388',
'title': 'Smithsonian Agreement',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'The Bretton Woods Conference of 1944 established an international fixed exchange rate system based on the gold exchange standard, in which currencies were pegged to the United States dollar, itself convertible into gold at $35/ounce.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4044516',
'title': 'World currency',
'section': 'Section::::Historical and current world.:U.S. dollar.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'In the period following the Bretton Woods Conference of 1944, exchange rates around the world were pegged to the United States dollar, which could be exchanged for a fixed amount of gold. This reinforced the dominance of the US dollar as a global currency.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '648277',
'title': 'Foreign exchange market',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': "The modern foreign exchange market began forming during the 1970s. This followed three decades of government restrictions on foreign exchange transactions under the Bretton Woods system of monetary management, which set out the rules for commercial and financial relations among the world's major industrial states after World War II. Countries gradually switched to floating exchange rates from the previous exchange rate regime, which remained fixed per the Bretton Woods system. \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '648277',
'title': 'Foreign exchange market',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Modern to post-modern.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "At the end of 1913, nearly half of the world's foreign exchange was conducted using the pound sterling. The number of foreign banks operating within the boundaries of London increased from 3 in 1860, to 71 in 1913. In 1902, there were just two London foreign exchange brokers. At the start of the 20th century, trades in currencies was most active in Paris, New York City and Berlin; Britain remained largely uninvolved until 1914. Between 1919 and 1922, the number of foreign exchange brokers in London increased to 17; and in 1924, there were 40 firms operating for the purposes of exchange.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21534875',
'title': 'Fixed exchange-rate system',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'The gold standard or gold exchange standard of fixed exchange rates prevailed from about 1870 to 1914, before which many countries followed bimetallism. The period between the two world wars was transitory, with the Bretton Woods system emerging as the new fixed exchange rate regime in the aftermath of World War II. It was formed with an intent to rebuild war-ravaged nations after World War II through a series of currency stabilization programs and infrastructure loans. The early 1970s saw the breakdown of the system and its replacement by a mixture of fluctuating and fixed exchange rates.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '54286881',
'title': 'Dual exchange rate',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'In the gold standard and the Bretton Woods system, the major developed countries mainly implemented fixed exchange rate systems. Due to the devaluation of the pound around the 1970s and the collapse of the Bretton Woods system, many developed countries switched to floating exchange rates. In 1971, France started to adopt the dual exchange rate system. After that, in 1973, Italy also adopted this system. Both countries maintained these dual exchange rate systems through the early 1970s. The Belgium–Luxembourg Economic Union has been using this system since the early 1990s.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How did currency exchange rates form in the very beginning?',
'selftext': 'I was wondering how exchange rates formed in the beginning. As in, when the first two countries came together to exchange a monetary deal, how did they know how much of their money equated to the other countries money.',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Same way as the price for anything: both sides do their homework on how much stuff they can get with the other sides currency and then figure out how much of their currency you are willing to give for a given amount of the opposite sides currency. At some point both sides reach an agreement. If they cannot reach a mutually agreeable price for the opposing sides currency, there isn't a trade agreement.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nedit: the exchange rates aren't set by individual countries, they are floating based on how much different currencies are worth when doing international trade.",
'Countries often initially had their currencies locked to a precious metal (typically gold or silver). For example pound sterling (GBP) derives its name from when 20 shillings was literally a pound of sterling silver, under Anglo-saxon rule. These are pretty easily exchangeable because the international value of that coin is its metal content.',
"First they were set according to gold(or a rare earth metal) then world war happened.\nThen all of them were set according to USD which was set according to gold( I think it was the Brentwood agreement).\nNow it's like a free market depending on supply and demand it's called the forex market(foreign exchange market)",
"Precious metals.\n\nCoins were invented to simplify trading in precious metals. If someone showed up at an inn with a hunk of hacksilver, the innkeep had to judge the quality and weight to determine how much beer and mutton that would buy him.\n\nTo make it easier, someone (typically the state) would produce coins of a specific mass and purity. The coin would have some primitive security features so that a merchant could quickly determine that the coin was probably real and probably hadn't been shaved or altered. Now the barkeep can have an actual menu/price list: one of Lord Suchandsuch's pennies will get you 2 beers, 3 will get you a room for the night and so forth. If someone shows up with coins the innkeep has never encountered (eg: from Lord Soandso's mint), the innkeep had a few options. They could just say no and lose the trade. They could take the hacksilver approach and judge the value as best as they could. They could direct their customer to a moneychanger who knows all about coinage and assay to get the coin exchanged for currency that the innkeep is familiar with. As a side effect of this, the moneylender would develop a schedule comparing different coins: an 8g gold sovereign was taken to have the same value as one pound of sterling silver. A silver penny weighed 1/240th of a pound so 240 pennies was worth 1 sovereign (1 pound sterling). Other countries used other currencies. The Spanish real was about 1/150 lb so, assuming the merchant was familiar with the coin, one would be worth about 1.5 pennies. \n\nWhen governments traded, it was all gold and silver traded by weight. The actual shipment could be a mixture of bars and various coins..it didn't matter as long as they were of acceptably purity and the total weight was correct.",
'Ooh! Economics Major here. I can answer. \nMost of the answers given are right, but I wanna give the full picture for a more holistic answer. I assume that you\'re referring to today\'s economy with all different types of exchange rate systems (flexible, fixed, managed float, peg, dollarisation,...), and how these started. In that case, we have to see some major turning points in history, namely the Gold Standard and the Bretton Woods System.\n\nI won\'t start too far back as it doesn\'t really answer, but silver was widely used as the standard until the Bank of England decided to drive silver out of circulation (because it was running out of it).\n\nBut in 1870, the Gold Standard was established. This was sort of the beginning of "exchange rates".\nThis started with the British. With the industrial revolution, countries believed that a necessary condition to facilitate world trade was a stable exchange rate system.\nEach country set the value of 1 unit of their currency at a predetermined percentage of the weight of gold, or in others words, its value.\nFor instance, a British Pound was 0.23546% an ounce of pure gold, and the USD was 0.048379%. This made the Dollar-Pound exchange rate 0.23546/0.048379 = 4.867. \nThese values were fixed, and the gold standard required that each country adjust its domestic money supply in direct relation to the amount of gold it held. \n\nHowever, there were many problems along the way. WW1 caused the gold standard to be ceased for a while, but it came back. At one point in time, US and France held 70% of the world\'s gold alone, and this caused the other countries that adopted the gold standard to hike interest rates, which essentially led to the infamous Great Depression. At this point, people realized the gold standard actually caused many problems, and decided to abolish it.\n\nThis led to the Bretton Woods System. \nThe USD was pegged at $35 per ounce of gold, and all other countries under the Bretton Woods System pegged their currency to the USD. This was essentially a fixed exchange rate system. This also made the USD the international reserve currency.\nAlthough this was meant to promote growth and trade, Bretton Woods was formed on the basis of Capital Control and Financial Market Regulations (Impossible Trinity, if you\'re curious). This was bad in the time of increasing international trade. Hence, it eventually broke down for a few reasons, which I won\'t really explain to keep things simple.\n\nIn the end, the Bretton Woods System collapsed in 1973, and the dollar was delinked from gold. People also realized that fixed exchange rate systems weren\'t all too good an idea. This ushered in the era of flexible exchange rates, which grew to the myriad of systems we all know today.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'e0wwie',
'query': 'how did currency exchange rates form in the very beginning?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '7955',
'title': 'DNA',
'section': 'Section::::Uses in technology.:DNA profiling.\n',
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'passage_text': 'DNA profiling is also used in DNA paternity testing to determine if someone is the biological parent or grandparent of a child with the probability of parentage is typically 99.99% when the alleged parent is biologically related to the child. Normal DNA sequencing methods happen after birth, but there are new methods to test paternity while a mother is still pregnant.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '235169',
'title': 'DNA paternity testing',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'DNA testing is currently the most advanced and accurate technology to determine parentage. In a DNA paternity test, the result (called the \'probability of parentage) is 0%, when the alleged parent is not biologically related to the child, and the probability of parentage is typically 99.99% when the alleged parent is biologically related to the child. However, while almost all individuals have a single and distinct set of genes, rare individuals, known as "chimeras", have at least two different sets of genes, which can result in a false negative result if their reproductive tissue has a different genetic make-up from the tissue sampled for the test.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '235169',
'title': 'DNA paternity testing',
'section': 'Section::::Prenatal paternity testing for unborn child.:Non-invasive prenatal paternity testing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': "Current advances in genetic testing have led to the ability to determine who the biological father is while the woman is still pregnant through a non-invasive method. There is a small amount of fetal DNA (cffDNA) present in the mother's blood during pregnancy. This allows for accurate fetal DNA paternity testing during pregnancy from a blood draw with no risk of miscarriage. Studies have shown that cffDNA can first be observed as early as 7 weeks gestation, and the amount of cffDNA increases as the pregnancy progresses.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '310782',
'title': 'Genetic testing',
'section': 'Section::::Types.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Paternity testing - uses special DNA markers to identify the same or similar inheritance patterns between related individuals. Based on the fact that we all inherit half of our DNA from the father, and half from the mother, DNA scientists test individuals to find the match of DNA sequences at some highly differential markers to draw the conclusion of relatedness.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '235169',
'title': 'DNA paternity testing',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "DNA paternity testing is the use of DNA profiles to determine whether an individual is the biological parent of another individual. Paternity testing can be especially important when the rights and duties of the father are in issue and a child's paternity is in doubt. Tests can also determine the likelihood of someone being a biological grandparent. Though genetic testing is the most reliable standard, older methods also exist, including ABO blood group typing, analysis of various other proteins and enzymes, or using human leukocyte antigen antigens. The current techniques for paternity testing are using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP). Paternity testing can now also be performed while the woman is still pregnant from a blood draw.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40479918',
'title': 'Dennis Lo',
'section': 'Section::::Career.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 992,
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'passage_text': 'After learning about a new method to detect small amounts of DNA called polymerase chain reaction from another researcher, Lo read a research paper describing the detection of tumor DNA in blood plasma. Lo wondered if it would be possible to detect fetal DNA in blood from a pregnant mother. In 1989, he published results that suggested fetal DNA did exist but only in low quantities. However, in 1997, Lo was successful in detecting fetal DNA in the plasma of a pregnant mother by using the male chromosome as a marker. He called the discovery like "finding your car\'s engine somewhere other than under the bonnet." This discovery has enabled a safer way for prenatal diagnosis of abnormalities in fetal development. In 2011, he developed a sequencing-based technology to determine the gender of the fetus earlier than an ultrasound. Lo was able to adapt this technology to use RNA, instead of DNA, to detect down-syndrome in unborn fetuses where previous methods could cause a miscarriage.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '57689694',
'title': 'Trump administration family separation policy',
'section': 'Section::::Executive order to suspend new separations and detain families.:Difficulties of the reunification process.\n',
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'passage_text': 'CNN reported that DNA testing was performed to expedite parental verification and ensure reunification with verified parents, without details being reported as to whether consent has been asked. Human rights advocates have criticized that migrant children, some as young as two months old, cannot give their consent to DNA testing. Medical experts have recommended to use DNA testing only as a last resort. Thomas H. Murray, president emeritus of The Hastings Center, emphasizes the danger to social ties in the family given that "the risk misattributed fatherhood, and even motherhood, is more common than most people realize".\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How do rape kits/paternity tests work if sperm only has 50% of the father's DNA?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Each sperm only has 50%. \nThere are many many millions of sperm. \nThe odds that all of them miss any part of the father's DNA is essentially zero.",
'I mean...spermatozoa contains 50% of DNA compared to the othet cells.\n\nBut 100% of this 50% DNA belong to the guy who ejaculated.',
'Even 50% of the DNA is roughly a shitload of data. You still got extremely much to compare with.\n\nSay that you are matching if two books are the same. Even if you only have every second word of one of the books. you can still make a pretty strong assumption on whether it is the same book or not.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'f74668',
'query': "how do rape kits/paternity tests work if sperm only has 50% of the father's dna?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '4562265',
'title': 'W84',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The W84 is an American thermonuclear warhead designed for use on the BGM-109G Gryphon Ground Launched Cruise Missile (GLCM). It is a derivative of the B61 nuclear bomb design and a close relative of the W80 warhead used on the AGM-86 ALCM, AGM-129 ACM, and BGM-109 Tomahawk SLCM cruise missiles.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12287006',
'title': 'W82',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'The W82 was a low-yield tactical nuclear warhead developed by the United States and designed to be used in a 155 mm artillery shell (sometimes called the XM785 shell). It was conceived as a more flexible replacement for the W48, the previous generation of 155 mm nuclear artillery shell. A previous attempt to replace the W48 with the W74 munition was canceled due to cost.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '863292',
'title': 'Jagged Alliance (series)',
'section': 'Section::::Games in the series.:"Jagged Alliance 2".:"Jagged Alliance 2: Wildfire".\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
'end_character': 295,
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'passage_text': '"WF6" contains changed source code, a tweaked graphics engine that allows for a higher resolution, introduces new mercenaries and increases squad size from 6 to 10. It can be patched up to version 6.04 (for English version), up to 6.06 (for German version), or up to 6.08 (for Russian version).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2307156',
'title': 'W76',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 240,
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'passage_text': 'The W76 is a United States thermonuclear warhead. The first variant was manufactured from 1978 to 1987, and is still in service . In 2018 a new low-yield variant was announced which is expected to gain initial operating capability in 2019.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4611058',
'title': 'W62',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 304,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The W62 has been retired because it lacks Enhanced Electrical Isolation, Insensitive High Explosives, a Fire Resistant Pit, a Command Disable System and a Code Management System. It has been replaced in its role as Minuteman warhead by the W78 and, more recently, by the W87 in a non-MIRV configuration.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26657864',
'title': 'Xian WS-15',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 271,
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'passage_text': "The WS-15 (), codename Emei, is a Chinese afterburning turbofan engine designed by the Shenyang Aeroengine Research Institute and manufactured by the Xi'an Aero-Engine Corporation, which will be used to power the Chengdu J-20, which would be able to achieve supercruise.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40415055',
'title': 'WBZY Northern Might',
'section': 'Section::::BW-9.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 390,
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'passage_text': 'BW-9 is a ballistic target drone is designed to specifically simulate the re-entry flight characteristics of short and medium range ballistic missiles to support the training of air defense forces and the development of air defense weaponry. BW-9 has a cylindrical fuselage with four control surfaces mounted in cruciform at the tail end, just like some of the tactical ballistic missiles.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is a W-4?',
'selftext': 'Like, I vaguely know what it is, but how does it work?',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Essentially, the government requires that your employer collect your income tax on your wages and send that to the government. \n\nIn order to do that, your employer needs some way to estimate how much you'll pay in taxes. To do **that**, they need information from you about how much you expect to pay in taxes. \n\nSo you tell your employer if you're married or single, and if you have certain allowances that would be subtracted from your taxable income. (like having kids) You can tell your employer to withhold extra money, if you have special circumstances or if you're working two jobs. Your employer then uses that information to estimate your income taxes, and withholds those funds from your paycheck. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6mg3ia',
'query': 'what is a w-4?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3407720',
'title': 'Exotropia',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'The brain\'s ability to see three-dimensional objects depends on proper alignment of the eyes. When both eyes are properly aligned and aimed at the same target, the visual portion of the brain fuses the forms into a single image. When one eye turns inward, outward, upward, or downward, two different pictures are sent to the brain. This causes loss of depth perception and binocular vision. There have also been some reports of people that can "control" their afflicted eye. The term is from Greek "exo" meaning "outward" and "trope" meaning "a turning".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1894873',
'title': 'Eye movement',
'section': 'Section::::Physiology.:Vestibulo-ocular system.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 43,
'end_character': 472,
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'passage_text': 'The brain must point both eyes accurately enough that the object of regard falls on corresponding points of the two retinas to avoid the perception of double vision. In most vertebrates (humans, mammals, reptiles, birds), the movements of different body parts are controlled by striated muscles acting around joints. The movement of the eye is slightly different in that the eyes are not rigidly attached to anything, but are held in the orbit by six extraocular muscles.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '531432',
'title': 'Autostereogram',
'section': 'Section::::How they work.:Simple wallpaper.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
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'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 660,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "When the brain is presented with a repeating pattern like wallpaper, it has difficulty matching the two eyes' views accurately. By looking at a horizontally repeating pattern, but converging the two eyes at a point behind the pattern, it is possible to trick the brain into matching one element of the pattern, as seen by the left eye, with another (similar looking) element, beside the first, as seen by the right eye. With the typical wall-eyed viewing, this gives the illusion of a plane bearing the same pattern but located behind the real wall. The distance at which this plane lies behind the wall depends only on the spacing between identical elements.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50335175',
'title': 'Corticospinal tract',
'section': 'Section::::Function.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 220,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Because some of the connections cross the midline, each side of the brain is responsible for controlling muscles for the limbs on opposite sides of the body, while controlling trunk muscles on the same side of the body.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1969542',
'title': 'Extraocular muscles',
'section': 'Section::::Function.:Movement coordination.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 457,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Intermediate directions are controlled by simultaneous actions of multiple muscles. When one shifts the gaze horizontally, one eye will move laterally (toward the side) and the other will move medially (toward the midline). This may be neurally coordinated by the central nervous system, to make the eyes move together and almost involuntarily. This is a key factor in the study of strabismus, namely, the inability of the eyes to be directed to one point.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '599917',
'title': 'Mental image',
'section': 'Section::::Physical basis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 586,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "The visual pathway is not a one-way street. Higher areas of the brain can also send visual input back to neurons in lower areas of the visual cortex. [...] As humans, we have the ability to see with the mind's eye—to have a perceptual experience in the absence of visual input. For example, PET scans have shown that when subjects, seated in a room, imagine they are at their front door starting to walk either to the left or right, activation begins in the visual association cortex, the parietal cortex, and the prefrontal cortex—all higher cognitive processing centers of the brain.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1466175',
'title': 'Insight',
'section': 'Section::::Psychology.:Specific results.:In the brain.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
'end_character': 463,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Differences in brain activation in the left and right hemisphere seem to be indicative of insight versus non-insight solutions. Using RAT’s that were either presented to the left or right visual field, it was shown that participants having solved the problem with insight were more likely to have been shown the RAT on the left visual field, indicating right hemisphere processing. This provides evidence that the right hemisphere plays a unique role in insight.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why when lying on my side, my brain prefers to watch parallel to the floor instead of parallel to my eyes?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Your brain knows that you are lying on your side. It expects things to look rotated for the eyes. If they are not something is wrong.',
'Your brain is a very complicated machine that does a lot of things you\'re not aware of, especially with regard to processing images. Your brain figures out what\'s up and down based on visual cues and a special little gravity sensor inside your ear.\n\nFun fact, in an \\[experiment\\]([_URL_0_](_URL_0_)), a guy was able to completely adjust to seeing the world upside-down, through the use of mirrored glasses. It took the guy about a week, but when they took the goggles off, the "normal world" was as confusing and disorienting as the "upside-down" world had initially been.',
'Does it? I prefer to have it parallel to my eyes actually.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8x6blt',
'query': 'why when lying on my side, my brain prefers to watch parallel to the floor instead of parallel to my eyes?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '192230',
'title': 'Almanac',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Contemporary use.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
'end_character': 366,
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'passage_text': 'The GPS almanac, as part of the data transmitted by each GPS satellite, contains coarse orbit and status information for all satellites in the constellation, an ionospheric model, and information to relate GPS derived time to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). Hence the GPS almanac provide a similar goal as the ancient Babylonian almanac, to find celestial bodies.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '200085',
'title': 'Cardinal direction',
'section': 'Section::::Locating the directions.:Satellite navigation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 1582,
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'passage_text': 'Near the end of the 20th century, the advent of satellite-based Global Positioning Systems (GPS) provided yet another means for any individual to determine true north accurately. While GPS Receivers (GPSRs) function best with a clear view of the entire sky, they function day or night, and in all but the most severe weather. The government agencies responsible for the satellites continuously monitor and adjust them to maintain their accurate alignment with the Earth. There are consumer versions of the receivers that are attractively priced. Since there are no periodic access fees, or other licensing charges, they have become widely used. GPSR functionality is becoming more commonly added to other consumer devices such as mobile phones. Handheld GPSRs have modest power requirements, can be shut down as needed, and recalibrate within a couple of minutes of being restarted. In contrast with the gyrocompass which is most accurate when stationary, the GPS receiver, if it has only one antenna, must be moving, typically at more than 0.1\xa0mph (0.2\xa0km/h), to correctly display compass directions. On ships and aircraft, GPS receivers are often equipped with two or more antennas, separately attached to the vehicle. The exact latitudes and longitudes of the antennas are determined, which allows the cardinal directions to be calculated relative to the structure of the vehicle. Within these limitations GPSRs are considered both accurate and reliable. The GPSR has thus become the fastest and most convenient way to obtain a verifiable alignment with the cardinal directions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41593',
'title': 'Pseudorandom noise',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 263,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'GPS receivers correlate the received PN bit stream with a local reference to measure distance. GPS is a receive-only system that uses relative timing measurements from several satellites (and the known positions of the satellites) to determine receiver position.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10059597',
'title': 'GPS signals',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 321,
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'passage_text': 'GPS signals include ranging signals, used to measure the distance to the satellite, and navigation messages. The navigation messages include "ephemeris" data, used to calculate the position of each satellite in orbit, and information about the time and status of the entire satellite constellation, called the "almanac".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14099173',
'title': 'Intelligent speed adaptation',
'section': 'Section::::Speed and location determination and verification.:Position-based systems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 844,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'GPS is based on a network of satellites that constantly transmit radio signals. GPS receivers pick up these transmissions and compare the signals from several satellites in order to pinpoint the receiver’s location to within a few meters. This is done by comparing the time at which the signal was sent from the satellite to when it was picked up by the receiver. Because the orbital paths of the satellites are known very accurately, the receiver can perform a calculation based on its distance to several of the orbiting satellites and therefore obtain its position. There are currently 31 satellites making up the GPS network, and their orbits are configured so that a minimum of five satellites are available at any one time for terrestrial users. Four satellites are the minimum required to determine a precise three-dimensional position.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26270139',
'title': 'Unified S-band',
'section': 'Section::::Ranging.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 78,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 78,
'end_character': 677,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Modern GPS receivers work somewhat similarly in that they also correlate a received PN bit stream (at 1.023 Mbit/s) with a local reference to measure distance. But GPS is a receive-only system that uses relative timing measurements from a set of satellites to determine receiver position while the Apollo USB is a two-way system that can only determine the instantaneous distance and relative velocity. However, an orbit determination program can find the unique spacecraft state vector from range, range-rate (relative velocity) and antenna look angle observations made by one or more ground stations assuming purely ballistic spacecraft motion over the observation interval.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17800413',
'title': 'GPS navigation device',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 1095,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A GPS device can retrieve from the GPS system location and time information in all weather conditions, anywhere on or near the Earth. A GPS reception requires an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites, and is subject to poor satellite signal conditions. In exceptionally poor signal conditions, for example in urban areas, satellite signals may exhibit multipath propagation where signals bounce off structures, or are weakened by meteorological conditions. Obstructed lines of sight may arise from a tree canopy or inside a structure, such as in a building, garage or tunnel. Today, most standalone GPS receivers are used in automobiles. The GPS capability of smartphones may use assisted GPS (A-GPS) technology, which can use the base station or cell towers to provide a faster Time to First Fix (TTFF), especially when GPS signals are poor or unavailable. However, the mobile network part of the A-GPS technology would not be available when the smartphone is outside the range of the mobile reception network, while the GPS aspect would otherwise continue to be available.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does gps need almanac data?',
'selftext': 'Been reading about GPS recently but this confused me a bit. Why isn’t time and ephemeris sufficient to triangulate position? Sure it gives the rough position of the satellites so that the GPS knows which signals to listen for, but can it not just listen for all satellites?',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It could, but that would mean a lot more processing. Almanac data is almost always available, so it is much more efficient to use that instead of listening to everything and then figuring things out from there.',
"You could listen for all the satellites at the same time, but it takes up a lot of signal processing power. GPS satellites transmit almanac data every 12 minutes so your GPS receiver knows which satellites to look for. In military applications it also makes it harder to spoof as military receivers can listen for an encrypted signal and will ignore signals from satellites that aren't supposed to be visible.",
'The problem with GPS signals is that they are extremely faint, and they are all transmitted on the exact same frequency using a "spread spectrum" approach. On top of that, the satellites are in orbit, so will have widely varying Doppler shifts affecting both the signal frequency and the code frequency/phase. The code sequence for each satellite is published in advance and built into the receiver firmware.\n\nYou cannot even detect a GPS signal unless you know the frequency, code and the code phase in advance. Once you know the frequency, code and code phase, you have to use a long (1 second+) averaging process to collect many signal samples and average them out to confirm a detection.\n\nIn practice, the code phase can\'t be known in advance. So you have to brute force search for the code phase. The problem is that each search requires a long averaging period. So, you really, really do not want to have to brute force search the frequency and code as well. So, having an almanac allowing rough calculation of which satellites are visible (and therefore which codes to check) and what their rough frequencies will be, can drastically reduce the search space. \n\nReceivers typically include a large number of signal search cores, so that the search can be done in parallel, but more processor cores increases cost and power consumption. However, these days, there is increasing demand for GPS receivers with very fast start and other features as a result, manufacturers are integrating huge numbers of search cores (multiple millions) which can complete a brute force search in about 30 seconds in good signal conditions, and 1-2 minutes in marginal signal conditions where longer averaging times are needed for confirmation.\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '855tbh',
'query': 'why does gps need almanac data?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '30876641',
'title': 'Human skull symbolism',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 475,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Moreover, a human skull with its large eye sockets displays a degree of neoteny, which humans often find visually appealing—yet a skull is also obviously dead, and to some can even seem to look sad due to the downward facing slope on the ends of the eye sockets. As such, human skulls often have a greater visual appeal than the other bones of the human skeleton, and can fascinate even as they repel. Our present society predominantly associates skulls with death and evil.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14414679',
'title': 'Jaw reduction',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 278,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A wide lower face can primarily be caused by a wide mandibular bone or over-sized masseter muscle. Over-sized masseter muscle can be resolved with the use of botox injections whereas having a wide mandibular bone requires surgical intervention to reduce the size of the bones. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2045927',
'title': 'Gyrus',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 355,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The gyri are part of a system of folds and ridges that create a larger surface area for the human brain and other mammalian brains. Because the brain is confined to the skull, brain size is limited. Ridges and depressions create folds allowing a larger cortical surface area, and greater cognitive function, to exist in the confines of a smaller cranium.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16731978',
'title': 'Human skeletal changes due to bipedalism',
'section': 'Section::::Skull.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 960,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The human skull is balanced on the vertebral column: The foramen magnum is located inferiorly under the skull, which puts much of the weight of the head behind the spine. Furthermore, the flat human face helps to maintain balance on the occipital condyles. Because of this, the erect position of the head is possible without the prominent supraorbital ridges and the strong muscular attachments found in, for example, apes. As a result, in humans the muscles of the forehead (the occipitofrontalis) are only used for facial expressions. Increasing brain size has also been significant in human evolution. It began to increase around 2.4 million years ago but modern levels of brain size were not attained until after 500,000 years ago. Zoological analyses have shown that the size of human brains is significantly larger than what you would expect for our size. The human brain is in fact three to four times larger than its closest relative - the chimpanzee.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36168126',
'title': 'Iranian traditional medicine',
'section': 'Section::::Choleric, sanguine, melancholic, phlegmatic.:Sanguine: warm and wet.:Lifestyle tips.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 222,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 222,
'end_character': 313,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- As they have muscular body and a body composition of larger proportion of muscle tissue rather than fat they need to exercise and lack of movement would cause waste products and other toxins to build up in their bodies. Therefore, they are more prone to develop high uric acid and cholesterol levels.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '583238',
'title': 'Axial skeleton',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 507,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Flat bones house the brain and other vital organs. This article mainly deals with the axial skeletons of humans; however, it is important to understand the evolutionary lineage of the axial skeleton. The human axial skeleton consists of 80 different bones. It is the medial core of the body and connects the pelvis to the body, where the appendix skeleton attaches. As the skeleton grows older the bones get weaker with the exception of the skull. The skull remains strong to protect the brain from injury.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5018166',
'title': 'Co-adaptation',
'section': 'Section::::Organs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 520,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Similar to traits on a genetic level, aspects of organs can also be subject to co-adaptation. For example, slender bones can have similar performance in regards to bearing daily loads as thicker bones, due to slender bones having more mineralized tissue. This means that slenderness and the level of mineralization have probably been co-adapted. However, due to being harder than thick bones, slender bones are generally less pliant and more prone to breakage, especially when subjected to more extreme load conditions.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why don’t we have fat and muscle surrounding our brains as an added protective layer over our skulls?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Heat retention. The brain uses a large portion of our energy and the temperature range from normal to heat stroke is all of 3 degrees C. Also because of all of the blood vessels in the brain, a lot of the body's heat is pumped through your head.\n\nJust being hot makes you think slower and make more mistakes.",
'Muscle tissue has the sole purposes of enabling movement of the body and organs, fat tissue is mostly only for energy storage. So neither of those two tissues really qualify as a protective tissue and if we start thinking evolution it makes little sense for an individual to have increased reproduction rates because of two ridiculously energy cost intensive tissues around the skull which already protects the brain.\n\nTissues that are fit for acting as protective Barriers are bone, skin, and mucous membranes and those are already pretty solidly implemented into our heads at this point. Anything beyond that would probably just drive the cost-effect balance into negative and would decrease our fitness as individuals, thus leaving us more susceptible to natural selection which would lead to a relatively fast extinction of such a muscle-fat-head human.',
"We do, only the very top of the skull doesn't have skeletal muscle attached. There's a specialized type of skin called scalp that covers the skull, it's extra thick and tough for added protection. All skin has a layer of subcutaneous fat as well. Inside the skull there's several more layers of protection called the meninges, made up of three layers; the dura mater which it tough and thick, the arachnoid mater which is spongy and the pia mater which is thin and delicate. The brain itself also floats in a tub of liquid called cerebrospinal fluid that flows between the meninges and through the brain itself via a system of ventricles and canals, supporting it and further cushioning it."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'c76vfq',
'query': 'why don’t we have fat and muscle surrounding our brains as an added protective layer over our skulls?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '8544406',
'title': 'Cheating in video games',
'section': 'Section::::Cheating in online games.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 70,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 70,
'end_character': 519,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Examples of cheats in first-person shooter games include the aimbot, which assists the player in aiming at the target, giving the user an unfair advantage, the wallhack, which allows a player to see through solid or opaque objects or manipulate or remove textures, and ESP, with which the information of other players is displayed. There are also cheats that increase the size of the enemies' hitbox which allows you to shoot next to the enemy, which would usually result in a miss, but the game would detect as a hit.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8544406',
'title': 'Cheating in video games',
'section': 'Section::::Unusual effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 38,
'end_character': 1091,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Cheat codes may sometimes produce unusual or interesting effects which don\'t necessarily make the game easier to play. For example, one cheat in "" makes dinosaurs appear "undead". Another example occurs in the game "Dungeon Siege", where activating the cheat to extend the range of a bow also allows the enemies to fire at the same distance, thereby eliminating the advantage the cheat would have given. A cheat may even make the game harder to play; for instance, one could give the enemy special abilities, increase general difficulty, make neutral bystanders attack the player or grant the player a disadvantage such as low health points. Cheats in "Grand Theft Auto" games can make NPCs start rioting or wield weapons. In "Grand Theft Auto III", the player can activate a cheat to enable blowing off the limbs of NPCs, a feature originally included in the game. Recently, however, Rockstar Games has not included such violent or unusual cheat codes in its games, instead choosing to focus on cheats such as vehicle spawns, player effects (for example, invincibility) and weapon spawns.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '252279',
'title': 'PEEK and POKE',
'section': 'Section::::POKEs as cheats.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 377,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Using a 'POKE' cheat is more difficult in modern games, as many include anti-cheat or copy-protection measures that inhibit modification of the game's memory space. Modern operating systems enforce virtual memory protection schemes to deny external program access to non-shared memory (for example, separate page tables for each application, hence inaccessible memory spaces).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2115723',
'title': 'Video game exploit',
'section': 'Section::::Controversy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 533,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "In defense of these behaviors are arguments that the rules of the game allow it and that players might not know they are behaving against the designer's intention. So-called exploits, in this view, are not cheats because they do not change the game in any way and therefore could be accessible to all players if they know how to do it. The players who use such techniques may consider them fair for use in the game in cases when they are not explicitly disallowed in the Terms of Service or other such rules governing participation.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '897134',
'title': 'Cheating',
'section': 'Section::::Sport, games and gambling.:Video games.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 1684,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Another form of video game cheating is when a player does things to interact with game objects that are unforeseen by the programmers and break the intended function or reward system of the object. This can involve the way enemies are encountered, objectives met, items used, or any other game object that contains a software bug. One common example is the exploitation of errors in an enemy\'s pathfinding; if a player can cause an enemy to become "stuck" in a given terrain feature, that player can then usually dispatch the enemy from a distance without risk, even if much stronger, and achieve greater rewards than the player is intended to be able to at that level of progression. Another example was common in early first-person shooter games and involved skipping a weapon\'s reload timer by quickly switching weapons back and forth without actually reloading the weapons; resulting in what was effectively instant reloading. It also can be accomplished through means of altered game files are substituted for the normal files, or image graphics changed to permit greater visibility of the targets, etc. - for example, replacing the colors on a dark-colored enemy intended to blend in with the background with a bright color permitting instant visibility and targeting. Generally speaking, there is often some concern that this is not truly cheating, as it is the fault of the programmers that such an exploit exists in the first place. However, technically, as with live sports, it is cheating if the player is not playing the game in a formally approved manner, breaking unwritten rules. In some cases, this behavior is directly prohibited by the Terms of Service of the game.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '596202',
'title': 'Sissyfight 2000',
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.:Cheating.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 420,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Players found several ways to cheat in the game. Most often, two players resort to using a third-party instant messaging service in order to coordinate their moves outside of the in-game chat interface. Other players developed more sophisticated methods, including running multiple sessions of the game and creating secondary or unregistered accounts ("sock puppets" or "socks") to tilt a game\'s outcome in their favor.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1444834',
'title': 'Jak 3',
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 911,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Cheats, made available as the player progresses, can upgrade weapons, flip the game world around into a mirror image of itself, or grant the player invincibility. After the game has been completed, the Hero Mode option is made accessible, which, when purchased, allows the player to re-play the game at a harder difficulty level, but with all previously unlocked cheats and extras still available. As Precursor Orb count is not reset, and the orbs are regenerated at their original locations, the player is able to regather orbs that he or she had already collected the previous time they played through the game. Collecting all 600 Precursor Orbs has some cosmetic effects on Jak's appearance, but has no effects other than this. In Hero Mode, Jak also keeps all twelve of his weapons but loses his light flight along with two of his dark powers until they are collected in their respective parts of the game.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do game anti cheats, like BattlEye or GameGuard work?',
'selftext': "What I mean is - I know they can check the processes which are running and are associated to the game that you're playing, but how do they know that those processes are actually cheating tools?",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["There are different flags that can be detected to assume someone is trying to tamper the game, such as debugging another process (the game in this case), accessing the memory mapped to that game, running the game in a virtualized environment, tampering the binary or assets and many more. \nAnti-cheat try to detect those abnormal behaviors targeting the game's process. ",
'They guess. "We know about a cheat program, and it looks like *this*. You currently have something running that looks like it, so we\'re gonna assume you\'re cheating."',
'Different anti cheats employ different methods to combat cheating. Most of them keep these methods secret so that they can remain one step ahead of cheaters. Common methods include memory modification detection, the idea that when the cheat program modifies memory, some code will scan the binary (.text section) and find differences. This will flag the account for further investigation. Some anti cheats, however, use pattern detection. If someone with aimbot and esp is killing people through walls they can flag accounts and allow for further investigation. The goal of cheat makers is essentially to bypass these detection vectors and allow the cheater to continue cheating. Anti cheats have also gotten more complex over time because cheat makers have found more security holes in the OS and games in general. This led to Kernel level anti cheats which basically act like anti virus programs (have the same privilege level) and locate cheats that utilize better stealth. Even with these sophisticated anti cheats like BattleEye, cheaters can still remain safe for long periods of time due to how difficult detecting some cheats can be. To sum, the anti cheats basically scan memory for modifications, look for patterns both in the user and the program, or search through the PC for cheat related software that is present. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'aa0dob',
'query': 'how do game anti cheats, like battleye or gameguard work?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '5901008',
'title': 'Lofepramine',
'section': 'Section::::Side effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'The most common adverse effects (occurring in at least 1% of those taking the drug) include agitation, anxiety, confusion, dizziness, irritability, abnormal sensations, like pins and needles, without a physical cause, sleep disturbances (e.g. sleeplessness) and a drop in blood pressure upon standing up. Less frequent side effects include movement disorders (like tremors), precipitation of angle closure glaucoma and the potentially fatal side effects paralytic ileus and neuroleptic malignant syndrome.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '644492',
'title': 'Amlodipine',
'section': 'Section::::Adverse effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 456,
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'passage_text': 'Common but not dose-related adverse effects are [[Fatigue (medical)|fatigue]] (4.5% vs. 2.8% with a placebo), [[nausea]] (2.9% vs. 1.9%), [[abdominal pain]] (1.6% vs. 0.3%), and [[somnolence]] (1.4% vs. 0.6%). Side effects occurring less than 1% of the time include: [[blood disorders]], [[impotence]], [[Clinical depression|depression]], [[peripheral neuropathy]], [[insomnia]], [[tachycardia]], [[gingival enlargement]], [[hepatitis]], and [[jaundice]].\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5108068',
'title': 'Varenicline',
'section': 'Section::::Side effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Mild nausea is the most common side effect and is seen in approximately 30% of people taking varenicline though this rarely (<3%) results in discontinuation of the medication. Other less common side effects include headache, difficulty sleeping, and nightmares. Rare side effects reported by people taking varenicline compared to placebo include change in taste, vomiting, abdominal pain, flatulence, and constipation. It has been estimated that for every five subjects taking varenicline at maintenance doses, there will be an event of nausea, and for every 24 and 35 treated subjects, there will be an event of constipation and flatulence, respectively. Gastrointestinal side-effects lead to discontinuation of the drug in 2% to 8% of people using varenicline. Incidence of nausea is dose-dependent: incidence of nausea was higher in people taking a larger dose (30%) versus placebo (10%) as compared to people taking a smaller dose (16%) versus placebo (11%).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '151828',
'title': 'Side effect',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'In medicine, a side effect is an effect, whether therapeutic or adverse, that is secondary to the one intended; although the term is predominantly employed to describe adverse effects, it can also apply to beneficial, but unintended, consequences of the use of a drug. Developing drugs is a complicated process, because no two people are exactly the same, so even drugs that have virtually no side effects, might be difficult for some people. Also, it is difficult to make a drug that targets one part of the body but that doesn’t affect other parts, the fact that increases the risk of side effects in the untargeted parts. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4056078',
'title': 'Brivudine',
'section': 'Section::::Adverse effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 291,
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'passage_text': 'The drug is generally well tolerated. The only common side effect is nausea (in 2% of patients). Less common side effects (<1%) include headache, increased or lowered blood cell counts (granulocytopenia, anaemia, lymphocytosis, monocytosis), increased liver enzymes, and allergic reactions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5597376',
'title': 'Motofen',
'section': 'Section::::Side effects, interactions, and misuse potential.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 514,
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'passage_text': 'Side effects include drowsiness, nausea, vomiting, burning eyes, blurred vision, dry eyes, dizziness, dry mouth, epigastric distress, and constipation (a paradoxical side effect). Side effects attributed to the atropine content (especially when taken in excess doses, or in children), include: flushing, dryness in many areas, urinary retention, insomnia, headache, anxiety, hyperthermia, and tachycardia. It is these side effects that make it undesirable for most patients to take higher amounts of the medicine.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '414058',
'title': 'Oxcarbazepine',
'section': 'Section::::Side effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 216,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Side effects are dose dependent. The most common include dizziness, blurred or double vision, nystagmus, ataxia, fatigue, headaches, nausea, vomiting, sleepiness, difficulty in concentration and mental sluggishness.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How much of the "side effects" medicine talks about are actually side effects?',
'selftext': 'In every TV ad, I\'ve heard side effects ranging from headaches, abdominal pain, coughing, sneezing, sweating, heart attacks, stroke, arrhythmia, some disorder, cardiac arrest, etc. But how much is actually proven to be a side effect? Are all effects experienced during clinical trials listed as "side effects" because companies are too cheap to do extra testing? Does that mean that heart attack could actually be a 10% occurrence and not a .01%?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': [' > But how much is actually proven to be a side effect? \n\nAll those are "possible side effects", meaning you *might* experience them. Drugs can be difficult to predict and just because someone experienced them in testing doesn\'t mean you will.\n\n > because companies are too cheap to do extra testing?\n\nExtra testing probably won\'t help. Suppose 5% of people who take the drug experience anal leakage while others don\'t. What will more testing reveal about that possible side effect?\n\n > Does that mean that heart attack could actually be a 10% occurrence and not a .01%?\n\nSuch a dangerous drug would never pass FDA approval.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6vfq7h',
'query': 'how much of the "side effects" medicine talks about are actually side effects?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '147735',
'title': 'Toothpaste',
'section': 'Section::::Safety.:Miscellaneous issues and debates.:Alteration of taste perception.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 42,
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'passage_text': 'After using toothpaste, orange juice and other juices have an unpleasant taste. Sodium lauryl sulfate alters taste perception. It can break down phospholipids that inhibit taste receptors for sweetness, giving food a bitter taste. In contrast, apples are known to taste more pleasant after using toothpaste. Distinguishing between the hypotheses that the bitter taste of orange juice results from stannous fluoride or from sodium lauryl sulfate is still an unresolved issue and it is thought that the menthol added for flavor may also take part in the alteration of taste perception when binding to lingual cold receptors.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58875',
'title': 'Maclura pomifera',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 33,
'end_character': 515,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Although Osage oranges are commonly believed to repel insects, there is insufficient evidence to support this. Research has shown that compounds extracted from the fruit, when concentrated, may repel insects. However, the naturally occurring concentrations of these compounds in the fruit are far too low to make the fruit an effective insect repellent. In 2004, the EPA insisted that a website selling "M. pomifera" fruits online remove any mention of their supposed pesticidal properties as false advertisements.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27142140',
'title': 'Annoying Orange',
'section': 'Section::::Plot.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 441,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Despite what other fruits and objects think, Orange often cannot control his tendency to be "annoying," and rarely intentionally tries to spite others; he usually means well for most fruits and objects. In one episode of the web series, a "life coach," Mango, suggests that Orange uses his annoying nature to try to cope with the destruction of the fruits he tries to make friends with. It is implied that Orange has a learning disability. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '370312',
'title': 'Bitter orange',
'section': 'Section::::Usage.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 703,
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'passage_text': 'Bitter orange is also employed in herbal medicine as a stimulant and appetite suppressant, due to its active ingredient, synephrine. Bitter orange supplements have been linked to a number of serious side effects and deaths, and consumer groups advocate that people avoid using the fruit medically. It is still not concluded if bitter orange affects medical conditions of heart and cardiovascular organs, by itself or in formulae with other substances. Standard reference materials are released concerning the properties in bitter orange by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), for ground fruit, extract and solid oral dosage form, along with those packaged together into one item.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47408224',
'title': 'Pomiferin',
'section': 'Section::::Research.:Repellent.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 249,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Peterson and Fristad (2000) investigated folklore beliefs stating that osage orange fruit repelled insects. They concluded that pure pomiferin had little or no effect and that there must be another component of the Osage orange that repels insects.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52136',
'title': 'Citrus',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Medical.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 65,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 65,
'end_character': 425,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Oranges were historically used for their high content of vitamin C, which prevents scurvy. Scurvy is caused by vitamin C deficiency, and can be prevented by having 10\xa0mg of vitamin C a day. An early sign of scurvy is fatigue. If ignored, later symptoms are bleeding and bruising easily. British sailors were given a ration of citrus fruits on long voyages to prevent the onset of scurvy, hence the British nickname of Limey.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38624258',
'title': 'Ju Song',
'section': 'Section::::Symbolism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 394,
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'passage_text': 'The word "ju", meaning "orange (fruit or tree)" is phonetically reminiscent of the word "zhù" (祝), which means "to wish or pray for", as in the phrase "zhù fú" (祝福), "to wish or pray for good luck", thus the orange is symbolically a "harbinger of good luck". Also in ancient times the emperor gave oranges to his officials, and was thus like an orange tree, by being a source of orange fruits.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does orange juice after brushing my teeth with mint tooth paste feel like the gods are punishing me?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Orange juice is very sour and very sweet. Your tooth paste temporarily makes you unable to taste sweetness. Without the sweet there to balance it, the sourness of orange juice becomes kinda overwhelming. \n[A similar thing happens with the miracle berry, which blocks sour and salty tastes](_URL_0_)',
'To add on to the other answers, as a general rule, you’re not supposed to brush 30 minutes to an hour before or after eating or drinking. Admittedly far easier said than done. Perhaps it’s the god of oral hygiene who’s punishing us all.',
'It’s the Sodium Lauryl Sulfate (SLS) in most toothpaste that causes this reaction. Find a toothpaste that is SLS-free and you can enjoy your orange juice without fear of punishment. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '80bpn2',
'query': 'why does orange juice after brushing my teeth with mint tooth paste feel like the gods are punishing me?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1857283',
'title': 'Infant bed',
'section': 'Section::::Design.:Standards.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 680,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Some older cribs contained a "drop gate" (or "drop side"), a side which lowers to ease the process of putting the child into the bed, but can be raised again to restore the integrity of the enclosure. However, assembly problems and malfunctioning hardware on drop gates can cause the formation of gaps, which have been attributed to infant deaths and other major injuries. In June 2011, the United States implemented new safety standards requiring all infant beds manufactured and sold in the country to have fixed sides. In June 2016, Canada implemented a similar ban on the sale, importation, or distribution of any infant bed containing drop sides effective December 29, 2016.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4063979',
'title': 'Dental emergency',
'section': 'Section::::Restorative emergencies.:Lost or broken filling.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 389,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Reasons for the deterioration of a restoration vary in different cases, the cause may be underlying caries or it could be occlusal trauma, caused from natural dentition during mastication. The longevity of restorative materials could also be a factor; the survival rates of amalgam are usually 10–15 years, composite 7 years, while gold and ceramic fillings have over a 20-year longevity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24554383',
'title': 'Privy digging',
'section': 'Section::::Items recovered.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
'end_character': 347,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Most of these items were valueless and intentionally discarded into the privy, others fell through the opening in the outhouse seat, and some were lost at the hands of small children. In each instance the insides of active vaults were very caustic environments, the highly toxic ingredients causing most things to break down and rot very quickly.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14559274',
'title': 'Admiralty of Friesland',
'section': 'Section::::Destruction of the admiralty archives.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 561,
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'passage_text': '"A box had been kept, however, by the church guardians, holding old books and manuscripts, among which, according to an elderly inhabitant of the town, the baptismal records should have been present. But that box had some years ago been given to the deacons for safe-keeping, and there — since there was no lock on the lid — the female supervisor of the old people\'s home had cut up the books she discovered in the box for domestic use, as sewing patterns! And so it came about that, although the box is still there, the papers can no longer be found in them. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '337389',
'title': 'Domain Name System Security Extensions',
'section': 'Section::::Operation.:Key management.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 50,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 50,
'end_character': 617,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In order to allow for replacement keys, a key rollover scheme is required. Typically, this involves first rolling out new keys in new DNSKEY records, in addition to the existing old keys. Then, when it is safe to assume that the time to live values have caused the caching of old keys to have passed, these new keys can be used. Finally, when it is safe to assume that the caching of records using the old keys have expired, the old DNSKEY records can be deleted. This process is more complicated for things such as the keys to trust anchors, such as at the root, which may require an update of the operating system.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5835774',
'title': 'Memory box',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 324,
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'passage_text': 'A memory box is a box provided by some hospitals in the event of stillbirth, miscarriage, or other problem during or after childbirth. They contain objects belonging to or representing the deceased child to help relatives come to terms with their loss. Memory boxes are usually donated by local charities and organizations.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17690079',
'title': 'Keepsake box',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 490,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "A keepsake box or memory box, typically made from wood, is used for storing mementos of a special time, event or person. They are often created or purchased to mark life's major events like a christening, wedding, birthday, or First Holy Communion. They may also be given for sad occasions of bereavement, such as the stillbirth of a child, when a keepsake/memory box helps with the grieving process. This sort of a keepsake box may be personalised with a person's name, design or picture.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why do cribs get recalled all the time?',
'selftext': 'How hard is it to make a safe bed for a baby? Why do manufacturers not know how to do this by now??',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Usually because the dimensions between parts (a rail and a mattress for example) can, in rare instances, cause an infant to get caught or suffocate. Decades ago, there were many recalls because of really dangerous designs like latches that are easily opened or will allow a rail to fall on a baby or pinch their fingers.',
"It's easy to make a safe crib. Take hard, dense wood, shape it to fit snuggly, and use high quality fasteners.\n\nThe problem is that this is expensive. Given the choice, most people will buy the cheaper option if the product performs the same function. To chase sales, companies have to find ways to make things cheaper.\n\nSo companies try to reduce the cost of their products with cheaper materials and labor so they are barely functional. This generates the most profit (cheaper = more people buy it over expensive options and they make more money per sold piece). Often times, this sacrifices safety because they didn't need to test for it (no regulations) or they didn't want to test for it due to cost. For more unscrupulous companies, recalls cost less than the lost profit if they didn't make the product.",
"In many cases, the issue was convenience vs safety.\n\nMost cribs have an adjustable mattress height. For tiny infants that barely move, you can keep the mattress high so it's easy to reach them. But when they get to around 9 months and they can pull up and try to crawl over the side, you have to lower the mattress.\n\nThe problem is, in order to lower the mattress enough that the baby can't escape, it's now so low that many adults can't easily reach the baby - especially if the baby is squirming and doesn't want to come out of the crib.\n\nOne solution was the drop-side crib - one of the sides could slide down to make it easy to reach the baby. Unfortunately it was extremely hard to build a mechanism like that and also make it 100% foolproof. [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)\n\nThat wasn't the only solution. Dozens of other types of cribs had mechanisms to make things more convenient for parents that compromised safety.",
'Also, some defects only become apparent after years of wear and tear, but would still result in liability to the company. New safety standards might also force the recall of certain older models.',
"I've often joked that they are making newer model babies that aren't compatible with the old models. The same thing about cribs can be said about car seats (they even have a six year expiration date stamped on them now).\n\nI wish I knew the answer too. Who wants to chance anything and put their baby at risk?",
'Former news producer here. One issue is you likely just hear about cribs getting recalled a lot more often than the thousands of other products that get recalled all the time. The only time we put recalls in our newscast is if it was particularly spooky, things involving food, babies and medicine are top of the list. \n\nNew mothers get scared about anything that could harm their baby, share it all over Facebook, then you hear about it.',
'For everybody saying that making a safe crib costs money, that\'s not really the case.\n\nMaking a crib that is suitable for safe sleep for infants is actually incredibly easy and cheap to do. All it\'s all the extra shit costs money, and presents issues. Infants need a flat surface, with a semi-firm mattress, and some walls. It needs to not easily tip over. That\'s literally it. It\'s all the extra options that present issues, like trying to make it convert into a toddler bed, have a mobile hanging from it, drop down sides, etc. Those things can present safety issues. These companies spend lots of time on these things, because it appeals to parents. Having these features makes parents feel like they are getting the "best" for their baby. But it\'s really just added cost and possibly even less safe.\n\nA thin mattress in a cardboard box is likely as safe as most popular cribs. Many babies in Finland sleep in government issued boxes, and they don\'t have problems with SIDS.\n\ntl;dr Cribs are easy and cheap to make. Recalls are usually because of overcomplicated bullshit that was added to market toward anxious parents.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'fdxmui',
'query': 'why do cribs get recalled all the time?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '219640',
'title': 'Animal husbandry',
'section': 'Section::::Branches.:Dairy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 60,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 60,
'end_character': 298,
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'passage_text': 'Although all mammals produce milk to nourish their young, the cow is predominantly used throughout the world to produce milk and milk products for human consumption. Other animals used to a lesser extent for this purpose include sheep, goats, camels, buffaloes, yaks, reindeer, horses and donkeys.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19714',
'title': 'Milk',
'section': 'Section::::Sources.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
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'passage_text': "The females of all mammal species can by definition produce milk, but cow's milk dominates commercial production. In 2011, FAO estimates 85% of all milk worldwide was produced from cows. Human milk is not produced or distributed industrially or commercially; however, human milk banks collect donated human breastmilk and redistribute it to infants who may benefit from human milk for various reasons (premature neonates, babies with allergies, metabolic diseases, etc.) but who cannot breastfeed.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5558520',
'title': 'Milk allergy',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Avoiding dairy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 53,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 53,
'end_character': 485,
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'passage_text': "Milk from other mammalian species (goat, sheep, etc.) should not be used as a substitute for cow's milk, as milk proteins from other mammals are often cross-reactive. Nevertheless, some people with cow's milk allergy can tolerate goat’s or sheep’s milk, and vice versa. Milk from camels, pigs, reindeer, horses, and donkeys may also be tolerated in some cases. Probiotic products have been tested, and some found to contain milk proteins which were not always indicated on the labels.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19714',
'title': 'Milk',
'section': 'Section::::Criticism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 139,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 139,
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'passage_text': 'It is often argued that it is unnatural for humans to drink milk from cows (or other animals) because mammals normally do not drink milk beyond the weaning period, nor do they drink milk from another species.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56228',
'title': 'Dairy',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 339,
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'passage_text': 'Milk producing animals have been domesticated for thousands of years. Initially, they were part of the subsistence farming that nomads engaged in. As the community moved about the country, their animals accompanied them. Protecting and feeding the animals were a big part of the symbiotic relationship between the animals and the herders.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19714',
'title': 'Milk',
'section': 'Section::::Sources.:Other animal-based sources.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
'end_character': 278,
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'passage_text': 'Aside from cattle, many kinds of livestock provide milk used by humans for dairy products. These animals include water buffalo, goat, sheep, camel, donkey, horse, reindeer and yak. The first four respectively produced about 11%, 2%, 1.4% and 0.2% of all milk worldwide in 2011.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '795199',
'title': 'Breast milk',
'section': 'Section::::Comparison to other milks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
'end_character': 393,
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'passage_text': "All mammalian species produce milk, but the composition of milk for each species varies widely and other kinds of milk are often very different from human breast milk. As a rule, the milk of mammals that nurse frequently (including human babies) is less rich, or more watery, than the milk of mammals whose young nurse less often. Human milk is noticeably thinner and sweeter than cow's milk.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why can cows and other animals constantly produce milk but humans cannot?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["They can. That's what a wet nurse does. Milk supply stops when the demand stops, same for all mammals.",
"Dairy farmer here: cows reach peak production generally within 60 days after calving. From there continued production depends on a number of factors. She needs adequate food. She needs to be milked out 2+ times a day. Another pregnancy will reduce production, and it will usually slowly decline over the next seven months. Then there's a two month 'dry period' when the cow produces no milk. \n\n\nWoman (and cows) can lactate for years on end, however there will be ever decreasing amounts.",
"They don't. They only produce after becoming pregnant, and produce until the demand stops. This is true for all mammals. While a mother nurses, the draw of milk produces hormones which continues milk production. When she stops, these hormones are no longer released and milk production ceases.",
'All female mammals only produce milk after being pregnant. If you\'re thinking of dairy cows, they "constantly" produce milk because they are constantly being inseminated, going through pregnancy, giving birth, then having their babies taken away (and killed if male), and being artificially milked for human consumption. Then the cycle repeats until they aren\'t seen as being productive anymore, then they\'re killed. The same thing *could* be done to human women, but it would break a whole bunch of different laws (plus, you know, ethics) ....',
'They don’t, milk supply eventually dries up and have to be forcefully impregnated to keep the dairy industry afloat. Even wet-nurses eventually dry up.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'cb1tcq',
'query': 'why can cows and other animals constantly produce milk but humans cannot?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '26083160',
'title': 'Throat irritation',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
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'passage_text': 'Home remedies for throat irritation include gargling with warm water twice a day, sipping honey and lemon mixture or sucking on medicated lozenges. If the cause is dry air, then one should humidify the home. Since smoke irritates the throat, stop smoking and avoid all fumes from chemicals, paints and volatile liquids.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23527304',
'title': 'Effect of oxygen on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease',
'section': 'Section::::Prevention.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'In people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, carbon dioxide toxicity can be prevented by careful control of the supplemental oxygen. Just enough oxygen is given to maintain an oxygen saturation of 88 - 92%.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '508455',
'title': 'Oxygen therapy',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Oxygen is required for normal cell metabolism. Excessively high concentrations can cause oxygen toxicity such as lung damage or result in respiratory failure in those who are predisposed. Higher oxygen concentrations also increase the risk of fires, particularly while smoking, and without humidification can also dry out the nose. The target oxygen saturation recommended depends on the condition being treated. In most conditions a saturation of 94–96% is recommended, while in those at risk of carbon dioxide retention saturations of 88–92% are preferred, and in those with carbon monoxide toxicity or cardiac arrest they should be as high as possible. Air is typically 21% oxygen by volume while oxygen therapy increases this by some amount up to 100%.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '459471',
'title': 'Breathing gas',
'section': 'Section::::For diving and other hyperbaric use.:Unwelcome components of breathing gases for diving.:Carbon dioxide.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 62,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Carbon dioxide (CO) is produced by the metabolism in the human body and can cause carbon dioxide poisoning. When breathing gas is recycled in a rebreather or life support system, the carbon dioxide is removed by scrubbers before the gas is re-used.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '459471',
'title': 'Breathing gas',
'section': 'Section::::Medical breathing gases.:Oxygen therapy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 97,
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'passage_text': 'High concentrations of oxygen can cause oxygen toxicity such as lung damage or result in respiratory failure in those who are predisposed. It can also dry out the nose and increase the risk of fires in those who smoke. The target oxygen saturation recommended depends on the condition being treated. In most conditions a saturation of 94-98% is recommended, while in those at risk of carbon dioxide retention saturations of 88-92% are preferred, and in those with carbon monoxide toxicity or cardiac arrest the saturation should be as high as possible.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56795521',
'title': 'Investigation of diving accidents',
'section': 'Section::::Causes of diving accidents.:Equipment issues.:Breathing gas quality problems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
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'passage_text': 'Contamination of the breathing gas will have effects that depend on the concentration, the ambient pressure, and the specific contaminants present. Carbon monoxide produced by overheating of the compressor, or by contamination of the intake air by internal combustion engine exhaust gas is a well known risk, and can be mitigated by using hopcalite catalyst in the high pressure filter. Contamination by carbon dioxide is unusual in open circuit breathing apparatus, as natural air usually has a low enough content not to be a problem at the ambient pressures of most dives. It is a relatively common problem for rebreathers, as the metabolically produced carbon dioxide in the exhaled gas must be removed chemically by the scrubber before the gas can be breathed again. Scrubber breakthrough can occur for a variety of reasons, most of them connected to user error, but some more likely due to design details of the specific unit. A slow buildup of carbon dioxide can usually be noticed by the diver in time to bail out, but sometimes the concentration can rise so rapidly that the diver is incapcitated before being able to bail out.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5638',
'title': 'Combustion',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Complete and incomplete.:Incomplete.:Problems associated with incomplete combustion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
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'passage_text': "Breathing carbon monoxide causes headache, dizziness, vomiting, and nausea. If carbon monoxide levels are high enough, humans become unconscious or die. Exposure to moderate and high levels of carbon monoxide over long periods of time are positively correlation with risk of heart disease. People who survive severe CO poisoning may suffer long-term health problems. Carbon monoxide from air is absorbed in the lungs which then binds with hemoglobin in human's red blood cells. This would reduce the capacity of red blood cells to carry oxygen throughout the body.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "If carbon dioxide is bad for you to inhale, and people provide it when you breath out, Wouldn't the carbon dioxide do any damage to the person getting mouth to mouth?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
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'answers': ["It's not enough to cause harm. Your exhaled air is still quite high in oxygen, and is *much* better for the other person than no breathing.",
"Carbon dioxide doesn't hurt you. A lack of oxygen hurts you, and carbon monoxide hurts you.\n\nYou don't convert all the oxygen you inhale into carbon dioxide, so CPR is still effective. However, these days, heartsaver CPR is recommended (unless you have special training and two people). This uses the chest compressions to move some air through the lungs while also working the heart. It doesn't involve breathing into the person's lungs.",
"Pure carbon dioxide would be bad to inhale, especially for a prolonged time. OTOH, if a person is not breathing, the air you exhale contains carbon dioxide but it also contains some oxygen, which is good. So, some oxygen is better than no oxygen (i.e., no air at all - they're not breathing). If you could arrange to blow ordinary air (or even oxygen enriched air) instead of what you are exhaling, that would be better, but probably would require a hospital or some such. So, net, net, using your exhaled breath is better than nothing. Still, when they can breathe on their own, let them.\n\nBTW, pure nitrogen, pure laughing gas, pure helium, are all unsustainable for breathing. But you can do them for a bit. In the case of helium, folks do it since their voice sounds strange."],
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'query_id': '7d1xda',
'query': "if carbon dioxide is bad for you to inhale, and people provide it when you breath out, wouldn't the carbon dioxide do any damage to the person getting mouth to mouth?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '60330200',
'title': 'CNS tumour',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment and chances of cure.:Chemotherapy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 83,
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'passage_text': 'Chemotherapy is a treatment that injects a drug into a vein (IV) or that is given via the mouth to prevent the growth of cancer cells by stopping them from dividing. It is often used after surgery or as the first line of treatment. The drug injected flows through the bloodstream and destroys cancer cells.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '105219',
'title': 'Cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Management.:Chemotherapy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 141,
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'passage_text': 'Chemotherapy is the treatment of cancer with one or more cytotoxic anti-neoplastic drugs (chemotherapeutic agents) as part of a standardized regimen. The term encompasses a variety of drugs, which are divided into broad categories such as alkylating agents and antimetabolites. Traditional chemotherapeutic agents act by killing cells that divide rapidly, a critical property of most cancer cells.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25081142',
'title': 'Treatment of cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Types of treatments.:Chemotherapy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
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'passage_text': 'Chemotherapy is the treatment of cancer with drugs ("anticancer drugs") that can destroy cancer cells. In current usage, the term "chemotherapy" usually refers to "cytotoxic" drugs which affect rapidly dividing cells in general, in contrast with "targeted therapy" (see below). Chemotherapy drugs interfere with cell division in various possible ways, e.g. with the duplication of DNA or the separation of newly formed chromosomes. Most forms of chemotherapy target all rapidly dividing cells and are not specific to cancer cells, although some degree of specificity may come from the inability of many cancer cells to repair DNA damage, while normal cells generally can. Hence, chemotherapy has the potential to harm healthy tissue, especially those tissues that have a high replacement rate (e.g. intestinal lining). These cells usually repair themselves after chemotherapy.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25350412',
'title': 'Childhood leukemia',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Types.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
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'passage_text': 'Chemotherapy is a treatment that uses chemicals to interfere with the cancer cells ability to grow and reproduce. Chemotherapy can be used alone or in combination with other therapies. Chemotherapy can be given either as a pill to swallow orally, an injection into the fat or muscle, through an IV directly into the bloodstream or directly into the spinal column.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60385615',
'title': 'Paranasal Sinus and Nasal Cavity Cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment and prevention.:Chemotherapy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
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'passage_text': 'Lastly, the chemotherapy can be defined as a treatment towards the cancer by using the medication to destroy the malignant cells. The chemotherapy is usually used before the surgery and radiation therapy or after the treatment of surgery and radiation therapy. The chemotherapy can be implemented by using the drugs to stop the spread of paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer. The chemotherapy could make contribution to destroy the cancer cells or stop them from division. The chemotherapy could have effect on the cancer cell of the whole body by injecting into vein or taken by patient. The chemotherapy could influence a specific area by placing it into a specific area. Evidence shows that the chemotherapy could make also contribution to the treatment of sinonasal cancer which is a sub-branch of the paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer. Infection, loss of hair might occur after the implementation of chemotherapy.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7172',
'title': 'Chemotherapy',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Chemotherapy (often abbreviated to chemo and sometimes CTX or CTx) is a type of cancer treatment that uses one or more anti-cancer drugs (chemotherapeutic agents) as part of a standardized chemotherapy regimen. Chemotherapy may be given with a curative intent (which almost always involves combinations of drugs), or it may aim to prolong life or to reduce symptoms (palliative chemotherapy). Chemotherapy is one of the major categories of the medical discipline specifically devoted to pharmacotherapy for cancer, which is called "medical oncology".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8553095',
'title': 'Urethral cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'Chemotherapy is sometimes used to destroy urethral cancer cells. It is a systemic urethral cancer treatment (i.e., destroys urethral cancer cells throughout the body) that is administered orally or intravenously. Medications are often used in combination to destroy urethral cancer that has metastasized. Commonly used drugs include cisplatin, vincristine, and methotrexate.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is Chemotherapy, and what happens during it?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
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'answers': ['The elimination of fast cell reproduction. \nHair cells grow at a quick rate and is the reason why your hair falls out as well. ',
"It kills a LOT of cells in the body. As another comment mentions, it effects fast-growing or fast *reproducing* cells the most. Cancer is cells reproducing quickly (out of control), so it kills cancer cells.\n\nHair is affected which is the most visible side-effect. The digestive system also has cells that are quickly/often replaced so that's affected too. Skin can become irritated or more susceptible to injury.\n\nIt's basically nasty poison which badly harms or kills people. The idea is that it kills the cancer first. ",
"it's chemical treatment to combat (usually) cancer growth. most are in liquid form and are administered intravenously (through a drip in your arm). a single treatment of chemo may involve receiving several different chemicals in one session, commonly over quite a while (an hour or more). usually you sit on the ward with others while receiving it or there are some you can receive at home. depending on the length of course this may be done weekly or fortnightly for several months. on ward most people chat / read / watch tv while receiving treatment. the combination of chemicals are designed to slow down cell reproduction in your body. others are designed to kill cancer cells or types of cell in your body. there are lots of different kinds of chemo for lots of different kinds of cancer. the side effects usually stem from the slowing cell growth and killing of certain cells : hair loss, nausea/vomiting, constipation, thirst and so on. it's common to have additional courses of medicine that combat the side effects specifically.",
"Chemotherapy involves giving you drugs that inhibit DNA replication. If the DNA of a cell cannot replicate, the cell cannot divide. Do this to enough cells and the cancer growth can be significantly slowed or even stopped.\n\nChemotherapy drugs sometimes target the DNA directly. They might alter the chemical structure of the DNA so it can't be unwound. Or they might block the end of a growing DNA chain so it can't grow any further.\n\nSometimes the drugs target the enzymes involved in DNA replication. If the enzymes can't even attach to the DNA in the first place, or are altered so that they don't work properly, then no replication can take place. \n\nIf you are targeting cell division, then it makes sense that cells which divide quickly are the ones most heavily targeted. Cancer cells grow and divide quickly, which is why chemotherapy does more damage to cancer cells than to most of our 'normal' cells. However, a few types of 'normal' cells do actually grow very quickly, and so chemotherapy will sometimes accidentally target them too. These cells include:\n\nBlood cells: which is why anemia and immune suppression are common side effects.\n\nCells of the stomach lining and digestive system: which is why vomiting, diarrhoea, and nausea are common side effects.\n\nHair cells: which is why hair thinning and loss is a common side effect.\n\n",
"chemotherapy is like nuking your own body (literally nuking?) in an attempt to kill cancer cells faster than you. it can work.\n\nsometimes they kill all the cancer cells (as well as doing lots of damage to your human tissue) and you are cured. sometimes they kill all the noticeable cancer cells. in which case the cancer remains and reproduces again, but this time it is much more resistant to chemotherapy (because the only cells that survived are the ones that can survive lots of radiation).\n\nsometimes they don't even shrink the cancer but just slow its growth a little."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '8zmn0a',
'query': 'what is chemotherapy, and what happens during it?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '25097823',
'title': 'Bowiea',
'section': 'Section::::Cultivation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The plants prefer gritty well-drained soil in partial sun to shade. Water regularly during the growing season, and rarely if at all during dormancy. Propagate from seed, divisions, or from individual scales which once removed, will eventually form numerous bulbils.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42129873',
'title': 'Climate-friendly gardening',
'section': 'Section::::Reducing greenhouse gas emissions.:Reducing greenhouse gas emissions from gardens.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 155,
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'passage_text': 'Climate-friendly gardeners may use deep-rooted plants such as comfrey to bring nutrients closer to the surface topsoil, but will do so without making the leaves into a liquid feed, because the rotting leaves in the anaerobic conditions under water may emit methane.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '637102',
'title': 'Plant physiology',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Early history.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 53,
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'passage_text': 'Researchers discovered in the 1800s that plants absorb essential mineral nutrients as inorganic ions in water. In natural conditions, soil acts as a mineral nutrient reservoir but the soil itself is not essential to plant growth. When the mineral nutrients in the soil are dissolved in water, plant roots absorb nutrients readily, soil is no longer required for the plant to thrive. This observation is the basis for hydroponics, the growing of plants in a water solution rather than soil, which has become a standard technique in biological research, teaching lab exercises, crop production and as a hobby.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '106001',
'title': 'Soil pH',
'section': 'Section::::Factors affecting soil pH.:Sources of acidity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Plant growth: Plants take up nutrients in the form of ions (e.g. , , , ), and they often take up more cations than anions. However plants must maintain a neutral charge in their roots. In order to compensate for the extra positive charge, they will release ions from the root. Some plants also exude organic acids into the soil to acidify the zone around their roots to help solubilize metal nutrients that are insoluble at neutral pH, such as iron (Fe).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19828134',
'title': 'Plant',
'section': 'Section::::Structure, growth and development.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
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'passage_text': 'Plants usually rely on soil primarily for support and water (in quantitative terms), but they also obtain compounds of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium and other elemental nutrients from the soil. Epiphytic and lithophytic plants depend on air and nearby debris for nutrients, and carnivorous plants supplement their nutrient requirements, particularly for nitrogen and phosphorus, with insect prey that they capture. For the majority of plants to grow successfully they also require oxygen in the atmosphere and around their roots (soil gas) for respiration. Plants use oxygen and glucose (which may be produced from stored starch) to provide energy. Some plants grow as submerged aquatics, using oxygen dissolved in the surrounding water, and a few specialized vascular plants, such as mangroves and reed ("Phragmites australis"), can grow with their roots in anoxic conditions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12917265',
'title': 'Pilea microphylla',
'section': 'Section::::Propagation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': '"Pilea microphylla" can be propagated by dividing the root ball, or taking herbaceous cuttings and rooting them with rooting hormone. The plant enjoys a thorough watering after the soil has been allowed to dry, and misting has been shown to be beneficial. Direct sunlight causes the leaves to turn brown and fall off, so it prefers filtered light.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37738',
'title': 'Soil',
'section': 'Section::::Nutrients.:Uptake processes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 295,
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'passage_text': 'Plants move ions out of their roots in an effort to move nutrients in from the soil. Hydrogen H is exchanged for other cations, and carbonate (HCO) and hydroxide (OH) anions are exchanged for nutrient anions. As plant roots remove nutrients from the soil water solution, they are replenished as other ions move off of clay and humus (by ion exchange or desorption), are added from the weathering of soil minerals, and are released by the decomposition of soil organic matter. Plants derive a large proportion of their anion nutrients from decomposing organic matter, which typically holds about 95\xa0percent of the soil nitrogen, 5 to 60\xa0percent of the soil phosphorus and about 80\xa0percent of the soil sulfur. Where crops are produced, the replenishment of nutrients in the soil must usually be augmented by the addition of fertilizer or organic matter.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How can plants turn sun and water (and dirt) into wood, leavies and pretty much anything they need?',
'selftext': 'Inspired by the cow post.',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['You are actually missing out a critical part: air\n\nYes, most of a mass a plant actually comes from carbon dioxide within the air. They can convert it into plants with the Calvin cycle, which is a cycle made up of several chemical reactions that takes in carbon dioxide and converts it into glucose, which is essentially sugar\n\nThe energy to do this comes from the sun, chloroplasts receive solar energy and store it to be used for the Calvin cycle \n\nLots of molecules of glucose can then be chained together in order to form more complex molecules like cellulose that makes up most plants',
'The air is full of CO2, Carbon Dioxide. The ground is full of water.\n\nPlants use the energy of the sun to strip the Oxygen atoms and replace them with hydrogen from Water. This creates sugars (C6H12O6). \n\n6 molecules of CO2 + 6 Molecules of H2O = 1 sugar and leaves 3 Oxygen molecules (O2).\n\nOnce the plant has sugars it has energy the same way we do. Instead of changing sugars to fats the way animals do for storage it can also change them to starches. Starches are chains of sugars usually stored in roots, or seeds for the new plant to get started.\n\nPlants also need Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potassium. Farmers sometimes add this through fertilizer, but these and other minerals are common in soil and absorbed by the roots. \n\nPlants have a very strong cell wall with very tight bonds between them for stability. They do this with either rigid walls or high internal water pressure. You can tell the difference by what happens when you take away the water. The plant either stays rigid or it wilts. Rigidity is done with wood or at the cellular level, Lignin. \n\nLignin is made up of the same types of atoms as sugars, but instead of being easy to take apart, the molecules are big and bind tightly together. \n\nThe cells that form wood are also very long fibers like our muscles, except the plant grows these cells with the intent that they die every year leaving another layer around the branch of the plant so it can support itself getting bigger and longer next year.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'flxqj0',
'query': 'how can plants turn sun and water (and dirt) into wood, leavies and pretty much anything they need?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2072281',
'title': 'Ionic radius',
'section': 'Section::::Trends.\n',
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'passage_text': "Ions may be larger or smaller than the neutral atom, depending on the ion's electric charge. When an atom loses an electron to form a cation, the other electrons are more attracted to the nucleus, and the radius of the ion gets smaller. Similarly, when an electron is added to an atom, forming an anion, the added electron increases the size of the electron cloud by interelectronic repulsion.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5180',
'title': 'Chemistry',
'section': 'Section::::Modern principles.:Ions and salts.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 62,
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'passage_text': 'An "ion" is a charged species, an atom or a molecule, that has lost or gained one or more electrons. When an atom loses an electron and thus has more protons than electrons, the atom is a positively charged ion or cation. When an atom gains an electron and thus has more electrons than protons, the atom is a negatively charged ion or anion. Cations and anions can form a crystalline lattice of neutral salts, such as the Na and Cl ions forming sodium chloride, or NaCl. Examples of polyatomic ions that do not split up during acid-base reactions are hydroxide (OH) and phosphate (PO).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17063328',
'title': 'Ion beam lithography',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Fast-moving ions interact differently with matter than electrons do, and, owing to their higher momentum, their optical properties are different. They have much shorter range in matter and move straighter through it. At low energies, at the end of the range, they lose more of their energy to the atomic nuclei, rather than to the atoms, so that atoms are dislocated rather than ionized. If the ions don\'t defuse out of the resist, they dope it. The energy loss in matter follows a Bragg curve and has a smaller statistical spread. They are "stiffer" optically, they require larger fields or distances to focus or bend. The higher momentum resists space charge effects.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5094808',
'title': 'Bond valence method',
'section': 'Section::::Theory.:The valence matching rule.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': 'Atoms with non-bonding valence electrons, i.e., with lone pairs, have more flexibility in their bonding strength than those without lone pairs depending on whether the lone pairs are stereoactive or not. If the lone pairs are not stereoactive, they are spread uniformly around the valence shell, if they are stereoactive they are concentrated in one portion of the coordination sphere preventing that portion from forming bonds. This results in the atom having a smaller coordination number, hence a higher bonding strength, when the lone pair is stereoactive. Ions with lone pairs have a greater ability to adapt their bonding strength to match that of the counter-ion. The lone pairs become stereoactive when the bonding strength of the counter-ion exceeds twice the bonding strength of the ion when its lone pairs are inactive.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '666',
'title': 'Alkali metal',
'section': 'Section::::Compounds.:Oxides and chalcogenides.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 79,
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'passage_text': 'The smaller alkali metals tend to polarise the larger anions (the peroxide and superoxide) due to their small size. This attracts the electrons in the more complex anions towards one of its constituent oxygen atoms, forming an oxide ion and an oxygen atom. This causes lithium to form the oxide exclusively on reaction with oxygen at room temperature. This effect becomes drastically weaker for the larger sodium and potassium, allowing them to form the less stable peroxides. Rubidium and caesium, at the bottom of the group, are so large that even the least stable superoxides can form. Because the superoxide releases the most energy when formed, the superoxide is preferentially formed for the larger alkali metals where the more complex anions are not polarised. (The oxides and peroxides for these alkali metals do exist, but do not form upon direct reaction of the metal with oxygen at standard conditions.) In addition, the small size of the Li and O ions contributes to their forming a stable ionic lattice structure. Under controlled conditions, however, all the alkali metals, with the exception of francium, are known to form their oxides, peroxides, and superoxides. The alkali metal peroxides and superoxides are powerful oxidising agents. Sodium peroxide and potassium superoxide react with carbon dioxide to form the alkali metal carbonate and oxygen gas, which allows them to be used in submarine air purifiers; the presence of water vapour, naturally present in breath, makes the removal of carbon dioxide by potassium superoxide even more efficient. All the stable alkali metals except lithium can form red ozonides (MO) through low-temperature reaction of the powdered anhydrous hydroxide with ozone: the ozonides may be then extracted using liquid ammonia. They slowly decompose at standard conditions to the superoxides and oxygen, and hydrolyse immediately to the hydroxides when in contact with water. Potassium, rubidium, and caesium also form sesquioxides MO, which may be better considered peroxide disuperoxides, .\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '184881',
'title': 'Reducing agent',
'section': 'Section::::Characteristics.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Strong reducing agents easily lose (or donate) electrons. An atom with a relatively large atomic radius tends to be a better reductant. In such species, the distance from the nucleus to the valence electrons is so long that these electrons are not strongly attracted. These elements tend to be strong reducing agents. Good reducing agents tend to consist of atoms with a low electronegativity, the ability of an atom or molecule to attract bonding electrons, and species with relatively small ionization energies serve as good reducing agents too. "The measure of a material to oxidize or lose electrons is known as its oxidation potential". The table below shows a few reduction potentials that could easily be changed to oxidation potential by simply reversing the sign. Reducing agents can be ranked by increasing strength by ranking their oxidation potentials. The reducing agent is stronger when it has a more positive oxidation potential and weaker when it has a negative oxidation potential. The following table provides the reduction potentials of the indicated reducing agent at 25\xa0°C.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '666',
'title': 'Alkali metal',
'section': 'Section::::Properties.:Physical and chemical.\n',
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'passage_text': "The alkali metals are more similar to each other than the elements in any other group are to each other. Indeed, the similarity is so great that it is quite difficult to separate potassium, rubidium, and caesium, due to their similar ionic radii; lithium and sodium are more distinct. For instance, when moving down the table, all known alkali metals show increasing atomic radius, decreasing electronegativity, increasing reactivity, and decreasing melting and boiling points as well as heats of fusion and vaporisation. In general, their densities increase when moving down the table, with the exception that potassium is less dense than sodium. One of the very few properties of the alkali metals that does not display a very smooth trend is their reduction potentials: lithium's value is anomalous, being more negative than the others. This is because the Li ion has a very high hydration energy in the gas phase: though the lithium ion disrupts the structure of water significantly, causing a higher change in entropy, this high hydration energy is enough to make the reduction potentials indicate it as being the most electropositive alkali metal, despite the difficulty of ionising it in the gas phase.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why are some Atoms "Easier" to become Ions than others?',
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'category': 'Chemistry',
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'answers': ['Because of their Electronegativity (hope thats the right translation) and their size. The Electronegativity basically is a force (Noted in the Periodic table) which defines how strong they are able to "suck" other electrons to themselves.',
"Ionizing an atom is adding or removing electrons. The position of the electron you want to add or remove is very important. Electrons are arranged in an odd way similar to seats in a movie theater. The front row has 2, the second third and fourth row have 8 which are partitioned into sets of 2 and 4, and as you go down the periodic table you add more partitions. The ionization energy depends on which seat you're trying to add or remove an electron from."],
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'query_id': 'dlj8bw',
'query': 'why are some atoms "easier" to become ions than others?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '24261150',
'title': 'Pain in animals',
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'passage_text': 'According to the U.S. National Research Council Committee on Recognition and Alleviation of Pain in Laboratory Animals, pain is experienced by many animal species, including mammals and possibly all vertebrates.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '24261150',
'title': 'Pain in animals',
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'passage_text': 'Pain negatively affects the health and welfare of animals. "Pain" is defined by the International Association for the Study of Pain as "an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage." Only the person experiencing the pain can know the pain\'s quality and intensity, and the degree of suffering. However, for non-human animals, it is harder, if even possible, to know whether an emotional experience has occurred. Therefore, this concept is often excluded in definitions of pain in animals, such as that provided by Zimmerman: "an aversive sensory experience caused by actual or potential injury that elicits protective motor and vegetative reactions, results in learned avoidance and may modify species-specific behaviour, including social behaviour." Non-human animals cannot report their feelings to language-using humans in the same manner as human communication, but observation of their behaviour provides a reasonable indication as to the extent of their pain. Just as with doctors and medics who sometimes share no common language with their patients, the indicators of pain can still be understood.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48376645',
'title': 'Pain in amphibians',
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'passage_text': 'Pain is a complex mental state, with a distinct perceptual quality but also associated with suffering, which is an emotional state. Because of this complexity, the presence of pain in non-human animals cannot be determined unambiguously using observational methods, but the conclusion that animals experience pain is often inferred on the basis of likely presence of phenomenal consciousness which is deduced from comparative brain physiology as well as physical and behavioural reactions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48376645',
'title': 'Pain in amphibians',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The possibility that amphibians and other non-human animals may experience pain has a long history. Initially, pain in non-human animals was based around theoretical and philosophical argument, but more recently has turned to scientific investigation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24332386',
'title': 'Pain in crustaceans',
'section': 'Section::::Background.:Scientific investigation.:Argument by analogy.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In 2012 the American philosopher Gary Varner reviewed the research literature on pain in animals. His findings are summarised in the following table. Arguing by analogy, Varner claims that any animal which exhibits the properties listed in the table could be said to experience pain. On that basis, he concludes that all vertebrates, including fish, probably experience pain, but invertebrates (e.g. crustaceans) apart from cephalopods probably do not experience pain.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24261150',
'title': 'Pain in animals',
'section': 'Section::::In different species.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The ability to experience pain in an animal, or another human for that matter, cannot be determined directly but it may be inferred through analogous physiological and behavioral reactions. Although many animals share similar mechanisms of pain detection to those of humans, have similar areas of the brain involved in processing pain, and show similar pain behaviours, it is notoriously difficult to assess how animals actually experience pain.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50558073',
'title': 'Pain in cephalopods',
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'passage_text': 'Pain in cephalopods is a contentious issue. Pain is a complex mental state, with a distinct perceptual quality but also associated with suffering, which is an emotional state. Because of this complexity, the presence of pain in non-human animals, or another human for that matter, cannot be determined unambiguously using observational methods, but the conclusion that animals experience pain is often inferred on the basis of likely presence of phenomenal consciousness which is deduced from comparative brain physiology as well as physical and behavioural reactions.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Animal pain, human pain',
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'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Other mammals experience pain pretty much as humans do. But they don't have language or facial expressions to describe their suffering. And they need to get up and walk away, if the alternative is to sit around forever and die. No paramedic or doctor is coming.",
"Adrenaline.\n\nSame reason people can walk away from a car crash or a fall and not realize they've broken something right away.",
"Humans are definitely capable of this behavior. You don't go anywhere or do anything when injured if you are in safety, but people who suffer serious injuries don't just wait around if their stranded away from safety. Your survival instict tells you to relax and rest if you have food and shelter while injured, but if you don't have food and shelter your survival instict tells you to ***get off your ass and find some or die***."],
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'query_id': '84slxr',
'query': 'animal pain, human pain',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2045915',
'title': 'Buffer underrun',
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'passage_text': 'In computing, buffer underrun or buffer underflow is a state occurring when a buffer used to communicate between two devices or processes is fed with data at a lower speed than the data is being read from it. (The term is distinct from buffer overflow, a condition where a portion of memory being used as a buffer has a fixed size but is filled with more than that amount of data.) This requires the program or device reading from the buffer to pause its processing while the buffer refills. This can cause undesired and sometimes serious side effects because the data being buffered is generally not suited to stop-start access of this kind.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15232420',
'title': 'I-Frame Delay',
'section': 'Section::::I-Frame Delay algorithm.\n',
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'passage_text': 'If only B-frames are dropped there should be no distortions in the frame image because there are no subsequent frames depending on them. The dropping of frames by IFD causes the effect of the video playback being temporarily frozen, the duration of which depends on the number of frames dropped after which the playback resumes from the next frame which got through. For an IFD implementation with a buffer of the size of two frames the algorithm is shown in figure below.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2632880',
'title': 'Screen tearing',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "The artifact occurs when the video feed to the device is not in sync with the display's refresh rate. This can be due to non-matching refresh rates—in which case the tear line moves as the phase difference changes (with speed proportional to difference of frame rates). It can also occur simply from lack of sync between two equal frame rates, in which case the tear line is at a fixed location that corresponds to the phase difference. During video motion, screen tearing creates a torn look as edges of objects (such as a wall or a tree) fail to line up.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2572370',
'title': 'Flicker-free',
'section': 'Section::::Implementation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'Higher refresh rates, while they reduce flicker, may cause other problems. Simply redisplaying the fields may cause judder, particularly on fast moving images, as the image is displayed repeatedly in the same location, rather than moving smoothly. Conversely, interpolation (which avoids judder and may create more fluid motion than in the original video) can instead cause blurring, particularly visible on fast scrolling text. See motion interpolation for further discussion.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9695744',
'title': 'Audio synchronizer',
'section': 'Section::::Error correction.:Tracking changes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'Unfortunately, video delays frequently make quick and large changes, for example, a jump in delay time from 2 seconds to 6 seconds is possible. To maintain proper audio-video sync, the audio delay must track these video delay changes. Changing the audio delay requires changing the difference between the write address and the read address. This change can be accomplished by causing either the write or read address to jump forward or backward, however, this jump causes some audio samples to repeat or be lost resulting in an unwanted and annoying pop, click, gap, distortion and/or noise in the audio signal. Some audio synchronizers operate by making repeated, very small jumps that cause unwanted (but less annoying) distortion and noise in the audio signal, rather than pops, gaps, and clicks. Other audio synchronizers change delay by changing the speed of the reading of audio from the ring memory. If audio samples are read out of the memory more slowly than they are written, the delay increases. If audio samples are read out faster than they are written the delay decreases. Using variable speed reading prevents pops, clicks, gaps, distortion and noise from being introduced into the audio, but does create unwanted and annoying pitch errors. For example, reading faster than writing causes the audio pitch to increase and reading slower than writing causes the pitch to decrease.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2045915',
'title': 'Buffer underrun',
'section': 'Section::::Multimedia playback.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'If the framebuffer of the graphics controller is not updated, the picture of the computer screen will appear to hang until the buffer receives new data. Many video player programs (e.g. MPlayer) feature the ability to drop frames if the system is overloaded, intentionally allowing a buffer underrun to keep up the tempo.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '149963',
'title': 'Framebuffer',
'section': 'Section::::Page flipping.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
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'passage_text': 'A frame buffer may be designed with enough memory to store two frames worth of video data. In a technique known generally as double buffering or more specifically as page flipping, the framebuffer uses half of its memory to display the current frame. While that memory is being displayed, the other half of memory is filled with data for the next frame. Once the secondary buffer is filled, the framebuffer is instructed to display the secondary buffer instead. The primary buffer becomes the secondary buffer, and the secondary buffer becomes the primary. This switch is often done after the vertical blanking interval to avoid screen tearing where half the old frame and half the new frame is shown together.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does skipping five seconds of a video often take longer due to buffering than just sitting through the five seconds?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The way online video is compressed, you're receiving data that represents incremental updates from the last frame. If you start playing the video at the beginning, it all works as intended.\n\nHowever, if you start playing in the middle, you need to process incremental updates for some time period prior to the frame you want to see before you can display it. It takes time to download both the incremental data and process it."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '8a43ua',
'query': 'why does skipping five seconds of a video often take longer due to buffering than just sitting through the five seconds?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '24253680',
'title': 'Sports and Leisure Management Ltd',
'section': 'Section::::Fitness.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The company has approximately 128 gyms and fitness suites across its estate of over 160 centres, which include a variety of equipment, such as cardiovascular and weight-training apparatus. Customers can work out independently, as part of an instructor-led small group, or with a personal trainer of their own.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43320090',
'title': 'Gym Source',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
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'passage_text': "Gym Source is the United States' largest distributor of fitness equipment. Opened in 1937 as Cutler Owens Sporting Goods in Midtown Manhattan, Richard Miller purchased the company in 1978, renaming it Gym Source. The privately held company employs about 300 people in 10 states and operates through seven distribution centers. As a fitness equipment retailer, Gym Source serves customers in all 50 states and 47 countries. As of 2014, the firm serves more than 300,000 customers internationally and has made nearly 2 million deliveries, making it the largest fitness equipment distributor in the United States.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13194785',
'title': 'California Fitness',
'section': 'Section::::Products, services and facilities.\n',
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'passage_text': "The company's business model is based on an entry fee and contracts of variable duration that are tacitly renewed unless one month's notice in writing is given. In addition to cardio and resistance equipment, free weights, group exercise studios, all California Fitness clubs have free internet access (wifi or in-club kiosks). Most of its clubs have steam and sauna rooms and there is an outdoor swimming pool at Megabox Club Kowloon Bay, one of its Hong Kong clubs.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13774615',
'title': 'Total Gym',
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'passage_text': 'The "Total Gym" is a brand name and product line of exercise machines used for strength training, stretching, and pilates training designed by EFI Sports Medicine Incorporated of San Diego, California. The various models are manufactured for 3 different types of customers: Medical Facilities, Fitness Facilities, and Home Consumers. The most known model to the general public is the infomercial model sold through the use of TV advertising. It is the longest running infomercial product at this time. There are licensing contracts with two other companies for the smaller home models, however EFI solely makes the commercial/professional models. This product is known as a "inclined plane bodyweight training" device.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26073110',
'title': 'Music gym',
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'passage_text': 'A Music Gym is membership-based club or cooperative community where musicians (and other artists) share common resources in a shared facility. Such resources are related to music production, music rehearsal, movie production, art galleries, and tools useful for networking with other creative artists. Typically members of the community share the cost of property through some sort of fee, or make some exchange of services live performance, goods (music equipment) or labor to be members of the community.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1356299',
'title': 'Rangers Training Centre',
'section': 'Section::::Structure and facilities.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The gym equipment, costing £150,000, is linked to a computer system which can activate a personalised fitness programme for individual players. The gym also houses an iso-kinetic machine, which allows players to work out despite being injured by testing muscle strength and reactions. There is a hydrotherapy pool that has an angled, movable floor and a series of massage jets and currents that allows a range of rehabilitation exercises to take place. There is also a media editing suite costing £50,000 where a video analyst will video each training session. The footage will be used to conduct tactical lessons in the lecture room afterwards.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7367299',
'title': 'Health club',
'section': 'Section::::Facilities and services.:Types of services in health clubs.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Health clubs in North America offer a number of facilities and services with different price points for different levels of services. Some services have differently-priced levels or tiers, such as regular, pro, platinum and gold facilities or packages. Some of the health and fitness facilities use cardio equipment, fitness screening, resistance-building equipment, pro shops, artificial sun-beds, health spas and saunas. The membership plans vary from as low as $20 per month, for value-priced gyms to as high as $700 per month. These health clubs, especially in the United States, are equipped with a range of facilities and provide personal trainer support.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How does a gym's business model hold up? The equipment is insanely costly and the memberships cost next to nothing in most cases. How does it pay off the investment AND become a stable income source?",
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'category': 'Economics',
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'answers': ['I think a lot of it relies on people paying for gym memberships that they never or rarely use. ',
"It's like planet fitness cheap membership so everyone and their mom signs up, but then they literally never go. So tons of $20. A month payments and if you forget a yearly fee but noone uses it. ",
'Although the equipment is costly, some gyms (like mine) keep the same equipment for a very long time. Once it is paid for, maintenance costs are small compared to membership income. \n\nEdit: missing word added.',
"Relevant to add that in many cases, the business model just doesn't hold up. Especially in smaller towns with few potential members they can barely be breaking even, if they are even doing that, and just keep going in a hope that enough people will sign up. \n",
"A lot of budget gyms don't actually pay their staff.\n\nYou get a job as a Personal Trainer and work as a receptionist and a cleaner and you take fitness classes that are generally free for the gym users.\n\nYou then use this to recruit people as clients for your personal training business and charge them $40 an hour and the gym lets you use their facilities for your classes.\n\nThe trainers don't need a studio and the gyms don't need to pay their staff.",
'The only example I can speak of from experience is a local council-operated gym system that last year effectively made a small loss. By far the biggest expense is employee salaries, which account for most of the operating costs. These salaries include maintenance, but the annual expenditure on new equipment is comparatively small. Income comes from three main sources: memberships, fees and hiring out their facilities.\n\nIn simple terms, the business model is "charge people enough for memberships and one-off visits to pay for most of the running costs of the gym, then hire out gym facilities on slow days to make up the rest". This year, they will increase all the fees a bit to make up for last year, when the fees were slightly too low to make a profit in pure economic terms. Overall, the system makes the local area money by improving general health, providing employment and taking virtually no tax subsidy. ',
'TLDR: The gym only has 10 machines in it, but that can actually support 200 memberships easily.\n\n\\-----\n\nThe model depends upon people paying for a membership and only occasionally showing up to the gym, plus the low depreciation/maintenance of the machines.\n\nThis is why gyms emphasize "don\'t bang the weights." There isn\'t much risk of you hurting yourself, but there is a risk of you breaking equipment.\n\nThat\'s also why gyms emphasize year-long contracts and auto-pay systems when you join. If you use the gym often you will be willing to remain a member. If you don\'t use the gym often, you will likely forget about the membership. Some gyms also have a termination fee, or require you to quit in-person so that a sales rep can talk you out of it.\n\nAlso, lots of people join around New Year\'s with the idea of getting in shape. Next year rolls around and the gym membership expires, but hey, I should start going to the gym again as my resolution so I won\'t cancel.\n\nSo there is a really high members-per-machine ratio, with most members not using the machines often (or at all).',
"Already some great answers here. I would also like to add that it's likely that national chains especially and probably some other gyms arrange bulk discounts. Let's say a treadmill costs 2000 dollars if you go to the store and buy one, when the manufacturer sells them for 1200. But the store is getting a cut and you're only buying one.\n\nBut a national chain might go straight to the manufacturer and buy them for 1200 rather than 2000, and if they're buying hundreds at a time and warehousing them for building new locations or expanding or having reserves, they might strike a deal at 1000 per treadmill. This is very common in industry where a discount can be struck for making a large order, because it is still a huge amount of money and it guarantees the manufacturer some work for a time.\n\nNow a small-time gym might instead go to the store selling for 2000, and make a deal where they will buy say 10 treadmills at 1800 each. The store is still making money by selling 10 treadmills at once just less profit *per*, and the gym saves a bit of money on equipment.\n\nIn both cases it is hoped that the purchaser will come back to them for replacement parts, which is also a handy source of revenue.",
'Also it might have something to do with some gyms making it very difficult to cancel a membership with an automatic payment '],
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'query_id': '9jbopb',
'query': "how does a gym's business model hold up? the equipment is insanely costly and the memberships cost next to nothing in most cases. how does it pay off the investment and become a stable income source?",
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '20952693',
'title': 'IOS jailbreaking',
'section': 'Section::::Comparison to Android rooting.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 1056,
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'passage_text': 'iOS is engineered with security measures including a "locked bootloader" to prevent users from modifying the operating system, and to prevent apps from gaining root privileges; jailbreaking an iOS device to defeat all security measures presents a significant technical challenge. It violates Apple\'s end-user license agreement for iOS. Until 2015 sideloading apps in general was difficult for most individual users, requiring them to purchase developer membership, while corporations could install private applications onto corporate phones. After 2015, this became free for all users, however doing so requires a basic understanding of Xcode and compiling iOS Apps. Apps installed this way have the restrictions of all other apps. In addition, alternative app stores utilising enterprise certificates have sprung up, offering modified or pirated releases of popular iOS applications and video games, some of which were either previously released through Cydia or are unavailable on the App Store due to them not complying with Apple developer guidelines.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33451925',
'title': 'BlackBerry 10',
'section': 'Section::::Reception.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 53,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 53,
'end_character': 1124,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BlackBerry 10 added a compatibility layer for Android software, which allowed developers to repackage their Android apps for distribution on BlackBerry World, however this advertised feature has received a poor reception as the Android apps "performed abysmally on the phone. Sluggish, ugly, and disconnected from the core OS. In fact, because these apps are being run in a software emulation of Android — Gingerbread no less (that\'s version 2.3) — they bear little to no relationship to the rest of the operating system". Later versions added the ability for users to manually install Android app packages. Beginning with the BlackBerry Passport, Amazon Appstore was bundled with BlackBerry 10 to provide an additional source of third-party Android software. BlackBerry CEO John S. Chen hoped that Amazon\'s own smartphone, the Fire Phone, would bolster the adoption of the Amazon store and attract more major developers to it, and in turn, BlackBerry\'s ecosystem. However, the Fire Phone was a commercial failure, which led to BlackBerry\'s decision to develop an Android phone of its own, resulting in the BlackBerry Priv.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9874319',
'title': 'Criticism of Google',
'section': 'Section::::Antitrust.:European Union.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 241,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Complaint opened in 2015 that the dominance of the Android operating system was abused to make it difficult for competing third-party apps and search engines to be pre-installed on mobile phones. (See European Union vs. Google.)\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43137803',
'title': 'Nokia X platform',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 316,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'As of February 2014, 75% of Android apps are compatible with the platform. Nokia has also noted that developers can port the remaining missing apps in a matter of hours, and in an attempt to encourage developers to contribute to the platform, had previously added compatible Android apps without developer approval.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '51664929',
'title': 'European Union vs. Google',
'section': "Section::::Android and mobile apps charges.:EU's investigation.\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
'end_character': 302,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Google countered to this investigation that their practices with Android were no different with how Apple, Inc. or Microsoft bundles their own proprietary apps on their respective iOS and Windows Phone, and that OEMs were still able to distribute Android-based phones without the Google suite of apps.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12610483',
'title': 'Android (operating system)',
'section': 'Section::::Reception.:Adoption on tablets.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 120,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 120,
'end_character': 406,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In March 2016, Galen Gruman of "InfoWorld" stated that Android devices could be a "real part of your business [..] there\'s no longer a reason to keep Android at arm\'s length. It can now be as integral to your mobile portfolio as Apple\'s iOS devices are". A year earlier, Gruman had stated that Microsoft\'s own mobile Office apps were "better on iOS and Android" than on Microsoft\'s own Windows 10 devices.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35924721',
'title': 'Samsung Galaxy Ace 2',
'section': 'Section::::Samsung Galaxy Ace 2 x / Trend.:Software.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 480,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Since these phones run Android 4.0, they are still supported by cloud, communications and social networking services that push the latest versions of their apps, which have in some cases been designed with only the newest hardware in mind. Such applications hog system resources and cause the phones to run slowly. As a remedy, phone owners can replace those apps with less resource-hungry equivalents, or remove them entirely and use a web browser to access the services' sites.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why do Android phone manufacturers not force carriers to use the same software like on iOS?',
'selftext': 'For example with Samsung, each carrier has their own version of the software. Would it not be more efficient to make all carriers have the exact same software and just update that like on iOS?',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Because the manufacturers have very little power. If Samsung gives the carriers a hard time, they can immediately switch to HTC or another brand that's quite similar.\n\nBy contrast, if Apple gives the carriers a hard time, there is no very similar substitute they can choose, so they tolerate it."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '62oki0',
'query': 'why do android phone manufacturers not force carriers to use the same software like on ios?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '55602',
'title': 'Peanut',
'section': 'Section::::Food.:Peanut butter.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 50,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 50,
'end_character': 567,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Peanut butter is a food paste or spread made from ground dry roasted peanuts. It often contains additional ingredients that modify the taste or texture, such as salt, sweeteners or emulsifiers. Peanut butter is served as a spread on bread, toast or crackers, and used to make sandwiches (notably the peanut butter and jelly sandwich). It is also used in a number of confections, such as peanut-flavored granola bars or croissants and other pastries. The United States is a leading exporter of peanut butter and itself consumes $800 million of peanut butter annually.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '289786',
'title': 'Peanut butter',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 366,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Peanut butter is served as a spread on bread, toast, or crackers, and used to make sandwiches (notably the peanut butter and jelly sandwich). It is also used in a number of breakfast dishes and desserts, such as peanut-flavored granola, smoothies, crepes, cookies, brownies, or croissants. It is similar to other nut butters such as cashew butter and almond butter.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '289786',
'title': 'Peanut butter',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 356,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Peanut butter is a food paste or spread made from ground dry-roasted peanuts. It often contains additional ingredients that modify the taste or texture, such as salt, sweeteners, or emulsifiers. Peanut butter is popular in many countries. The United States is a leading exporter of peanut butter and itself consumes $800 million of peanut butter annually.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '289786',
'title': 'Peanut butter',
'section': 'Section::::Health.:Nutritional profile.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 38,
'end_character': 252,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Both crunchy/chunky and smooth peanut butter are sources of saturated (primarily palmitic acid, 21% of total fat) and monounsaturated fats, mainly oleic acid as 47% of total fat, and polyunsaturated fat (28% of total fat), primarily as linoleic acid).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5921129',
'title': 'Peanut paste',
'section': 'Section::::Distinction from peanut butter.:As ingredient of peanut butter.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 442,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Peanut butter may be made from peanut paste mixed with a stabilizing agent, a sweetening agent, salt, and optionally, an emulsifying agent. In such formulas, peanut paste acts as the main ingredient in peanut butter, from 75% to as much as 99% of the recipe. Peanut butter is mainly known for being sold as a spread, and peanut paste is regularly sold to be used as an ingredient in cookies, cakes and a number of other retail food products.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '289786',
'title': 'Peanut butter',
'section': 'Section::::Other uses.:As an ingredient.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 43,
'end_character': 303,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Peanut butter is included as an ingredient in many recipes: peanut butter and jelly sandwiches, peanut butter cookies, and candies where peanut is the main flavor, such as Reese's Pieces, or various peanut butter and chocolate treats, such as Reese's Peanut Butter Cups and the Crispy Crunch candy bar.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6935974',
'title': 'Peanut butter cookie',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 298,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A peanut butter cookie is a type of cookie that is distinguished for having peanut butter as a principal ingredient. The cookie generally originated in the United States, its development dating back to the 1910s. If crunchy peanut butter is used, the resulting cookie may contain peanut fragments.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': '- What makes peanut butter stick to the roof of your mouth, and throat?',
'selftext': 'I’ve always wondered why I got that split second feeling like I was gonna choke on a peanut butter sand which, but don’t get that feeling with Other foods .',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Peanutbutter is viscous. The viscosity of peanutbutter means that it will take longer to flow than other fluids. Aside from that, peanutbutter is not only viscous, but is able to squish between nooks and crannies in a surface, allowing it to act like a glue. It's a good adhesive.\nOn top of that, peanutbutter is made mostly of fats, so it's not very soluble in water, and water doesn't want to interact with the fats in peanutbutter, so it takes time to go down with the help of friction from your tongue and esophagus.\n\nAlso, peanutbutter should be one word. It's one thing, and it's easier to type it that way. I vote 'yes' on *peanutbutter*."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '729yma',
'query': '- what makes peanut butter stick to the roof of your mouth, and throat?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '41120920',
'title': 'Central nervous system fatigue',
'section': 'Section::::Manipulation.:Dopamine reuptake and release agents.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 586,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Amphetamine is a stimulant that has been found to improve both physical and cognitive performance. Amphetamine blocks the reuptake of dopamine and norepinephrine, which delays the onset of fatigue by increasing the amount of dopamine, despite the concurrent increase in norepinephrine, in the central nervous system. Amphetamine is a widely used substance among collegiate athletes for its performance enhancing qualities, as it can improve muscle strength, reaction time, acceleration, anaerobic exercise performance, power output at fixed levels of perceived exertion, and endurance.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2504',
'title': 'Amphetamine',
'section': 'Section::::Adverse effects.:Psychological.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 813,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'At normal therapeutic doses, the most common psychological side effects of amphetamine include increased alertness, apprehension, concentration, initiative, self-confidence and sociability, mood swings (elated mood followed by mildly depressed mood), insomnia or wakefulness, and decreased sense of fatigue. Less common side effects include anxiety, change in libido, grandiosity, irritability, repetitive or obsessive behaviors, and restlessness; these effects depend on the user\'s personality and current mental state. Amphetamine psychosis (e.g., delusions and paranoia) can occur in heavy users. Although very rare, this psychosis can also occur at therapeutic doses during long-term therapy. According to the USFDA, "there is no systematic evidence" that stimulants produce aggressive behavior or hostility.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2504',
'title': 'Amphetamine',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 791,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'At therapeutic doses, amphetamine causes emotional and cognitive effects such as euphoria, change in desire for sex, increased wakefulness, and improved cognitive control. It induces physical effects such as improved reaction time, fatigue resistance, and increased muscle strength. Larger doses of amphetamine may impair cognitive function and induce rapid muscle breakdown. Addiction is a serious risk with heavy recreational amphetamine use, but is unlikely to occur from long-term medical use at therapeutic doses. Very high doses can result in psychosis (e.g., delusions and paranoia) which rarely occurs at therapeutic doses even during long-term use. Recreational doses are generally much larger than prescribed therapeutic doses and carry a far greater risk of serious side effects.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15682819',
'title': 'Racing thoughts',
'section': 'Section::::Associated conditions.:Amphetamines.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 322,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Amphetamines are used as a stimulant to trigger the central nervous system, increasing heart rate and blood pressure while decreasing appetite. Since amphetamines are a stimulant, use of these drugs result in a state that resembles the manic phase of bipolar disorder and also produces similar symptoms, as stated above. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6731253',
'title': 'Hysterical strength',
'section': 'Section::::Research.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 621,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Amphetamine and other stimulants are used by some athletes for their psychological and performance-enhancing effects. In competitive sports, this form of use is prohibited by anti-doping regulations. In healthy people at oral therapeutic doses, amphetamine has been shown to increase physical strength, acceleration, stamina, and endurance, while reducing reaction time. Amphetamine exerts its effects in humans primarily as a releasing agent of dopamine and norepinephrine in the central nervous system, and secondarily via inhibition of reuptake of noradrenaline and dopamine, similar to methylphenidate and bupropion.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12752571',
'title': 'Hyperosmia',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Environmental.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 452,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "In a study by Atianjoh et al., it has been found that amphetamines decrease levels of dopamine in the olfactory bulbs of rodents. On this basis, it has been hypothesized that amphetamine use may cause hyperosmia in rodents and humans, but further research is still needed. Anecdotal support for the belief that amphetamines may cause hyperosmia comes from Oliver Sacks's account of a patient with a heightened sense of smell after taking amphetamines.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2504',
'title': 'Amphetamine',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Medical.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 559,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Long-term amphetamine exposure at sufficiently high doses in some animal species is known to produce abnormal dopamine system development or nerve damage, but, in humans with ADHD, pharmaceutical amphetamines appear to improve brain development and nerve growth. Reviews of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies suggest that long-term treatment with amphetamine decreases abnormalities in brain structure and function found in subjects with ADHD, and improves function in several parts of the brain, such as the right caudate nucleus of the basal ganglia.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If exercising makes your heart stronger why are amphetamines and anxiety bad for your hear?',
'selftext': 'Increasing your heart rate makes it stronger. But drugs like cociane, meth and disorders like anxiety that increase your heart rate are bad for your hearts health. Shouldnt it make the heart stronger?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Increasing you heart rate is like a car going faster: through exercise is like using the gas pedal normally to control the acceleration of the car; amphetamines, anxiety, drugs like cocaine is like your car going off a cliff to go faster. You’re going faster, but you’re probably going to die in the end.\n\nCheers.',
'When exercising, you’re not just increasing your heart rate. The blood vessels throughout your body also dilate to allow better blood flow to your heart muscles and other organs\n\nUsing cocaine and amphetamines, even though your heart is beating fast, the drugs causes arteries to constrict, restricting blood flows. So your heart is made to work harder without good blood flow. On top of that, the blood pressure exerted in your brain is vastly increased which can lead to a stroke.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'bqr01c',
'query': 'if exercising makes your heart stronger why are amphetamines and anxiety bad for your hear?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '7807',
'title': 'Cavitation',
'section': 'Section::::Cavitation damage.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 46,
'end_character': 385,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "After a surface is initially affected by cavitation, it tends to erode at an accelerating pace. The cavitation pits increase the turbulence of the fluid flow and create crevices that act as nucleation sites for additional cavitation bubbles. The pits also increase the components' surface area and leave behind residual stresses. This makes the surface more prone to stress corrosion.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '838449',
'title': 'Atheroma',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism.:Stenosis and closure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 313,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The rupture results in both (a) a shower of debris occluding smaller downstream vessels (debris larger than 5 microns are too large to pass through capillaries)) combined with (b) platelet and clot accumulation over the rupture (an injury/repair response) resulting in narrowing, sometimes closure, of the lumen.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7807',
'title': 'Cavitation',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 471,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Since the shock waves formed by collapse of the voids are strong enough to cause significant damage to moving parts, cavitation is usually an undesirable phenomenon. It is very often specifically avoided in the design of machines such as turbines or propellers, and eliminating cavitation is a major field in the study of fluid dynamics. However, it is sometimes useful and does not cause damage when the bubbles collapse away from machinery, such as in supercavitation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1339615',
'title': 'Stopping power',
'section': 'Section::::Wounding effects.:Physical.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 647,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The effects of temporary cavitation are less well understood, due to a lack of a test material identical to living tissue. Studies on the effects of bullets typically are based on experiments using ballistic gelatin, in which temporary cavitation causes radial tears where the gelatin was stretched. Although such tears are visually engaging, some animal tissues (other than bone or liver) are more elastic than gelatin. In most cases, temporary cavitation is unlikely to cause anything more than a bruise. Some speculation states that nerve bundles can be damaged by temporary cavitation, creating a stun effect, but this has not been confirmed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '303690',
'title': 'Spall',
'section': 'Section::::Corrosion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 410,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "In corrosion, spalling occurs when a substance (metal or concrete) sheds tiny particles of corrosion products as the corrosion reaction progresses. Although they are not soluble or permeable, these corrosion products do not adhere to the parent material's surface to form a barrier to further corrosion, as happens in passivation. Spallation happens as the result of a large volume change during the reaction.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20368779',
'title': 'Tingible body macrophage',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 307,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Macrophages that contain debris from ingested lymphocytes are characteristic of a reactive follicular center in benign reactive lymphadenitis. Other accompanying signs of a benign follicular hyperplasia are well developed germinal centers with dark and light zones, in addition to numerous mitotic figures.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '82342',
'title': 'Lymph node',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical significance.:Swelling.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 476,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Lymphedema is another and fairly widespread condition that results in fluid retention and tissue swelling. It can be congenital as a result usually of undeveloped or absent lymph nodes, and is known as primary lymphedema. Secondary lymphedema usually results from the removal of lymph nodes during breast cancer surgery or from other damaging treatments such as radiation. It can also be caused by some parasitic infections. Affected tissues are at a great risk of infection.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is it that causes cysts/spots to rupture with such force?',
'selftext': "When you squeeze toothpaste, it doesn't squirt out.",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The spot is visible because of pressure build up so when you pop the skin the small amount of pressure that there is, forces the gunk out. With toothpaste the only pressure comes from your fingers so it will come out as hard as you squeeze'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'ca0qxb',
'query': 'what is it that causes cysts/spots to rupture with such force?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2676138',
'title': 'Stabilizer (aeronautics)',
'section': 'Section::::Horizontal stabilizers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 626,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Another role of a horizontal stabilizer is to provide longitudinal static stability. Stability can be defined only when the vehicle is in trim; it refers to the tendency of the aircraft to return to the trimmed condition if it is disturbed. This maintains a constant aircraft attitude, with unchanging pitch angle relative to the airstream, without active input from the pilot. Ensuring static stability of an aircraft with a conventional wing requires that the aircraft center of gravity be ahead of the center of pressure, so a stabilizer positioned at the rear of the aircraft will produce lift in the downwards direction.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2676138',
'title': 'Stabilizer (aeronautics)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 470,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'An aircraft stabilizer is an aerodynamic surface, typically including one or more movable control surfaces, that provides longitudinal (pitch) and/or directional (yaw) stability and control. A stabilizer can feature a fixed or adjustable structure on which any movable control surfaces are hinged, or it can itself be a fully movable surface such as a stabilator. Depending on the context, "stabilizer" may sometimes describe only the front part of the overall surface.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1941545',
'title': 'Vertical stabilizer',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 792,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "On aircraft, vertical stabilizers generally point upwards. These are also known as the vertical tail, and are part of an aircraft's empennage. This upright mounting position has two major benefits: The drag of the stabilizer increases at speed, which creates a nose-up moment that helps to slow down the aircraft that prevent dangerous overspeed, and when the aircraft banks, the stabilizer produces lift which counters the banking moment and keeps the aircraft upright at the absence of control input. If the vertical stabilizer was mounted on the underside, it would produce a positive feedback whenever the aircraft dove or banked, which is inherently unstable. The trailing end of the stabilizer is typically movable, and called the rudder; this allows the aircraft pilot to control yaw.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2676138',
'title': 'Stabilizer (aeronautics)',
'section': 'Section::::Horizontal stabilizers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 731,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A horizontal stabilizer is used to maintain the aircraft in longitudinal balance, or "trim": it exerts a vertical force at a distance so the summation of pitch moments about the center of gravity is zero. The vertical force exerted by the stabilizer varies with flight conditions, in particular according to the aircraft lift coefficient and wing flaps deflection which both affect the position of the center of pressure, and with the position of the aircraft center of gravity (which changes with aircraft loading and fuel consumption). Transonic flight makes special demands on horizontal stabilizers; when the local speed of the air over the wing reaches the speed of sound there is a sudden move aft of the center of pressure.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1941545',
'title': 'Vertical stabilizer',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The vertical stabilizers, vertical stabilisers, or fins, of aircraft, missiles or bombs are typically found on the aft end of the fuselage or body, and are intended to reduce aerodynamic side slip and provide direction stability. It is analogous to a skeg on boats and ships.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '977206',
'title': 'Stabilator',
'section': 'Section::::Airliners.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': 'Most modern airliners adjust the horizontal stabilizer to keep the pitch axis in trim during flight as fuel is burned and the center of gravity moves. The pilots also use their horizontal stabilizer trim switches, when flying in manual mode, to keep the pitch axis of the plane "in trim," as the speed and configuration changes. These adjustments are commanded by the autopilot when it is engaged, or by the human pilot if the plane is being flown manually. However, such adjustable stabilizers are not the same as stabilators; a stabilator is controlled by the pilot\'s control yoke (or stick), whereas an adjustable stabilizer is controlled by the trim system. One example of an airliner with a genuine stabilator used for flight control is the Lockheed L-1011.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2678619',
'title': 'Stabilizer (ship)',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Ship stabilizers (or stabilisers) are fins or rotors mounted beneath the waterline and emerging laterally from the hull to reduce a ship\'s roll due to wind or waves. "Active fins" are controlled by a gyroscopic control system. When the gyroscope senses the ship roll, it changes the fins\' angle of attack to exert force to counteract the roll. "Fixed fins" and bilge keels do not move; they reduce roll by hydrodynamic drag exerted when the ship rolls. Stabilizers are mostly used on ocean-going ships.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do aircraft stabilizers actually "stabilize" the aircraft?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Aircraft wings create a force perpendicular to the chord of the wing, called Lift. They also create a nose down torque. Both of these change with airspeed. \n \nTo keep the wings from rotating forward you can either:\n \n1) apply an upward force ahead of the wings by using a small set of wings called a canard. This was the configuration of the Wright Flyer, and is more efficient, but is also difficult to design because the aircraft will tend to be dynamically unstable in pitch. \n \n2) sweep the wings/ delta configuration\n\n3) apply a downward force behind the main plane by using an tailplane. This is less efficient because the aerodynamic force is downwards, meaning that the main plane has to lift the weight of the aircraft + the downward force from the tailplane. However, this is inherently dynamically stable. \n \nMost aircraft are of the latter design; modern airliners reduce the inefficiency, which ultimately equates to higher fuel burn, by pumping fuel into the tail so that the downward force required is kept to a minimum. \n\nTailplanes also help to damp out short term pitch oscillations, and provide a convenient way for the pilot to change the angle of attack of the wings in order to manoeuvre the aircraft. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6w8490',
'query': 'how do aircraft stabilizers actually "stabilize" the aircraft?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '11576502',
'title': 'Retching',
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'passage_text': 'Retching (also known as dry heaving) is the reverse movement (retroperistalsis) of the stomach and esophagus without vomiting. It can be caused by bad smell or choking, or by withdrawal from some medications after vomiting stops. Retching can also occur as a result of an emotional response or from stress, which produces the same physical reaction. The function is thought to be mixing gastric contents with intestinal refluxate in order to buffer the former and give it momentum in preparation of vomiting. Treatments include medication and correction of the fluid and electrolyte balance.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3657336',
'title': 'Rumination syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'Unlike typical vomiting, the regurgitation is typically described as effortless and unforced. There is seldom nausea preceding the expulsion, and the undigested food lacks the bitter taste and odour of stomach acid and bile.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8507183',
'title': 'Vomiting',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Vomiting is different from regurgitation, though the terms are often used interchangeably. Regurgitation is the return of undigested food back up the esophagus to the mouth, without the force and displeasure associated with vomiting. The causes of vomiting and regurgitation are generally different.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23772937',
'title': 'Dhruggi Rajgan',
'section': 'Section::::Initial history of Dharuggi and vicinity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'After drinking it, the person will get cramps and loose motion are caused which ultimately will clean the bowels. This was a primitive method for purging and treating intestinal cleansing as well as worms. Now this practice is almost given up owing to access to health facility of allopathic medicines and lethargy of people for going to this so-called far-flung area.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35781181',
'title': 'Management of dehydration',
'section': 'Section::::Medical uses.:Medium dehydration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'end_character': 447,
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'passage_text': 'WHO recommends that if there is vomiting, don’t stop, but do pause for 5–10 minutes and then restart at a slower pace. (Vomiting seldom prevents successful rehydration since most of the fluid is still absorbed. Plus, vomiting usually stops after the first one to four hours of rehydration.) With the older WHO solution, also give some clean water during rehydration. With the newer reduced-osmolarity, more dilute solution, this is not necessary.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36896310',
'title': 'Banana Sprite challenge',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'While the vomit response is commonly assumed to be a chemical reaction between the two foods, the reaction may also occur due simply to the large amount of food and drink ingested within a short period. Dietitian Heather Boline observes that the human stomach can only hold around two cups, saying "Too much food or liquid in your stomach if your stomach doesn’t have that capability can make you vomit." Thus, the vomiting response is likely due to an inability for the stomach to contain the substances.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3657336',
'title': 'Rumination syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.:Differential diagnosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
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'passage_text': 'Gastroparesis is another common misdiagnosis. Like rumination syndrome, patients with gastroparesis often bring up food following the ingestion of a meal. Unlike rumination, gastroparesis causes vomiting (in contrast to regurgitation) of food, which is not being digested further, from the stomach. This vomiting occurs several hours after a meal is ingested, preceded by nausea and retching, and has the bitter or sour taste typical of vomit.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why do you continue to try and vomit/dry retch when you have drank to much, even after your stomach contents have completely vacated your body?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
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'answers': ['The vomiting is your body’s response to an excessive amount of alcohol in your system, not just your digestive tract ',
"It's not just when you've drunk too much but when you're sick as well you also dry heave after vomiting that's because the nerves that cause you to vomit are still coated in what cause you to vomit in the first place."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '9mnuma',
'query': 'why do you continue to try and vomit/dry retch when you have drank to much, even after your stomach contents have completely vacated your body?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '9910525',
'title': 'LED lamp',
'section': 'Section::::Technology overview.:White light LEDs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
'end_character': 364,
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'passage_text': 'RGB or trichromatic white LEDs use multiple LED chips emitting red, green, and blue wavelengths. These three colors combine to produce white light. The color rendering index (CRI) is poor, typically 25 - 65, due to the narrow range of wavelengths emitted. Higher CRI values can be obtained using more than three LED colors to cover a greater range of wavelengths.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '952677',
'title': 'Backlight',
'section': 'Section::::Usage.:LED backlights.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
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'passage_text': 'RGB LEDs can deliver an enormous color gamut to screens. When using three separate LEDs (additive color) the backlight can produce a color spectrum that closely matches the color filters in the LCD pixels themselves. In this way, the filter passband can be narrowed so that each color component lets only a very narrow band of spectrum through the LCD. This improves the efficiency of the display since less light is blocked when white is displayed. Also, the actual red, green, and blue points can be moved farther out so that the display is capable of reproducing more vivid colors.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18290',
'title': 'Light-emitting diode',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Application-specific variations.:RGB Tri-color.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 90,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 90,
'end_character': 289,
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'passage_text': 'RGB LEDs consist of one red, one green, and one blue LED. By independently adjusting each of the three, RGB LEDs are capable of producing a wide color gamut. Unlike dedicated-color LEDs, however, these do not produce pure wavelengths. Modules may not be optimized for smooth color mixing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18290',
'title': 'Light-emitting diode',
'section': 'Section::::Colors.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 42,
'end_character': 345,
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'passage_text': 'By selection of different semiconductor materials, single-color LEDs can be made that emit light in a narrow band of wavelengths from near-infrared through the visible spectrum and into the ultraviolet range. As the wavelengths become shorter, because of the larger band gap of these semiconductors, the operating voltage of the LED increases. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18290',
'title': 'Light-emitting diode',
'section': 'Section::::Colors.:White.:RGB systems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 55,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 55,
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'passage_text': "Multicolor LEDs also offer a new means to form light of different colors. Most perceivable colors can be formed by mixing different amounts of three primary colors. This allows precise dynamic color control. However, this type of LED's emission power decays exponentially with rising temperature,\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18290',
'title': 'Light-emitting diode',
'section': 'Section::::Colors.:White.:RGB systems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 56,
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'passage_text': 'resulting in a substantial change in color stability. Such problems inhibit industrial use. Multicolor LEDs without phosphors cannot provide good color rendering because each LED is a narrowband source. LEDs without phosphor, while a poorer solution for general lighting, are the best solution for displays, either backlight of LCD, or direct LED based pixels.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18290',
'title': 'Light-emitting diode',
'section': 'Section::::Colors.:White.:RGB systems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 52,
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'passage_text': 'Mixing red, green, and blue sources to produce white light needs electronic circuits to control the blending of the colors. Since LEDs have slightly different emission patterns, the color balance may change depending on the angle of view, even if the RGB sources are in a single package, so RGB diodes are seldom used to produce white lighting. Nonetheless, this method has many applications because of the flexibility of mixing different colors, and in principle, this mechanism also has higher quantum efficiency in producing white light.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Do RGB LED's have the ability to display a wide range of colors. What causes the color to change, is it the voltage?",
'selftext': "I am planning to build an Arcade Cabinet and I have been thinking of wiring up led's to the Joysticks and Buttons. For the life of me, I can't understand what makes the led's change colors. There is so much information out there but I seem to be having trouble understanding it.",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['An RGB LED is actually 3 LEDs in one package. One each of Red Green and Blue. But changing the intensity of each of the 3 LEDs you get a unique color from the single bulb. The human eye doesn’t see the individual colors but a mix into a single color.\n\nLots more details: _URL_0_'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9va4v4',
'query': "do rgb led's have the ability to display a wide range of colors. what causes the color to change, is it the voltage?",
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '546712',
'title': 'Neurotoxicity',
'section': 'Section::::Neurotoxic agents.:Oxygen radicals.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'end_character': 1390,
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'passage_text': 'The formation of oxygen radicals in the brain is achieved through the nitric oxide synthase (NOS) pathway. This reaction occurs as a response to an increase in the Ca concentration inside a brain cell. This interaction between the Ca and NOS results in the formation of the cofactor tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4), which then moves from the plasma membrane into the cytoplasm. As a final step, NOS is dephosphorylated yielding nitric oxide (NO), which accumulates in the brain, increasing its oxidative stress. There are several ROS, including superoxide, hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl, all of which lead to neurotoxicity. Naturally, the body utilizes a defensive mechanism to diminish the fatal effects of the reactive species by employing certain enzymes to break down the ROS into small, benign molecules of simple oxygen and water. However, this breakdown of the ROS is not completely efficient; some reactive residues are left in the brain to accumulate, contributing to neurotoxicity and cell death. The brain is more vulnerable to oxidative stress than other organs, due to its low oxidative capacity. Because neurons are characterized as postmitotic cells, meaning that they live with accumulated damage over the years, accumulation of ROS is fatal. Thus, increased levels of ROS age neurons, which leads to accelerated neurodegenerative processes and ultimately the advancement of AD.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '92524',
'title': 'Hemeprotein',
'section': 'Section::::Hemoglobin and myoglobin.:Hemoglobin.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': 'In vertebrates, oxygen is taken into the body by the tissues of the lungs, and passed to the red blood cells in the bloodstream. Oxygen is then distributed to all of the tissues in the body and offloaded from the red blood cells to respiring cells. Hemoglobin then picks up carbon dioxide to be returned to the lungs. Thus, hemoglobin binds and offloads both oxygen and carbon dioxide at the appropriate tissues, serving to deliver the oxygen needed for cellular metabolism and removing the resulting waste product, CO.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43198',
'title': 'Onychophora',
'section': 'Section::::Anatomy.:Respiration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 1160,
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'passage_text': 'Oxygen uptake occurs to an extent via simple diffusion through the entire body surface, with the coxal vesicles on the legs possibly being involved in some species. However, of most importance is gas exchange via fine unbranched tubes, the tracheae, which draw oxygen from the surface deep into the various organs, particularly the heart. The walls of these structures, which are less than three micrometers thick in their entirety, consist only of an extremely thin membrane through which oxygen can easily diffuse. The tracheae originate at tiny openings, the spiracles, which themselves are clustered together in dent-like recesses of the outer skin, the atria. The number of "tracheae bundles" thus formed is on average around 75 per body segment; they accumulate most densely on the back of the organism. Unlike the arthropods, the velvet worms are unable to control the openings of their tracheae; the tracheae are always open, entailing considerable water loss in arid conditions. Water is lost twice as fast as in earthworms and forty times faster than in caterpillars. For this reason, velvet worms are dependent upon habitats with high air humidity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13292',
'title': 'Hypoxia (medical)',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'In peripheral tissues, oxygen again diffuses down a pressure gradient into cells and their mitochondria, where it is used to produce energy in conjunction with the breakdown of glucose, fats, and some amino acids.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1745619',
'title': 'Cerebral hypoxia',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 382,
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'passage_text': "The brain requires approximately 3.3\xa0ml of oxygen per 100\xa0g of brain tissue per minute. Initially the body responds to lowered blood oxygen by redirecting blood to the brain and increasing cerebral blood flow. Blood flow may increase up to twice the normal flow but no more. If the increased blood flow is sufficient to supply the brain's oxygen needs then no symptoms will result.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '378787',
'title': 'Helix (gastropod)',
'section': 'Section::::Respiration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 106,
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'end_paragraph_id': 106,
'end_character': 375,
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'passage_text': 'Oxygen is carried by the blood pigment hemocyanin. Both oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse in and out of blood through the capillaries. A muscular valve regulates the process of opening and closing the entrance of the lung. When the valve opens, the air can either leave or come into the lung. The valve plays an important role in reducing water loss and preventing drowning.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '59627302',
'title': 'Symmorphosis',
'section': 'Section::::Within the respiratory system.:V.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'The oxygen cascade is one way that can put a limit and can help determine the V by components such as oxygen supply to the skeletal muscle mitochondria and the demand of oxygen by these skeletal muscle mitochondria. If oxygen is not transferred via skeletal muscle mitochondria, it can them be transferred across muscle capillaries.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does oxygen reach the brain?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The red cells in your blood pick up oxygen in your lungs, then the heart pumps the blood around your body, including to the brain.'],
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'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'bodfxl',
'query': 'how does oxygen reach the brain?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '77668',
'title': 'Scar',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Hypertrophic.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'Hypertrophic scars occur when the body overproduces collagen, which causes the scar to be raised above the surrounding skin. Hypertrophic scars take the form of a red raised lump on the skin. They usually occur within 4 to 8 weeks following wound infection or wound closure with excess tension and/or other traumatic skin injuries.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2293275',
'title': 'Special Combat Aggressive Reactionary System',
'section': 'Section::::Founding.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 607,
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'passage_text': "SCARS is based on sciences of psychology, physiology, physical movement as well as research on the nervous system. SCARS was developed by Peterson after serving two tours in the US Army 173rd Airborne Brigade during the Vietnam War. It was debuted in 1987, and began to be taught to various military, law enforcement, and security units, such as the Arizona State police. Currently, SCARS is taught through private seminars, larger scale contracts, online training and DVDs. It contains no defensive actions, as all checks against the enemy's kicks or punches are delivered as strikes to vulnerable nerves.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '77668',
'title': 'Scar',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'A scar is an area of fibrous tissue that replaces normal skin after an injury. Scars result from the biological process of wound repair in the skin, as well as in other organs and tissues of the body. Thus, scarring is a natural part of the healing process. With the exception of very minor lesions, every wound (e.g., after accident, disease, or surgery) results in some degree of scarring. An exception to this are animals with complete regeneration, which regrow tissue without scar formation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45372101',
'title': 'Pathology of multiple sclerosis',
'section': '',
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'end_character': 284,
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'passage_text': 'The scars that give the name to the condition are produced by the astrocyte cells healing old lesions. These glial scars are the remainings of previous demyelinating inflammatory lesions (encephalomyelitis disseminata) which are produced by one or more unknown underlying conditions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '74555',
'title': 'Acne',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Scars.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 489,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Acne scars are caused by inflammation within the dermal layer of skin and are estimated to affect 95% of people with acne vulgaris. The scar is created by abnormal healing following this dermal inflammation. Scarring is most likely to take place with severe acne, but may occur with any form of acne vulgaris. Acne scars are classified based on whether the abnormal healing response following dermal inflammation leads to excess collagen deposition or loss at the site of the acne lesion.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '74555',
'title': 'Acne',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Scars.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 431,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Hypertrophic scars are uncommon, and are characterized by increased collagen content after the abnormal healing response. They are described as firm and raised from the skin. Hypertrophic scars remain within the original margins of the wound, whereas keloid scars can form scar tissue outside of these borders. Keloid scars from acne occur more often in men and people with darker skin, and usually occur on the trunk of the body.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '77668',
'title': 'Scar',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'end_character': 760,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "A scar is the product of the body's repair mechanism after tissue injury. If a wound heals quickly within two weeks with new formation of skin, minimal collagen will be deposited and no scar will form. When the extracellular matrix senses elevated mechanical stress loading, tissue will scar, and scars can be limited by stress shielding wounds. Small full thickness wounds under 2mm reepithelize fast and heal scar free. Deep second-degree burns heal with scarring and hair loss. Sweat glands do not form in scar tissue, which impairs the regulation of body temperature. Elastic fibers are generally not detected in scar tissue younger than 3 months old. In scars rete pegs are lost; through a lack of rete pegs scars tend to shear easier than normal tissue.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Scars',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['They would and do exfoliate, eventually. The “lifespan” of a scar is dependent on how deep in the skin it is, and the size of the scar. As time passes, all or parts of the scar tissue will be pushed out. This is why some scars disappear over time, especially with proper skin care. However, if a scar is particularly deep, parts of it may take increasingly long amounts of time to ever reach the surface, and some parts never will. This is why some scars made fade in appearance, but will still be present even upon death.'],
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'query_id': 'f6vyhv',
'query': 'scars',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3917132',
'title': 'Shadowgraph',
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'passage_text': 'In principle, we cannot directly see a difference in temperature, a different gas, or a shock wave in the transparent air. However, all these disturbances refract light rays, so they can cast shadows. The plume of hot air rising from a fire, for example, can be seen by way of its shadow cast upon a nearby surface by the uniform sunlight.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '217296',
'title': 'Shadow',
'section': 'Section::::Point and non-point light sources.\n',
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'passage_text': 'If there is more than one light source, there will be several shadows, with the overlapping parts darker, and various combinations of brightnesses or even colors. The more diffuse the lighting is, the softer and more indistinct the shadow outlines become, until they disappear. The lighting of an overcast sky produces few visible shadows.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1996729',
'title': 'Johann Heinrich Schulze',
'section': 'Section::::Notable discoveries.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Schulze is best known for his discovery that the darkening in sunlight of various substances mixed with silver nitrate is due to the light, not the heat as other experimenters believed, and for using the phenomenon to temporarily capture shadows.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25948',
'title': 'Refraction',
'section': 'Section::::Light.:Atmospheric refraction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': 'Temperature variations in the air can also cause refraction of light. This can be seen as a heat haze when hot and cold air is mixed e.g. over a fire, in engine exhaust, or when opening a window on a cold day. This makes objects viewed through the mixed air appear to shimmer or move around randomly as the hot and cold air moves. This effect is also visible from normal variations in air temperature during a sunny day when using high magnification telephoto lenses and is often limiting the image quality in these cases.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '202898',
'title': 'Atmosphere of Earth',
'section': 'Section::::Optical properties.:Scattering.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 63,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 63,
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'passage_text': 'When light passes through Earth\'s atmosphere, photons interact with it through "scattering". If the light does not interact with the atmosphere, it is called "direct radiation" and is what you see if you were to look directly at the Sun. "Indirect radiation" is light that has been scattered in the atmosphere. For example, on an overcast day when you cannot see your shadow there is no direct radiation reaching you, it has all been scattered. As another example, due to a phenomenon called Rayleigh scattering, shorter (blue) wavelengths scatter more easily than longer (red) wavelengths. This is why the sky looks blue; you are seeing scattered blue light. This is also why sunsets are red. Because the Sun is close to the horizon, the Sun\'s rays pass through more atmosphere than normal to reach your eye. Much of the blue light has been scattered out, leaving the red light in a sunset.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7021',
'title': 'Crookes radiometer',
'section': 'Section::::General description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
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'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'When exposed to sunlight, artificial light, or infrared radiation (even the heat of a hand nearby can be enough), the vanes turn with no apparent motive power, the dark sides retreating from the radiation source and the light sides advancing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22858502',
'title': 'Opposition surge',
'section': 'Section::::Physical mechanisms.:Shadow hiding.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 493,
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'passage_text': "When the angle of reflection is close to the angle at which the light's rays hit the surface (that is, when the sun and the object are close to opposition from the viewpoint of the observer), this intrinsic brightness is usually close to its maximum. At a phase angle of zero degrees, all shadows disappear and the object is fully illuminated. When phase angles approach zero, there is a sudden increase in apparent brightness, and this sudden increase is referred to as the opposition surge.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does visible heat* have a shadow if it isn’t causing an absence of light?',
'selftext': '*the kind of heat waves you see rising from a radiator or the ground on a hot day that seem to shimmer.',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['When air gets hot, it changes the density so you have swirling patches of hotter & cooler air.\n\nAir of different densities passes light differently, creating those shadows.',
'Heat wave changes the density of its surrounding medium. Therefore refraction occurs as light passes through a medium going from 1 density into another.',
'Like others have said, its because the hot/cold air mixture distorts the image by bending transmitted light. \n\nFun side fact, mirages are also caused because of this phenomenon. Except that in mirages, air gets hotter and hotter as you get closer to the ground so the incoming light from a distance straight in front of you keeps bending as it gets closer to the ground until it becomes parabolic so you get the illusion of a reflection.\n\n',
'Nothing is blocking the light, rather the light is just being bent off-course by higher and lower densities of air, and is landing somewhere else.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '89yfpi',
'query': 'why does visible heat* have a shadow if it isn’t causing an absence of light?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '826552',
'title': 'Rose window',
'section': 'Section::::Timeline.:Romanesque (1000–1150 A.D.).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 105,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 105,
'end_character': 288,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The wheel window style refers to when architects started to putting glass within the oculi structure creating an actual window. This was due to when architects tried increasing the diameter of the oculi to let in more light, the problem of wind and rain became very apparent.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '68345',
'title': 'X window manager',
'section': 'Section::::Types of window managers.:Stacking window managers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 387,
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'passage_text': 'A stacking window manager renders the windows one-by-one onto the screen at specific co-ordinates. If one window\'s area overlaps another, then the window "on top" overwrites part of the other\'s visible appearance. This results in the appearance familiar to many users in which windows act a little bit like pieces of paper on a desktop, which can be moved around and allowed to overlap.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2652103',
'title': 'Tiling window manager',
'section': 'Section::::Tiling window managers.:Microsoft Windows.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 674,
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'passage_text': 'To tile windows, the user selects them in the taskbar and uses the context menu choice "Tile Vertically" or "Tile Horizontally". However, the wording of these options is misleading. Choosing "Tile Vertically" will cause the windows to tile horizontally but take on a vertical shape, while choosing "Tile Horizontally" will cause the windows to tile vertically but take on a horizontal shape. These options were later changed in Windows Vista to "Show Windows Side by Side" and "Show Windows Stacked", respectively. Windows 7 adds the ability to drag windows to either side of the screen to create a simple side-by-side tiled layout, or to the top of the screen to maximize.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '304484',
'title': 'Chicago school (architecture)',
'section': 'Section::::First Chicago School.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 580,
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'passage_text': 'The "Chicago window" originated in this school. It is a three-part window consisting of a large fixed center panel flanked by two smaller double-hung sash windows. The arrangement of windows on the facade typically creates a grid pattern, with some projecting out from the facade forming bay windows. The Chicago window combined the functions of light-gathering and natural ventilation; a single central pane was usually fixed, while the two surrounding panes were operable. These windows were often deployed in bays, known as "oriel windows", that projected out over the street.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29725430',
'title': 'Tribune Review Publishing Company Building',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 818,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A large T-shaped window is located between each pair of adjacent piers. The horizontal part of each "T" fits in the space formed by the beams that support the roof. That is, the top bar of each "T" begins at the roof structure, as each beam does, extends downward as far as the bottom of the beams, and then extends horizontally across the entire space between two beams. As a result, the top parts of the T-shaped windows form a horizontal strip of glass just beneath the roof that extends the entire length of the building, interrupted only by the ends of the beams atop the piers. The vertical part of each "T" extends to the bottom of the ground floor. On the shorter sides of the building are six windows that could be described as distorted Ts; each has the form a square with a stubby tail descending from it. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9823922',
'title': 'Lapham–Patterson House',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "During the Spring and Fall Equinoxes the patterns are projected by sunlight onto the floor through the glass. The total effect is that, in the center of the stained glass window's colorful pattern on the floor, the shadow of the cow's head can be seen.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15616683',
'title': 'Emmanuel Episcopal Church (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'This simplicity is relieved, in part, by patterning the brickwork. Of particular note, the repetitive triangular pattern at the roofline is called “mousetooth.” The brick patterning gives the impression of finely woven fabric. The sharply incised windows and doors produce dramatic voids.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do car windows get a grid pattern on them',
'selftext': 'So what I mean is, I’ve noticed on some rear windscreens what looks like squares of condensation in between the heating elements of the back window. Naturally I assumed it was because of those heating elements, however I also get in on my side windows too when I’ve had the heating on. What cause it',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Whenever the glass is rapidly cooled during the tempering process there are these air jets that blow cool air on the glass. This creates distortions in the glass that are almost invisible, until you put on polarized glasses. Different automakers have different (patented) patterns or cooling methods to reduce this distortion. ',
'Tempered glass has stressors built-in. You can see them with polarized sunglasses. The built-in stress is what causes the window to completely shatter into small pieces when the window is damaged in any way. Even a scratch may cause enough damage to shatter the window.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7lk6yo',
'query': 'why do car windows get a grid pattern on them',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '4459336',
'title': 'Hand dryer',
'section': 'Section::::Reception.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 479,
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'passage_text': 'Research conducted in 2008 indicated that European consumers much prefer hand towels over hand dryers in public washrooms. 63% of respondents said paper towels were their preferred drying method, while just 28% preferred a hand dryer. Respondents overwhelmingly considered paper towels to offer faster hand drying than electric hand dryers (68% vs 14%). On the whole they also considered paper towels to be the most hygienic form of hand drying in public washrooms (53% vs 44%).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3331179',
'title': 'Infection control',
'section': 'Section::::Infection control in healthcare facilities.:Hand hygiene.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Drying is an essential part of the hand hygiene process. In November 2008, a non-peer-reviewed study was presented to the European Tissue Symposium by the University of Westminster, London, comparing the bacteria levels present after the use of paper towels, warm air hand dryers, and modern jet-air hand dryers. Of those three methods, only paper towels reduced the total number of bacteria on hands, with "through-air dried" towels the most effective.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '428502',
'title': 'Hand washing',
'section': 'Section::::Techniques.:Drying with towels or hand driers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 56,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 56,
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'passage_text': 'Effective drying of the hands is an essential part of the hand hygiene process, but there is some debate over the most effective form of drying in public washrooms. A growing volume of research suggests paper towels are much more hygienic than the electric hand dryers found in many washrooms.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15063531',
'title': 'Dyson Airblade',
'section': 'Section::::Hygiene.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 745,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Hygiene associated with the product has been questioned in research by the University of Westminster Trade Group, London and sponsored by the paper towel industry the European Tissue Symposium, which suggests that use increases the amount of bacteria on the fingertips by about 42%; paper towels reduced the number of bacteria by 50 to 75%, while warm air dryers increased bacteria by 194%. The report found that "the manufacturer’s claim that the tested JAD [Airblade] is \'the most hygienic hand dryer\' is confirmed ... assuming that the term \'hand dryer\' refers to electric devices only because its performance in terms of the numbers of all types of bacteria remaining on the hands of users compared to paper towels was significantly worse."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '428502',
'title': 'Hand washing',
'section': 'Section::::Techniques.:Drying with towels or hand driers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 57,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 57,
'end_character': 289,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In 2008, a study was conducted by the University of Westminster, London, and sponsored by the paper-towel industry the European Tissue Symposium, to compare the levels of hygiene offered by paper towels, warm-air hand dryers and the more modern jet-air hand dryers. The key findings were:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '165767',
'title': 'Towel',
'section': 'Section::::Types.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 419,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- A "cloth towel dispenser" or "continuous cloth towel" is a towel manipulated by a series of rollers, used as an alternative to paper towels and hand dryers in public washrooms. These may have a lower environmental impact than paper towels, though concerns over hygiene mean they are not used by some organisations and have greatly declined in popularity. They can also be used in dangerous "choking games".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4459435',
'title': 'Paper-towel dispenser',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 425,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Such dispensers are common in North America and other western countries. They are either used to replace hand dryers or used in tandem to offer users alternatives to drying their hands. Some areas opt not to use them as towels create litter and are less environmentally friendly. Replacing hand dryers with towels is seen as a way to reduce the further dispersal of toilet aerosols in public washrooms known as toilet plume.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why are hand dryers in public restrooms considered more hygienic than paper towels? Having forced air blowing germs all over the place doesn't seem very hygienic at all.",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It turns out that you are correct. Not only do they blow germs from outside the blower... What happens when someplace is dark, warm, and moist? Mold grows. So you're getting mold spores and waste from INSIDE the dryer on your hands, too.\n\n_URL_0_\n",
"I feel like they might do it because it's less of a hassle than switching out paper towels constantly. \nI'm probably wrong but, my first thought. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '664iv4',
'query': "why are hand dryers in public restrooms considered more hygienic than paper towels? having forced air blowing germs all over the place doesn't seem very hygienic at all.",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '23538754',
'title': 'Wayback Machine',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The Wayback Machine is a digital archive of the World Wide Web and other information on the Internet. It was launched in 2001 by the Internet Archive, a nonprofit organization based in San Francisco, California, United States. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '176931',
'title': 'Internet Archive',
'section': 'Section::::Web archiving.:Wayback Machine.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 287,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The use of the term "Wayback Machine" in the context of the Internet Archive has become common in popular culture; e.g., in the television show "" ("Legacy", first run August 3, 2008), a computer tech uses the "Wayback Machine" to find an archive of a student\'s Facebook-style web site.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23538754',
'title': 'Wayback Machine',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Limitations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 33,
'end_character': 514,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Despite its capabilities, the Wayback Machine also has some limitations. In 2014 there was a six-month lag time between when a website is crawled and when it is available for viewing in the Wayback Machine. Currently, the lag time is 3 to 10 hours. The Wayback Machine is not "historical Google"; users must know the URL of the websites they want to see. It does have a "Site Search" feature that allows users to find a site based on words describing the site, rather than words found on the web pages themselves.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23538754',
'title': 'Wayback Machine',
'section': 'Section::::Technical details.:Website exclusion policy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 861,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Historically, Wayback Machine has respected the robots exclusion standard (robots.txt) in determining if a website would be crawled or not; or if already crawled, if its archives would be publicly viewable. Website owners had the option to opt-out of Wayback Machine through the use of robots.txt. It applied robots.txt rules retroactively; if a site blocked the Internet Archive, any previously archived pages from the domain were immediately rendered unavailable as well. In addition, the Internet Archive stated that "Sometimes a website owner will contact us directly and ask us to stop crawling or archiving a site. We comply with these requests." In addition, the website says: "The Internet Archive is not interested in preserving or offering access to Web sites or other Internet documents of persons who do not want their materials in the collection."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23538754',
'title': 'Wayback Machine',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Limitations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
'end_character': 780,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The Wayback Machine does not include every web page ever made due to the limitations of its web crawler. The Wayback Machine cannot completely archive web pages that contain interactive features such as Flash platforms and forms written in JavaScript, because those functions require interaction with the host website. The Wayback Machine\'s web crawler has difficulty extracting anything not coded in HTML (or one of its variants) which often results in broken hyperlinks and missing images. Due to this, the web crawler cannot archive "orphan pages" that contain no links to other pages. Specific rules governing the Wayback Machine\'s crawler can only follow a predetermined number of hyperlinks based on a preset depth limit, so it cannot archive every hyperlink on every page.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23538754',
'title': 'Wayback Machine',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.\n',
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'passage_text': "From its public launch in 2001, the Wayback Machine has been studied by scholars both for the ways it stores and collects data as well as for the actual pages contained in its archive. As of 2013, scholars had written about 350 articles on the Wayback Machine, mostly from the information technology, library science, and social science fields. Social science scholars have used the Wayback Machine to analyze how the development of websites from the mid-1990s to the present has affected the company's growth.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '176931',
'title': 'Internet Archive',
'section': 'Section::::Web archiving.:Wayback Machine.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The Internet Archive capitalized on the popular use of the term "WABAC Machine" from a segment of "The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle" cartoon (specifically "Peabody\'s Improbable History"), and uses the name "Wayback Machine" for its service that allows archives of the World Wide Web to be searched and accessed. This service allows users to view some of the archived web pages. The Wayback Machine was created as a joint effort between Alexa Internet and the Internet Archive when a three-dimensional index was built to allow for the browsing of archived web content. Millions of web sites and their associated data (images, source code, documents, etc.) are saved in a database. The service can be used to see what previous versions of web sites used to look like, to grab original source code from web sites that may no longer be directly available, or to visit web sites that no longer even exist. Not all web sites are available because many web site owners choose to exclude their sites. As with all sites based on data from web crawlers, the Internet Archive misses large areas of the web for a variety of other reasons. A 2004 paper found international biases in the coverage, but deemed them "not intentional".\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'how does the internet’s wayback machine work?',
'selftext': 'Sidenote; How much data do the servers need to handle? Context: [The wayback machine]( URL_0 ) is a website where you can visit previous versions of websites/ deleted threads. Type a site in the search bar, say of a youtube user, choose a time, and see what the page looked like on that day/time',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Correct me if I'm wrong, but this is how previous projects that were similar worked. They have bots (automated software) that crawl the web looking at different webpages and archiving them. Every time it takes a snapshot of a webpage (usually including its source code and, if I remember right, copies of images as well), it stores it and you can view it later.\n\nMore trafficked websites will have visits from those boots quite a lot more often.",
"The wayback machine is absolute proof: The internet doesn't erase anything. \x10\x10\x10\x10\x10\x10\x10\x10\x10\x10\x10\x10Ever.",
"To answer the second part of your question it's currently about 9.6 petabytes, (a petabyte is 1000 terabytes which is 1000 gigabytes) and in 2009 was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each\xa0month."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '939pt1',
'query': 'how does the internet’s wayback machine work?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3158567',
'title': 'The Grateful Dead Movie',
'section': 'Section::::Home Video Releases.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
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'passage_text': 'On November 1, 2011, the restored movie was released on Blu-ray, with lossless audio. Extras include a commentary on the Blu-ray disc production, plus a DVD with 95 minutes of extra songs and featurettes on the making of the movie.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19701',
'title': 'Monty Python and the Holy Grail',
'section': 'Section::::Release.:Home media.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A limited-edition DVD release additionally included a copy of the screenplay, a limited-edition film cell/senitype, and limited-edition art cards; however, a few of the bonus features from the \'Extraordinarily Deluxe Edition\' were omitted. A 35th-anniversary edition on Blu-ray was released in the US on 6 March 2012. Special features include "The Holy Book of Days," a second-screen experience that can be downloaded as an app on an iOS device and played with the Blu-ray to enhance its viewing, lost animation sequences with a new intro from animator Terry Gilliam, outtakes and extended scenes with Python member and the movie\'s co-director Terry Jones.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31371',
'title': 'Seven Samurai',
'section': 'Section::::Release.:Home media.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 57,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'A Criterion Collection DVD version of the film was released containing the complete original version of the film (207 minutes) on one disc and a second Criterion DVD released in 2006 also contains the digitally remastered, complete film on two discs, as well as an additional disc of extra material. A region 4 DVD of the full 207 minute cut was released in 2004 by Madman Entertainment under its Eastern Eye label. A Blu-ray edition of the full length edition was released by the Criterion Collection on October 19, 2010.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '247709',
'title': 'Dreams (1990 film)',
'section': 'Section::::Home media.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 48,
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'passage_text': "The Criterion Collection released special editions of the film on Blu-Ray and DVD on November 15, 2016 in the US. Both editions feature a new 4K restoration, headed by Lee Kline, technical director of The Criterion Collection, and supervised by one of the film's cinematographers, Shoji Ueda.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27070',
'title': 'Star Trek: The Next Generation',
'section': 'Section::::Home media.:Blu-ray.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 158,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 158,
'end_character': 322,
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'passage_text': 'The entire re-mastered series is available on Blu-ray as individual seasons, and as a 41-disc box set titled "The Full Journey". Eventually, all remastered episodes will also be available for television syndication and digital distribution. Mike Okuda believes this is the largest film restoration project ever attempted.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '447139',
'title': 'Sorcerer (film)',
'section': 'Section::::Release.:Theatrical and home releases.:Home media.:2014 home video re-release.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 111,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 111,
'end_character': 921,
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'passage_text': 'In September 2013, Friedkin announced that new, remastered home video releases on Blu-ray and DVD were supposed to be released on April 14, 2014, however, both ended up being pushed to April 22. While the 2014 Blu-ray release contains a new, digitally remastered version of the movie, its DVD counterpart is simply a reissued version of the previous DVD release, and has not been authorized by Friedkin, who himself disowned it, and advised to avoid purchasing it. Furthermore, the director announced that he would supervise the remastering process for its proper DVD re-release, which hit stores on August. The Blu-Ray had no extra features, but was accompanied by a booklet with production stills and an excerpt of Friedkin\'s memoir "The Friedkin Connection", and was well-received upon release, with good reviews praising the quality of the transfer and reaching #1 in Drama and # 2 in Action/Adventure on Amazon.com.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8655156',
'title': 'R5 (bootleg)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 382,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The image quality of an R5 release is generally comparable to a DVD Screener release, except without the added scrolling text and black and white scenes that serve to distinguish screeners from commercial DVD releases. R5 quality can be somewhat better than transfers produced by movie bootleggers because the transfer is performed using professional-grade film scanning equipment.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How is the Criterion Collection able to restore movies that are 50 plus years old to Blu Ray quality?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['35mm film still has more detail contained on it than any digital camera can capture. It captures far more texture and nuance, this is why some directors (Tarantino being a popular example) still use "real" film. This is comparable to the old records vs. digital format debate in audio recordings. \n\nCelluloid film does have a tendency to break down and degrade over time, but it can be "remastered" and digitized, often to considerably better quality than it would have been originally (as seen through an analogue projector). \n\nFor example, I was watching reruns of the original Star Trek run on the BBC yesterday. These episodes never looked better! Not just the remastered "cgi," but every shot was crisper, cleaner, and better colored than I remember them being originally.\n\nEdit: 32-35mm (I was a projectionist for Pete\'s sake, I should know this!) ',
'Boils down to: \nHow many megapixels does film have? \nInfinitely many! \nIt’s because the image isn’t divided up into tiny squares (the pixels) and is perfectly smooth. \nFilm is far more detailed than digital as it’s analogue so it’s a good source for making better and better versions. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7n4nn8',
'query': 'how is the criterion collection able to restore movies that are 50 plus years old to blu ray quality?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1555553',
'title': 'Unilateral hearing loss',
'section': 'Section::::Profound unilateral hearing loss.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
'end_character': 359,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Lack of sound depth: any background noise (in the room, in the car) is flat and wrongly interpreted by the brain. The effect is similar to what happens when trying to hear someone speaking in a noisy crowd on a mono TV. The effect is also similar to talking on the phone to someone who is in a noisy environment (see also: King-Kopetzky syndrome)\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21007560',
'title': 'Promise (1986 film)',
'section': 'Section::::Production.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
'end_character': 859,
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'passage_text': "It's like, all the electric wires in the house are plugged into my brain. And every one has a different noise, so I can't think. Some of the wires have voices in them and they tell me things like what to do and that people are watching me. I know there really aren't any voices, but I feel that there are, and that I should listen to them or something will happen. … I can remember what I was like before. I was a class officer, I had friends. I was going to be an aeronautical engineer. Do you remember, Bobby? I've never had a job. I've never owned a car. I've never lived alone. I've never made love to a woman. And I never will. That's what it's like. You should know. That's why I'm a Hindu. Because maybe it's true: Maybe people are born again. And if there is a God, maybe he'll give me another chance. I believe that, because this can't be all I get.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1555553',
'title': 'Unilateral hearing loss',
'section': 'Section::::Profound unilateral hearing loss.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 37,
'end_character': 292,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Talking loudly or "broadcasting": the affected person cannot perceive the volume of his or her voice relative to other people in the same room or close company, resulting in being characterized by others (who may be located beyond normal auditory range) as domineering or boorish\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19819333',
'title': 'Foellinger Auditorium',
'section': 'Section::::Current uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 275,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Directly in front of the building, at the bottom of the stairs, there in a semi-circular forecourt area. Due to the architecture, when standing directly in the center, an echo can be heard by the speaker. This area is known as the "echo spot" to most students on the campus.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36026592',
'title': 'The Hideout (film)',
'section': 'Section::::Plot.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 755,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "As the gruesome voice in the house gets louder and more dreadful, she contacts the priest again, believing there's some entity or ghost. He warns her and tells her to better leave the house at once, but as she has put all her money into the purchase of the house she can not leave. As she starts to check the walls to find out where the voice comes from, she finds an old hidden, big ventilation system with tunnels that seem to run throughout the building. She can now clearly hear something moving through the ventilation-tunnels. She grabs into one of the ventilation gutters and pulls out a decomposed, human foot! As the mysteries about the murders in the house start to unravel, she finally starts to realize in what horrible danger she truly is...\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1257591',
'title': 'Near–far problem',
'section': 'Section::::Analogies.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 977,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'To place this problem in more common terms, imagine you are talking to someone 6 meters away. If the two of you are in a quiet, empty room then a conversation is quite easy to hold at normal voice levels. In a loud, crowded bar, it would be impossible to hear the same voice level, and the only solution (for that distance) is for both you and your friend to speak louder. Of course, this increases the overall noise level in the bar, and every other patron has to talk louder too (this is equivalent to power control runaway). Eventually, everyone has to shout to make themselves heard by a person standing right beside them, and it is impossible to communicate with anyone more than half a meter away. In general, however, a human is very capable of filtering out loud sounds; similar techniques can be deployed in signal processing where suitable criteria for distinguishing between signals can be established (see signal processing and notably adaptive signal processing.)\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2604682',
'title': 'Unglaublicher Laerm',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 607,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': '" When you were upstairs, you couldn\'t hear anything at all, but you could see EN clicking away on laptops (and Blixa screaming in a microphone). The REAL thing was downstairs. You can see the small room on the photos - maybe 20 people could be there at the same time. Because of ear-protection headsets (or your fingers pressed into your ears) it was not about sound. It was about feeling. The massive wave of sound from those speakers (in this small room!) flattened the hairs on the back of my arms and on my head. Sometimes the music came to a DEEP grinding halt. Sometimes Blixa\'s voice cut through. "\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why can you hear the voices in the apartment above you so easily, but not the voices in the apartment below you?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Because sound travels through the solid medium ( the floor slab). On the floor above, people are directly in contact with the surface; while on the floor below, you're only depending on the noise traveling through air and noise traveling in air is divided into reflected, absorbed and transferred, major percentage of which, is reflected. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5mp9n4',
'query': 'why can you hear the voices in the apartment above you so easily, but not the voices in the apartment below you?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '45300883',
'title': 'Epidemiology of measles',
'section': 'Section::::References.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 100,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "Choosing not to vaccinate is largely to blame for the recent outbreak of measles. Parents choosing not to vaccinate prevents herd immunity, which is what patients who suffer with immunocompromising diseases rely on to protect them. To prevent the measles outbreak of 2019 from getting worse it is necessary for anti-vaxxers to choose to vaccinate, however, just presenting evidence to parents that are resistance is usually not enough. “Finding common ground with parents' goals and hopes for their children and sharing compelling individual accounts may help” (Smith, 2018, p.\xa01).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2808424',
'title': 'Pox party',
'section': 'Section::::Effectiveness and risk.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 465,
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'passage_text': 'Parents who expose their children to Varicella zoster virus in this manner may believe that a case of chickenpox is safer and more effective than receiving a vaccination. Similar ideas have been applied to other diseases such as measles. However, pediatricians have warned against holding pox parties, citing dangers arising from possible complications associated with chicken pox, such as encephalitis, chickenpox-associated pneumonia, and invasive group A strep.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32473',
'title': 'Vaccination',
'section': 'Section::::Society and culture.:Opposition to vaccination.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 55,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 55,
'end_character': 676,
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'passage_text': "Many parents do not vaccinate their children because they feel that diseases are no longer present due to vaccination. This is a false assumption, since diseases held in check by immunization programs can and do still return if immunization is dropped. These pathogens could possibly infect vaccinated people, due to the pathogen's ability to mutate when it is able to live in unvaccinated hosts. In 2010, California had the worst whooping cough outbreak in 50 years. A possible contributing factor was parents choosing not to vaccinate their children. There was also a case in Texas in 2012 where 21 members of a church contracted measles because they chose not to immunize.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32653',
'title': 'Vaccine',
'section': 'Section::::Effectiveness.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 826,
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'passage_text': 'Vaccines led to the eradication of smallpox, one of the most contagious and deadly diseases in humans. Other diseases such as rubella, polio, measles, mumps, chickenpox, and typhoid are nowhere near as common as they were a hundred years ago thanks to widespread vaccination programs. As long as the vast majority of people are vaccinated, it is much more difficult for an outbreak of disease to occur, let alone spread. This effect is called herd immunity. Polio, which is transmitted only between humans, is targeted by an extensive eradication campaign that has seen endemic polio restricted to only parts of three countries (Afghanistan, Nigeria, and Pakistan). However, the difficulty of reaching all children as well as cultural misunderstandings have caused the anticipated eradication date to be missed several times.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34254',
'title': 'Yellow fever',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Current status.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 87,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 87,
'end_character': 364,
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'passage_text': 'In Africa, virus eradication programs have mostly relied upon vaccination. These programs have largely been unsuccessful because they were unable to break the sylvatic cycle involving wild primates. With few countries establishing regular vaccination programs, measures to fight yellow fever have been neglected, making the future spread of the virus more likely.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8649736',
'title': 'Varicella vaccine',
'section': 'Section::::Medical uses.:Duration of immunity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 539,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Catching "wild" chickenpox as a child has been thought to commonly result in lifelong immunity. Indeed, parents have deliberately ensured this in the past with "pox parties". Historically, exposure of adults to contagious children has boosted their immunity, reducing the risk of shingles. The CDC and corresponding national organisations are carefully observing the failure rate which may be high compared with other modern vaccines—large outbreaks of chickenpox having occurred at schools which required their children to be vaccinated.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4840281',
'title': 'MMRV vaccine',
'section': 'Section::::Recommendations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'The World Health Organization recommends vaccinating against measles, mumps, rubella (German measles), and varicella (chickenpox) because the risks of these diseases far outweigh the risks of vaccinating against them. In particular, the World Health Organization recommends varicella vaccination in countries where the vaccine is affordable, the disease is a relatively important problem, and high and sustained vaccine coverage can be achieved. The U.S. and a few other countries have widely implemented this. MMR and varicella vaccine are given at roughly the same time and a booster injection is recommended for both. The MMRV vaccine, a combined MMR and varicella vaccine, simplifies administration of the vaccines.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'As diseases like polio are eradicated why do we still need to vaccinate against them.',
'selftext': "Note: I'm not an antivaxer troll. I had my kids blasted with vaccines Yosemite Sam style. Pew pew",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['When a disease is considered eradicated, it is saying that we ("we being whatever group(s) keeps these records) haven\'t heard of any recorded cases in ___ number of years. It\'s possible the disease is still out there and it\'s just not being reported. Vaccinations continue for a little while just in case.',
'The main reason is that the diseases we vaccinate against have not been eradicated. For example, while the incidence of polio has reduced by 99% since we began vaccination programs, there are still about 50 confirmed cases per year. While extremely unlikely, there is still a small chance that someone can be infected. If I remember correctly, smallpox is the only disease that has been 100% successfully eradicated through vaccination, with no reported cases since 1980. Which is why kids are often no longer vaccinated against smallpox.',
"also, in many less developed nations, they either don't have certain vaccines or they're not as accessible. so while something may be eradicated in the usa or europe, maybe a poor or underdeveloped nation is more common. ",
"Vaccines aren't perfect. Say a vaccine has an 85% effective rate. That means there's still 15% of people that are going to get that disease (people will still carry the disease, but it won't effect them). Well, since everyone around them has that vaccine, the disease doesn't have anywhere to go, so it burns out. \n\nNow, if there's a bunch of people that DIDN'T get vaccinated, then there's a higher chance of it spreading to those who did, and causing an outbreak.\n\nI know this isn't exactly what you asked, but I feel like it's a solid answer.",
"Many diseases that we vaccinate against are difficult to get rid of completely, because they can be carried by animals. Even if we vaccinate every human, the virus still could be kept alive in bat populations for example, and then passed back to humans if we stop vaccinating. \n\nSome viruses do only affect humans and are much easier to eradicate. Smallpox, for one. HPV for another, but a lot of people refuse that one because they can't stand the thought that their kids might have sex some day, so cervical cancer will linger far longer than it should even though we could conceivably eradicate it within a generation. ",
"Polio isn't eradicated, but we've mostly stopped vaccinating for it because it's extremely rare outside of a very few areas (a bit of Pakistan and a bit of Africa, iirc).\n\nSmallpox is eradicated, and we no longer vaccinate for that at all.\n\nOther diseases, the vaccine isn't perfect protection, or the disease has non-human reservoirs that make re-occurrence a risk forever."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6d24vd',
'query': 'as diseases like polio are eradicated why do we still need to vaccinate against them.',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '9889145',
'title': 'Vagal tone',
'section': 'Section::::Noninvasive vagal tone quantification.:Respiratory sinus arrhythmia.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 353,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'During inhalation, the intra-thoracic pressure lowers due to the contraction and downward movement of the diaphragm and the expansion of the chest cavity. Atrial pressure is also lowered as a result, causing increased blood flow to the heart, which in turn triggers baroreceptors which act to diminish vagal tone. This causes an increase in heart rate.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '304033',
'title': 'Iron lung',
'section': 'Section::::Method and use.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 626,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Humans, like most mammals, breathe by "negative pressure" breathing: the rib cage expands and the diaphragm contracts, expanding the chest cavity. This causes the pressure in the chest cavity to decrease, and the lungs expand to fill the space. This, in turn, causes the pressure of the air inside the lungs to decrease (it becomes negative, relative to the atmosphere), and air flows into the lungs from the atmosphere: inhalation. When the diaphragm relaxes, the reverse happens and the person exhales. If a person loses part or all of the ability to control the muscles involved, breathing becomes difficult or impossible.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '485578',
'title': 'Exhalation',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 526,
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'passage_text': 'This happens due to elastic properties of the lungs, as well as the internal intercostal muscles which lower the rib cage and decrease thoracic volume. As the thoracic diaphragm relaxes during exhalation it causes the tissue it has depressed to rise superiorly and put pressure on the lungs to expel the air. During forced exhalation, as when blowing out a candle, expiratory muscles including the abdominal muscles and internal intercostal muscles generate abdominal and thoracic pressure, which forces air out of the lungs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35688715',
'title': 'Intrapleural pressure',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 358,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'At rest we have a negative intrapleural pressure. This gives us a transpulmonary pressure expanding the lungs. In simpler terms, if we didn’t maintain a slightly negative pressure even when exhaling, our lungs would collapse on themselves because all the air would rush towards the area of lower pressure. Intra-pleural pressure is sub-atmospheric. This is \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '322269',
'title': 'Pleurisy',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 42,
'end_character': 312,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'When the space between the pleurae starts to fill with fluid, as in pleural effusion, the chest pain can be eased but a shortness of breath can result, since the lungs need room to expand during breathing. Some cases of pleuritic chest pain are idiopathic, which means that the exact cause cannot be determined.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9889145',
'title': 'Vagal tone',
'section': 'Section::::Noninvasive vagal tone quantification.:Respiratory sinus arrhythmia.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 375,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'During exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes, moving upward, and decreases the size of the chest cavity, causing an increase in intrathoracic pressure. This increase in pressure inhibits venous return to the heart resulting in both reduced atrial expansion and reduced activation of baroreceptors. This relieves the suppression of vagal tone and leads to a decreased heart rate.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '66723',
'title': 'Respiratory system',
'section': 'Section::::Mammals.:Mechanics of breathing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 795,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'During heavy breathing, exhalation is caused by relaxation of all the muscles of inhalation. But now, the abdominal muscles, instead of remaining relaxed (as they do at rest), contract forcibly pulling the lower edges of the rib cage downwards (front and sides) (Fig.\xa08). This not only drastically decreases the size of the rib cage, but also pushes the abdominal organs upwards against the diaphragm which consequently bulges deeply into the thorax (Fig.\xa08). The end-exhalatory lung volume is now well below the resting mid-position and contains far less air than the resting "functional residual capacity". However, in a normal mammal, the lungs cannot be emptied completely. In an adult human there is always still at least 1 liter of residual air left in the lungs after maximum exhalation.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What causes the pressure in our chest when we hold our breath?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The pressure doesn't actually increase as you hold your breath. What you are feeling is the psychological manifestation of your need to breathe. And what is ultimately driving that is increased carbonic acid in your blood.\n\nCarbon dioxide is a bit different from other gases in that it doesn't really dissolve in water, but rather almost completely breaks down and reforms into carbonic acid. That acidity of this causes the pH of your blood to lower while you hold your breath, and it is that change in pH that drives you to take another breath long before you actually need to to get more oxygen."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'biobk2',
'query': 'what causes the pressure in our chest when we hold our breath?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '203197',
'title': 'Memory effect',
'section': 'Section::::Other problems perceived as memory effect.:Permanent loss of capacity.:Deep discharge.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 320,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Battery users may attempt to avoid the memory effect proper by fully discharging their battery packs. This practice is likely to cause more damage as one of the cells will be deep discharged. The damage is focused on the weakest cell, so that each additional full discharge will cause more and more damage to that cell.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41382162',
'title': 'Battery regenerator',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 407,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Batteries also have a small amount of internal resistance that will discharge the battery even when it is disconnected. If a battery is left disconnected, any internal charge will drain away slowly and eventually reach the critical point. From then on the film will develop and thicken. This is the reason batteries will be found to charge poorly or not at all if left in storage for a long period of time.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '201495',
'title': 'Lead–acid battery',
'section': 'Section::::Cycles.:Starting batteries.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 66,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 66,
'end_character': 489,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Starting batteries are of lighter weight than deep cycle batteries of the same size, because the thinner and lighter cell plates do not extend all the way to the bottom of the battery case. This allows loose disintegrated material to fall off the plates and collect at the bottom of the cell, prolonging the service life of the battery. If this loose debris rises enough it may touch the bottom of the plates and cause failure of a cell, resulting in loss of battery voltage and capacity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '203197',
'title': 'Memory effect',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Memory effect, also known as battery effect, lazy battery effect, or battery memory, is an effect observed in nickel-cadmium and nickel–metal hydride rechargeable batteries that causes them to hold less charge. It describes the situation in which nickel-cadmium batteries gradually lose their maximum energy capacity if they are repeatedly recharged after being only partially discharged. The battery appears to "remember" the smaller capacity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '298814',
'title': 'Jump start (vehicle)',
'section': 'Section::::Hazards.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
'end_character': 282,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A fully depleted battery will not draw more power if the cables are reversed, but reverse-charging a dead battery can damage its chemistry so that it loses charge capacity, and reverse voltage applied to the vehicle electronics may also damage them, resulting in expensive repairs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '497852',
'title': 'Planned obsolescence',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Prevention of repairs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 276,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Some products contain batteries that are not user-replaceable after they have worn down. While such a design can help make the device thinner, it can also make it difficult to replace the battery without sending the entire device away for repairs or purchasing a replacement.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '186614',
'title': 'Nickel–cadmium battery',
'section': 'Section::::Memory effect.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 70,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 70,
'end_character': 249,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The battery survives thousands of charges/discharges cycles. Also it is possible to lower the memory effect by discharging the battery completely about once a month. This way apparently the battery does not "remember" the point in its charge cycle.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "why can motorbike batteries sit on a shelf unused without losing charge but when sitting inside a motorbike for a few weeks that hasn't been turned on, go dead?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['When its on the shelf, there no where for the energy to go. In a motorbike, the battery is slowly and passively discharging. even if nothing is on. This is because the electrons in the battert have another place to go, the motor bike electrical system',
"Errr also. I'm not sure how much it's changed. But most of the boxed batteries we got at the shop for the bikes still had no fluid mixture in them on the shelf.\n\nOnce we cracked open the box we put the water in and pushed on the seal and then it was ready to go.\n\nThis was about 10 years ago though.",
"There are two things: \n\n\nFirst, some portions of your bike's electrical systems will often remain on when the bike is turned off, causing minimal, but noticeable drain. \n\n\nSecond, on the shelf the battery is in a climate controlled environment, while in the bike it is not. Repeated heating and cooling causes many types of battery to lose charge, especially if it is outside of the battery's ideal temperature range."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'ebs6ej',
'query': "why can motorbike batteries sit on a shelf unused without losing charge but when sitting inside a motorbike for a few weeks that hasn't been turned on, go dead?",
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '46894283',
'title': 'Cyproconazole',
'section': 'Section::::Resistance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 345,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Development of fungal resistance can be prevented by not using cyproconazole "repeatedly alone in the same season" or by not using it late in the infection, that is, curatively. Fungi can develop resistance if the same fungicide is used repeatedly or when fungicides with the same mode of action are repeatedly.(package insert Alto 100Syngenta)\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '515758',
'title': 'Fungicide',
'section': 'Section::::Resistance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 761,
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'passage_text': 'Pathogens respond to the use of fungicides by evolving resistance. In the field several mechanisms of resistance have been identified. The evolution of fungicide resistance can be gradual or sudden. In qualitative or discrete resistance, a mutation (normally to a single gene) produces a race of a fungus with a high degree of resistance. Such resistant varieties also tend to show stability, persisting after the fungicide has been removed from the market. For example, sugar beet leaf blotch remains resistant to azoles years after they were no longer used for control of the disease. This is because such mutations have a high selection pressure when the fungicide is used, but there is low selection pressure to remove them in the absence of the fungicide.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '986465',
'title': 'Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 498,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A spontaneous fungal infection can often follow a spontaneous bacterial infection that has been treated with antibiotics. The use of antibiotics can result in an excessive growth of fungi in the gut flora which can then translocate into the peritoneal cavity. Although fungi are much larger than bacteria, the increased intestinal permeability resulting from advanced cirrhosis makes their translocation easier. SFP is mostly caused by species of "Candida" and most commonly by "Candida albicans".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52271632',
'title': 'Sudden Death Syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Management.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 527,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Fungicides are another common product used to control fungal pathogens. In-furrow applications and seed treatments with fungicides have some effect in decreasing disease instance but in most cases, the timing isn't right and the pathogen can still infect the plants. Foliar applications of fungicides have no effect on disease suppression for SDS because the fungi are found in the soil and mainly the roots of the plants. Most foliar fungicides do not move downward through plants, therefore having no effect on the pathogen.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2524885',
'title': 'Black rot (grape disease)',
'section': 'Section::::Control and management.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 901,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Commercially, application of fungicides may be costly. To cut down on costs, one must understand the life cycle of the pathogens. Different fungicides are more effective at certain infection stages. Understand that throughout the development of the plant, different fungicides should be considered to protect plant health. In order to cut down on spraying costs, it is important to understand life cycle of the pathogen. “Research in New York demonstrated berries of most varieties become resistant to black rot infection 3-4 weeks after bloom, therefore, sprays for black rot should not be needed at this time”. Understanding times to limit application is important for good production practices. This shows that preventative chemical measures before the three to four weeks would be optimal. Each region should develop their own fungicide application program in correlation with cultural practices.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7898594',
'title': 'Benzimidazole fungicide',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 919,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Starting in the late 1960s, they were widely used to control fungal pathogens such as "Botrytis cinerea", "Cercospora", powdery mildew and eyespot. These systemic fungicides were very effective at first. Because there is only one target site, benzimidazole resistance quickly became a serious problem. When they were the only fungicides used, pathogens became resistant after two to four seasons; when mixed with other fungicides, resistance developed more slowly. Resistant genotypes with certain point mutations were selected. Mutant pathogens resistant to one benzimidazole fungicide are usually resistant to all of them. The F200Y and E198A,G,K mutations are the most common. Because of resistance problems, use of benzimidazole fungicides has declined. They are suspected to be toxic to animals, including humans. The Fungicide Resistance Action Committee lists them as having a high risk of resistance evolution.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42085062',
'title': 'Fungal isolate',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 493,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Fungal isolates have been researched for decades. Because fungi often exist in thin mycelial monolayers, with no protective shell, immune system, and limited mobility, they have developed the ability to synthesize a variety of unusual compounds for survival. Researchers have discovered fungal isolates with anticancer, antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, and other bio-active properties. The first statins, β-Lactam antibiotics, as well as a few important antifungals, were discovered in fungi.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How did fungi develop antibiotics fast enough to kill bacteria? And why couldn't bacteria just develop faster to overcome the antibiotics fungi made, therefore becoming resistant?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Many bacteria HAVE evolved to become resistant to penicillin due to its widespread use as an antibiotic when it was first discovered. \nFrom what I understand, it might be opposite of what you think. Bacteria have poor DNA repair mechanisms due to their rapid generation time, so they often accumulate mutations. A random mutation leading to antibiotic resistance and selection quickly allows a bacteria population to become resistant to an antibiotic. On the other hand, fungi are eukaryotes (like humans) with better DNA repair mechanisms than bacteria so they don't develop mutations as rapidly. Seeing as how bacteria are growing resistant to penicillin, it would probably take longer for the fungi to adapt to the situation and counteract. \n \n > Fungi and Bacteria are mortal enemies. \n \nIn many cases, that is not correct. There are various symbiotic relationships where bacteria live within fungi. In return, the bacteria aid with metabolism and help provide nutrients."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5w1ldx',
'query': "how did fungi develop antibiotics fast enough to kill bacteria? and why couldn't bacteria just develop faster to overcome the antibiotics fungi made, therefore becoming resistant?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1060399',
'title': 'Charley horse',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Charlie horse (or charley horse) is a popular colloquial term in Canada and the United States for painful involuntary spasms or cramps in the leg muscles, typically lasting anywhere from a few seconds to about a day. It is less likely to refer to a bruise on an arm or leg and a bruising of the quadriceps muscle of the anterior or lateral thigh, or contusion of the femur, that commonly results in a haematoma and sometimes several weeks of pain and disability. In this latter sense, such an injury is known as dead leg. Dead leg and charlie horse are two different kinds of injury: a dead leg involves someone or something hitting a leg, causing it to go numb. A charlie horse involves the muscles contracting without warning, and can last from a few seconds to a few days. It often occurs in contact sports, such as football when an athlete suffers a knee (blunt trauma) to the lateral quadriceps causing a haematoma or temporary paresis and antalgic gait as a result of pain.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2286865',
'title': 'Splints',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 311,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Overworking young or unfit horses at speed or in tight circles may cause splints. The uneven loading of the limb in tight circles places excessive force on the medial splint, which can cause it to move excessively relative to the cannon bone, causing tears in the interosseous ligament and periosteal reaction.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2227559',
'title': 'Equine conformation',
'section': 'Section::::Conformation of the front and hind legs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 448,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 448,
'end_character': 430,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- These horses tend to paddle, creating excess motion and twisting of the joints with the hoof in the air. This is unappealing in show horse, wasteful energy, which reduces the efficiency of the stride, so the horse fatigues more quickly. The hoof initially impacts ground on inside wall, causing excess stress on the inside structures of the limb, leading to ringbone (DJD) and sole or heel bruising in inside of hoof.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38210292',
'title': 'Limbs of the horse',
'section': 'Section::::Lameness and injuries.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 1282,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "There are numerous issues that can occur with horses' legs that may not necessarily cause lameness. Stocking up is an issue that occurs in horses that are held in stalls for multiple days after periods of activity. Fluid collects in the lower legs, producing swelling and often stiffness. Although it does not usually cause lameness or other problems, prolonged periods of stocking up can lead to other skin issues. Older horses and horse with heavy muscling are more prone to this condition. A shoe boil is an injury that occurs when there is trauma to the bursal sac of the elbow, causing inflammation and swelling. Multiple occurrences can cause a cosmetic sore and scar tissue, called a capped elbow, or infections. Shoe boils generally occur when a horse hits its elbow with a hoof or shoe when lying down. Windpuffs, or swelling to the back of the fetlock caused by inflammation of the sheaths of the deep digital flexor tendon, appear most often in the rear legs. Soft and fluid-filled, the swelling may initially be accompanied by heat and pain, but can remain long after the initial injury has healed without accompanying lameness. Repeated injuries to the tendon sheath, often caused by excessive training or work on hard surfaces, can cause larger problems and lameness.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2227559',
'title': 'Equine conformation',
'section': 'Section::::Conformation of the shoulder, forearm, and chest.:The chest.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 163,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 163,
'end_character': 328,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Bulky breast muscles and legs set under the body decrease the efficiency of stride and swing of shoulders, thus hastening fatigue. It may interfere with the front legs, forcing them to move to the side rather than directly under horse. Causes a “rolling” gait that slows the horse’s speed, especially at the gallop.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1060399',
'title': 'Charley horse',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 571,
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'passage_text': 'The term can also be used to refer to cramps in the foot muscles. These muscle cramps can have many possible causes directly resulting from high or low pH or substrate concentrations in the blood, including hormonal imbalances, dehydration, low levels of magnesium, potassium or calcium (although the evidence has been mixed), side effects of medication, or, more seriously, diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and neuropathy. They are also a common complaint during pregnancy.. Being physically un-fit can also be a main causing factor for the charley horse.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2227559',
'title': 'Equine conformation',
'section': 'Section::::Conformation of the front and hind legs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 433,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 433,
'end_character': 391,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Usually leads to unsoundness in horses in speed sports. Places excess stress on the knee joint as it overextends at high speeds when loaded with weight. Backward angle causes compression fractures to the front surfaces of the carpals, and may cause ligament injury within knee. Worsens with muscle fatigue as the supporting muscles and ligaments lose their stabilizing function.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why do charley horses (the type of painful muscle cramp) seem to mostly happen while you're asleep?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Because you sleep in weird positions and your muscles can't properly relax, or it's too cold and your body won't bother shivering, but the muscle still has to warm itself up,so it stays active and pulsates,and eventually it gets stuck"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'bxzg85',
'query': "why do charley horses (the type of painful muscle cramp) seem to mostly happen while you're asleep?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '20903424',
'title': 'Breathing',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 202,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Breathing (or ventilation) is the process of moving air into and out of the lungs to facilitate gas exchange with the internal environment, mostly by bringing in oxygen and flushing out carbon dioxide.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13400256',
'title': 'Respiratory center',
'section': 'Section::::Respiratory rhythm.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 576,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Breathing is the repetitive process of bringing air into the lungs and taking waste products out. The oxygen brought in from the air is a constant, on-going need of an organism to maintain life. This need is still there during sleep so that the functioning of this process has to be automatic and be part of the autonomic nervous system. The in-breath is followed by the out-breath, giving the respiratory cycle of inhalation and exhalation. There are three phases of the respiratory cycle: inspiration, post-inspiration or passive expiration, and late or active expiration. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33076880',
'title': 'Continuous spontaneous ventilation',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 513,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Spontaneous breathing is defined as the movement of gas in and out of the lungs that is produced in response to an individual's respiratory muscles. In a nutshell, spontaneous breathing is natural breathing. while at rest, a typical adult will take an average of 18 breaths per minute. Most people are unaware of their breathing patterns unless something interferes with the efficiency of this process. In extreme cases, mechanical ventilation is used when spontaneous breathing is inadequate or ceases entirely.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '485578',
'title': 'Exhalation',
'section': 'Section::::Brain involvement.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 367,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Brain control of exhalation can be broken down into voluntary control and involuntary control. During voluntary exhalation, air is held in the lungs and released at a fixed rate. Examples of voluntary expiration include: singing, speaking, exercising, playing an instrument, and voluntary hyperpnea. Involuntary breathing includes metabolic and behavioral breathing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '529870',
'title': 'Control of ventilation',
'section': 'Section::::Control of respiratory rhythm.:Ventilatory pattern.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 457,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Breathing is normally an unconscious, involuntary, automatic process. The pattern of motor stimuli during breathing can be divided into an inhalation stage and an exhalation stage. Inhalation shows a sudden, ramped increase in motor discharge to the respiratory muscles (and the pharyngeal constrictor muscles). Before the end of inhalation, there is a decline in, and end of motor discharge. Exhalation is usually silent, except at high respiratory rates.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '491962',
'title': 'Respiration (physiology)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 576,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In animals with lungs, physiological respiration involves respiratory cycles of inhaled and exhaled breaths. Inhalation (breathing in) is usually an active movement. The contraction of the diaphragm muscle cause a pressure variation, which is equal to the pressures caused by elastic, resistive and inertial components of the respiratory system. In contrast, exhalation (breathing out) is usually a passive process. Breathing in, brings air into the lungs where the process of gas exchange takes place between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the pulmonary capillaries\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '287885',
'title': 'Respiratory tract',
'section': 'Section::::Function.:Respiration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 39,
'end_character': 641,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Respiration is the rhythmical process of breathing, in which air is drawn into the alveoli of the lungs via inhalation and subsequently expelled via exhalation. When a human being inhales, air travels down the trachea, through the bronchial tubes, and into the lungs. The entire tract is protected by the rib cage, spine, and sternum. In the lungs, oxygen from the inhaled air is transferred into the blood and circulated throughout the body. Carbon dioxide (CO) is transferred from returning blood back into gaseous form in the lungs and exhaled through the lower respiratory tract and then the upper, to complete the process of breathing.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How Does Voluntary/Involuntary Breathing Work?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["When you go to a doctor's office and they tell you to take a deep breath, that is voluntary breathing. Most breathing falls under the involuntary category so that you don't have to occupy yourself with thinking about breathing all day. \n\nedited to add that voluntary blinking is sort of the same. You blink voluntarily by commanding yourself to do it, or thinking about it, essentially. A doctor tells you to blink your eyes a couple of times... that's voluntary. Most of the time it's involuntary.",
"From what I understand the nervous system doesn't really do anything differently per se. I think it's more a matter of which part/parts of the brain are sending the signal. I believe the Medulla is what normally controls things like breathing, but once you start doing it consciously, it may be that more frontal lobe parts of the brain that involve decision making and motor functions take control.",
'The trigger for involuntary breathing is a rising co2 level. The medulla can measure how acidic the blood is and triggers breathing. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9mu8u2',
'query': 'how does voluntary/involuntary breathing work?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '52030102',
'title': 'Cashless society',
'section': 'Section::::Advantages of a cashless society.:Reduction in criminal activity by eliminating high-denomination notes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 1180,
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'passage_text': 'Some have proposed a "reduced cash" system, where small bills and coins are available for anonymous, everyday transactions, but high-denomination notes are eliminated. This would make the amount of cash needed to move large amounts of value physically awkward and easier to detect. Large notes are also the most valuable to counterfeit. The United Kingdom declared only banknotes of 5 pounds or less were legal tender after World War II because of fear of Nazi counterfeiting. In 1969, the federal government of the United States declared that banknotes of value over $100 would remain legal tender, but any notes in government hands would be destroyed and that no new notes of those denominations would be printed in the future. Such notes were last printed in the USA in 1945. Canada did the same thing with the CAD$1000 banknote in the year 2000. Sweden printed 10,000kr banknotes in 1939 and 1958, but declared them invalid after 31 December 1991. Singapore has recently announced that they would no longer produce the SGD$10,000 banknote. The European Central Bank has announced that the €500 denomination banknote would not be included in the next series of euro banknotes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4948497',
'title': 'Shinplaster',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 393,
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'passage_text': 'The shortage of circulating coins was primarily due to the intrinsic value of metal rising above the value of the coin itself. People became incentivized to take coins out of circulation and melt them for the true intrinsic value. This left no medium of exchange for purchase of basic consumer goods such as milk and newspapers. To fill this gap, banks issued low-denomination paper currency.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23830729',
'title': 'Money burning',
'section': 'Section::::Rationales.:For commodity value.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 946,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Fiat money can sometimes be destroyed by converting it into commodity form, rather than completely forfeiting the value of the money. Sometimes, currency intended for use as fiat money becomes more valuable as a commodity, usually when inflation causes its face value to fall below its intrinsic value. For example, in India in 2007, Rupee coins disappeared from the market when their face value dropped below the value of the stainless steel from which they were made. Similarly, in 1965, the US government had to switch from silver to copper-nickel clad quarter coins because the silver value of the coins had exceeded their face value and were being melted down by individuals for profit. At the peak of inflation in the Weimar Republic, people burned banknotes for warmth, as their face value had fallen below their value as fuel. The same occurred to 5-franc coins of Switzerland, which up to the year 1969 were minted using a silver alloy.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38119013',
'title': 'Trillion dollar coin',
'section': 'Section::::Inflation risks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 1860,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The Federal Reserve\'s purchase of the trillion dollar coin would be largely analogous to the securities purchases that are part of quantitative easing (QE), in both cases adding to the monetary base, which is the sum of currency in circulation and bank reserves. In the case of the coin, commercial bank reserves would increase as the Treasury spent the proceeds from the coin\'s purchase by the Federal Reserve. If banks loan out these reserves, the money supply increases and if the money supply increases too rapidly, the economy could overheat, adding to inflation and increasing expectations of future inflation. In April 2011 a paper published by the St Louis Federal Reserve Bank said "some believe QE will sharply increase inflation rates; however, these fears are not consistent with economic theory and empirical evidence — assuming the Federal Reserve is both willing and able to reverse QE as the recovery gains momentum." The paper added that "if the public trusts that the increase in the monetary base QE creates is only temporary, then they will not expect rapid inflation in the near future. These expectations collectively influence actual pricing behavior and, in turn, actual inflation." The Federal Reserve could ensure that commercial banks do not lend out excess reserves by paying interest on their reserves at the Fed so that the return commercial banks receive on them is greater than they could receive from alternative uses. Finally, in the case of the coin, the Federal Reserve could also sterilize the government\'s spending of the coin by selling other assets from its balance sheet on a dollar-for-dollar basis, in which case the effect on the monetary base should net to zero. If the debt ceiling were lifted, the Treasury could use borrowing to buy the coin back from the Federal Reserve and return it to the Mint to be melted.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22156522',
'title': 'Fiat money',
'section': 'Section::::Loss of backing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 49,
'end_character': 328,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A fiat-money currency greatly loses its value should the issuing government or central bank either lose the ability to, or refuse to, further guarantee its value. The usual consequence is hyperinflation. Some examples where this has occurred are the Zimbabwean dollar, China in 1945 and the mark in the Weimar Republic in 1923.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '374778',
'title': 'Dollar coin (United States)',
'section': 'Section::::Popularity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 405,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The United States Government Accountability Office (GAO) has stated that discontinuing the dollar bill in favor of the dollar coin would save the U.S. government approximately $5.5 billion over thirty years primarily through seigniorage. The Federal Reserve has refused to order the coin from the mint for distribution citing a lack of demand, according to ex-Mint director Philip Diehl in November 2012.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18717338',
'title': 'United States dollar',
'section': 'Section::::Value.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 117,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 117,
'end_character': 570,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The value of the U.S. dollar was therefore no longer anchored to gold, and it fell upon the Federal Reserve to maintain the value of the U.S. currency. The Federal Reserve, however, continued to increase the money supply, resulting in stagflation and a rapidly declining value of the U.S. dollar in the 1970s. This was largely due to the prevailing economic view at the time that inflation and real economic growth were linked (the Phillips curve), and so inflation was regarded as relatively benign. Between 1965 and 1981, the U.S. dollar lost two thirds of its value.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If you melt a penny or rip up a dollar, are you combating inflation, since that cash is no longer in circulation? or is inflation less straightforward?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Yes, you are combatting inflation, but the amount of new currency that is added to the economy everyday is so massive that unless you were to orchestrate a huge money burn, you couldn’t make any sort of difference '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8r8h7k',
'query': 'if you melt a penny or rip up a dollar, are you combating inflation, since that cash is no longer in circulation? or is inflation less straightforward?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '638449',
'title': 'Gastric acid',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 599,
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'passage_text': "The highly acidic environment in the stomach lumen causes proteins from food to lose their characteristic folded structure (or denature). This exposes the protein's peptide bonds. The gastric chief cells of the stomach secrete enzymes for protein breakdown (inactive pepsinogen, and in infancy rennin). Hydrochloric acid activates pepsinogen into the enzyme pepsin, which then helps digestion by breaking the bonds linking amino acids, a process known as proteolysis. In addition, many microorganisms have their growth inhibited by such an acidic environment, which is helpful to prevent infection.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19916686',
'title': 'Hydrochloric acid',
'section': 'Section::::Presence in living organisms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 58,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 58,
'end_character': 394,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The stomach itself is protected from the strong acid by the secretion of a thick mucus layer, and by secretin induced buffering with sodium bicarbonate. Heartburn or peptic ulcers can develop when these mechanisms fail. Drugs of the antihistaminic and proton pump inhibitor classes can inhibit the production of acid in the stomach, and antacids are used to neutralize excessive existing acid.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24723',
'title': 'Proton-pump inhibitor',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism of action.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 43,
'end_character': 287,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Decreasing the acid in the stomach can aid the healing of duodenal ulcers and reduce the pain from indigestion and heartburn. However, stomach acids are needed to digest proteins, vitamin B, calcium, and other nutrients, and too little stomach acid causes the condition hypochlorhydria.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '165423',
'title': 'Digestion',
'section': 'Section::::Significance of pH.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 90,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 90,
'end_character': 261,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "The stomach's high acidity inhibits the breakdown of carbohydrates within it. This acidity confers two benefits: it denatures proteins for further digestion in the small intestines, and provides non-specific immunity, damaging or eliminating various pathogens.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5596320',
'title': 'Equine anatomy',
'section': 'Section::::Digestive system.:Stomach.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 50,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 50,
'end_character': 277,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In the stomach, assorted acids and the enzyme pepsin break down food. Pepsin allows for the further breakdown of proteins into amino acid chains. Other enzymes include resin and lipase. Additionally, the stomach absorbs some water, as well as ions and lipid-soluble compounds.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2689',
'title': 'Antacid',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism of action.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 296,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'When excessive amounts of acids are produced in the stomach the natural mucous barrier that protects the lining of the stomach can damage the esophagus in people with acid reflux. Antacids contain alkaline ions that chemically neutralize stomach gastric acid, reducing damage and relieving pain.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '168506',
'title': 'Esophagus',
'section': 'Section::::Function.:Reducing gastric reflux.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 35,
'end_character': 435,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The stomach produces gastric acid, a strongly acidic mixture consisting of hydrochloric acid (HCl) and potassium and sodium salts to enable food digestion. Constriction of the upper and lower esophageal sphincters help to prevent reflux (backflow) of gastric contents and acid into the esophagus, protecting the esophageal mucosa. In addition, the acute angle of His and the lower crura of the diaphragm helps this sphincteric action.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why dont my stomach acids dissolve me from the inside?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Gastric mucosa. The inner surface of the stomach is lined by a mucous membrane known as the gastric mucosa. The mucosa is always covered by a layer of thick mucus that is secreted by tall columnar epithelial cells and protects the stomach itself from the acids contained within.',
"Two things:\n\n1) Stomach acid does not dissolve your food. The acid activates enzymes in your stomach that break down protein. These enzymes will 100% eat away at your stomach (that's what an ulcer is)\n\n2) Your stomach produces a mucus coating that prevents the enzymes from eating it.",
"Your stomach is lined with a thick layer of mucus that protects you from your stomach acid. This layer is constantly being produced by the stomach surface underneath it, and maintained to protect your stomach.\n\nAnd as you can guess, if there are any imbalances in that system, your stomach acids *can* dissolve your from the inside!\n\nGERD is one disease where that happens. There's a muscle that closes off the bottom of your throat from the stomach so acid doesn't spill back up. But sometimes it doesn't work properly, and acid flows back into your throat, causing burns and, long-term, a higher risk of oesophageal cancer.\n\nStomach ulcers are another problem. When the stomach acid gets through the mucus layer and starts attacking your stomach, it forms sores and can lead to further complications. In the worst case your stomach perforates, allowing undigested food and acid to leak out. This results in severe damage and infections, and requires immediate surgery.\n\n_URL_0_",
'In addition to all the lovely attention mucous has already gotten, I want to chime in and say this is why extreme cleanses can be dangerous. I\'ve heard people talk about the "gross mucous poops" they have when they\'re in the midst of a "really effective" cleanse. --Yeah, that shit is stripping your GI tract of a really important protective layer, if you\'re actual to the point of pooping it out. And then they\'re like, "ummagaw, I am SO much more sensitive to \'bad food\' since I did that amazing cleanse." -Yeah, no shit Becky. You just disabled your entire GI tract from digesting hardly anything without making you sick as hell. It\'s there ON PURPOSE, to protect us. :)',
'What would happen if you were stabbed in the stomach and your stomach acid spilled out?'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'cvsy6i',
'query': 'why dont my stomach acids dissolve me from the inside?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '304688',
'title': 'Video 2000',
'section': 'Section::::The Video Compact Cassette.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 527,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'While VHS and Beta tapes have a break-off tab to protect recordings from erasure (as in audio Compact Cassettes and, once broken, the cavity left by the missing tab must be covered or filled before the tape can be reused), VCCs employ a reversible solution: a switch on the tape edge can be turned to red/orange to protect the recordings, and back to black/brown (depending on the colour of the cassette housing) to re-record. The switch covers/uncovers a hole along the tape edge which is detected by a sensor in the machine.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23442715',
'title': 'Videocassette recorder',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Mass-market success.:VHS vs. Betamax.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
'end_character': 392,
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'passage_text': 'The rental market was a contributing factor for acceptance of the VHS, for a variety of reasons. In those pre-digital days TV broadcasters could not offer the wide choice of a rental store, and tapes could be played as often as desired. Material was available on tape with violent or sexual scenes not available on broadcasts. Home video cameras allowed tapes to be recorded and played back.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24438',
'title': 'PAL',
'section': 'Section::::Colour encoding.:PAL broadcast systems.:PAL-N (Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 65,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 65,
'end_character': 676,
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'passage_text': 'VHS tapes recorded from a PAL-N or a PAL-B/G, D/K, H, or I broadcast are indistinguishable because the downconverted subcarrier on the tape is the same. A VHS recorded off TV (or released) in Europe will play in colour on any PAL-N VCR and PAL-N TV in Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay. Likewise, any tape recorded in Argentina, Paraguay or Uruguay off a PAL-N TV broadcast can be sent to anyone in European countries that use PAL (and Australia/New Zealand, etc.) and it will display in colour. This will also play back successfully in Russia and other SECAM countries, as the USSR mandated PAL compatibility in 1985—this has proved to be very convenient for video collectors.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23387305',
'title': 'Vanderbilt Television News Archive',
'section': 'Section::::Collection characteristics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 39,
'end_character': 447,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'On several occasions, malfunctions of either the television set or the Ampex recorder caused a tape to have serious video or audio problems. In some cases, no recording could be made, explaining some of the weeknight date gaps in the 1960s and 1970s. Some of the oldest tapes in the collection, mainly between 1968 and 1973, suffered varying degrees of loss of picture quality due to natural deterioration before they were digitized in the 2000s.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3863445',
'title': 'The Smell of Reeves and Mortimer',
'section': 'Section::::DVD release.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 67,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 67,
'end_character': 403,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'When the first series of the programme first made it to video titled "Red" & "Blue", it included extended versions of the episodes the way they were supposed to go out on TV, usually 7–10 minutes of new footage. When this DVD came out many were disappointed to find the episodes featured were the BBC edit versions. Series 2 was intact on the DVD release, mainly because it never had extended versions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5881881',
'title': 'List of Coronation Street home video releases',
'section': 'Section::::1990s.:Time-Life releases.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 326,
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'passage_text': 'Many VHS tapes were made in the 1990s for the British market, from mail-order company Time-Life Distribution, with each tape consisting of a compilation of footage featuring a particular character (for example, Gail, Rita, the Duckworths). They were made only in PAL format and not distributed in the United States or Canada.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52124',
'title': 'VHS',
'section': 'Section::::Decline.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 132,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 132,
'end_character': 397,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The VHS VCR was a mainstay in television-equipped American and European living rooms for more than 20 years from its introduction in 1977. The home television recording market, as well as the camcorder market, has since transitioned to digital recording on solid-state memory cards. The introduction of the DVD format to American consumers in March 1997 triggered the market share decline of VHS.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why did VHS tapes show a blue screen on the TV when they started up?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["That was the VCR, not the tape itself.\n\nIt's the precursor to the HDMI no signal screen. Used to be blue.",
'That\'s not the tape. That\'s either the TV or the VCR telling you, "I don\'t have anything clear enough to show you right now."\n\nI remember when that was a new thing. Before that, we saw a black screen with white lines or scrambled black and white dots.',
"The blue screen was not from the VHS tape, but rather from the VCR. \n\nIn many cases, VCRs would be hooked up to the TV with a coaxial (RF) cable. The VCR would generate a NTSC video signal on channel 3 or 4, which you would view by turning the TV to channel 3 or 4. In most of the US channel 3 was reserved (no broadcast signal) for this reason. \n\nWhen the VCR turns on, there was a desire for it to send some kind of signal to the TV so you'd know it was hooked up right. Otherwise the TV would just show static (if using coax) or a black screen (if using composite). \n\nThus, the blue screen. Easy to generate without complex circuitry (remember, VCRs were mostly analog devices) and it let you know the VCR was on, you were tuned to the right channel, and things were hooked up correctly. \n\nLater VCRs would then overlay text onto that blue screen or the video image such as PLAY / STOP / etc so you could control the VCR using the screen."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'dg7ncq',
'query': 'why did vhs tapes show a blue screen on the tv when they started up?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2420199',
'title': 'Hirsch report',
'section': 'Section::::Applicability beyond the US, critical remarks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 64,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 64,
'end_character': 896,
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'passage_text': 'During the significant oil price rise through 2007, a theme among several industry observers was that the price rise was only partially due to a limit in crude oil availability (peak oil). For example, an article by Jad Mouawad cited an unusual number of fires and other outages among U.S. refineries in the summer of 2007 which disrupted supply. However, a lack of refining capacity would only seem to explain high gasoline prices not high crude oil prices. Indeed, if the refineries were unable to process available crude oil then there should be a crude oil glut that would reduce crude prices on international crude oil markets. Then again, sharp changes in crude oil prices can also be due to stock market volatility and fear over the security of future supplies, or, on the other hand, an anticipation by investors of a rise in the value of crude oil once refining capacity picks up again.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5137675',
'title': 'Price of oil',
'section': 'Section::::Speculation during the 2008 crisis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 38,
'end_character': 552,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The interim report by the Interagency Task Force, released in July, found that speculation had not caused significant changes in oil prices and that fundamental supply and demand factors provide the best explanation for the crude oil price increases. The report found that the primary reason for the price increases was that the world economy had expanded at its fastest pace in decades, resulting in substantial increases in the demand for oil, while the oil production grew sluggishly, compounded by production shortfalls in oil-exporting countries.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '849508',
'title': 'Peak oil',
'section': 'Section::::Possible consequences.:Oil prices.:Effects of historical oil price rises.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 94,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 94,
'end_character': 707,
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'passage_text': 'In the past, sudden increases in the price of oil have led to economic recessions, such as the 1973 and 1979 energy crises. The effect the increased price of oil has on an economy is known as a price shock. In many European countries, which have high taxes on fuels, such price shocks could potentially be mitigated somewhat by temporarily or permanently suspending the taxes as fuel costs rise. This method of softening price shocks is less useful in countries with much lower gas taxes, such as the United States. A baseline scenario for a recent IMF paper found oil production growing at 0.8% (as opposed to a historical average of 1.8%) would result in a small reduction in economic growth of 0.2–0.4%.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1197343',
'title': '2000s energy crisis',
'section': 'Section::::Possible causes.:Supply.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 701,
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'passage_text': 'An important contributor to the price increase was the slowdown in oil supply growth, which has been a general trend since oil production surpassed new discoveries in 1980. The likelihood that global oil production will decline at some point, leading to lower supply, is a long-term fundamental cause of rising prices. Although there is contention about the exact time at which global production will peak, a majority of industry participants acknowledge that the concept of a production peak is valid. However, some commentators argued that global warming awareness and new energy sources would limit demand before the effects of supply could, suggesting that reserve depletion would be a non-issue.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31809928',
'title': 'Rolling recession',
'section': 'Section::::Supply Side Shock Recession.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 45,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 45,
'end_character': 210,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'As oil prices are increasing, it can cause recession due to the decline in living standards. In this day, there is a high demand of oil, oil has increased in price throughout the years hence the demand for it.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '849508',
'title': 'Peak oil',
'section': 'Section::::Possible consequences.:Oil prices.:Historical oil prices.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 89,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 89,
'end_character': 497,
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'passage_text': "Oil price increases were partially fueled by reports that petroleum production is at or near full capacity. In June 2005, OPEC stated that they would 'struggle' to pump enough oil to meet pricing pressures for the fourth quarter of that year. From 2007 to 2008, the decline in the U.S. dollar against other significant currencies was also considered as a significant reason for the oil price increases, as the dollar lost approximately 14% of its value against the Euro from May 2007 to May 2008.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '849508',
'title': 'Peak oil',
'section': 'Section::::Possible consequences.:Oil prices.:Historical oil prices.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 88,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 88,
'end_character': 350,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'It is generally agreed that the main reason for the price spike in 2005–2008 was strong demand pressure. For example, global consumption of oil rose from in 2004 to 31 billion in 2005. The consumption rates were far above new discoveries in the period, which had fallen to only eight billion barrels of new oil reserves in new accumulations in 2004.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why do events that have a negative effect on oil production cause immediate rises in prices of gas but when production is back to normal prices don't plummet back to where they started?",
'selftext': 'I notice this all the time with major weather events. is it simply gouging or is there a reason for this?',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["You have a lemonade stand. You sell it for 50 cents a cup. One day you find out it's going to be very hot outside and people are going to want more lemonade. You figure you can get away with selling it for a little more since the demand is there. So you start charging 80 cents. You notice that the number of people paying for lemonade hasn't gone down. So because people are comfortable with the new price you decide you won't bring prices down even when it's not that hot anymore. Now replace lemonade stand with gasoline stations. ",
"The events that cause gas prices to surge generally happen at a specific point in time (hurricanes, destruction of a refinery, a specific international incident). The events that cause the prices to go down (reconstruction after the hurricane, refineries coming back online, easing of international tensions) tend to be more spread out in time. Combine that with the general tendency for prices to rise and you don't notice the reduction as clearly as the increase.",
"The underlying factors behind the consumer price and the wholesale price for gasoline are very different.\n\nThe gasoline sitting at the pumps in your service station was paid for months ago. While the service station has to eventually average out its costs/expenses, the consumer price it charges isn't actually linked to what it paid.\n\nRather, the consumer price is based on what the market will bear. If a new gas station moves in across the street and tries to undercut them, they'll lower gas prices - despite the fact that their cost for gas hasn't changed.\n\nIn terms of events like a hurricane, the gas station ends up in a situation where it incurs a temporary shortage due a disruption of the supply chain. So the gas station knows that it will only be able to sell X gallons of gas over the next two weeks no matter what else happens because they're not getting resupplied before then.\n\nThe best way for them to accomplish this isn't to hold prices firm and sell out in an hour and a half. It's to raise prices to the point where X gallons lasts them the next two weeks because relatively few people are desperate enough to buy much gasoline.\n\nInterestingly enough, this is also the *socially* best outcome as it encourages a more equitable distribution of gasoline based on the perceived need of the consumer rather than hoarding.",
'Costs at wholesale go up. Price at the pump goes up immediately to pay for the next load of fuel at the new higher wholesale cost. Once the supply eases up the more expensive fuel is still in the tanks until the first post emergency load is delivered with reduced costs. So you have a delay in the price at the pump going down. There are stations that will gouge but most states have laws against gouging during an emergency.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6yochg',
'query': "why do events that have a negative effect on oil production cause immediate rises in prices of gas but when production is back to normal prices don't plummet back to where they started?",
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2421675',
'title': 'Transcription (music)',
'section': 'Section::::Transcription aids.:Pitch tracking software.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 439,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'As mentioned in the Automatic music transcription section, some commercial software can roughly track the pitch of dominant melodies in polyphonic musical recordings. The note scans are not exact, and often need to be manually edited by the user before saving to file in either a proprietary file format or in Standard MIDI File Format. Some pitch tracking software also allows the scanned note lists to be animated during audio playback.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34658245',
'title': 'Multi-image',
'section': 'Section::::Multi-image production technologies.:Audio production.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 33,
'end_character': 334,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Audio editing of the music or voice-over was done manually to create a scratch track, usually with a cutting block and tape. Once the audio edits were completed, the final version would be copied onto another tape; either to \xa0inch, cassette or other format so that there tape used to run the presentation would be a fresh uncut tape.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9874889',
'title': 'De-essing',
'section': 'Section::::Process of de-essing.:De-essing without automation or with manual equalization.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 603,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Audio editing software, whether professional or amateur software such as Audacity, can use the built-in equalization effects to reduce or eliminate sibilance ess sounds that interfere with a recording. Described here is a common method with Audacity. The process is in two phases: 1) analyze the frequency of the voice's ess sound by sampling several instances and calculating the range of ess frequencies, which most likely fall between 4,000-10,000\xa0Hz depending on the speaker, then 2) apply an equalization effect to quiet the determined frequency band by -4\xa0dB to -11db during ess frequency events.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '437887',
'title': 'Audio editing software',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 427,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Audio editing software is software which allows editing and generating of audio data. Audio editing software can be implemented completely or partly as library, as computer application, as Web application or as a loadable kernel module. Wave Editors are digital audio editors and there are many sources of software available to perform this function. Most can edit music, apply effects and filters, adjust stereo channels etc.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9874889',
'title': 'De-essing',
'section': 'Section::::Process of de-essing.:De-essing with automation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'This method is made feasible by editing automation points directly, as opposed to programming by manipulating gain sliders in a write-mode. An audio engineer would not be able to react fast enough to precisely reduce and restore vocal levels for the brief duration of sibilants during real-time playback.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46943',
'title': 'Audio time stretching and pitch scaling',
'section': 'Section::::Pitch scaling.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 54,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 54,
'end_character': 243,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A process that preserves the formants and character of a voice involves analyzing the signal with a channel vocoder or LPC vocoder plus any of several pitch detection algorithms and then resynthesizing it at a different fundamental frequency.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1369770',
'title': 'Stereophonic sound',
'section': 'Section::::Common usage.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 144,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 144,
'end_character': 1006,
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'passage_text': 'Most two-channel recordings are stereo recordings only in this weaker sense. Pop music, in particular, is usually recorded using close miking techniques, which artificially separate signals into several tracks. The individual tracks (of which there may be hundreds) are then "mixed down" into a two-channel recording. The audio engineers determine where each track will be placed in the stereo "image", by using various techniques that may vary from very simple (such as "left-right" panning controls) to more sophisticated and extensively based on psychoacoustic research (such as channel equalization, compression and ). The end product using this process often bears little or no resemblance to the actual physical and spatial relationship of the musicians at the time of the original performance; indeed, it is not uncommon for different tracks of the same song to be recorded at different times (and even in different studios) and then mixed into a final two-channel recording for commercial release.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do music/video editing programs isolate vocals, frequency, pitch, etc.?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It’s pretty complex but I think what you don’t understand is that the editing softwares are not meant to isolate anything, they’re meant to take the isolated vocals and turn them into a final product. So with each recording you can edit its pitch and frequencies and do whatever other mixing you wish to do, and then you mix everything together so it’s one big composition. Basically like a puzzle.',
"I don't think there's a good ELI5 answer to this, but basically it's math. Sound is a waveform, you can add multiple sounds together to get a new one. It's just like adding two numbers together.\n\nBasically if you want to isolate vocals you just do the opposite. You look for parts of the signal that look like vocals and subtract them out.\n\nThe hard part is finding vocals. Typically programs will look for frequencies that correspond to vocals to find them but there are many tricks that involve very advanced mathematical techniques. ",
"in audio editing programs, you usually have a lot of tracks. each instrument or vocal will go on a track, ideally recorded in such a way as to not have a lot of sound from other instruments that would go on other tracks. \n\nin this way, you can target your adjustments to exactly which instrument / vocal you want. \n\nif you don't have a multitrack recording but are already using a stereo or surround mix it is a LOT tougher to make fine adjustments to specific instruments in the mix. however, if the instruments are separated from other ones in terms of when they play, what frequency they occupy, or where in the stereo / surround field (pan) they are, or if they are very fast and dynamic compared to the rest of the instruments (in terms of transient sounds) or very stable in dynamics (don't change in volume or dynamics much) - in these cases some wonders can be worked on whole mixes to change them."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7e1at2',
'query': 'how do music/video editing programs isolate vocals, frequency, pitch, etc.?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '759360',
'title': 'Area density',
'section': 'Section::::Usage.:Data storage media.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 227,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Areal density is used to quantify and compare different types media used in data storage devices such as hard disk drives, optical disc drives and tape drives. The current unit of measure is typically gigabits per square inch.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '235955',
'title': 'Disk density',
'section': 'Section::::8-inch media.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 260,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': '"Single density" (SD or 1D) describes the first generation of floppy disks that use an iron oxide coating. Floppy drives utilize 300-oersted write heads, FM encoding, and a track width of for a density of 48 tracks-per-inch (tpi) and 5876 bits-per-inch (bpi).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '235955',
'title': 'Disk density',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 320,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Disk density is a capacity designation on magnetic storage, usually floppy disks. Each designation describes a set of characteristics that can affect the areal density of a disk or the efficiency of the encoded data. Such characteristics include modulation method, track width, coercivity, and magnetic field direction.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '455719',
'title': 'Mass storage',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 421,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'There are two broad classes of mass storage: local data in devices such as smartphones or computers, and enterprise servers and data centers for the cloud. For local storage, SSDs are on the way to replacing HDDs. Considering the mobile segment from phones to notebooks, the majority of systems today is based on NAND Flash. As for Enterprise and data centers, storage tiers have established using a mix of SSD and HDD. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13777',
'title': 'Hard disk drive',
'section': 'Section::::Competition from solid-state drives.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 119,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 119,
'end_character': 762,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "The maximum areal storage density for flash memory used in solid state drives (SSDs) is 2.8\xa0Tbit/in in laboratory demonstrations as of 2016, and the maximum for HDDs is 1.5\xa0Tbit/in. The areal density of flash memory is doubling every two years, similar to Moore's law (40% per year) and faster than the 10–20% per year for HDDs. As of 2018, the maximum possible capacity was 16\xa0terabytes for an HDD, and 100\xa0terabytes for an SSD. HDDs were used in 70% of the desktop and notebook computers produced in 2016, and SSDs were used in 30%. The usage share of HDDs is declining and could drop below 50% in 2018–2019 according to one forecast, because SSDs are replacing smaller-capacity (less than one-terabyte) HDDs in desktop and notebook computers and MP3 players.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '147000',
'title': 'Gibibyte',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 437,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Hard drive and SSD manufacturers use the gigabyte to mean bytes. Therefore, the capacity of a 128 GB SSD is bytes. Expressed in gibibytes this is about 119.2 GiB. Some operating systems, including Microsoft Windows, display such a drive capacity as 119 GB, using the SI prefix G with the binary meaning. No space is missing: the size is simply being expressed in a different unit, even though the same prefix (G) is used in both cases. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8922',
'title': 'DDR SDRAM',
'section': 'Section::::Specification standards.:High-density RAM.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 48,
'end_character': 400,
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'passage_text': 'High-density RAM devices were designed to be used in registered memory modules for servers. JEDEC standards do not apply to high-density DDR RAM in desktop implementations. JEDEC\'s technical documentation, however, supports 128M×4 semiconductors . As such, "high density" is a relative term, which can be used to describe memory that is not supported by a particular motherboard\'s memory controller.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'what is the difference between disk capacity and density with a SSD?',
'selftext': "I'm trying to upgrade my system and have a vague idea. Want to clarify before I buy.",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Capacity is what you really want, that\'s how much total storage the drive provides\n\nDensity is about how much storage we can fit in one flash chip. Higher density chips enable higher capacity drives in the same size, or drives with the same capacity but fewer chips\n\nDensity matters in the long run, it\'s what has enabled us to go from 256 GB 2.5" SSDs to 2 TB 2.5" SSDs; but when you\'re building a machine you only care about what you can get right now and that\'s capacity'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'a6muwx',
'query': 'what is the difference between disk capacity and density with a ssd?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '46504',
'title': 'DARPA TIDES program',
'section': 'Section::::Investigative Data Warehouse.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 376,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The FBI\'s Investigative Data Warehouse contains an "Open Source News Library". This library contains news gathered by the TIDES program. The information is collected from dozens of public websites all over the world, such as Ha\'aretz, Pravda, the Jordan Times, The People\'s Daily, "The Washington Post", and others. It uses the MiTAP (Mitre Text and Audio Processing) system.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1752246',
'title': 'Live Free or Die Hard',
'section': 'Section::::Plot.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 421,
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'passage_text': 'The FBI responds to a brief computer outage at its Cyber-Security Division by tracking down top computer hackers. The FBI asks New York City Police Department detective John McClane to bring in hacker Matthew "Matt" Farrell. McClane arrives at Farrell\'s residence just in time to save Farrell from assassins. The assassins were sent by Mai Linh; Linh works for her love interest, later revealed to be one Thomas Gabriel.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38049209',
'title': 'FBI Cyber Division',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 519,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The FBI Cyber Division is a Federal Bureau of Investigation division which heads the national effort to investigate and prosecute internet crimes, including "cyber based terrorism, espionage, computer intrusions, and major cyber fraud." This division of the FBI uses the information it gathers during investigation to inform the public of current trends in cyber crime.Federal Bureau of Investigation It focuses around three main priorities: computer intrusion, identity theft, and cyber fraud. It was created in 2002.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42107658',
'title': 'Operation In Our Sites',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 692,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Operation In Our Sites is an ongoing effort by the National Intellectual Property Rights Coordination Center in the U.S. government, to detect and hinder intellectual property violations on the Internet. Pursuant to this operation, governmental agencies arrest suspects affiliated with the targeted websites and seize their assets including websites' domain names. Web users intending to access targeted websites are directed to the server operated by the U.S. government, and greeted with a graphic bearing the seals of the United States Department of Justice (DOJ), the National Intellectual Property Rights Coordination Center (NIPRCC), and U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11127',
'title': 'Federal Bureau of Investigation',
'section': 'Section::::Infrastructure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 119,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 119,
'end_character': 780,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The FBI is headquartered at the J. Edgar Hoover Building in Washington, D.C., with 56 field offices in major cities across the United States. The FBI also maintains over 400 resident agencies across the United States, as well as over 50 legal attachés at United States embassies and consulates. Many specialized FBI functions are located at facilities in Quantico, Virginia, as well as a "data campus" in Clarksburg, West Virginia, where 96 million sets of fingerprints "from across the United States are stored, along with others collected by American authorities from prisoners in Saudi Arabia and Yemen, Iraq and Afghanistan." The FBI is in process of moving its Records Management Division, which processes Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests, to Winchester, Virginia.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '162600',
'title': 'Hacktivism',
'section': 'Section::::Notable hacktivist events.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 38,
'end_character': 246,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- On June 3, 2011, LulzSec took down a website of the FBI. This was the first time they had targeted a website that was not part of the private sector. That week, the FBI was able to track the leader of LulzSec, Hector Xavier Monsegur.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34925633',
'title': 'United States v. Ivanov',
'section': 'Section::::Background.:Unlawful access and FBI capture.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 295,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "When the FBI accessed Ivanov's machines, they found folders with data corresponding to the companies he had remotely attacked. Over 2.3 GB of data was recovered from Ivanov's machines, including the tools used to gain illegal access and scripts that referenced companies that had been attacked.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How can the FBI seize a website?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The website is stored on a server which is physically located somewhere. If it's located in the United States then the FBI can get a warrant to take possession of it (or at least the section of it that the website is on) to shut the service down. If it's located in another country then they have to cooperate with the local authorities and come up with an agreement to take the site down. In some cases the authorities in the other country won't cooperate because they don't care. ",
'There are different ways.\n\nSometimes they can do little more than size the DNS entry and simply have the name of the website now direct at their servers.\n\nOn the other hand of the scale is them getting their hands on the physical server that actually host the website and taking possession of it.\n\nA lot fo that depends on the way the website is set up and on jurisdiction.\n\nUS law enforcement will have trouble getting a hold of a computer stuck in some criminals basement in a foreign country, but they can more easily get warrants to compel US companies hosting websites on servers in the US to give them full access.\n\nJust because you see a FBI notice when you visit a bookmarked site does not mean that the FBI has actually gotten to the data that used to be on that site (and more importantly the users data that visited it).\n\nSometimes they can however get full control, like when they arrest someone they think trades in child porn or something and they can get warrants and or cooperation to take over his website. Mostly by making a copy of the original data, putting the original into evidence and running the copy on some infrastructure they control.',
"For foreign websites on servers in someone's basement, they can direct (via international agreements) the companies that run the domain name system to stop directing requests to see that site to the actual server, and instead direct them to a landing page run by the FBI (with the logo and the seizure message).\n\nThe website is still up, but the foreign agent has lost control of their domain name and routing information to their website, which will significantly lower traffic. \n\nOf course there's not just one domain name system in the world, but there's only one that Joe Average uses, so this method is fairly effective."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9hcitw',
'query': 'how can the fbi seize a website?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '88042',
'title': 'Near-sightedness',
'section': 'Section::::Research.:Visual environment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 479,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Normal eyes grow during the day and shrink during the night, but occluded eyes are shown to grow both during the day and the night. Because of this, FDM is a result of the lack of growth inhibition at night rather than the expected excessive growth during the day, when the actual light deprivation occurred. Elevated levels of retinal dopamine transporter (which is directly involved in controlling retinal dopamine levels) in the RPE have been shown to be associated with FDM.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '554130',
'title': 'Adaptation (eye)',
'section': 'Section::::Insufficiency.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 79,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 79,
'end_character': 288,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Night blindness can be caused by a number of factors the most common of which being vitamin A deficiency. If detected early enough nyctalopia can be reversed and visual function can be regained; however; prolonged vitamin A deficiency can lead to permanent visual loss if left untreated.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1556918',
'title': 'Phase response curve',
'section': 'Section::::In circadian rhythms.:Light.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 362,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Starting about two hours before an individual\'s regular bedtime, exposure of the eyes to light will delay the circadian phase, causing later wake-up time and later sleep onset. The delaying effect gets stronger as evening progresses; it is also dependent on the wavelength and illuminance ("brightness") of the light. The effect is small in dim indoor lighting.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56533',
'title': 'Diabetic retinopathy',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 435,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'These spots are often followed within a few days or weeks by a much greater leakage of blood, which blurs the vision. In extreme cases, a person may only be able to tell light from dark in that eye. It may take the blood anywhere from a few days to months or even years to clear from the inside of the eye, and in some cases the blood will not clear. These types of large hemorrhages tend to happen more than once, often during sleep.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1070221',
'title': 'Human eye',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical significance.:Eye disease.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 73,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 73,
'end_character': 1127,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'As the eye ages, certain changes occur that can be attributed solely to the aging process. Most of these anatomic and physiologic processes follow a gradual decline. With aging, the quality of vision worsens due to reasons independent of diseases of the aging eye. While there are many changes of significance in the non-diseased eye, the most functionally important changes seem to be a reduction in pupil size and the loss of accommodation or focusing capability (presbyopia). The area of the pupil governs the amount of light that can reach the retina. The extent to which the pupil dilates decreases with age, leading to a substantial decrease in light received at the retina. In comparison to younger people, it is as though older persons are constantly wearing medium-density sunglasses. Therefore, for any detailed visually guided tasks on which performance varies with illumination, older persons require extra lighting. Certain ocular diseases can come from sexually transmitted diseases such as herpes and genital warts. If contact between the eye and area of infection occurs, the STD can be transmitted to the eye.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1653184',
'title': 'Computer vision syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Therapy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 581,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Asthenopic (eye strain) symptoms in the eye are responsible for much of the severity in CVS. Proper rest to the eye and its muscles is recommended to relieve the associated eye strain. Observations from persons experiencing chronic eye strain have shown that most people who claim to be getting enough sleep are actually not. This, unaware to them, causes the eye strain to build up over a period of time, when if they had simply obtained seven to eight hours of uninterrupted sleep, their eye muscles would have recovered during the sleep and the strain would not have built up .\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1527537',
'title': 'Bevacizumab',
'section': 'Section::::Medical uses.:Eye disease.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 372,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Many diseases of the eye, such as age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and diabetic retinopathy, damage the retina and cause blindness when blood vessels around the retina grow abnormally and leak fluid, causing the layers of the retina to separate. This abnormal growth is caused by VEGF, so bevacizumab has been successfully used to inhibit VEGF and slow this growth.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why does damage to eyes not become apparent immediately and takes time ranging from a night's sleep to years to show up?",
'selftext': 'Read a few posts in an AMA request where people say it took years to see the damage in the eyes from viewing a earlier eclipse without appropriate protection.',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It's like a sunburn. At first, it's just all red and painful (but your retina has no pain receptors, so it doesn't hurt). The next day, your skin is literally falling off your body. In that time, the damaged cells were figuring out that irreparable damage had occurred and that they might be cancerous. When they do, they enter mass suicide mode."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6v8so3',
'query': "why does damage to eyes not become apparent immediately and takes time ranging from a night's sleep to years to show up?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '75710',
'title': 'Cheating in poker',
'section': 'Section::::Skilled methods.:Marked cards.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 513,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Marked cards are printed or altered so that the cheater can know the value of specific cards while only looking at the back. Ways of marking are too numerous to mention, but there are certain broad types. A common way of marking cards involves marks on a round design on the card so as to be read like a clock (an ace is marked at one o'clock, and so on until the king, which is not marked). Shading a card by putting it in the sun or scratching the surface with a razor are ways to mark an already printed deck.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29382312',
'title': 'Place card',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 272,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Place cards also serve the function of identification of those who may otherwise be unknown to one another. Once taken by the respective guests, they are placed at the assigned seat, and once there, this enables others to identify the person sitting in that seat by name.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24879',
'title': 'Telephone card',
'section': 'Section::::Stored-value phone cards.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 408,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Once connected to the access number, the account is identified by keying in a PIN (the most popular method) or by swiping a card with embedded chip or magnetic stripe. After validation the balance remaining on the card may be announced, and the desired number may be keyed in. The available minutes may be announced, and the call is connected. Many cards make a verbal announcement if credit is running out.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '849185',
'title': 'Wizard (card game)',
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 211,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "After looking at their cards, starting with the player to the dealer's left, each player states how many tricks he believes he will take, from zero to the number of cards dealt. This is recorded on a score pad.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2370017',
'title': 'Self-working magic',
'section': 'Section::::Example.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 634,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Now, put the 1st card face up, the 2nd face down. They will find no cards. Say that is OK, we will keep going. Pick up the face-down deck and keep going. Do it again, and again. They will never see their card. Stop when only 3 cards are left. And say, gee—only 3 cards left. Turn them over, and there are their 3 cards. It works every single time. Sometimes, you can arrange it so that they do not know that they had to memorize the cards after writing them down. They may pick the wrong cards. Show them that they picked the wrong cards by looking at their paper. They will think the trick is over. Then, reveal the correct 3 cards.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39852019',
'title': 'Key Ring (software)',
'section': 'Section::::Features.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 545,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Cards are stored by either scanning the barcode on the back of the card or manually typing in the UPC number. The app alerts users when one of the loyalty programs they are a member of has an offer or coupon available. Rewards points earned by the user are kept track of within the loyalty card feature as well. Users can share loyalty and membership cards with other users as long as they are registered in Key Ring. Weekly Sales Circulars are digitized, allowing users to view what they would normally find in a newspaper on their smartphone.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1183874',
'title': 'Rummy',
'section': 'Section::::Basic rummy.:Variations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 40,
'end_character': 419,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In other variations, such as rummy 500 and treppenrommé, discards are placed so that all the cards are visible. At the beginning of his or her turn, a player may take any card from the discard pile, so long as they also pick up all the cards that are on top of it, and the last card picked up is played immediately. If only picking up the top card, the player must keep it and discard a different card from their hand.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does a website know I mistyped my card number before I even click “place order”?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Part of the card number identifies the type of card so it can tell immediately if you have tried to put a debit card instead of a credit card (or vice versa) or if that part of the number doesn't match any type of card.",
'There are calculations that can be done to determine if it\'s valid before you submit. There is a pattern that they all follow - without going into too much depth. Similar to how it knows an email address needs to have characters followed by "@something.something" which all emails follow. Anything that doesn\'t follow that pattern at least is invalid.',
'Credit card numbers are not random. They have information that identifies the type of card and even a "check" digit that helps ensure that the rest of the digits were received correctly. "Good" payment pages will include some code that will check/validate the card number before it\'s even transmitted to the server to not waste the time processing a bad number.\n\n & #x200B;\n\n [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)',
'There are two quick and easy ways. The first digit usually indicates what kind of card it is: Visas always start with "4". If you have indicated you are entering a Visa, but the first number is a "3", they know you\'ve made a mistake.\n\nThe other way is the last number is a check digit. You can look up the exact formula, but the idea is you take the first number, multiply by the second number, take the rightmost digit from that and add the 3rd digit, and so on down the line. If the last digit doesn\'t make what the formula says it should be, you have a problem.',
"* the first one or two numbers identify the type of card (Visa, MC, Amex, etc), it is obvious if you don't have a valid value for those\n* the next few digits identify the bank (Chase, Citibank, BoA), and again only certain values are valid\n* most cards have 16 digits, but Amex only has 15 and Diner's Club and Carte Blanche have 14\n* the last digit of the card is a usually checksum, a digit computed from the other numbers, if you get a digit wrong, the checksum won't match up...this is probably the most common way bad numbers are rejected"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'dy7fos',
'query': 'how does a website know i mistyped my card number before i even click “place order”?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '35544208',
'title': 'Iron hydride',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 587,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Because of the common occurrence of those two elements in the universe, possible compounds of hydrogen and iron have attracted attention. A few molecular compounds have been detected in extreme environments (such as stellar atmospheres) or detected in small amounts at very low temperatures. The two elements form a metallic alloy above 35000 atmospheres of pressure, that has been advanced as a possible explanation for the low density of Earth\'s "iron" core. However those compounds are unstable when brought to ambient conditions, and eventually decompose into the separate elements.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '392828',
'title': 'Abundance of the chemical elements',
'section': 'Section::::Universe.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 484,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In general, elements up to iron are made in large stars in the process of becoming supernovae. Iron-56 is particularly common, since it is the most stable element that can easily be made from alpha particles (being a product of decay of radioactive nickel-56, ultimately made from 14 helium nuclei). Elements heavier than iron are made in energy-absorbing processes in large stars, and their abundance in the universe (and on Earth) generally decreases with increasing atomic number.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1012996',
'title': 'Helium-4',
'section': 'Section::::Stability of the He-4 nucleus and electron shell.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 538,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "All heavier elements - including those necessary for rocky planets like the Earth, and for carbon-based or other life - have thus had to be produced, since the Big Bang, in stars which were hot enough to fuse not just hydrogen (for this produces only more helium), but to fuse helium itself. All elements other than hydrogen and helium today account for only 2% of the mass of atomic matter in the universe. Helium-4, by contrast, makes up about 23% of the universe's ordinary matter — nearly all the ordinary matter that isn't hydrogen.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11960507',
'title': 'Iron peak',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 760,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'For elements lighter than iron on the periodic table, nuclear fusion releases energy. For iron, and for all of the heavier elements, nuclear fusion consumes energy. Chemical elements up to the iron peak are produced in ordinary stellar nucleosynthesis, with the alpha elements being particular abundant. Some heavier elements are produced by less efficient processes such as the r-process and s-process. Elements with atomic numbers close to iron are produced in large quantities in supernova due to explosive oxygen and silicon fusion, followed by radioactive decay of nuclei such as Nickel-56. On average, heavier elements are less abundant in the universe, but some of those near iron are comparatively more abundant than would be expected from this trend.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21140',
'title': 'Noble gas',
'section': 'Section::::Chemical properties.:Configuration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 550,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The noble gases have full valence electron shells. Valence electrons are the outermost electrons of an atom and are normally the only electrons that participate in chemical bonding. Atoms with full valence electron shells are extremely stable and therefore do not tend to form chemical bonds and have little tendency to gain or lose electrons. However, heavier noble gases such as radon are held less firmly together by electromagnetic force than lighter noble gases such as helium, making it easier to remove outer electrons from heavy noble gases.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45452439',
'title': 'Helium compounds',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 797,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Helium is the most unreactive element, so it was commonly believed that helium compounds do not exist at all. Helium's first ionization energy of 24.57\xa0eV is the highest of any element. Helium has a complete shell of electrons, and in this form the atom does not readily accept any extra electrons or join with anything to make covalent compounds. The electron affinity is 0.080\xa0eV, which is very close to zero. The helium atom is small with the radius of the outer electron shell at 0.29\xa0Å. The atom is very hard with a Pearson's hardness of 12.3\xa0eV. It has the lowest polarizability of any kind of atom. However very weak van der Waals forces exist between helium and other atoms. This force may exceed repulsive forces. So at extremely low temperatures helium may form van der Waals molecules.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '961303',
'title': 'Messier 34',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 461,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The average proportion of elements with higher atomic numbers than helium is termed the metallicity by astronomers. This is expressed by the logarithm of the ratio of iron to hydrogen, compared to the same proportion in the Sun. For M34, the metallicity has a value of [Fe/H]\xa0=\xa0+0.07\xa0±\xa00.04. This is equivalent to a 17% higher proportion of iron compared to the Sun. Other elements show a similar abundance, with the exception of nickel which is underabundant.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "why iron is considered the most 'stable' element. Wouldnt helium or the inert gases be it?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It’s a different kind of stable. Helium is stable since it doesn’t react with other elements, while iron is stable in the way that if you have a single iron atom, it isn’t going to fall apart.',
"Helium and the noble gases are stable in that they don't want to make friends with other atoms and form molecules because their electron shells are already full and perfect\n\nIron is stable in that it takes the most amount of energy to change its nucleus out of all the atoms.\n\nYou get energy out of fusing atoms together until they get up to Iron at which point it takes more energy to ram the extra parts into the nucleus than you'll get back out. The same goes for fission, splitting things larger than iron will give off energy because they move to a more stable state and don't need all that energy anymore, but once you hit iron it'll take more energy to split it than you'll get back out.\n\nThe electrons around an iron nucleus want to make friends, but the protons and neutrons in the iron nucleus have the perfect amount of friends and don't want any more."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'bfekp4',
'query': "why iron is considered the most 'stable' element. wouldnt helium or the inert gases be it?",
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1047067',
'title': 'Withdrawal reflex',
'section': 'Section::::Example.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 564,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'When a person touches a hot object and withdraws their hand from it without actively thinking about it, the heat stimulates temperature and pain receptors in the skin, triggering a sensory impulse that travels to the central nervous system. The sensory neuron then synapses with interneurons that connect to motor neurons. Some of these send motor impulses to the flexors that lead to the muscles in the arm to contract, while some motor neurons send inhibitory impulses to the extensors so flexion is not inhibited. This is referred to as reciprocal innervation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20580',
'title': 'Motion',
'section': 'Section::::List of "imperceptible" human motions.:Particles.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 40,
'end_character': 605,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'According to the laws of thermodynamics, all particles of matter are in constant random motion as long as the temperature is above absolute zero. Thus the molecules and atoms which make up the human body are vibrating, colliding, and moving. This motion can be detected as temperature; higher temperatures, which represent greater kinetic energy in the particles, feel warm to humans who sense the thermal energy transferring from the object being touched to their nerves. Similarly, when lower temperature objects are touched, the senses perceive the transfer of heat away from the body as feeling cold.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '301928',
'title': 'Lumped element model',
'section': "Section::::Thermal systems.:Method.:Newton's law of cooling.\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 42,
'end_character': 384,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'An object at a different temperature from its surroundings will ultimately come to a common temperature with its surroundings. A relatively hot object cools as it warms its surroundings; a cool object is warmed by its surroundings. When considering how quickly (or slowly) something cools, we speak of its "rate" of cooling - how many degrees\' change in temperature per unit of time.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1496755',
'title': 'Yakitate!! Japan',
'section': 'Section::::Techniques and special terms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 129,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 129,
'end_character': 243,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Normally, extremities such as the hands are lower in temperature than the rest of the body, but if one can increase blood flow to the hands, that difference decreases. In France, those that possess this ability are said to have "Solar Hands".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29805136',
'title': 'Sensory stimulation therapy',
'section': 'Section::::Somatosensory system.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 867,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The Somatosensory systemis the part of our sensory system that deals with touch. We wouldn’t be able to feel things like temperatures, pain, pressure, vibration, and skin rash without the unwavering help of our somatosensory system. The peripheral nervous system has the ability to understand touch, pressure, vibration, limb position, heat, Cold, and Pain. This information is sent through the peripheral nervous system, to the spinal cord where it is finally processed by the brain. One of the key structures in processing this information is the primary somatosensory cortex, which is located in the parietal lobe. The primary somatosensory cortex is known to have subsections that process information from different sections, and the area of the cortex for each section is related to its acuity. This observation is often shown symbolically through a Homunculus.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20647050',
'title': 'Temperature',
'section': 'Section::::Thermodynamic approach.:Local thermodynamic equilibrium.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 56,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 56,
'end_character': 201,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Thus, when local thermodynamic equilibrium prevails in a body, temperature can be regarded as a spatially varying local property in that body, and this is because temperature is an intensive variable.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2886158',
'title': 'Hand warmer',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 262,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Hand warmers are small (mostly disposable) packets which are held in the hand and produce heat on demand to warm cold hands. They are commonly used in outdoor activities. Other types of warmers are available to provide soothing heat for muscular or joint aches.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do objects that are the same temperature as our average body temperature feel hotter than our hand when we touch them?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Because 37 degrees is the body core temperature. Your fingertips are often colder than that, especially the skin, where your thermoceptors are.',
'We can not feel "temperature", our senses measure "heat loss".\nBecause of that, we also sense iron "cold" and wood "warm" although both materials were at the same temperature; metals can take away our heat production faster and in consequence we feel it colder.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'dq33ya',
'query': 'why do objects that are the same temperature as our average body temperature feel hotter than our hand when we touch them?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '57233472',
'title': 'Glossary of medicine',
'section': 'Section::::A.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 37,
'end_character': 518,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Arm – is the part of the upper limb between the glenohumeral joint (shoulder joint) and the elbow joint. In common usage, the arm extends to the hand. It can be divided into the upper arm, which extends from the shoulder to the elbow, the forearm which extends from the elbow to the hand, and the hand. Anatomically the shoulder girdle with bones and corresponding muscles is by definition a part of the arm. The Latin term "brachium" may refer to either the arm as a whole or to the upper arm on its own.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3466604',
'title': 'Ground warfare',
'section': 'Section::::Combined arms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 206,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Combined arms is an approach to warfare which seeks to integrate different arms of a military to achieve mutually complementary effects, such as, self-propelled artillery, mechanized infantry and so forth.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8849119',
'title': 'Humeroulnar joint',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 334,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'When the forearm is extended and supinated, the axis of the arm and forearm are not in the same line; the arm forms an obtuse angle with the forearm, known as the carrying angle. During flexion, however, the forearm and the hand tend to approach the middle line of the body, and thus enable the hand to be easily carried to the face.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19525',
'title': 'Muay Thai',
'section': 'Section::::Techniques.:Clinch and neck wrestling ("Chap kho").\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 54,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 54,
'end_character': 245,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "BULLET::::- arm clinch: One or both hands controls the inside of the defender's arm(s) and where the second hand if free is in the front clinch position. This clinch is used to briefly control the opponent before applying a knee strike or throw\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55908907',
'title': 'Coastal Troops of the Russian Navy',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 217,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Each Arm achieves certain objectives on its own and in conjunction with the other Arms of the Coastal Troops and Forces of the Navy, as well as formations and units of the other Services and Arms of the Armed Forces.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52854347',
'title': 'Arms (video game)',
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 1383,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': '"Arms" is a 3D fighting sports game in which up to four players can control one of a variety of fighters, with the player able to perform basic fighting actions using extendable arms such as punching, throwing, blocking, and dodging. "Arms" features fifteen playable fighters, with some of them being released as downloadable content. Each fighter starts with three unique Arms that can be selected in battle, but the use of all other fighters\' Arms can be unlocked in the Get Arms mode. All fighters also have unique attributes in combat. When the attack meter is fully charged, players are able to unleash a high-damage "rush attack" against their opponents. Players can also charge their attacks to temporarily increase damage and utilize elemental effects. Each character has a different set of abilities and unique Arms for different strategies. Players are able to use the system\'s Joy-Con motion controls or standard button inputs with controllers such as the Pro Controller to operate each Arm individually. Players are also able to customize their Arm load outs, with each Arm being able to be selected independently. Every Arm is different with elemental attributes and varying weights that affect gameplay. Up to four players are able to play in a single match, either in a three or four-way free-for-all, or in a two-on-two mode in which teammates are tethered together.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24959708',
'title': 'Zumanity',
'section': 'Section::::Acts.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 60,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 60,
'end_character': 272,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Only if Hand to Hand is out; different from Hand to Hand in that this act uses many maneuvers that require holding the bodies together in different shapes, whereas hand to hand involves many maneuvers in which the partner is lifted up using the hands and feet\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do arms deals work?',
'selftext': 'Here in the UK there is seemingly never ending controversy about UK sales of arms to counties like Saudi Arabia. The news often talks about government involvement in these deals but presumably it\'s private companies delivering the arms so is it accurate to say "the UK sold arms" rather than, for example, BAE systems?',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The deal is between the UK government and the Saudi government. Regulations prevent BAE Systems (or anybody else) from just selling dangerous weapons on a retail basis. They sell them to the UK government, deliver them in Saudi Arabia, and get paid by the UK government with money they got from the Saudi government.\n\nIf you just set up your own munitions factory and sell to anybody - you're a terrorist."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9dc72a',
'query': 'how do arms deals work?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '28222741',
'title': 'Regulation S-K',
'section': "Section::::Regulation S-K: Highlights by item.:Securities of the registrant.:Item 201: Market Price of and Dividends on the Registrant's Common Equity and Related Stockholder Matters.\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 37,
'end_character': 409,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'While this information is usually available through Internet search engines, it must still be disclosed in detail. This disclosure is especially important for smaller companies whose stocks trade infrequently and for companies trading on multiple markets (including more than one market per type of common stock). The number of shareholders and all holders of five percent or more of shares must be revealed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6985012',
'title': 'Follow-on offering',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 239,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- First issue of shares by the company is made through IPO when company first becoming a publicly traded company on a national exchange while Follow on Public Offering is the public issue of shares for an already listed company.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '63879',
'title': 'Initial public offering',
'section': 'Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.:Advantages.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 1283,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'When a company lists its securities on a public exchange, the money paid by the investing public for the newly-issued shares goes directly to the company (primary offering) as well as to any early private investors who opt to sell all or a portion of their holdings (secondary offerings) as part of the larger IPO. An IPO, therefore, allows a company to tap into a wide pool of potential investors to provide itself with capital for future growth, repayment of debt, or working capital. A company selling common shares is never required to repay the capital to its public investors. Those investors must endure the unpredictable nature of the open market to price and trade their shares. After the IPO, when shares are traded freely in the open market, money passes between public investors. For early private investors who choose to sell shares as part of the IPO process, the IPO represents an opportunity to monetize their investment. After the IPO, once shares are traded in the open market, investors holding large blocks of shares can either sell those shares piecemeal in the open market or sell a large block of shares directly to the public, at a fixed price, through a secondary market offering. This type of offering is not dilutive since no new shares are being created.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25109',
'title': 'Public limited company',
'section': 'Section::::Share capital.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 322,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'There is a minimum share capital for public limited companies: Before it can start business, it must have allotted shares to the value of at least £50,000. A quarter of them, £12,500, must be paid up. Each allotted share must be paid up to at least one quarter of its nominal value together with the whole of any premium.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '414411',
'title': 'Incorporation (business)',
'section': 'Section::::Incorporation in the United States.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 833,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Share per value refers to the stated minimum value and generally doesn't correspond to the actual share value. Some of the common par values are $0.01, $1.00. In reality, the value of a share is based on its fair market value or the amount a buyer is willing to pay. An Inc. stipulates the exact number of shares the corporation is willing to authorize. It is mandatory for every corporation to have stock. If the corporation is willing to permit both preferred as well as common shares of stock, then this should have a mention in the articles of incorporation, along with the voting rights information. Generally, preferred shares provide its shareholders preferential payments of distribution of assets or dividends, in case the company shuts down its operations. A lot of small business owners only allow shares of common stock.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38770166',
'title': 'List of largest private companies in the United Kingdom',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 488,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'This is a list of largest private companies in the United Kingdom according to sales. Under UK company law, a private company (with the suffix "Ltd" usually) may not offer its shares for sale to the public (as can a "plc"). While lists of public companies usually rank businesses according to their market capitalisation (the traded share price multiplied by the number of shares), lists of private companies must use another measure, such as the value and volume of sales during a year.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13240432',
'title': 'Private equity firm',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 250,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- an "initial public offering" (IPO) — shares of the company are offered to the public, typically providing a partial immediate realization to the financial sponsor as well as a public market into which it can later sell additional shares;\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'how does a company know how many shares to make public?',
'selftext': "How would a company that wants to go public decide how many shares to put out? Why do some companies issue 100 million shares while others issue 1 billion shares? How much percent wise does a company hold in 1 share? Why isn't there a fixed amount of shares for all companies to issue when going public?",
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["How many shares to make.public is based on what a company wants their stock price to be. \n\nSo the two biggest reasons that different companies have different numbers of shares when going public is that 1) not all companies have the same valuation and 2) some companies want different levels of liquidity than others. \n\nSome companies don't want it to be easy to buy or sell their stock. They want the stock price to remain stable, they don't want people trading it very often, and sometimes they really don't want individual investors to have any, as opposed to institutional investors. Also, remember that the corporation is accountable to shareholders, and shareholders get to vote on things, and the company may not want to have to answer to random jackasses who bought stock. So, they make it too expensive for regular trading. BRK.A, Warren Buffett's firm, costs something like $300,000 *per share*.\n\nSo let's say you think your company is worth $5 billion and you want your stock price to be about $100 per share. You'd issue 50 million shares of stock at $100 a piece. But what if you want your stock to be $500 per share to cut down the trading volatility? Then you'd only issue 10 million shares. \n\nAs far as how many to keep, generally the founder is going to keep at least 51% so they can still be in control of the company. Some founders are playing for the long term and are only going public to raise funds for their company. They'll only release as many shares as it takes to raise the amount of money they think their company needs. Some founders just want to cash in so they'll release as much as they think the market will buy and take the payout."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'fmvf1a',
'query': 'how does a company know how many shares to make public?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '33275929',
'title': 'Bombus impatiens',
'section': 'Section::::Importance to humans.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Bees play in a significant role in pollinating crops. A decline in bee population leads to a decline in crop yield, which will then result in a reduction in the food supply and cause economic hardships for farmers. Commercially produced "B. impatiens" is one of the most important species of pollinator bees that are used by greenhouse industry in North America, including Canada and Mexico. They are efficient pollinators and natives to East North America. The interest in "B. impatiens" has been increased even more due to the decline of pollinator bee population like "A. mellifera" and the ban on importing "B. terrestris" into North America. They are used as pollinator bees for tomatoes, blueberries, raspberries, and pumpkins.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20610449',
'title': 'Colony collapse disorder',
'section': 'Section::::Economic and ecological impact.\n',
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'passage_text': 'With that said, honeybees perform some level of pollination of nearly 75% of all plant species directly used for human food worldwide. Catastrophic loss of honeybees could have significant impact, therefore; it is estimated that seven out of the 60 major agricultural crops in North American economy would be lost, and this is only for one region of the world. Farms that have intensive systems (high density of crops) will be impacted the most compared to non-intensive systems (small local gardens that depend on wild bees) because of dependence on honeybees. These types of farms have a high demand for honeybee pollination services, which in the U.S. alone costs $1.25 billion annually. This cost is offset, however, as honeybees as pollinators generate 22.8 to 57 billion Euros globally.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10075963',
'title': 'Insect biodiversity',
'section': 'Section::::Agriculture.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'In the United States alone, pollination by bees accounts for over US$9 billion of economic revenue. According to some estimates, over ⅓ of the human diet can be traced directly or indirectly to bee pollination. Losses of key pollinators have been reported in at least one region or country on every continent except Antarctica, which has no pollinators. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment\xa0 concluded that with the global decline in the amount of pollinators, there is not a complete loss of fruit or seeds, but a significant decrease in quantity and viability in fruits, and a lower number of seeds.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8425111',
'title': 'Fear of bees',
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'passage_text': 'The renting of bee colonies for pollination of crops is the primary source of income for beekeepers in the United States, but as the fears of bees spread, it becomes hard to find a location for the colonies because of the growing objections of local population.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '343614',
'title': 'Pollinator decline',
'section': 'Section::::Possible explanations.:Loss of habitat and forage.\n',
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'passage_text': "Bees and other pollinators face a higher risk of extinction due to loss of habitat and access to natural food sources. The global dependency on livestock and agriculture has rendered no less than 50% of the earth's landmass uninhabitable for bees. The agricultural practice of planting one crop (monoculture) in a given area year after year leads to extreme malnourishment. Regardless if the planted crop does flower and provide food for the bee, the bee will still be malnourished because a single plant cannot meet its nutrient requirements. Furthermore, the crops needed to support livestock (primarily cattle) tend to be grains, which do not provide nectar. Artificial water bodies, open urban areas, large industrial facilities including heavy industry, railways and associated installations, buildings and installations with a sociocultural purpose, camping, sports, playgrounds, golf courts, oilseed crops other than oilseed rape such as sunflower or linseed, some spring cereals and former forest clearcuts or windthrows were frequently associated with high honey bee colony losses.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47646363',
'title': 'Lasioglossum vierecki',
'section': 'Section::::Human importance.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Since "L. vierecki" and other native bees have become more important for agriculture due to the decline in population of honey bees, there are new efforts to sustain and promote these species. Some farmers are now raising native plants that these bees feed from in order to ensure that their farming practices do not negatively affect the native bee population.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52785853',
'title': 'Honeybee starvation',
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'passage_text': 'Honey bee starvation is a problem for bees and beekeepers. Starvation may be caused by unfavorable weather, disease, long distance transportation or depleting food reserve. Over-harvesting of honey (and the lack of supplemental feeding) is the foremost cause for scarcity as bees are not left with enough of a honey store, though weather, disease, and disturbance can also cause problems. Backyard beekeepers face more colony losses in the winter than in the summer, but for commercial beekeepers there is not much variation in loss by season. Starvation may be avoided by effective monitoring of hives and disease prevention measures. Starvation can amplify the toxic effect of pesticides bees are exposed to.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "With bee populations being decimated why haven't we seen major shortages of any produce?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Simply put, it takes a while for that to have a noticeable effect. Consider the episode of *The Simpsons* with the Ribwich. In the context of the episode, eventually Krusty Burger has to stop selling it because the critter they were processing to make it went extinct. There are a lot of plants that are pollinated by bees, and many are found in multiple locations.',
"Because they're not collapsing.\n\nThe amount of bee commercial honey bee colonies in the US has increased from 2.3 million in 2008 to 2.8 million in 2016. So, pollination is fine.\n\nThat's not to say there aren't issues. Even with CCD receding, losses remain high. But because we're dealing with bees, and new colony can be created in less than a year, the number remains stable. This however results in greater costs for bee keepers. The cause of the losses is varied, ranging from parasites to pesticides to loss of good flowers.\n\n_URL_0_",
'One thing people never speak of is the fact that bees are actually invasive species to America and there are other insects that pollinate plants as well. In fact one could argue that bees are bad due to the fact that they compete with and often crowd out native pollinaters due the fact that they are raised and protected on farms in mass numbers compared to other local pollinators.\n\nAdditional note: my use of "bees" is obviously horriffically simplified. I am aware of this but I feel that the specifics of it were not important to my overall point that the imported bees have upset the natural balance of pollinators. Yes there are native bees to America but the most common bee used for honey is now bees that were not native to America and this has changed the landscape of pollinating insects in many areas of America.',
'Because the bees that are suffering are the wild honey bees, like bumblebees. NOT the commercial European honey bees that we use to pollinate plants on big grow fields.',
"It's not the general bee population that's collapsing, it was the wild bee population that collapsed. Commercial beekeeping is what keeps them alive at this point. ",
'A lot of farmers rent bees so they know their crops will get pollinated. My neighbor runs a bee business. Transports them south to work in the winter, brings them back north in the summer. \nMy friend owns an orchard and they rent bees during flowering season. It is a business and they make sure they have enough bees to do the job. \nIn China there was a bee shortage and they pollinated by hand which resulted in a much higher yield (because bees are inefficient) but also a higher cost.\nThis article is from several years ago. My understanding is that return of the bees and higher wages mean that they have gone back to natural pollination. _URL_0_',
"Bees are not the only pollinators. Mosquitoes, butterflies, moths and even flies among other insects also pollinate. It's also not all bees. Certain bee species are declining, but not all are affected.",
"Becsuse the CCD apocalypse was a fad. Really the European Honeybee we use had a brief decline and then rebounded. Also many native bee species were just fine.\n\nIt's a sign of the dangerous of removing genetic diversity, but it wasn't the end of days like many people thought it would be.",
'Because 9/10 are still alive?',
"Ironically I watched the film theory for bee movie that was made recently and learned something about bees.\n\nWe often think honeybees are the sole pollinators but there are many other species of bees, as well as beetles, moths, and butterflies can all act as pollinators.\n\nIn the video it's mentioned there are some studies talking about how the environment would be better without honeybees.\n\n_URL_0_",
"My father since I was a child till my early 20's owned bees. I often helped him out with them. There are a few deases that kill them and will kill your whole colony. My father got out of bee keeping because his colonies kept dieing on him and it was a hobby for him. The money back then wasn't the best but it supported the hobby at least. Now there is a documentary on Netflix called rotten that will get you up to speed on what's the true issue of the industry. With the organic craze honey consumption had increased because people see sweetened products with honey is healthier than cane or vorn sugar but really sugar is sugar. The demand has increased larger than supply so people started cutting honey with maple syrup. I remember when the story of a major company got caught cutting honey with chineese honey from my father's beekeeping magazines. Check out rotten on Netflix I beleive it's episode 1 as it does a good job explaining it. When a country starts producing more honey than their bee population can sustain more than likely they are cutting it with sugar. \n\nJust a side thought incase people wonder you don't water down honey. You add some water for fluidity but there is a art/science for it. This was a major juding point when you send your honey to the county fair for judging.",
'The 1st episode of Rotten in Netflix goes into detail about answering this question. A quick and short answer is because the Chinese are adulterating honey with rice syrup. Unlike sugar and corn syrup scientist can’t detect it in honey. ',
'It depends on what you mean by decimated. While there are certainly declines of natives (which btw some are much better pollinators than honies, it’s not like the populations are on the brink. There is one bumble bee( for America) on the IUCN red list of endangered species.',
'There is a documentary on Netflix called Rotten. One episode talks about honey and how a lot of it is imported from China and cut with rice syrups or similar. \n\nThis may also explain why there is no shortage of “honey”. ',
'There is an episode of Rotten on Netflix that describes exactly this :\n\nRotten episode 5. Milk Money\n_URL_0_ \n\nHoney production is nearly flat, but consumption is way up. Studies account for the disparity with counterfeit honey from Asia. Asian producers mix a small amount of honey with lesser sugars, derived from rice or sugar cane and sell it as 100% honey.\n\nIt is a big enough problem that there is an arms race between the counterfeiters to produce undetectable fake honey and trade regulators to devise a test to identify fake honey.\n\nThis and the rest of the series are really high quality. I recommend it to anyone with any interest. ',
'Because its more fear mongering and a push by "organic" fans and farmers. Our food supply has been under attack for thousands of years by insects and ever year a new insect will emerge as the top threat to wipe out a large chunk of production. Every year farmers have to worry about the new insect or in this case the damage done to bee populations. Evolution happens whether you use modern chemicals or 1000 year old practices. The difference is modern chemicals allows far more ways to combat it.',
'Because the honey you eat isn’t really honey. It’s mostly synthetic honey from China mixed with real honey from around the rest of the world.\nEdit: Buy Local Honey\n\nThere’s also a tv show on Netflix called “Rotten” \nand the first episode explains a lot about this',
'So this is a case of an environmental issue being simplified for the general public to understand. \n\nSo first of all, what we have to know is that produce is almost always pollinated by the\xa0 domesticated honey bee, which came from the European honey bee- Apis mellifera. Now these bees are one of 20,000 or so bee species, keep this in mind for a bit later.\n\nAt one point back around 2006, domesticated honey bee farmers were seeing something odd. They were seeing massive die offs in their hives, and hives collapsing. They called it Colony Collapse Disorder, or CCD.\n\nNow we do have to keep in mind that some collapse is normal. Winter loss is especially large, due to the stress that winter causes. New colonies can be made by making/buying new queens and splitting colonies- I\'m not a bee keeper, so I don\'t know the details here. \n\nSo the statistics out there are a little confusing, because there is annual loss rate and winter loss rate. Winter loss is when the most happens, as mentioned. It gets even more confusing, because I can\'t find data for annual loss percentages before 2010. I can only find winter loss rate. Oh, I\'m taking about the US only.\n\nSo, winter loss rate in 2006-2007 was about 32%. An acceptable rate would be around 15%. This got higher in 2007-2008 at around 36%. This has gone down since then, but some years have been better than others. Winter loss in 2014-2015 was about 22% or so, but in 2015-2016 it was about 28%. Annual loss peaked 2012-2013 at around 45%. Last I heard, in 2016-2017 it was 33%.\n\nKeep in mind not all of that is from Colony Collapse Disorder. Some are due to other things, like a queen dying, or other things. One of the key symptoms of CCD is that there is a live queen left. The other two are a capped brood and a food storage of honey and bee pollen. A capped brood just means that their are larvae and pupae in capped honeycomb cells. Usually the hive takes care of these, and won\'t leave until they have metamorphosised into adult bees. \n\nOkay so now that all the stats are out of the way, why did this happen? That\'s a tough question. Environment issues are almost NEVER one thing, keep that in mind when you read stuff about the environment. So some people might have heard about parasites, pesticides, and diseases. Which one is right? Probably all of them. \n\nVarroa mites not only weaken bees by sucking their hemolymph- basically invertebrate blood- but they also carry diseases, like deformed wing virus. That name means exactly what it says too- the bees come out of their pupae with tiny, malformed wings and can\'t fly. They also don\'t really eat if they are sick too, which leads to their death. There\'s also other parasites, like trachea mites, that might cause issues.\n\nSo where do pesticides come in? Well neonicotinoids were shown to stress bees in a lab setting. Stressed bees, and really animals including humans, are more susceptible to diseases and parasites. This is... Kinda controversial though, because some argue the lab concentrations were too high and bees in the field would never see those concentrations unless they were directly sprayed... \n\nAnother factor that may play a role is travel. So beekeepers travel with their bees to reach all sorts of crops. They move from almonds in California, to blueberries in Maine and everything in between. When the bees are in transit, they eat sugar syrup. It\'s thought that this syrup doesn\'t have the right nutrient balance for them, and may stress them too. \n\nIt\'s interesting to note that Australia did not see massive bee colony decline. They don\'t have Varroa mites, but they do have neonicotinoids. Just an interesting bit, I don\'t know enough about the relationship to say much more.\n\nAnywho, varroa mites don\'t like high temperatures, and can be killed by raising the hive temperature to over 100 F, but the bees just continue to work. So, we\'re figuring out ways to solve this issue. Some researchers and organizations say bee populations are growing, though some others question that... The decline numbers are going down though!\n\nBUT. What about those other bees? The 19,999 or so other species? Well, some of them are doing alright, others, not so much. I know the rusty spotted bumblebee, which exists near me, is Critically Endangered. \n\nThe main issue I\'ve heard they face is habitat loss. Corn and wheat are wind pollinated, and soybeans are self pollinated, so bees don\'t really visit those flowers. Unfortunately, that means the fields we have of them take up area that could be food for bees, like wild flowers and trees. Neonicotinoids may also play a role in this. Varroa mites have also spread from honey bees to bumblebees, so... That might be an issue too.\n\nSo some species in Hawaii are also endangered, though island species have their own set of problems, like being susceptible to diseases, having a smaller, more sensitive habitat, and invasive species. I haven\'t followed their issues as much.\n\nFun facts, some flies and beetles look like bees! Woo Batesian mimicry!\n\nTl;Dr The domesticated honey bee is showing signs of recovering from Colony Collapse Disorder, but some wild bee species are seeing declines.\n\nOh if you want sources, just ask! I\'m on mobile so it gets messy with links everywhere. I do think the stats source is important though, so here\'s that one!\n_URL_0_\n\nEdit: I removed an extra "are" in the part about the Hawaiian bees. Sorry!',
"Bees aren't the only pollinators there are plenty of species that pollinate other than bees ",
'Because bees are an invasive species in America and our ecosystem is not reliant on them to pollinate. [This Film Theory episode](_URL_0_) does a pretty good job at explaining it in a way anyone can understand with some added humor for good measure.\n\nThe short of it is bees are not native species to the Americas and are not the only bugs that pollinate plants here. For millions of years plants did just fine without them. \n\nIts basically a lie that bees are needed for plants (atleast in north and south america, they are native to europe so im sure they are more important there), hundreds of other insect species can do and have pollinated plants long before bees came around. \n\n',
"Wild honey bees are declining in numbers. In recent years , here in Ohio, the bumblebee, wasp, and yellow jacket population has risen. Plants are getting pollinated , just commercial handlers are making the honey. I don't really think any honey we would eat is natural anyways, it's all farmed.",
'Butterflies and flies and other bugs also help our bee friends out in the huge job of pollinating too. So the little guys arent alone ^_^',
"I didn't see it posted yet but I may not have scrolled far enough. A little nit-picking, but decimate means to reduce by 1/10th specifically.",
'While the wild bee population has been hit worse than commercial bees, beekeepers have seen a dramatic decrease in their bee numbers. For several of them, they can no longer stay in the black, so they use their colonies pollinate orchards for extra cash. \n\nAs far as honey goes, imported honey as well as artificial honey make up a huge part of the market. In fact, theres a pretty good chance that the "pure honey" that you\'ve bought in store wasn\'t made by bees, but in a lab. On top of this, pressure from China, who illegally imports honey and undercuts American honey farmers, has also led to a significant decrease in real honey. \n\nHere\'s a couple of sources about the illegal imports:\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_2_\n\nIn addition, I would recommend that you watch the episode about honey on the documentary "Rotten" which is on Netflix.\n\nEdit: I just realized OP was talking about vegetables. ',
"Because honey bees aren't the only [polinators](_URL_0_) out there! I wonder how well posting a Film Theory video will go..."],
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'query_id': '816icz',
'query': "with bee populations being decimated why haven't we seen major shortages of any produce?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '13137524',
'title': 'B-cell prolymphocytic leukemia',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.:Cytogenetics.:Chromosomal Mutations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
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'passage_text': 'The most commonly reported abnormalities have occurred at chromosome 14, specifically in a region of the chromosome called band q23 (14q23). Translocations to this location lead to overexpression of the cyclin D1 gene which has been linked to both the development and progression of a number of cancers. Other chromosomal abnormalities have been reported on 6q21, 11q23, 12p12, 13q14 and 17p.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6415314',
'title': 'Chromosome abnormality',
'section': 'Section::::Acquired chromosome abnormalities.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': 'Most cancers, if not all, could cause chromosome abnormalities, with either the formation of hybrid genes and fusion proteins, deregulation of genes and overexpression of proteins, or loss of tumor suppressor genes (see the "Mitelman Database" and the Atlas of Genetics and Cytogenetics in Oncology and Haematology,). Furthermore, certain consistent chromosomal abnormalities can turn normal cells into a leukemic cell such as the translocation of a gene, resulting in its inappropriate expression.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '152038',
'title': 'Karyotype',
'section': 'Section::::Chromosome abnormalities.\n',
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'passage_text': "Chromosome abnormalities can be numerical, as in the presence of extra or missing chromosomes, or structural, as in derivative chromosome, translocations, inversions, large-scale deletions or duplications. Numerical abnormalities, also known as aneuploidy, often occur as a result of nondisjunction during meiosis in the formation of a gamete; trisomies, in which three copies of a chromosome are present instead of the usual two, are common numerical abnormalities. Structural abnormalities often arise from errors in homologous recombination. Both types of abnormalities can occur in gametes and therefore will be present in all cells of an affected person's body, or they can occur during mitosis and give rise to a genetic mosaic individual who has some normal and some abnormal cells.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6415314',
'title': 'Chromosome abnormality',
'section': 'Section::::Inheritance.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Most chromosome abnormalities occur as an accident in the egg cell or sperm, and therefore the anomaly is present in every cell of the body. Some anomalies, however, can happen after conception, resulting in Mosaicism (where some cells have the anomaly and some do not). Chromosome anomalies can be inherited from a parent or be "de novo". This is why chromosome studies are often performed on parents when a child is found to have an anomaly. If the parents do not possess the abnormality it was not initially inherited; however it may be transmitted to subsequent generations.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11245347',
'title': 'Tetrasomy 18p',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
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'passage_text': 'Suspicion of a chromosome abnormality is typically raised due to the presence of developmental delays or congenital malformations. Diagnosis of tetrasomy 18p is typically made via a routine chromosome analysis from a blood sample. The diagnosis can also be made prenatally by chorionic villus sampling or amniocentesis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4021188',
'title': 'Chromosome microdissection',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Scientists who study chromosomes are known as cytogeneticists. They are able to identify each chromosome based on its unique pattern of dark and light bands. Certain abnormalities, however, cause chromosomes to have unusual banding patterns. For example, one chromosome may have a piece of another chromosome inserted within it, creating extra bands. Or, a portion of a chromosome may be repeated over and over again, resulting in an unusually wide, dark band (known as a homogeneously staining region). Some chromosomal aberrations have been linked to cancer and inherited genetic disorders, and the chromosomes of many tumor cells exhibit irregular bands. To understand more about what causes these conditions, scientists hope to determine which genes and DNA sequences are located near these unusual bands. Chromosome microdissection is a specialized way of isolating these regions by removing the DNA from the band and making that DNA available for further study.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18832531',
'title': '18p-',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Suspicion of a chromosome abnormality is typically raised due to the presence of developmental delays or birth defects. Diagnosis of 18p- is usually made via a blood sample. A routine chromosome analysis, or karyotype, is usually used to make the initial diagnosis, although it may also be made by microarray analysis. Increasingly, microarray analysis is also being used to clarify breakpoints. Prenatal diagnosis is possible via amniocentesis of chorionic villus sampling.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'what causes chromosome abnormalities?',
'selftext': 'Besides smoking, drinking, drugs. What are other reasons of errors in cell division, and what causes it to happen?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['There are lots, but one *major* issue that contributes to many cancers is recombination. \n\nNormally recombination isn\'t really a bad thing, and gives us genetic diversity. When your cells are dividing to make sperm or eggs, the chromosome you have from both mom and dad line up. Because they are structurally similar, it is possible for them to "swap" segments, [like this](_URL_0_). This means you could pass on one of your dad\'s chromosomes, but with your mom\'s "blue eyes" gene inside of it. \n\nThe problem comes in when the swap doesn\'t work very neatly. Instead of having Chromosome 9 swap with another Chromosome 9, it might swap with Chromosome 22. Sometimes this is fine because the DNA is *still there*, but in different places. However, it often turns out that DNA is lost, or gets coupled to another segment of DNA that makes it inappropriately active.'],
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'query_id': '76skd7',
'query': 'what causes chromosome abnormalities?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '50798',
'title': 'Insomnia',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Poor sleep quality.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Poor sleep quality can occur as a result of, for example, restless legs, sleep apnea or major depression. Poor sleep quality is defined as the individual not reaching stage 3 or delta sleep which has restorative properties.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4761393',
'title': 'Treatment of bipolar disorder',
'section': 'Section::::Lifestyle changes.:Sufficient sleep.\n',
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'passage_text': 'If sleeping is disturbed, the symptoms can occur. Sleep disruption may actually exacerbate the mental illness state. Those who do not get enough sleep at night, sleep late and wake up late, or go to sleep with some disturbance (e.g. music or charging devices) have a greater chance of having the symptoms and, in addition, depression. It is highly advised to not sleep too late and to get enough high quality sleep.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27834',
'title': 'Sleep',
'section': 'Section::::Timing.:Quality.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The quality of sleep may be evaluated from an objective and a subjective point of view. Objective sleep quality refers to how difficult it is for a person to fall asleep and remain in a sleeping state, and how many times they wake up during a single night. Poor sleep quality disrupts the cycle of transition between the different stages of sleep. Subjective sleep quality in turn refers to a sense of being rested and regenerated after awaking from sleep. A study by A. Harvey et al. (2002) found that insomniacs were more demanding in their evaluations of sleep quality than individuals who had no sleep problems.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29088737',
'title': 'Cancer-related fatigue',
'section': 'Section::::Management.:Addressing specific causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 421,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Sleep disturbances: Patients who do not sleep well are more tired than others. Cancer patients commonly experience insomnia or hypersomnia. Sleep disturbances may be caused by sleeping too much during the day, by restless leg syndrome, by pain, by anxiety, or by other medical conditions, like obstructive sleep apnea or menopause. Practicing good sleep hygiene may reduce fatigue by improving sleep quality.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1268981',
'title': 'Sleep hygiene',
'section': 'Section::::Recommendations.:Activities.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
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'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Generally, for people experiencing difficulties with sleep, spending less time in bed results in deeper and more continuous sleep, so clinicians will frequently recommend eliminating use of the bed for any activities except sleep (or sex).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10568255',
'title': 'Understanding (TV series)',
'section': 'Section::::Episodes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
'end_character': 274,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::30. "Sleep": Most people think they can sleep enough to get by, but few realize it is regulated and required by the brain at any cost. Sleep patterns and habits can be modified and manipulated to better fit our needs, but sleep and wake are in a delicate balance.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1051985',
'title': 'Shift work',
'section': 'Section::::Management.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 37,
'end_character': 444,
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'passage_text': 'Good sleep hygiene is recommended. This includes blocking out noise and light during sleep, maintaining a regular, predictable sleep routine, avoiding heavy foods and alcohol before sleep, and sleeping in a comfortable, cool environment. Alcohol consumption, caffeine consumption and heavy meals in the few hours before sleep can worsen shift work sleep disorders. Exercise in the three hours before sleep can make it difficult to fall asleep.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How come you can have a good or bad sleep?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Simplest answer: variance.\n\nBetter answer: there are multiple factors involved. Light sources in the room or before you go to bed mess with melatonin production, which signals your body to sleep. If you wake up in certain parts of your REM cycle, you'll feel groggy instead of rested. Nightmares can make you tense during sleep, which makes some people less rested. Alcohol interferes with sleep quality. And I've heard that sleep you get before midnight is twice as restful as sleep you get after midnight. The effects of stimulants shouldn't be underestimated. The half-life of caffeine is about 6 hours. This means that if you have a cup of coffee at 2 or 3 in the afternoon and go to bed at 8 or 9, half the caffeine from your afternoon coffee is still in your system, interfering with your sleep.\n\nAnd the list goes on...",
'Imagine you are a phone with a rechargeable battery. \nYou use energy throughout the day and every night you need to recharge your battery or else it will be dangerously low the next day or even dead. \n\nFor some people, they have batteries that need only 5-6 hour charge but for the average adult an 8 hour charge will get you through the day.\n\nThe tricky thing with charging your battery though is that the battery doesn’t charge right way when you plug it in. The charging cable has to be inserted for around an hour and a half and stay connected for a full charge. \n\nSometimes you forget to put the charging cable in all the way. It starts to charge but then disconnects itself and you don’t get a full charge.\n\nMost nights the charging cable goes in all the way and the battery is able to reach a full capacity. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7n2kxs',
'query': 'how come you can have a good or bad sleep?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '29767475',
'title': 'Flat lens',
'section': 'Section::::Traditional lenses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 457,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Traditional curved glass lenses can bend light coming from many angles to end up at the same focal point on a piece of photographic film or an electronic sensor. Light captured at the very edges of a curved glass lens does not line up correctly with the rest of the light, creating a fuzzy image at the edge of the frame. (Petzval field curvature and other aberrations.) To correct this, lenses use extra pieces of glass, adding bulk, complexity, and mass.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3876069',
'title': 'Fresnel lantern',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "The distinctive lens has a 'stepped' appearance instead of the 'full' or 'smooth' appearance of other lenses. This allows the lens to have a much greater curvature than would otherwise be practical. The lens focuses the light by tilting each ring of glass slightly more towards the center as the distance is increased from the center of the lens. If the glass were completely flat, this would cause a corresponding pattern of circles of light, so Fresnel lenses are usually stippled on the flat side. This pattern of small bumps helps to break up the light passing through the lens and gives Fresnels their characteristic soft beam. This means that the intensity of the light is consistent across the spread of the beam of light, as opposed to being less intense around the edges as in an ERS. The stepped lens design causes less heat buildup than a plano-convex lens of the same angle.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6142588',
'title': 'Glass disease',
'section': 'Section::::Stages of deterioration.:Stage One.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 208,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The initial stage of glass disease occurs when moisture causes alkali to be leached out of the glass. This becomes apparent when hygroscopic alkali deposits on the glass give it a cloudy or hazy appearance. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58036017',
'title': 'Veiling glare',
'section': 'Section::::Factors and design techniques.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 287,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Light strays or scatters in lenses due to many potential factors in design and operation. These factors include dirt, film, or scratches on lens surfaces; reflections from lens surfaces or their mounts; and the slightly imperfect transparency (or reflection) of real glass (or mirrors).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '168430',
'title': 'Circle of confusion',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'In optics, a circle of confusion is an optical spot caused by a cone of light rays from a lens not coming to a perfect focus when imaging a point source. It is also known as disk of confusion, circle of indistinctness, blur circle, or blur spot.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2942638',
'title': 'Gloss (optics)',
'section': 'Section::::Theory.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 521,
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'passage_text': 'Variations in surface texture directly influence the level of specular reflection. Objects with a smooth surface, i.e. highly polished or containing coatings with finely dispersed pigments, appear shiny to the eye due to a large amount of light being reflected in a specular direction whilst rough surfaces reflect no specular light as the light is scattered in other directions and therefore appears dull. The image forming qualities of these surfaces are much lower making any reflections appear blurred and distorted.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18320',
'title': 'Lens (optics)',
'section': 'Section::::Aberrations.:Spherical aberration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 50,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 50,
'end_character': 922,
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'passage_text': '"Spherical aberration" occurs because spherical surfaces are not the ideal shape for a lens, but are by far the simplest shape to which glass can be ground and polished, and so are often used. Spherical aberration causes beams parallel to, but distant from, the lens axis to be focused in a slightly different place than beams close to the axis. This manifests itself as a blurring of the image. Lenses in which closer-to-ideal, non-spherical surfaces are used are called "aspheric" lenses. These were formerly complex to make and often extremely expensive, but advances in technology have greatly reduced the manufacturing cost for such lenses. Spherical aberration can be minimised by carefully choosing the surface curvatures for a particular application. For instance, a plano-convex lens, which is used to focus a collimated beam, produces a sharper focal spot when used with the convex side towards the beam source.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why does dirt on my glasses always show as a perfect circle when my eyes don't focus on them?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['That\'s an effect you get from point light sources (or shadows) being out of focus, and the shape is down to the shape of your own [pupil](_URL_0_). \n\nPhotographers use that same phenomenon in cameras, to artistic effect, and they call it "Bokeh". [As you can see](_URL_1_) in this picture, the camera this was taken on had a non-circular artificial \'pupil\', or aperture, as it\'s called in photography-speak.\n\nThe aperture in the camera would\'ve looked something like [this](_URL_2_) and if your eye\'s iris was that shape, you\'d perceive that shape in out of focus dirt on your glasses. As it is, your pupil is circular, so you see circles. \n\n\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6qgxo8',
'query': "why does dirt on my glasses always show as a perfect circle when my eyes don't focus on them?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '63663',
'title': 'Fly',
'section': 'Section::::Ecology.:Swarming.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 57,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 57,
'end_character': 244,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In many dipteran groups, swarming is a feature of adult life, with clouds of insects gathering in certain locations. These swarming insects are mostly males, and the swarm may serve the purpose of making their location more visible to females.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44131624',
'title': 'Synoeca surinama',
'section': 'Section::::Behavior.:Swarming behavior.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 349,
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'passage_text': '"S. surinama, "like many other related wasp species, exhibit swarming behavior. Swarming behavior is a collective behavior in which certain events or stimuli cause many individuals of the same species (most commonly from the same colony) to fly in close aggregation with one another, often appearing to onlookers as a giant cloud of moving insects.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '57322195',
'title': 'Lasioglossum sordidum',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 612,
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'passage_text': 'These bees are very small being around 5 mm in size, however, when compared to their body size they have relatively large wings. They are moderately hairy with hair covering a majority of its body. Their appearance is described as fly-like., and small and agile . They have short tongues, but this has no restriction to gather pollen. Females have wider abdomens than the males. They appear very similar in colour and shape to a honey bee, however, the small native bee is not as stout. Because "Lasioglossum sordidum" are small and fly like looking they often get mistaken for flies or go completely unnoticed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '646568',
'title': 'Gasterophilus',
'section': 'Section::::Identification.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 246,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': '"Gasterophilus" are medium to large flies and are long. They look similar to drone bumble bees, with clear wings with brown patches, and produce creamy-white eggs, around in length. The adults have non-functional mouthparts, so they cannot feed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2600454',
'title': 'Swarm (comics)',
'section': 'Section::::Powers and abilities.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 845,
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'passage_text': "Swarm is a composite being of hundreds of thousands of bees driven by a human intelligence. He is technically intangible, as his body is merely an aggregate of tiny forms. He can fly through the air and assume any shape and size he desires. He can mentally influence the actions of other bees, the full range of which may extend over hundreds of yards in radius. With the aid of a team of scientists, Swarm was briefly able to enhance his power to the point where he could have theoretically taken control of every bee on Earth, but this plan was averted by Spider-Man. At first, Swarm seemed capable of only controlling other bees, but he has exhibited the ability to communicate/control other insects as well. Fritz von Meyer's skeleton, the focal point of his consciousness, remained behind as his only remains until being devoured by Venom.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11105212',
'title': 'Nuptial flight',
'section': 'Section::::Flying ant day.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 439,
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'passage_text': 'In most species, the male ants fly alongside them, although they are smaller and less noticeable. The queens fly around – some covering very long distances, others only a few meters – then mate and drop to the ground, where they lose their wings and attempt to start a new ant colony. The mass of flying insects often attracts the attention of predators such as birds, and it is common to see flocks gorging on the readily available food.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2965651',
'title': 'Pengi',
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 921,
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'passage_text': 'The maze is inhabited by "snow bees" that are deadly so must be avoided. They move around in a semi-random way: a bee may sometimes choose to get away from "Pengi" instead of chasing him (especially on early levels). The bees can be killed by crushing them with a moving ice block (bees do not stop the blocks so more than one bee can be killed with one kick) or by kicking the fence while they are touching it. This momentarily stuns them and they can be crushed by simply walking over them. Only a set number of bees are on the screen at once (e.g. 3 on level 1) but there are more (a total of 6 on level 1) which emerge from the diamond blocks as others are killed. A level is completed either by killing all of the bees or by lining up the special diamond blocks. This is the preferred way of completing the level because a huge points bonus is awarded (5,000 if they are touching the fence, 10,000 if they are not).\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What, why, and from whence are these super tiny flies that congregate in tiny swarms at face-level?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Would help to know which country you are in and even which region of the country as the little bugs will vary considerably from place to place including thrips.',
"I believe they're basically gnat orgies. They all come together in big swarms to fertilize each other. Not sure what they're doing for the rest of their time when they're not having a root. Not a gnat expert but last time I asked someone wtf was with all the bug clouds that's what I was told."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'amc2jf',
'query': 'what, why, and from whence are these super tiny flies that congregate in tiny swarms at face-level?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '464103',
'title': 'Professional video camera',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 828,
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'passage_text': 'In the late 1990s, as HDTV broadcasting commenced, HDTV cameras suitable for news and general purpose work were introduced. Though they delivered much better image quality, their overall operation was identical to their standard definition predecessors. New methods of recording for cameras were introduced to supplant video tape, tapeless cameras. Ikegami and Avid introduced EditCam in 1996, based on interchangeable hard drives. Panasonic introduced P2 cameras. These recorded a DVCPro signal on interchangeable flash memory media. Several other data storage device recording systems were introduced, notably XDCAM from Sony. Sony also introduced SxS (S-by-S), a flash memory standard compliant to the Sony and Sandisk-created ExpressCard standard. Eventually flash storage largely supplanted other forms of recording media.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '464103',
'title': 'Professional video camera',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 426,
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'passage_text': 'In 2000s, major manufacturers like Sony, Philips introduced the digital professional video cameras. These cameras used CCD sensors and recorded video digitally on flash storage. These were followed by digital HDTV cameras. As digital technology improved and also due to digital television transition, digital professional video cameras have become dominant in television studios, ENG, EFP and even in other areas since 2010s.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1342176',
'title': 'Film-out',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 35,
'end_character': 429,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Digital video equipment has made this approach easier; theatrical-release documentaries and features originated on video are now being produced this way. High Definition video became popular in the early 2000s by pioneering filmmakers like George Lucas and Robert Rodriguez, who used HD video cameras (such as the Sony HDW-F900) to capture images for popular movies like "" and "Spy Kids 2", respectively, both released in 2002.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '173449',
'title': 'Trinitron',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Reception.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 35,
'end_character': 266,
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'passage_text': 'These developments meant that Sony was well placed to introduce high-definition televisions (HDTV). In April 1981, they announced the High Definition Video System (HDVS), a suite of MUSE equipment including cameras, recorders, Trinitron monitors and projection TVs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33263',
'title': 'Widescreen',
'section': 'Section::::Television.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
'end_character': 301,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'HD DVD and Blu-ray disc players were introduced in 2006. Toshiba ceased production of HD DVD players in early 2008. Consumer camcorders are also available in the HD-video format at fairly low prices. These developments will result in more options for viewing widescreen images on television monitors.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8136685',
'title': 'Home movies',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Home video-making.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 504,
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'passage_text': 'The introduction of the Beta VCR in 1975 and VHS in 1976 heralded a revolution in the making of home movies. Videocassettes were extremely inexpensive compared to film and they could even be erased. This had the effect of greatly increasing the hours of footage of most family video libraries. It took a few years before consumer video cameras and portable VCRs were introduced, and later combined to create camcorders, but by that time, many consumers already had the playback equipment in their homes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16315657',
'title': 'High-definition television',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Demise of analog HD systems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 30,
'end_character': 567,
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'passage_text': "The limited standardization of analog HDTV in the 1990s did not lead to global HDTV adoption as technical and economic constraints at the time did not permit HDTV to use bandwidths greater than normal television. Early HDTV commercial experiments, such as NHK's MUSE, required over four times the bandwidth of a standard-definition broadcast. Despite efforts made to reduce analog HDTV to about twice the bandwidth of SDTV, these television formats were still distributable only by satellite. In Europe too, the HD-MAC standard was considered not technically viable.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why has Hdr been so common in cameras for so long but is only now beginning to move into mainstream TVs, Smartphones and games consoles?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["HDR-photos are typically just composite images of several photos, taken with different exposures.\n\nWhat proper HDR is about, is being able display/capture truely dark and really bright parts of the image, both at the same time. This is what's new, and it's not easy.",
"They're different technologies. The HDR in cameras involves taking two shots at high/low exposure, then merging them to a single photo. The HDR in video displays refers to the ability to show a wide range of brightness."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '792n9k',
'query': 'why has hdr been so common in cameras for so long but is only now beginning to move into mainstream tvs, smartphones and games consoles?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '692372',
'title': 'Almond milk',
'section': 'Section::::Production.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 239,
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'passage_text': 'The basic method of modern domestic almond milk production is to grind almonds in a blender with water, then strain out the almond pulp (flesh) with a strainer or cheesecloth. Almond milk can also be made by adding water to almond butter.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '692372',
'title': 'Almond milk',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Almond milk is a plant milk manufactured from almonds with a creamy texture and nutty flavor, although some types or brands are flavored in imitation of dairy milk. It does not contain cholesterol, saturated fat or lactose, and is often consumed by those who are lactose-intolerant and others, such as vegans who avoid dairy products. Commercial almond milk comes in sweetened, unsweetened, vanilla and chocolate flavors, and is usually fortified with micronutrients. It can also be made at home using a blender, almonds and water. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '392267',
'title': 'Brindisi',
'section': 'Section::::Cuisine.:Beverages, spirits, liquors.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 111,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 111,
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'passage_text': 'Almond milk: made by infusing water with the finely chopped almonds and then squeezing the same to expel the "milk". The region of Apulia has entered the milk of almonds in its list of traditional Italian food products . \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1064',
'title': 'Almond',
'section': 'Section::::Culinary uses.:Almond milk.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 62,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 62,
'end_character': 451,
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'passage_text': 'Almonds can be processed into a milk substitute called almond milk; the nut\'s soft texture, mild flavor, and light coloring (when skinned) make for an efficient analog to dairy, and a soy-free choice for lactose intolerant people and vegans. Raw, blanched, and lightly toasted almonds work well for different production techniques, some of which are similar to that of soymilk and some of which use no heat, resulting in "raw milk" (see raw foodism).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4335184',
'title': 'San Vito dei Normanni',
'section': 'Section::::Culture.:Cuisine.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 114,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 114,
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'passage_text': 'Almond milk is achieved by creating in an infusion of water with finely chopped almonds, and then squeezing them to bring out all the juice. Puglia Region has entered the almond milk in the list of traditional Italian food products. Limoncello is a liquor made from the peel of fresh lemon and enriched with water, sugar and alcohol to be enjoyed both as an apéritif and as a digestive after meals.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '692372',
'title': 'Almond milk',
'section': 'Section::::Nutrition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': "If unfortified, almond milk has less vitamin\xa0D than fortified cows' milk; in North America cows' milk must be fortified with vitamin\xa0D, but vitamins are added to plant milks on a voluntary basis. Because of its low protein content, almond milk is not a suitable replacement for breast milk, cows' milk, or hydrolyzed formulas for children under two years of age.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1064',
'title': 'Almond',
'section': 'Section::::Culinary uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
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'passage_text': 'While the almond is often eaten on its own, raw or toasted, it is also a component of various dishes. Almonds are available in many forms, such as whole, sliced (flaked, slivered), and as flour. Almond pieces around 2–3\xa0mm in size, called "nibs", are used for special purposes such as decoration. Almonds yield almond oil and can also be made into almond butter or almond milk. These products can be used in both sweet and savoury dishes.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'please. How do you milk an almond to make almond milk?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['With a screw press. Roughly chop, then sqeeze them like olives or peanuts to get the moister out. The remaining paste can be used as a thickening agent.',
'What Druid posted about the press is correct but typically they will also soak the almonds in a watery mixture that when pressed/processed creates a slurry of water and oil and solids. The solids are filtered out.\n\nThe protein content of the almonds remains in the physical paste leaving the liquid mixture as "milk".'],
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'query_id': '65uvqm',
'query': 'please. how do you milk an almond to make almond milk?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '11866',
'title': 'Global Positioning System',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Military.\n',
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'passage_text': "GPS's vulnerability to jamming is a threat that continues to grow as jamming equipment and experience grows. GPS signals have been reported to have been jammed many times over the years for military purposes. Russia seems to have several objectives for this behavior, such as intimidating neighbors while undermining confidence in their reliance on American systems, promoting their GLONASS alternative, disrupting Western military exercises, and protecting assets from drones. China uses jamming to discourage US surveillance aircraft near the contested Spratly Islands. North Korea has mounted several major jamming operations near its border with South Korea and offshore, disrupting flights, shipping and fishing operations.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '201690',
'title': 'Joint Direct Attack Munition',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Operational use.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The introduction of GPS guidance to weapons brought several improvements to air-to-ground warfare. The first is a real all-weather capability since GPS is not affected by rain, clouds, fog, smoke, or man-made obscurants. Previous precision guided weapons relied on seekers using infrared, visual light, or a reflected laser spot to “see” the ground target. These seekers were not effective when the target was obscured by fog and low altitude clouds and rain (as encountered in Kosovo), or by dust and smoke (as encountered in Desert Storm).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24050869',
'title': 'Inertial navigation system',
'section': 'Section::::Error.\n',
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'passage_text': "In 2011, GPS jamming at the civilian level became a governmental concern. The relative ease in ability to jam these systems has motivated the military to reduce navigation dependence on GPS technology. Inertial navigation sensors cannot be jammed. In 2012, researchers at the U.S. Army Research Laboratory reported an inertial measurement unit consisting of micro-electromechanical system triaxial accelerometers and tri-axial gyroscopes with an array size of 10 that had a Kalman filter algorithm to estimate sensor nuisance parameters (errors) and munition position and velocity. Each array measures six data points and the system coordinates the data together to deliver a navigation solution. If one sensor consistently over or underestimates distance, the system can adjust, adjusting the corrupted sensor's contributions to the final calculation.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13108226',
'title': 'Radio occultation',
'section': 'Section::::GNSS radio occultation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'GNSS or GPS radio occultation (GNSS-RO, GPS-RO, GPSRO) is a type of radio occultation that relies on radio transmissions from GPS (Global Positioning System), or more generally from GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System), satellites. This is a relatively new technique (first applied in 1995) for performing atmospheric measurements. It is used as a weather forecasting tool, and could also be harnessed in monitoring climate change. The technique involves a low-Earth orbit satellite receiving a signal from a GPS satellite. The signal has to pass through the atmosphere and gets refracted along the way. The magnitude of the refraction depends on the temperature and water vapor concentration in the atmosphere.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1325302',
'title': 'Radar detector',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
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'passage_text': "In recent years, some radar detectors have added GPS technology. This allows users to manually store the locations where police frequently monitor traffic, with the detector sounding an alarm when approaching that location in the future (this is accomplished by pushing a button and doesn't require coordinates to be entered). These detectors also allow users to manually store the coordinates of sites of frequent false alarms, which the GPS enabled detector will then ignore. The detector can also be programmed to mute alerts when traveling below a preset speed, limiting unnecessary alerts. Some GPS enabled detectors can download the GPS coordinates of speed monitoring cameras and red-light cameras from the Internet, alerting the driver that they are approaching the camera.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56456840',
'title': 'James Spilker',
'section': 'Section::::Technical contributions.:Precision satellite test receiver for testing C/A and P code satellite transmissions.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Upon initial launch of the first GPS satellites, there was the need to assure that the precise signal modulation matched bit-by-bit and chip-by-chip with the desired signal. This measurement required a large tracking antenna and special receiver. Since the satellites are exposed to Van Allen belt radiation and vibration effects at launch, these were important tests. Spilker and his team at Stanford Telecommunications successfully designed, implemented, and carried our these GPS in-orbit tests to assure that the P-code chips and other signals were precisely correct.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '503209',
'title': 'Spoofing attack',
'section': 'Section::::GPS spoofing.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A GPS spoofing attack attempts to deceive a GPS receiver by broadcasting incorrect GPS signals, structured to resemble a set of normal GPS signals, or by rebroadcasting genuine signals captured elsewhere or at a different time. These spoofed signals may be modified in such a way as to cause the receiver to estimate its position to be somewhere other than where it actually is, or to be located where it is but at a different time, as determined by the attacker. One common form of a GPS spoofing attack, commonly termed a carry-off attack, begins by broadcasting signals synchronized with the genuine signals observed by the target receiver. The power of the counterfeit signals is then gradually increased and drawn away from the genuine signals. It has been suggested that the capture of a Lockheed RQ-170 drone aircraft in northeastern Iran in December, 2011 was the result of such an attack. GPS spoofing attacks had been predicted and discussed in the GPS community previously, but no known example of a malicious spoofing attack has yet been confirmed. A "proof-of-concept" attack was successfully performed in June, 2013, when the luxury yacht "White Rose of Drachs" was misdirected with spoofed GPS signals by a group of aerospace engineering students from the Cockrell School of Engineering at the University of Texas in Austin. The students were aboard the yacht, allowing their spoofing equipment to gradually overpower the signal strengths of the actual GPS constellation satellites, altering the course of the yacht.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does GPS jamming work? Like what the Russians did during the recent NATO exercise.',
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'category': 'Technology',
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'answers': ['The same as normal jamming, they sent out a bunch of signals on the frequency that GPS satellites use to confuse the receivers- like trying to hear a code someone is telling you(The GPS signal) when someone is shouting in your ear(The Russian Jamming.) \n\n01001 01100 01001 01011 00101 10100 10010 00001 01001 01110 10011... \n\n#I LIKE TRAINS, VARIABLE-SPEED CORN MUFFINS, HI GUYS WHAT ARE YOU TALKING ABOUT, ARE YOU HAVING A CONVERSATION, AM I INTRUDING? ',
'GPS works on a series of satellites at predictable positions in orbit around the Earth. A GPS receiver basically "sees" these GPS satellites, the radio signals they put out, and can figure out its own location based on them.\n\nTo jam a radio signal, you just need to flood the area with other signals at the same frequency, preventing anyone from getting useful information from them.\n\nImagine turning a spotlight on and off to send a message in morse code. Jamming would be like having a hundred other spotlights also flashing randomly at the same time. The real signal is in the mix, but there\'s no way to tell what is signal and what is noise, so it is all effectively noise.\n\nAnyway, since GPS signals are just radio signals at a specific frequency, you can jam them just like any other radio signal.',
"First how GPS works: GPS satellites in orbit are like special radio stations that continuously send a very long pattern of numbers and their positions relative to the Earth. GPS receivers are radio receivers that know the same pattern. The receiver compares its pattern with the transmitted pattern to know how long ago the GPS satellite sent it. This time delay is converted to a distance and the distances from three or four GPS satellites are used to determine the location of the receiver through a calculation called triangulation.\n\nJamming: Unfortunately, civilian GPS is not securely verifiable so a receiver can't tell the difference between a real and fake transmission on the same frequency. Russia probably transmitted either noise or a shifted version of the pattern to confuse receivers , making the receiver believe satellites were closer or farther than they really are. If the Russian transmission was stronger, which is easy to do since the real transmitters are all the way in space, they could cause GPS receivers to report an incorrect location.\n\n\nEdit: Since you were asking about a military drill specifically, it's likely Russia was just transmitting noise to prevent the real signal from being received. Civilian GPS is even more vulnerable in that an attacker can create fake signals to cause a receiver to believe it's in the wrong place, though it would be hard to do for multiple spread out targets simultaneously.",
'Wait, did this happen? '],
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'query_id': '9x3btd',
'query': 'how does gps jamming work? like what the russians did during the recent nato exercise.',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '698830',
'title': 'Street light',
'section': 'Section::::Purpose.:Beacon lights.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 78,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 78,
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'passage_text': 'A modest steady light at the intersection of two roads is an aid to navigation because it helps a driver see the location of a side road as they come closer to it and they can adjust their braking and know exactly where to turn if they intend to leave the main road or see vehicles or pedestrians. A beacon light\'s function is to say "here I am" and even a dim light provides enough contrast against the dark night to serve the purpose. To prevent the dangers caused by a car driving through a pool of light, a beacon light must never shine onto the main road, and not brightly onto the side road. In residential areas, this is usually the only appropriate lighting, and it has the bonus side effect of providing spill lighting onto any sidewalk there for the benefit of pedestrians. On Interstate highways this purpose is commonly served by placing reflectors at the sides of the road.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '997476',
'title': 'Night sky',
'section': 'Section::::Visual presentation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 430,
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'passage_text': 'Because stargazing is best done from a dark place away from city lights, dark adaptation is important to achieve and maintain. It takes several minutes for eyes to adjust to the darkness necessary for seeing the most stars, and surroundings on the ground are hard to discern. A red flashlight (torch) can be used to illuminate star charts, telescope parts, and the like without undoing the dark adaptation. (See Purkinje effect).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2073846',
'title': 'Malmquist bias',
'section': 'Section::::Understanding the bias.:Magnitudes and brightness.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 333,
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'passage_text': 'In everyday life it is easy to see that light dims as it gets farther away. This can be seen with car headlights, candles, flashlights, and many other lit objects. This dimming follows the inverse square law, which states that the brightness of an object decreases as , where "r" is the distance between the observer and the object.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17944118',
'title': 'Physics in the medieval Islamic world',
'section': 'Section::::Optics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 442,
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'passage_text': 'Taqī al-Dīn tried to disprove the widely held belief that light is emitted by the eye and not the object that is being observed. He explained that, if light came from our eyes at a constant velocity it would take much too long to illuminate the stars for us to see them while we are still looking at them, because they are so far away. Therefore, the illumination must be coming from the stars so we can see them as soon as we open our eyes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3953330',
'title': 'Photoclinometry',
'section': 'Section::::Problems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 314,
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'passage_text': 'Light direction is very important to the quality of a photoclinometric image. Light that comes from directly over the surface (behind the camera) makes it hard to distinguish the shadows. Multiple light sources are also a problem, since they destroy important shadows required for the algorithms to work properly.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2592962',
'title': 'Octant (instrument)',
'section': 'Section::::Advantages of the octant.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 43,
'end_character': 215,
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'passage_text': 'Using shades over the light paths, one could observe the sun directly, while moving the shades out of the light path allowed the navigator to observe faint stars. This made the instrument usable both night and day.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25330713',
'title': 'Belgian railway signalling',
'section': 'Section::::Light signals.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 404,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The lights are designed and arranged to be visible from a distance (up to two kilometers on a clear day). For this they are equipped with lenses to focus light rays emitted by the bulb, which can be selected and reasonable power. That is why the lights do not seem very intense when viewed from the side while they light up sharply in normal line of vision i.e. in the direction of arrival of the train.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why can we see faraway light source (e.g. cars, lamps, stars) clearly when it doesn't seem to illuminate my position?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The difference is this: For you to see light, the light has to be strong enough to reach your eye and produce a reaction there. For it to illuminate you, it would have to reach you, scatter off you, reach someone else's eye, and produce a reaction there. During the scattering, the light is spread out more, so it becomes fainter.\n\nLet's look at the case of a laser pointer. Point the laser at the wall, and the scattered light is comfortably visible. Point it at your eye, and you're looking at serious eye damage."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5xzxa7',
'query': "why can we see faraway light source (e.g. cars, lamps, stars) clearly when it doesn't seem to illuminate my position?",
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '54671638',
'title': 'Tiny but Mighty Popcorn',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Kelty family.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 391,
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'passage_text': 'Since 1854, the ancestors of Richard Kelty (1936-2015) had been growing a heirloom popcorn variety out of small kernels, whose hulls would disintegrate after being popped, resulting in a richer taste. The popcorn had been introduced to the Kelty family by Native Americans, who shared it with them. The Kelty family had never sold the popcorn, which was only grown for personal consumption.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20656228',
'title': 'Maize',
'section': "Section::::Origin.:Connection with 'parviglumis' subspecies.\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 81,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 81,
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'passage_text': 'In 1939, George Beadle demonstrated that the kernels of teosinte are readily "popped" for human consumption, like modern popcorn. Some have argued it would have taken too many generations of selective breeding to produce large, compressed ears for efficient cultivation. However, studies of the hybrids readily made by intercrossing teosinte and modern maize suggest this objection is not well founded.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4247100',
'title': 'Euryale ferox',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Culinary.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 301,
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'passage_text': 'In India, in the northern (Punjab) and western parts of the country, "Euryale ferox" seeds are often roasted or fried, which causes them to pop like popcorn. These are then eaten, often with a sprinkling of oil and spices. It is used in cooking, especially to make a porridge or pudding called kheer.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6038844',
'title': 'Lolly Gobble Bliss Bombs',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Originally released in the 1970s, it is caramelised, ready-to-eat popcorn, similar to the American Cracker Jack. The concept was first floated by the head food technologist for Greens, Sir Shaun MacMaster, in the late 1960s, but the company delayed the product due to uncertainty of the market appeal. The popcorn is coated with toffee and rolled in crushed peanuts. Flavours include butterscotch and caramel. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42312291',
'title': 'List of popcorn brands',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'This is a list of notable popcorn brands. Popcorn, also known as popping corn, is a type of corn (maize, "Zea mays var. everta") that expands from the kernel and puffs up when heated. Popcorn is able to pop because its kernels have a hard moisture-sealed hull and a dense starchy interior. Pressure builds inside the kernel, and a small explosion (or "pop") is the end result. Some strains of corn are now cultivated specifically as popping corns.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58634259',
'title': 'SkinnyPop',
'section': 'Section::::Products.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'end_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'SkinnyPop’s original pre-popped popcorn was launched in 2010 and was made with sunflower oil and salt. Different flavors were later introduced. The company released a microwave popcorn product in 2017. Its other products have included popcorn puffs and cakes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '624879',
'title': 'Corn Pops',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'end_character': 243,
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'passage_text': "Corn Pops are made from milled corn. Though the name of the cereal is 'Corn' Pops, since January 2004, its ingredients have included wheat starch, essentially making the cereal multigrain. By 2007, Coconut Oil was added to the US ingredients.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why does corn pop and expand into yummy cinema treats?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["All grains pop with enough heat... Rice, corn even wheat, ragi etc. I don't know why they pop but they do pop if heated. ",
"The hard kernel provides resistance, allowing pressure to build then pop. \n\nThe pressure is caused by the moisture content creating steam.\n\nThe resulting airy foam is the starchy inside of the kernal, which is very briefly exploded then solidifies into an airy mass. \n\nOther grains will puff (see: puffed wheat cereal) but corn's harder outer shell allows for more pressure and a larger release of energy giving a large fluffy popped corn."],
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'query_id': '96ft3k',
'query': 'why does corn pop and expand into yummy cinema treats?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '162714',
'title': 'Dust',
'section': 'Section::::Dust Mites.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 650,
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'passage_text': 'House dust mites are present indoors wherever humans live. Positive tests for dust mite allergies are extremely common among people with asthma. Dust mites are microscopic arachnids whose primary food is dead human skin cells, but they do not live on living people. They and their feces and other allergens which they produce are major constituents of house dust, but because they are so heavy they are not suspended for long in the air. They are generally found on the floor and other surfaces until disturbed (by walking, for example). It could take somewhere between twenty minutes and two hours for dust mites to settle back down out of the air.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '162714',
'title': 'Dust',
'section': 'Section::::Dust Mites.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Dust mites are a nesting species that prefers a dark, warm, and humid climate. They flourish in mattresses, bedding, upholstered furniture, and carpets. Their feces include enzymes that are released upon contact with a moist surface, which can happen when a person inhales, and these enzymes can kill cells within the human body. House dust mites did not become a problem until humans began to use textiles, such as western style blankets and clothing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1390765',
'title': 'Housekeeping',
'section': 'Section::::Housecleaning.:Dusting.\n',
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'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 675,
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'passage_text': 'Over time dust accumulates on household surfaces. As well as making the surfaces dirty, when dust is disturbed it can become suspended in the air, causing sneezing and breathing trouble. It can also transfer from furniture to clothing, making it unclean. Various tools have been invented for dust removal: Feather and lamb\'s wool dusters, cotton and polyester dust cloths, furniture spray, disposable paper "dust cloths", dust mops for smooth floors and vacuum cleaners. Vacuum cleaners often have a variety of tools to enable them to remove dirt not just from carpets and rugs, but also from hard surfaces and upholstery. Dusting is very important in hospital environments.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '477033',
'title': 'Hoarding',
'section': 'Section::::Human hoarding.:Anxiety disorder and hoarding.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 667,
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'passage_text': 'In severe cases, houses may become a fire hazard (due to blocked exits and stacked papers) or a health hazard (due to vermin infestation, excreta and detritus from excessive pets, hoarded food and garbage or the risk of stacks of items collapsing on the occupants and blocking exit routes).. Hoarding affects more than just the person who has the strong attachment to possessions, as other people living in the home and neighbours can be affected by the clutter. Individuals with hoarding disorder have a quality of life as poor as those diagnosed with schizophrenia. The disorder increases family strain, work impairment, and the risk of serious medical conditions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9898682',
'title': 'Cellulose insulation',
'section': 'Section::::Products.:Low-dust cellulose.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 472,
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'passage_text': 'The last major type of cellulose insulation on the market is low-dust variety. Nuisance levels of dust are created during application of most types of dry insulation causing the need for simple dust masks to be worn during installation. This kind of cellulose has a small percentage of oil or similar dust dampener added. This may also be appropriate to homes where people are sensitive to newsprint or paper dust (though new dust will not be created after installation).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26937787',
'title': 'Pyroglyphidae',
'section': 'Section::::House dust mites.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 458,
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'passage_text': 'Three species of house dust mite are commonly found in human dwellings; "Dermatophagoides farinae", "Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus" and "Euroglyphus maynei". They feed on flakes of skin found in dust and typically occur on carpets, around sofas and chairs, and on mattresses. They may be very plentiful in the humid tropics, but in temperate climates are more numerous in humid summers than in winters, when the relative humidity is usually lower in homes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9396111',
'title': 'Preservation (library and archival science)',
'section': 'Section::::Practices.:Storage environment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 312,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Particulate and gaseous pollutants, such as soot, ozone, sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, can cause dust, soiling, and irreversible molecular damage to materials. Pollutants are exceedingly small and not easily detectable or removable. A special filtration system in the building's HVAC is a helpful defense.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If dust in houses is mostly caused by dead human skin cells then why are old abandoned houses always so dusty?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["There's no-one there to clean them. Dust, which comes from many sources of which dead skin cells are only one, builds up over time. Most people do at least a little cleaning of their homes.",
'You\'ve been misinformed. Dust is not made up of mainly human skin. It\'s just that every sample of dust you take inside a home will always contain some human skin.\n\n \n\n\nDust isade of various small particles. Like fibers from clothing or plants, pollen aggregates, etc. And there\'s always some dust in the air as can be seen when a ray of light shining through a room is observed from the side.\n\nSince dust particles are very light they can ride on air currents but since their density is greater than air they will always settle on surfaces given enough time. Since abandoned houses usually have large undisturbed volumes of air all that dust will slowly settle on surfaces. (As long as it\'s not wet or there are huge drafts inside, this will cause more general "dirt" to accumulate).\n\n \n\n\n \n',
"Dust is always in the air moving around and it settles when undisturbed. The difference between an abandoned house and an occupied one is that, there's no disturbance and dust settles on surfaces so that they're more visible.",
'The majority of dust is actually tiny particles of dirt which tend to find their way inside a house because houses are not airtight. The particles are small enough to become airbourn when there is any amount of wind outside but they are still heavier than the air and will later fall once inside a house.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9av5ku',
'query': 'if dust in houses is mostly caused by dead human skin cells then why are old abandoned houses always so dusty?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '4365',
'title': 'Bilinear map',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'In mathematics, a bilinear map is a function combining elements of two vector spaces to yield an element of a third vector space, and is linear in each of its arguments. Matrix multiplication is an example.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26064288',
'title': 'Lebesgue integration',
'section': 'Section::::Introduction.:Towards a formal definition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'To define the Lebesgue integral requires the formal notion of a measure that, roughly, associates to each set of real numbers a nonnegative number representing the "size" of . This notion of "size" should agree with the usual length of an interval or disjoint union of intervals. Suppose that is a non-negative real-valued function. Using the "partitioning the range of " philosophy, the integral of should be the sum over of the elementary area contained in the thin horizontal strip between . This elementary area is just\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25120',
'title': 'Polar coordinate system',
'section': 'Section::::Calculus.:Integral calculus (area).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 83,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 83,
'end_character': 314,
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'passage_text': "A mechanical device that computes area integrals is the planimeter, which measures the area of plane figures by tracing them out: this replicates integration in polar coordinates by adding a joint so that the 2-element linkage effects Green's theorem, converting the quadratic polar integral to a linear integral.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1209',
'title': 'Area',
'section': 'Section::::Formal definition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 250,
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'passage_text': 'An approach to defining what is meant by "area" is through axioms. "Area" can be defined as a function from a collection M of special kind of plane figures (termed measurable sets) to the set of real numbers which satisfies the following properties:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2202',
'title': 'Analytic geometry',
'section': 'Section::::Distance and angle.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 53,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 53,
'end_character': 330,
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'passage_text': 'In analytic geometry, geometric notions such as distance and angle measure are defined using formulas. These definitions are designed to be consistent with the underlying Euclidean geometry. For example, using Cartesian coordinates on the plane, the distance between two points ("x",\xa0"y") and ("x",\xa0"y") is defined by the formula\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1229416',
'title': 'Hyperbolic motion',
'section': 'Section::::Introduction of metric in the Poincaré half-plane model.:Use of semi-circle Z.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
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'passage_text': 'Then by means of hyperbolic motions one can measure distances between points on semicircles too: first move the points to "Z" with appropriate shift and dilation, then place them by inversion on the tangent ray where the logarithmic distance is known.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38267',
'title': 'Dimension (vector space)',
'section': 'Section::::Generalizations.:Trace.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 689,
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'passage_text': 'Firstly, it allows one to define a notion of dimension when one has a trace but no natural sense of basis. For example, one may have an algebra "A" with maps formula_3 (the inclusion of scalars, called the "unit") and a map formula_4 (corresponding to trace, called the "counit"). The composition formula_5 is a scalar (being a linear operator on a 1-dimensional space) corresponds to "trace of identity", and gives a notion of dimension for an abstract algebra. In practice, in bialgebras one requires that this map be the identity, which can be obtained by normalizing the counit by dividing by dimension (formula_6), so in these cases the normalizing constant corresponds to dimension.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How integrals can calculate areas?',
'selftext': 'im new here so im sorry if this doesnt belong here, but this question is driving me crazy all the explanations i could find are pretty complex, im suppoused to imagine an infinite amount of squares or something like that? but than, how could it ever be accurate?',
'category': 'Mathematics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['There is a 2d area underneath the curve of a function, or in between functions. There are also 3D volumes under and between curves, the x, y, and imaginary z axis. \n\nNow, when you want to find these curves you have to use a tool, which is the integral function. \n\nIntegrals can approximate area and volume, among other things. \n\nThe way that works is by creating infinite shapes of the same area, and including those under the curve in the final calculation and discarding the others using the FTC. \n\n\nAnd I can’t give you a better explanation because this is all I truly understand. ',
"How could anything less than ~~infinity~~ the limit as infinity is approached be accurate?\n\nOr, rather, to find the area under line f(x)=1 between 0 and 1, you could use as few subdivisions as you wanted and still find the accurate answer. But the magic of going to that limit is that it always becomes accurate unless it's a bullshit function without a describable area at all. Consider f(x)=x and your left-handed Riemann sums will always underestimate, and your right-hand sums always overestimate, unless you proceed to that limit and it becomes the accurate answer either way.\n\nIt sounds like you're still on the early chapters of integration, though. Just like with derivatives, you will first learn the ugly-if-truthful way the integration rules are found, after which you will simply memorize the already-ugly-derived rules which are much easier to make use of! So don't worry even if you kinda flunk this section, the next ones will be easier.\n\nThe integral of f(x)=x is\n\nThe integral of f(x) = x^(1) which is a power, so use the power rule: int(x^(n)) =(1/ (n+1))×x^(n+1) + *c*\n\nIt is F(x)=(1/2) × x^(2) + *c*",
' > how could it ever be accurate?\n\nAs you add more rectangles the closer you get to the true answer (because each rectangle will better approximate the curve). The more rectangles you add the closer the "error" is to zero. \n\nOnce you have an infinite number of them the error *is* zero. If you know what limits are it\'s quite literally the same thing. If every step has you get closer to reality, and you take an infinite number of steps, you\'ll get infinitely close to reality, which means you\'ve arrived at the correct answer. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'b9x26m',
'query': 'how integrals can calculate areas?',
'query_type': 'Mathematics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1014',
'title': 'Alcohol',
'section': 'Section::::Production.:Biological routes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 47,
'end_character': 391,
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'passage_text': 'Several species of the benign bacteria in the intestine use fermentation as a form of anaerobic metabolism. This metabolic reaction produces ethanol as a waste product. Thus, human bodies contain some quantity of alcohol endogenously produced by these bacteria. In rare cases, this can be sufficient to cause "auto-brewery syndrome" in which intoxicating quantities of alcohol are produced.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3829190',
'title': 'Hand sanitizer',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Health care.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 257,
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'passage_text': 'Alcohol rub sanitizers kill most bacteria, and fungi, and stop some viruses. Alcohol rub sanitizers containing at least 70% alcohol (mainly ethyl alcohol) kill 99.9% of the bacteria on hands 30 seconds after application and 99.99% to 99.999% in one minute.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18665',
'title': 'Listerine',
'section': 'Section::::Safety.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 277,
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'passage_text': 'There has been concern that the use of alcohol-containing mouthwash such as Listerine may increase the risk of developing oral cancer. As of 2010, 7 meta-analyses have found no connection between alcohol-containing mouthwashes and oral cancer, and 3 have found increased risk.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '782',
'title': 'Mouthwash',
'section': 'Section::::Ingredients.:Alcohol.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 768,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Alcohol is added to mouthwash not to destroy bacteria but to act as a carrier agent for essential active ingredients such as menthol, eucalyptol and thymol which help to penetrate plaque. Sometimes a significant amount of alcohol (up to 27% vol) is added, as a carrier for the flavor, to provide "bite". Because of the alcohol content, it is possible to fail a breathalyzer test after rinsing although breath alcohol levels return to normal after 10 minutes. In addition, alcohol is a drying agent, which encourages bacterial activity in the mouth, releasing more malodorous volatile sulfur compounds. Therefore, alcohol-containing mouthwash may temporarily worsen halitosis in those who already have it, or indeed be the sole cause of halitosis in other individuals.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '874812',
'title': 'Benzyl alcohol',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Use in health care.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 336,
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'passage_text': "The use of benzyl alcohol as a 5% solution has been approved by the U.S. FDA for the treatment of head lice in children older than six\xa0months and in adults. It affects the louse's spiracles, preventing them from closing. These then become clogged with water or mineral oil or other matter and cause the insect to die from asphyxiation.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '352184',
'title': 'Tincture',
'section': 'Section::::Characteristics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 452,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A downside of using alcohol as a solvent is that ethanol has a tendency to denature some organic compounds, reducing or destroying their effectiveness. This tendency can also have undesirable effects when extracting botanical constituents, such as polysaccharides. Certain other constituents, common among them proteins, can become irreversibly denatured, or "pickled" by the alcohol. Alcohol can also have damaging effects on some aromatic compounds.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3829190',
'title': 'Hand sanitizer',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Health care.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 261,
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'passage_text': 'For health care settings like hospitals and clinics, optimum alcohol concentration to kill bacteria is 70% to 95%. Products with alcohol concentrations as low as 40% are available in American stores, according to researchers at East Tennessee State University.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'As alcohol sterilizes stuff, when we drink booze it kills the good bacteria inside us?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Alcohol is absorbed in your small intestines and subsequently processed and broken down enzymatically by your liver long before it reaches your colon. The colon aka large intestines is where your gut bacteria live predominantly',
'Rubbing alcohol is like 60-80% in order to be effective. Drinking alcohol of 10% or less will have virtually no effect. Any amount you drink would be immediately diluted to no effect.',
"No, but it does prevent the drink from getting most bacteria, thats why on times when the waters could get dirty or poisoned often it was 'healthier' to drink wine.",
"Alcohol we drink is not concentrated enough to have a significant effect on mouth, gut, or blood bacteria. Even if you drink really strong spirits, by the time it gets through your stomach it has mixed with a lot of other fluid (and solid food) which heavily dilutes it. The only exception is mouthwash, which works on your mouth and throat, but that's not suitable for drinking."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'eo7a0t',
'query': 'as alcohol sterilizes stuff, when we drink booze it kills the good bacteria inside us?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '15201672',
'title': 'Freelandville, Indiana',
'section': 'Section::::Happy Street.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 239,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In the early 1980s, the Freelandville Improvement Club decided to put street signs up in town, as they had not had them before then. Oddly enough, there is no current street sign for Happy Street, as anytime one was put up, it was stolen.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32725334',
'title': 'International Street',
'section': 'Section::::Buildings.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 462,
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'passage_text': 'Apart from the front gate structure, all buildings on International Street are based, with varying degrees of accuracy, on international building styles. Theming was extended to all details of the buildings. "The Toronto Star" suggested that "there are no cheap facades. Everything is well-built to last a long time." It recounted a "forlorn looking person" stopping a security guard outside a set of Latin themed washrooms, asking "Am I a Damas or Caballeros?"\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2551704',
'title': 'Street or road name',
'section': 'Section::::Street type designations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 138,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 138,
'end_character': 309,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In some cities in the United States (San Francisco, Houston, Detroit, Cleveland, Memphis), streets have official suffixes, but they are not generally given on street signs or used in postal addresses. In Chicago, suffixes are given on street signs but often ignored in popular speech and in postal addresses.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2586560',
'title': 'Street name sign',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 406,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A street name sign may optionally indicate the range of house numbers found nearby. Some street name signs also indicate an alternative name for the street, such as "Fashion Avenue" for Seventh Avenue in New York City, or "Avenue of the Arts" for Huntington Avenue in Boston, Massachusetts. Multilingual signs are common and may be required by law in some areas, such as French-speaking regions of Canada.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5531030',
'title': 'Charles Bowden',
'section': 'Section::::Selected works.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- "Street Signs Chicago: Neighborhood and Other Illusions of Big City Life" / by Charles Bowden and Lew Kreinberg; photographs by Richard Younker; foreword by William Appleman Williams (Chicago, IL: Chicago Review Press, 1981)\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21421579',
'title': 'Kabir Nagar, New Delhi',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 445,
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'passage_text': 'The area is divided into several Blocks from A through D. The area is well organized and however become cluttered over years due to rampant unauthorized construction by its residents. For a visitor sometimes finding his way may be a daunting task even if he has correct address. Streets across blocks A, B and D have become totally commercial with almost all road facing plots turned into shops. The most well known blocks are A, B and C Block.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7244002',
'title': 'Million Pound Property Experiment',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'Their advice is sensible rather than original or inspired – find areas on the up, buy the worst house in the best street, research what sort of people buy in the area and aim your development squarely at them. \n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What\'s the deal with all those scammy looking "WE BUY HOUSES" signs I see at so many intersections?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['They buy houses. Why do you think them scammy?',
'Opportunists. Lowball offers. If seller is motivated they get an easy and profitable flip.',
'They are looking for people in danger of foreclosure. It costs $5 for the sign. If they get one deal out of it, it was worth it. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6yjzd1',
'query': 'what\'s the deal with all those scammy looking "we buy houses" signs i see at so many intersections?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '37284',
'title': 'Brain tumor',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 529,
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'passage_text': "The signs and symptoms of brain tumors are broad. People may experience symptoms regardless of whether the tumor is benign (not cancerous) or cancerous. Primary and secondary brain tumors present with similar symptoms, depending on the location, size, and rate of growth of the tumor. For example, larger tumors in the frontal lobe can cause changes in the ability to think. However, a smaller tumor in an area such as Wernicke's area (small area responsible for language comprehension) can result in a greater loss of function.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37284',
'title': 'Brain tumor',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.:Classification.:Secondary.:By behavior.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 81,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 81,
'end_character': 279,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Primary brain tumors generally are invasive (i.e. they will expand spatially and intrude into the space occupied by other brain tissue and compress those brain tissues); however, some of the more malignant primary brain tumors will infiltrate the surrounding tissue.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37284',
'title': 'Brain tumor',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 740,
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'passage_text': 'The cause of most brain tumors is unknown. Uncommon risk factors include exposure to vinyl chloride, Epstein–Barr virus, ionizing radiation, and inherited syndromes such as neurofibromatosis, tuberous sclerosis, and von Hippel-Lindau Disease. Studies on mobile phone exposure have not shown a clear risk. The most common types of primary tumors in adults are meningiomas (usually benign) and astrocytomas such as glioblastomas. In children, the most common type is a malignant medulloblastoma. Diagnosis is usually by medical examination along with computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The result is then often confirmed by a biopsy. Based on the findings, the tumors are divided into different grades of severity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2503722',
'title': 'Cerebellar tentorium',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical significance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 455,
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'passage_text': 'Brain tumors are often characterized as supratentorial (above the tentorium) and infratentorial (below the tentorium). The location of the tumor can help in determining the type of tumor, as different tumors occur with different frequencies at each location. Additionally, most childhood primary brain tumors are infratentorial, while most adult primary brain tumors are supratentorial. The location of the tumor may have prognostic significance as well.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '51606',
'title': 'Causes of mental disorders',
'section': 'Section::::Biological factors.:Injury and brain defects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 47,
'end_character': 610,
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'passage_text': 'Brain tumors are classified as either malignant and benign, and as intrinsic (directly infiltrate the parenchyma of the brain) or extrinsic (grows on the external surface of the brain and produces symptoms as a result of pressure on the brain tissue). Progressive cognitive changes associated with brain tumors may include confusion, poor comprehension, and even dementia. Symptoms tend to depend on the location of the tumor on the brain. For example, tumors on the frontal lobe tend to be associated with the symptoms of impairment of judgment, apathy, and loss of the ability to regulate/modulate behavior.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37284',
'title': 'Brain tumor',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Location-specific symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': "BULLET::::- Frontal lobe: Tumors may contribute to poor reasoning, inappropriate social behavior, personality changes, poor planning, lower inhibition, and decreased production of speech (Broca's area).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23955074',
'title': 'Grading of the tumors of the central nervous system',
'section': 'Section::::ICD-O scale.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 201,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A brain tumor composed of benign cells, but located in a vital area (as the brain is), can be considered to be life-threatening — although the tumor and its cells would not be classified as malignant.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'The brain is very important, and very complex and exists in a confined space; given that why is it that tumors in the brain are able to get so large before being noticed?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The common symptoms of brain tumors are just that, common. Headaches, nausea, dizziness, and so on can be caused by a lot of other things and the symptoms themselves can come and go. It's usually once more serious symptoms appear or a pattern of symptoms is recognized that a patient undergo MRI."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'afayf9',
'query': 'the brain is very important, and very complex and exists in a confined space; given that why is it that tumors in the brain are able to get so large before being noticed?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2376660',
'title': 'Olafur Eliasson',
'section': 'Section::::Selected works and projects.:Light installations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
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'end_paragraph_id': 21,
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'passage_text': 'Olafur has been developing various experiments with atmospheric density in exhibition spaces. In "Room For One Colour" (1998), a corridor lit by yellow monofrequency tubes, the participants find themselves in a room filled with light that affects the perception of all other colours. Another installation, "360\xa0degrees Room For All Colours" (2002), is a round light-sculpture where participants lose their sense of space and perspective, and experience being subsumed by an intense light. Olafur\'s later installation "Din blinde passager (Your blind passenger)" (2010), commissioned by the Arken Museum of Modern Art, is a 90-metre-long tunnel. Entering the tunnel, the visitor is surrounded by dense fog. With visibility at just 1.5\xa0metres, museumgoers have to use senses other than sight to orient themselves in relation to their surroundings. For "Feelings are facts", the first time Olafur has worked with Chinese architect Yansong Ma as well as his first exhibition in China, Olafur introduces condensed banks of artificially produced fog into the gallery of Ullens Center for Contemporary Art, Beijing. Hundreds of fluorescent lights are installed in the ceiling as a grid of red, green, and blue zones.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30747901',
'title': 'Skyspace',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 370,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "A skyspace is an architectural design in which a room, which is painted in a neutral color has a large hole in its ceiling which opens directly to the sky. The room, whose perimeter has benches, allows observers to look at the sky in such a way as though it were framed. LED lights which surround the hole can change colors to affect the viewer's perception of the sky.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3526639',
'title': 'Sensory illusions in aviation',
'section': 'Section::::Visual.:Other.:Black-hole approach.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'A black-hole approach illusion can happen during a final approach at night (with no stars or moonlight) over water or unlit terrain to a lighted runway, in which the horizon is not visible. As the name suggests, it involves an approach to landing during the night where there is nothing to see between the aircraft and the intended runway, there is just a visual, “black-hole”. Pilots too often confidently proceed with a visual approach instead of relying on instruments during nighttime landings. As a result, this can lead to the pilot experiencing glide path overestimation (GPO) because of the lack of peripheral visual cues, especially, below the aircraft. In addition, with no peripheral visual cues allowing for an orientation relative to the earth there can be an illusion of the pilot being upright and the runway being tilted and sloping. As a result, they initiate an aggressive descent and wrongly adjust to an unsafe glide path below the desired three-degree glide path.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1548113',
'title': 'Ambient occlusion',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': "In computer graphics, ambient occlusion is a shading and rendering technique used to calculate how exposed each point in a scene is to ambient lighting. For example, the interior of a tube is typically more occluded (and hence darker) than the exposed outer surfaces, and the deeper you go inside the tube, the more occluded (and darker) the lighting becomes. Ambient occlusion can be seen as an accessibility value that is calculated for each surface point. In scenes with open sky this is done by estimating the amount of visible sky for each point, while in indoor environments only objects within a certain radius are taken into account and the walls are assumed to be the origin of the ambient light. The result is a diffuse, non-directional shading effect that casts no clear shadows but that darkens enclosed and sheltered areas and can affect the rendered image's overall tone. It is often used as a post-processing effect.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19723982',
'title': 'Parachuting',
'section': 'Section::::Other Skydiving disciplines.:Night jumps.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 85,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Night jumpers should be made aware of the dark zone, when landing at night. Above 30 meters (100 feet) jumpers flying their canopy have a good view of the landing zone normally because of reflected ambient light/moon light. Once they get close to the ground, this ambient light source is lost, because of the low angle of reflection. The lower they get, the darker the ground looks. At about 100 feet and below it may seem that they are landing in a black hole. Suddenly it becomes very dark, and the jumper hits the ground soon after. This ground rush should be explained to, and anticipated by, the first time night jumper. Recommendations should be made to the jumper to utilize a canopy that is larger than they typically use on a day jump and to attempt to schedule their first night jump as close to a full moon as possible to make it easier to see the ground.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16598780',
'title': 'EXPOSE',
'section': 'Section::::EXPOSE-R.:EXPOSE-R results.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 54,
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'passage_text': 'Pictures acquired during the spacewalk #27 on the final day of exposure indicated that many of the 75 small windows had turned brown. The brown film was clearly a deposit which had precipitated inside the windows during the spaceflight. The appearance of the brown film turned out to depend on two prerequisites: solar irradiation and vacuum. As the brown film should have impacted the quantity and quality of solar light that reached the test samples, affecting the core of the scientific goals, an investigation was started to identify the properties and the root cause of the colour change. The brown film contained hydrocarbons, so an inventory was made of materials contained inside Expose-R that could possibly have delivered the contaminating volatiles.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1979078',
'title': 'Color model',
'section': 'Section::::Tristimulus color space.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'One can picture this space as a region in three-dimensional Euclidean space if one identifies the "x", "y", and "z" axes with the stimuli for the long-wavelength ("L"), medium-wavelength ("M"), and short-wavelength ("S") light receptors. The origin, ("S","M","L") = (0,0,0), corresponds to black. White has no definite position in this diagram; rather it is defined according to the color temperature or white balance as desired or as available from ambient lighting. The human color space is a horse-shoe-shaped cone such as shown here (see also CIE chromaticity diagram below), extending from the origin to, in principle, infinity. In practice, the human color receptors will be saturated or even be damaged at extremely high light intensities, but such behavior is not part of the CIE color space and neither is the changing color perception at low light levels (see: Kruithof curve). \n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Is it pitch black in space or is there enough ambient light to see something held in front of you?',
'selftext': "Assuming you're not in the vicinity of a star, of course. Somewhere like Voyager's position, 10 billion miles from earth, could you see your hands? Total darkness?",
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Somewhere on the Internet NASA has a page describing how much light there is and what you can see. If I were there I would be sure I had a flashlight. Maybe I would sprinkle powder and shine the light on the powder to get a diffuse illumination. Or I could shine the light on a nearby surface to use the surface as an illumination source.\n\nIt really is pretty dark. I mean, think of a moonless night on Earth. It would be no brighter.',
"Light would be very dim.You would probably be able to make out objects at close range, but not read or see fine details.\n\n[Here's a good r/askscience post on the subject](_URL_0_)",
"In space, there's nothing. The only source of ambient light comes from stars. That means if you are inside the solar system and there isn't a planet in the way, you're gonna see very well. Things will be very bright on the side facing the sun, but shadowed on the other side.\n\nIf the sun is blocked, you will still receive light from other celestial bodies and the milky way, which will give you extremely dim vision. You will be able to see a little bit in front of you, but not enough to distinguish complex things.\n\nIf you leave the solar system, same thing, but even darker because celestial bodies like the moon or saturn will reflect a little bit of light, depending on where you are. So without those, it'll be pretty dark. Very difficult to recognize objects probably, but if someone waves something in your face you could see it (Especially since it'll block stars behind it from your vision). If you leave the milky way and hang out in between galaxies, it'll be even dimmer, so much that it's gonna be almost impossible to see anything.",
'Ask yourself, how dark is it on a new moon on earth in a place without artificial light? Like on a field in the middle of nowhere.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '716qta',
'query': 'is it pitch black in space or is there enough ambient light to see something held in front of you?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '731779',
'title': 'Movie projector',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Decline of film projectors.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'Although usually more expensive than film projectors, high-resolution digital projectors offer many advantages over traditional film units. For example, digital projectors contain no moving parts except fans, can be operated remotely, are relatively compact and have no film to break, scratch or change reels of. They also allow for much easier, less expensive, and more reliable storage and distribution of content. All-electronic distribution eliminates all physical media shipments. There is also the ability to display live broadcasts in theaters so equipped.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35103671',
'title': 'Microcinema',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'As of late, a large growing subculture of film makers has risen in the wake of technological advancements that have made low-budget film making more affordable and pleasing to the eye. One camera in particular, that has made a large impact, is the Panasonic DVX100 followed recently by the Panasonic HVX200 High Definition camcorder (many other cameras are used as well but DVX and HVX are arguably the favorites).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '183370',
'title': 'Home cinema',
'section': 'Section::::Design.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'In the 2010s, many home cinema enthusiasts aim to replicate, to the degree that is possible, the "movie theatre experience". To do so, many home cinema buffs purchase higher quality components than used for everyday television viewing on a relatively small TV with only built-in speakers. A typical home theater includes the following components:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '183370',
'title': 'Home cinema',
'section': 'Section::::Dedicated rooms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
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'passage_text': 'Some home cinema enthusiasts build a dedicated room in their home for the theater. These more advanced installations often include sophisticated acoustic design elements, including "room-in-a-room" construction that isolates sound and provides an improved listening environment and a large screen, often using a high definition projector. These installations are often designated as "screening rooms" to differentiate them from simpler, less-expensive installations. In some movie enthusiast\'s home cinemas, this idea can go as far as completely recreating an actual small-scale cinema, with a projector enclosed in its own projection booth, specialized furniture, curtains in front of the projection screen, movie posters, or a popcorn or vending machine with snack food and candy. More commonly, real dedicated home theaters pursue this to a lesser degree.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '816290',
'title': 'Horn loudspeaker',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Audiophiles and home use.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 50,
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'passage_text': 'Film soundtracks have great dynamic range where peak levels are 20\xa0dB greater than average levels. The higher sensitivity aids in achieving movie theater sound levels at the listening position with typical ~100 watts-per-channel receiver/amplifiers used in home cinema.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10515524',
'title': 'Anamorphic format',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'In the years since digital cinema cameras and projectors have become commonplace, anamorphic has experienced a considerable resurgence of popularity, due in large part to the higher base ISO sensitivity of digital sensors, which facilitates shooting at smaller apertures.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9385828',
'title': 'B movies since the 1980s',
'section': 'Section::::The B movie in the digital age: 2000s.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In a development hinted at by the "Variety" quotation above, technological advances are greatly facilitating the production of truly low-budget motion pictures. Although there have always been economical means with which to shoot movies, including Super 8 and 16 mm film, as well as video cameras recording onto analog videotape, these mediums could hardly rival the image quality of 35 mm film. The development and widespread usage of digital cameras and postproduction methods allow even low-budget filmmakers to produce films with excellent (and not necessarily "grittier") image quality and precise editing effects—though technical excellence is no guarantee of aesthetic value or even cinematographic competence. As Marone observes, "the equipment budget (camera, support) required for shooting digital is approximately 1/10 that for film, significantly lowering the production budget for independent features." Comparing circumstances in 2006 to those just a couple of years earlier, he argues that the "quality of digital filmmaking has improved dramatically."\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do cinema projectors have such high quality compared to personal home projectors?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["They got a light source (think: a bulb) that is consuming so much energy it's crazy compared to the tiny box you got in your own living room.\n\nAnd bulbs always create excess heat that needs to be cooled away with active cooling. i.e, fans. Fans are noisy.\n\nBut no-one in the cinema cares, because that projector is in it's own room, with a glass window. No-one in the audience hears the fan.",
"A big difference is that they use three display devices (DMD or LCOS) to make red/green/blue, so they don't need a rotating filter wheel. Better screens and lenses help too. It's like the difference between a cheap digital camera and a good DSLR and lens. ",
"It's the same like in every industry doing essentially the same like consumers do themselves.\n\nYou can buy a nice little light effect and it would be enough for you but a company which is earning their money by using lights has the money and the knowledge to buy a more professional product.\n\nThe projector you are using at home may cost around a thousand dollars, the projectors used by professionals cost much more that that. For that much money they get a better lamp, better optics and the ability to play movies that are stored in a way that is too expensive for the end consumer. Also they will use a much better screen, which makes a lot of difference.\n\nThey spend hours in calibrating the projector what wouldn't be worth for anyone showing some content for less that a couple thousand people.",
"Home projector pricing makes no sense. Projectors come down to 4 things:\n\nBrightness, typically measured in ANSI lumens. More is better, because it means the picture light is stronger than the ambiant light. Typical home projectors will be between 1500 - 3500 ANSI lumens. The outside advertising projector at my local cinema was 8000 ANSI... \n\nContrast, same as a TV. Best noticed displaying a black image. More is better.\n\nKeystone, vertical and horizontal are key for placing a projector. It let's you bend the image so you can offset the projector. As projectors can be 4m away a small offset causes a big picture tilt, keystone let's you fix that. \n\nDisplay technology. Optima like a lot of projector brands fire a white beam and encode a colour signal onto it. As the ambiant light increases this causes the much weaker colour signal to fade. Sony, Epson, etc.. have a multi beam technology. While named various things, it boils down to firing red, green and blue beams at the wall. Since there are coloured beams the image doesn't white out.\n\nNow why are home projectors poor? Because adoption is less so places sell projectors as a home theatre experience (thousands of pounds). Projectors aren't sold on their specifications but audiophile gimmicks. I have friends who spent £2k on an optima from richer sounds that was half the lumens, lower contrast and the same resolution as my £400 Epson projector.\n\nMy favourite gimmick 5 years ago was dlp (traditional bulb) vs led. Led had such a price premium that 5 years of daily use later I'm still financially better off by going dlp. \n\nBecause there isn't a clear specification war going on the market stagnated. It took Epson 5 years to make a projector better than my current one (eh tw 490 vs eh tw 650).\n\nAlthough something happened this year, market seems much saner, as I was going to post examples and failed to quickly find one.\n\nEdit - typos/clarity",
"Like everyone else has said, money. It's literally like the difference between a used Honda and a brand new Rolls Royce. A movie theater projector costs around $75k-$100k and 20,000-30,000 lumen,. Everything about it is precision made, calibrated, and maintained. You can get home theater projectors with DLP 3chip technology, 4k video, 5000 - 8000 lumens, and interchangeable lensing, but it still won't come close to the one at the theater.",
'Some have multiple lamps...some have extremely powerful lamps. Some have multiple extremely powerful lamps...that are maintained by professionals. Lenses are excellent, and the projectors have great ventilation keeping them dust free and cool. They also have specialized software optimally running them. They are also mounted at optimum distances/angles...and the screens are designed to be used with them, so they are very bright/clear. Also the files they play are high resolution, using specialized players/processors...that are connected to the projectors with digital cable (fiber/dual link dvi).',
'Cinema projectors have lamps that can output 20,000+ brightness measuring units (lumens). Home projectors do like 2,000.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '9s31si',
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'query_type': 'Technology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '469661',
'title': 'Whiteboard',
'section': 'Section::::Surface materials.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- steel or aluminum: Painted steel and aluminum dry erase also have a wide range of quality. Painted surfaces tend to be smoother, which leads to better methods of erasing. The painted surface is generally a multiple layer of coatings made up of a base coat in color (most commonly white) and a clear performance coating that is the dry erase component. Paint varies from electron beam cured coatings to UV and other coating systems. Good commercial grade painted steel or aluminum has excellent dry erase properties and many will be able to have permanent marker cleaned from the surface. Any coated surface is susceptible to scratching. Painted steel surfaces are magnetic and allow the use of magnets. Painted aluminum surfaces are rarely used as a base for whiteboards as they are not magnetic and are more expensive than steel. Painted steel whiteboards are most commonly used for custom printed whiteboards. These products are used as tracking boards, patient information boards and tournament and training boards.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '469661',
'title': 'Whiteboard',
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'passage_text': 'A whiteboard (also known by the terms marker board, dry-erase board, wipe board, dry-wipe board, and pen-board) is a glossy, usually white surface for nonpermanent markings. Whiteboards are analogous to blackboards, but with a smoother surface allowing rapid marking and erasing of markings on their surface. The popularity of whiteboards increased rapidly in the mid-1990s and they have become a fixture in many offices, meeting rooms, school classrooms, and other work environments.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23701959',
'title': 'White lined chipboard',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'White lined chipboard, also referred to as: WLC, GD, GT or UD, is a grade of paperboard typically made from layers of waste paper or recycled fibers. Most often it comes with two to three layers of coating on the top and one layer on the reverse side. Because of its recycled content it will be grey from the inside.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '423640',
'title': 'Paperboard',
'section': 'Section::::Production.:Pulping.:Bleaching.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 285,
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'passage_text': 'Pulp used in the manufacture of paperboard can be bleached to decrease colour and increase purity. Virgin fibre pulp is naturally brown in colour, because of the presence of lignin. Recycled paperboard may contain traces of inks, bonding agents and other residue which colors it grey.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1890199',
'title': 'Interactive whiteboard',
'section': 'Section::::Technologies.:Potential issues.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 112,
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'end_paragraph_id': 112,
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'passage_text': 'Permanent markers and use of regular dry erase markers can create problems on some interactive whiteboard surfaces because interactive whiteboard surfaces are most often melamine, which is a porous, painted surface that can absorb marker ink. Punctures, dents and other damage to surfaces are also a risk.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3172978',
'title': 'Plasterwork',
'section': 'Section::::Plastering.:Modern interior plastering techniques.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 108,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 108,
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'passage_text': 'In plasterboard a specialized form of sheet rock known as "greenboard" (because on the outer paper coating is greenish) is screwed onto the wall-frames (studs) of the home to form the interior walls. At the place where the two edges of wallboards meet there is a seam. These seams are covered with mesh tape and then the seams and the screw heads are concealed with the drywall compound to make the wall seem as one uniform piece. The drywall plaster is a thick paste. Later this is painted or wallpapered over to hide the work. This process is typically called "taping" and those who use drywall are known as "tapers".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58675654',
'title': 'Chalkboard paint',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Chalkboard paint is a specialized paint that creates a chalkboard like coating that can be utilized as a writing surface in the same manner as a traditional chalkboard or blackboard. Chalkboard paint is commonly made out of a mixture of talc, acrylic, water, glycol, titanium dioxide, carbon black, opacifiers, silica, and esters. It may also contain acetone, propane, butane, xylene, ethylbenzene, amorphous silica, n-butyl acetate, and propylene glycol methyl ether acetate which are industrial standard ingredients used in inks and paints as thinners, olfactory, and pigmentation agents.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What goes into a whiteboard paint that makes it finish like a dry erase board and not a normal paint?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Dry/wet erase markers are basically just an ink that dries into something that doesn\'t stick well to a surface - dry erase forms a film, wet erase is water soluble. \n\nThis works on any surface, in theory - you could use dry erase on rough wood, except that it would seep into pores and cracks and other rough spots before it dries, making it really hard to remove. \n\nOn the other hand, if you use it on something smooth and "non-porous" (which means it has no holes, even tiny tiny ones), it\'s very easy to wipe off the surface. \n\nSimilarly, you can use high gloss tile as a white board, but if you use tile that isn\'t high gloss, you will have a very hard time wiping it off. \n\nWhiteboard paint is mostly just a paint that doesn\'t have those tiny holes. It\'s very very smooth, which makes it more shiny. It also has chemicals that make it have high surface tension (like a water drop) so that it dries nice and smooth, unlike normal paint that\'s designed to not hold together as well, making it flow into cracks better.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'ezcbpa',
'query': 'what goes into a whiteboard paint that makes it finish like a dry erase board and not a normal paint?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '4189181',
'title': 'Dryness (taste)',
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'passage_text': 'Dryness is a property of beverages that describes the lack of a sweet taste. This may be due to a lack of sugars, the presence of some other taste that masks sweetness, or an underabundance of simple carbohydrates that can be converted to sugar by enzymes in the mouth (amylase in particular). The term "dry" may be applied to types of beer, wine, distilled spirits, or any other form of alcoholic beverage.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2068260',
'title': 'Dry drunk',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Dry drunk is a informal expression which describes an alcoholic or former alcoholic who no longer drinks but otherwise maintains the same behavior patterns of an alcoholic. They may have many different emotions during the period of them becoming sober.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2068260',
'title': 'Dry drunk',
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'passage_text': 'The dry drunk is portrayed with feelings of profound depression and frustration and with the indecisive feeling of wanting a drink that they have given up. Several alcoholics drink for about 10-20 years before maintaining sobriety and get used to their personality and character traits that are embodied by their drunkard selves. During this phase of dry drunk, the addicts face restlessness, frustration, anger, impatience and craving. The symptoms of dry drunkenness are irregular and become less intense as the period of sobriety increases. Most of the symptoms of dry drunkenness can be noticed in the initial phase of sobriety.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2068260',
'title': 'Dry drunk',
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'passage_text': 'A dry drunk can be described as a person who refrains from alcohol or drugs, but still has all the unresolved emotional and psychological issues which might have fueled the addiction to begin with. These unresolved issues continue to have a hold on their psyche and hence, they act like "dry drunks." In most cases, alcohol dependency is a substantial factor in the lives of the alcoholics and accepting sobriety comes with its own challenges and understanding of their personality. Despite leaving alcohol and de-addicting themselves, most of their personalities are an embodiment of their drunkard selves. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21282070',
'title': 'Taste',
'section': 'Section::::Further sensations and transmission.:Astringency.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 74,
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'passage_text': 'When referring to wine, "dry" is the opposite of "sweet," and does not refer to astringency. Wines that contain tannins and so cause an astringent sensation are not necessarily classified as "dry", and "dry" wines are not necessarily astringent.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4189181',
'title': 'Dryness (taste)',
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'passage_text': 'In a dry martini, "dry" refers to the amount of vermouth used in the drink. A "perfect" martini – or any other cocktail that uses vermouth, such as a Perfect Manhattan – is a martini made with equal parts dry and sweet vermouth.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '683030',
'title': 'Canada Dry',
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'passage_text': 'The "Dry" in the brand\'s name refers to not being sweet, as in a dry wine. When John J. McLaughlin, who first formulated "Canada Dry Pale Ginger Ale", originally made his new soft drink, it was far less sweet than other ginger ales then available; as a result, he labelled it "dry".\n',
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'selftext': "I've never understood what dry gin (Gordon's), dry vermouth, or extra dry beer (Toohey's) etc means.. Seems very counter-intuitive to me.",
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'answers': ["Imagine you worked at an ice cream shop.\n\nYou have 3 main types of ice cream.\n'Lip-smacking' sweet, 'Lemony-fruity' sorbet, and 'Cool-down' mint. \n\nIt can get a little tricky to explain minty flavours to customers, as there's a fine line for what some people may identify as 'cold' (which all ice cream is) and the cooling flavour of say, 'peppermint'. To communicate a little more effectively on the difference, it may be easier to have a different flavour identifier, in this case maybe...'cold-spicy'?\n\nThe term 'dry' in the drinks industry is similar to this in the sense that, in many cases, 'dry' simply refers to the more pronounced evidence of 'alcohol' flavour. The most well-known example of this is when ordering a 'Martini' cocktail. Asking for a dryer Martini just communicates that you like a higher ratio of alcohol vs the other additives (water & vermouth). Similarly, with white wine, a dryer tasting wine usually is an indication of the lesser amount of sugar levels of the wine prior to bottling. As all alcoholic beverages contain ethyl alcohol, the term 'dry' helps define the more clear & crisp flavour in certain 'boozy' flavoured drinks. \n\nThis is a very simplistic explanation, and misses out a lot of detail in the realm of sensory profiling in the biz, but it's a base understanding of how the term is used. \n\nSource: bar guy",
'In a very simplified way it refers to how sweet or, in this case, not sweet a drink is. A dry drink is not going to have much sugary (or fruity - another term used) taste in the mouth. \n\nSo a fruity drink is sweet while a dry drink is not sweet to the taste.',
"dry is the term used to describe the sensation of alcohol evaporating off of your tongue. It's generally the opposite of sweet.",
"Fully dry (“brut”) means the yeast have converted all available sugar to alcohol, leaving little/no residual sugar. A brut beer still has some residual sugar, and this is because yeast can’t eat maltose (malt sugar). In contrast, the sugar in fruit alcohol (cider, wine, champagne, etc) is fully digestible to the yeast, so a brut wine will have no residual sugar.\n\n*EDIT - other redditors have made right what I got wrong in the comments below. Here's a fresh take at the point I was attempting to make: It is a challenge to produce a fully dry maltose-based alcohol (e.g. beer) because the yeast will naturally cease activity before all sugar is consumed. Conversely, it is a challenge to produce a sweet or semi-sweet fructose-based alcohol (e.g. cider) because the yeast will generally be active until all sugar is consumed.",
"As the other commenter said, it's essentially the opposite of sweet. Dryness refers to how much of the sugar has been converted to alcohol. The drier it is, the less sugar left after the fermentation.",
"A few people have touched on a few accurate points here but dry can have several meanings, when it's in regards to a white wine or a rose it is generally a reduced sweetness due to the variety of grape and when it is harvested, with a red wine it is generally the tannin content that has the drying effect in your mouth,\n\nA dry gin can be two things, a London dry gin, which is a classification of gin not necessarily due to the sweetness, it's related to the distilling and steeping process involved in creating gin, whereas a non London dry gin that is dry is related to sweetness and mouth feel.\n\nDry cocktails are a combination of sweetness tasting, potentially tannin content, and acidity, but is a combination\n\nIt's a bit more complicated than this but this is the general outline for your average consumer\n\nSource; bartender for 3 and a bit years at nice venues",
"It very much is the opposite of sweet. But one thing I also like to mention is that it is so the opposite of sweet it feels dry. Its taken me a long time to like dry wine because it feels counterintuitive on the tongue. This liquid makes your mouth quite literally feel dry thats how unsweet it is. It certainly isn't bad and once your used to it is pretty good actually but its different for sure.",
'Wow, this was a rabbit hole - but I did some research.\n\nFirst, the meaning is pretty easy (and covered) - dry alcohol means not sweet. (London Dry Gin is a different story I\'m not going into). So, if you see a wine or beer or alcohol listed as dry, there is usually a sweeter counterpart.\n\nBut, why "dry" to describe "not sweet." The best answer I\'ve been able to find is that we can trace the term centuries back - to the extent you need to look at french text from the 1200s for the first recorded references to "vin sec" (dry wine). When terms are that old, you usually loose the etymology - so all that is left is our best guesses.\n\nOne very good thought is that wine used to not be aged the way it is now. We lost the art of tightly sealing jars (perfected by Greeks and Romans) in the dark ages, so if you let wine age too long it would go bad. Aging is one way we can breakdown the chemicals that make a wine astringent. If you drink a very astringent wine, you will notice your mouth feels dry. Sweet wines (wines with more sugars in them) mask the astringency and would not have a dry mouth feel. As different ways of making wines and alcohols evolved in the ensuing centuries, we were able to make not-sweet alcohols that don\'t have this effect, but the term "dry" stuck.\n\nFor more extensive reading with lots of links: [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)',
'Yo! After panning through the replies, I figured I\'d drop some thoughts here. Source: I am a Certified (edit: now Advanced!) Sommelier and a Certified Specialist of Spirits.\n\n**Dry, as some have mentioned, is the word used to describe the opposite of sweet.** I will reference a few laws below that use this definition in legal practice to confirm this as the internationally accepted, and in many cases, legally-binding definition.\n\nWater is dry. Add sugar to it and it has some level of sweetness. You might hear words like "off-dry" to describe a small amount of sugar, "semi-sweet" a bit sweeter yet, and "sweet" or "lusciously sweet" to describe things even sweeter still. These are typically used to describe ranges of sugar expressed in **grams of sugar per liter**, which, if you multiply by bald eagles and divide by original colonies, can be converted to American. ;)\n\nFor reference, Coca-Cola has \\~126g/L of sugar. It\'s what most industry folk would call something like "sweet", "cloyingly sweet", or "lusciously sweet". [Source.](_URL_1_)\n\nThe amount of sugar in a wine can typically be found (except by many American producers) by searching google for "(insert wine name here) tech sheet". For example, find the technical notes for Moët & Chandon Imperial Brut [here](_URL_0_), where sugar is listed under "dosage" to be 9g/L. Keep in mind that most bottles encountered in the wild are 750mL, so to obtain a sugar level per bottle, simply multiply by .75.\n\nA few laws for describing dryness, for the purpose of confirming the above definition:\n\nGerman wines are allowed to call their wines "trocken" (dry in German) if and only if the wine has 9g/L of sugar or fewer.\n\nVouvray, a wine-making village along France\'s Loire River Valley, only allows for their wines to be labeled "sec" (dry in French) if the wines have 8g/L of sugar or fewer.\n\nSee below for a law on Gin.\n\n & #x200B;\n\n**Common misconceptions:** "Dry" is often used by consumers to refer to the drying sensation one experiences after taking a sip of a beverage. This is a mistake, because the technical word to describe that sensation is "bitterness”, while the word most often used to describe the bitterness coming from grape and oak tannins is “tannic”. However, most beverage professionals (assuming they\'re paying attention) are in tune with the fact that this misconception is quite prevalent, so an astute salesperson should respond to "I\'d like a dry wine" with something to the effect of "Dry as in \'the absence of sugar\' or dry as in \'dries my mouth out\'?"\n\nThe word "tannic" describes the sensation of astringency brought on by tannin, a compound--long name polyphenols--found in grape skins. Red wine, which is colored by leaving the crushed grape skins in the juice until the color seeps out--think of a tea bag leaching out its color--are prone to having tannin by the nature of this process. The longer the skins stay in the juice (sometimes as long as several weeks) to color, flavor, and add texture to the wine, the more tannin will be extracted from the skins, and the more the wine will dry your mouth out. But, again, this is not "dryness" technically, this is tannin--polyphenols--binding to your saliva and leaving a drying, sandpaper-like, cottonmouth feeling. Tannin can also be found in such things as tea leaves. Think over-steeped tea.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nAbout things like gin specifically, London Dry Gin is a spirit which must, by law, be flavored predominantly by juniper and have no more than .1g/L of sugar. This level of sugar is what the industry folk would call "bone dry". Keep in mind that this is different from "Dry Gin" and simply "Gin", which are principally made the same way (by flavoring a neutral spirit) but may have different interpretations of flavors and different levels of alcohol and sweetness.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nDryness is also distinct from alcohol content in terms of organoleptic qualities, though high levels of alcohol can change the mouthfeel (especially adding viscosity, a liquid\'s resistance to flow or "thickness") and add a perceived sweetness--a bone dry liquid with the viscosity of maple syrup may seem sweeter to the taster than a bone dry liquid with the viscosity of skim milk simply by perception, even though the two liquids in question have the same amount of sugar.\n\n & #x200B;\n\n**A word of caution:** As alluded to above, many wines and spirits are regulated by law in their production. Those which are not so regulated (American products, and products of countries who don\'t have bi-lateral trade agreements with countries who do regulate these things) are a great deal more laissez-faire when it comes to what words and designations end up on their products. A wine labeled "dry" in the states has no required limit of sugar. It could have 200g/L and face no legal recourse for naming it as such. Do your research on wines if you have any questions!!\n\n & #x200B;\n\nHope this is helpful! Happy Thursday!',
'I’m a home brewer who occasionally also makes mead and wine so here’s my crack at it:\n\nAll booze starts off as super sweet sugary liquid. Yeast eats most sugars and poops alcohol. The more sugar that has been converted to alcohol, the “drier” the drink.',
'As everyone said, dry = not sweet. \n\nWith vermouth, dry vermouth is a whole different product than sweet vermouth. Sweet vermouth is normally dark, and dry is normally a white vermouth.\n\nOr, if you’re talking martini, dry means less vermouth. In this sense you’re thinking of “dry” vs “wet.”\n\nSource: bartender',
"Lots of talk about wine but I havent seen how it applies to beer mentioned so Ill take a stab at it. \n\nYeast eats sugar and makes alcohol. Malted barley (pre-beer) is sugar. Sometimes the yeast cant eat all the sugar and some is left. This leads to 'residual sweetness'. Think Russian imperial stout maybe?Sometimes the yeast eats all the sugar available and leaves a 'dry' beer like in a brut IPA. Sometimes a non-fermentable sugar (lactose) is added like in a milk stout. This also leaves a sweeter taste. \n\nOriginal gravity (O.G) Vs Final gravity (F.G.) is a helpful way to see this. O.G. is a measure of the sugar in a wort (pre-beer) available. F.G. is a measure of the amount of sugar when fermentation is finished. The higher the F.G. the sweeter the beer, the lower, the more alcohol and dryer the beer. Roughly.",
"In terms of actual chemistry, dry ethanol is ethanol with very little water. As both molecules are polar, they mix very readily. Removing water from ethanol can be done via distillation, followed by adding Magnesium Sulfate. It may be needed to dry ethanol if left open for a while when you need a pure ethanol solvent. This is not the same term as 'dry' when referring to an alcoholic beverage however - I believe in that context it refers to the flavour of the beverage.",
'If you are wondering \\*why\\* unsweet alcohol is characterized as "dry," it actually goes all the way back to Hippocrates. He observed that people who drink too much wine could become dehydrated, and he also noted that the consumption of alcohol often brought a feeling of warmth, so he thought of wine as being both dry and hot, relative to other liquids. The "heat" of wine had nothing to do with its temperature (just like its "dryness" was unrelated to its liquid state), but rather with some sort of internal quality that is evidenced by what happens when you drink it.\n\nNoting that the sweetness of a wine inversely correlates with its suppressive effect on salivation, acrid wines were described as more ‘dry’ than sweet wines. \n\nFor ultimately similar reasons, we can refer to certain kinds of comedy as "dry" -- deadpan delivery lacks the outward signs of cheer associated with blood, which he thought of as particularly wet -- or as "dark" (associated with "black bile," melan choler, from which we get the word melancholy).',
'Dry just means not sweet, as in the lack of sweetness. Something that is dry usually either contains less sugar or has some ingredients or flavors that hide the sweetness.\n\nThat is why the 2 varieties of vermouth are sweet and dry or sweet and not sweet.',
'Dry means no residual sugar.\n\nAlcohol is made by yeast consuming sugars and producing alcohol plus carbon dioxide. A “dry” product is one where the yeasts were allowed to consume all sugar. Semi-dry, semi-sweet or sweet are the other options, all based on the remaining sugar content. Yeasts will continue to consume sugars as long as they exist so to make a semi sweet product for example you have to either kill the yeast (arrested fermentation) or allow it to ferment to dry then remove the yeasts and then back sweeten with sugar or fruit juices.\n\n(I work at a cidery)',
' Dry as in the opposite of sweet. Less sweet, and more of the other flavors. The sweet can only be less, there is no actual literal opposite to it, it\'s just that the other flavors counterbalance the sweet.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nThe most obvious opposite of sweet is sour\n\n & #x200B;\n\nBut there is also astringency. That pucker the back of your tongue taste. Sumac has this taste, for comparison.\n\nSome bitterness also often comes along with the astringency, and is also part of the "opposite" of sweet\n\nAn astringent is something that constricts tissues. Witch Hazel, which you can buy OTC at any pharmacy, is an astringent. There are things in certain fruit juices and I think botanicals that are astringent that you taste. Since it constricts the tissues on your tongue, it literally feels like it\'s trying to dry out your tongue.',
'Bartender here, just wanted to add a few things to the glorious comment from our resident som and spirits expert. \n\n\nAs far as London dry gin goes, that’s the title of one of five different types of gin. London dry is the most regulated and has very specific parameters it must conform to in order to be labeled as London dry. The other gin types are old Tom, genever, contemporary, and plymouth. You can think of these in terms of whiskey if that helps. For example, both bourbon and scotch are whiskeys, but they have very different requirements to be labeled as such. \n\n\nSimilarly, dry vermouth is a type of vermouth, or fortified wine. There are other types of fortified wine which may or may not be called vermouth, such as cocchi americano or blanc vermouth. The other most popular vermouth is sweet vermouth, which gets its name from the burnt sugar present in most sweet vermouths. You’ll find dry vermouth, the straw colored stuff, in a martini, and you’ll find sweet vermouth, the brown stuff, in a Manhattan. \n\n\nCheers!\n\n\nEdit: it’s also very popular to order a “dry” martini. In that context, what the guest usually means is that they want a martini made with less dry vermouth. It’s frustrating and extremely counter intuitive, but that’s the typical nomenclature used by the average consumer.',
'I believe it has to do with having less or no residual sugars or the lack of the ability of the palate to detect them. Sugar tend to round the mouth feel of a drink make it "softer" on the palate.\n\n non expert but I took a wine class in school so take this with a grain of salt..'],
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'passage_text': 'The geographical position of the oasis was the main factor in its success and wealth. To its north is one of the most arid and desolate desert climates on the earth, the Taklamakan Desert, and to its south the largely uninhabited Kunlun Mountains (Qurum). To the east there were few oasis beyond Niya making travel difficult, and access is only relatively easy from the west. \n',
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'passage_text': 'The human history of this oasis started during the Pleistocene, when nomadic tribes settled sometimes there, in a time when the Sahara climate was wetter and where humans could have access to lakes and marshes. But about 6,000 years ago, the entire Sahara became drier, changing progressively into a hyper-arid desert (with less than 50\xa0mm of rain per year). However, specialists think that nomadic hunter-gatherers began to settle almost permanently in the oasis of Dakhleh in the period of the Holocene (about 12,000 years ago), during new, but rare episodes of wetter times.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The oasis occupies a band of land between a stone mountain to the south and a large sand dune field, the Erg Er Raoui, to the north. The water table of the latter is relatively high, making irrigation agriculture possible. The foggara system was traditionally used, but has been in decline since the early twentieth century.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Desertification is a type of land degradation in which a relatively dry area of land becomes a desert, typically losing its bodies of water as well as vegetation and wildlife. It is caused by a variety of factors, such as through climate change (particularly the current global warming) and through the overexploitation of soil through human activity. When deserts appear automatically over the natural course of a planet\'s life cycle, then it can be called a natural phenomenon; however, when deserts emerge due to the rampant and unchecked depletion of nutrients in soil that are essential for it to remain arable, then a virtual "soil death" can be spoken of, which traces its cause back to human overexploitation. Desertification is a significant global ecological and environmental problem with far reaching consequences on socio-economic and political conditions.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The oasis was divided into three regions: al-Natat, al-Shikk, and al-Katiba, probably separated by natural divisions, such as the desert, Harrat Khaybar lava drifts, and swamps. Each of these regions contained several fortresses or redoubts containing homes, storehouses and stables. Each fortress was occupied by a separate family and surrounded by cultivated fields and palm-groves. In order to improve their defensive capabilities, the settlers raised the fortresses up on hills or basalt rocks.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The oasis was divided into three regions: al-Natat, al-Shikk, and al-Katiba, probably separated by natural divisions, such as the desert, lava drifts, and swamps. Each of these regions contained several fortresses or redoubts including homes, storehouses and stables. Each fortress was occupied by a separate family and surrounded by cultivated fields and palm-groves. In order to improve their defensive capabilities, the fortresses were raised up on hills or basalt rocks.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The oasis was divided into three regions: al-Natat, al-Shikk, and al-Katiba, probably separated by natural divisions, such as the desert, lava drifts, and swamps. Each of these regions contained several fortresses or redoubts containing homes, storehouses and stables. Each fortress was occupied by a separate family and surrounded by cultivated fields and palm-groves. In order to improve their defensive capabilities, the settlers raised the fortresses up on hills or basalt rocks.\n',
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'answers': ["An Oasis gets its water from underground aquifers. So the water would just push any sand away. Also the presence of plant life around it helps keep the terrain stable, reducing the amount of stuff that'd disrupt things."],
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'passage_text': 'Land snails move by gliding along on their muscular foot, which is lubricated with mucus and covered with epithelial cilia. This motion is powered by succeeding waves of muscular contractions that move down the ventral of the foot. This muscular action is clearly visible when a snail is crawling on the glass of a window or aquarium. Snails move at a proverbially low speed (1\xa0mm/s is a typical speed for adult "Helix lucorum"). Snails secrete mucus externally to keep their soft bodies from drying out. They also secrete mucus from the foot to aid in locomotion by reducing friction, and to help reduce the risk of mechanical injury from sharp objects, meaning they can crawl over a sharp edge like a straight razor and not be injured. The mucus that land snails secrete with the foot leaves a slime trail behind them, which is often visible for some hours afterwards as a shiny "path" on the surface over which they have crawled.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In spite of its apparent slowness and limitations, the snail exploits the special nature of its mucus to achieve some startling feats. It can go up a slope at any angle, including upside down, resist being pulled off a firm surface with an adhesive strength several times its own weight, rest on a surface at any angle without any expenditure of energy, or, notoriously, climb a needle-like stem or pass over the edge of razor blade without harm, relying on the firmness of its mucus film in its shear-resistant phase.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The snail often rests on leaves of shrubs and saplings, and also on the trunks of larger trees. It usually rests on its side, with the end part of its tail curved back. This tail area can act as a suction cup and because of the snail\'s habit of resting on leaves, these animals can be accidentally and unknowingly picked up by other animals, or even by cars and human beings, that brush against the foliage. Most arboreal snails have very sticky mucus, and this "hitchhiking" capability may account for the very extensive distributions of some of the smaller species, as they could easily travel on the feet or legs of birds or bats.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Mudsnails are impressively resilient. A snail can live for 24 hours without water. They can however survive for up to 50 days on a damp surface, giving them ample time to be transferred from one body of water to another on fishing gear. The snails may even survive passing through the digestive systems of fish and birds.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A shell-less animal is much more maneuverable and compressible, so even quite large land slugs can take advantage of habitats or retreats with very little space, retreats that would be inaccessible to a similar-sized snail. Slugs squeeze themselves into confined spaces such as under loose bark on trees or under stone slabs, logs or wooden boards lying on the ground. In such retreats they are in less danger from either predators or desiccation, and often those also are suitable places for laying their eggs.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The sole of "Tarebia granifera" is proportionally small when compared to other thiarids and smaller snails with their higher coefficients were less able to grip the substratum in the face of moving water and so not did disperse as effectively as larger ones.\n',
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'passage_text': 'This detritus-feeder typically burrows slightly into the sediment, no more than , unlike some of its relatives like "B. globosus", which usually live on rocks or aquatic vegetation. Although only a minority of these snails are infected (generally 2% or less in "B. nyassanus"), they do play an important role in the spread of bilharzia (schistosomiasis), a parasite that causes "snail fewer" in humans. The snail-eating ciclid fish "Trematocranus placodon" has a preference for "B. nyassanus".\n',
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'answers': ['Imagine it like sweating. You can sweat and sweat, liquid comes out of you, but your body mass stays more or less the same.',
'They do lose some. But just like you can continue to make snot and saliva, pee and poop, they consume material to make more.'],
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'passage_text': 'A muffin-top (or "muffin top") is a slang term typically used to describe a man or woman\'s skin or body fat that is visible above the waistline of pants or skirts because of tight clothing. The term is a reference to the way a muffin appears when it has been baked in a muffin tin, so that the top of the muffin is wider than its bottom.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30863645',
'title': 'Muffin top',
'section': 'Section::::Origin.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 203,
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'passage_text': 'According to William Safire, writing in "The New York Times Magazine", "Muffin-top fills a lexical void" and "describes the roll of excess flesh spilling out primarily in front but possibly all around."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2377843',
'title': 'Sleeveless shirt',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Dudou.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 385,
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'passage_text': 'A dudou ("belly cover"), known as a yem in Vietnamese contexts, is an item of East Asian clothing resembling a silk apron or bib but traditionally used as an undershirt or bodice to flatten the figure and, medicinally, to preserve stomach "qi". Beginning around the year 2000, Western and Chinese fashion has also begun incorporating them as a sleeveless and backless shirt for women.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '571630',
'title': 'Venus figurines',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 454,
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'passage_text': 'The high amount of fat around the buttocks of some of the figurines has led to numerous interpretations. The issue was first raised by Édouard Piette, excavator of the Brassempouy figure and of several other examples from the Pyrenees. Some authors saw this feature as the depiction of an actual physical property, resembling (but "not" depicting) the Khoisan tribe of southern Africa, while others interpreted it as a symbol of fertility and abundance.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2234728',
'title': 'Wrinkles (toy)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 404,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Wrinkles is a line of plush toys manufactured by Canadian toy company Ganz in the 1980s. The toys are identified by their characteristic wrinkled faces and clothing. They were based on the hound breed of dog. The original design was created by Senitt Puppets, based in Carnarvon, Ontario. Catherine Senitt designed and sold handmade puppets for over twenty years throughout the United States and Canada.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24197209',
'title': 'Chang kben',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Sampot chang kben (; , , ; , "pha hang") is a lower-body, wrap-around cloth worn in the countries of Cambodia, Laos, and Thailand. It was the preferred choice of clothing for women of upper and middle classes for daily wear. The practice of daily wear died out at the beginning of the 20th century. Unlike the typical sampot, it is more of a pant than a skirt. It is a rectangular piece of cloth measuring three meters long and one meter wide. It is worn by wrapping it around the waist, stretching it away from the body, twisting the ends together then pulling the twisted fabric between the legs and tucking it in the back of the waist.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16819687',
'title': 'Maternity clothing',
'section': 'Section::::Cultural trends in maternity wear.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 548,
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'passage_text': 'Culturally in the US today, a few popular clothing brands have made everyday wear for pregnant women both fashionable and accessible. As the body is changing shape and therefore levels of comfort, most maternity clothing is made with Lycra and elastic for stretch and growth. For pants, the waistband is usually a thick layer of stretchy material that can be hidden by a shirt to give the pants a normal look. Depending on style and activity, tops often billow out to leave room for the belly and are made of varying cottons and elastic materials.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Is a fat muffin top at your belly caused because humans wear clothes around their waistline?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Really good question! I am by no means an expert but it is my understanding that every person stores fat on their bod differently, however fat naturally collects around the waistline, modern clothes or not. Wearing tight jeans or yoga pants accentuates the “over hang” or “muffin top” on some people.',
"Yes, but not by much. Your fat stores are all located in/around your hips/pelvic region, they swell and become distended due to an increase in volume of fat storage. Squeezing into tighter clothing does cause certain shapes (i.e. muffin top) to form, but it has no impact on the overall volume. \n\nSo if you are carrying weight in your belly it's not like that weight is going to suddenly shift to your thights, it'll still be there but just in a different shape. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8yiwo3',
'query': 'is a fat muffin top at your belly caused because humans wear clothes around their waistline?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2639335',
'title': 'Timeline of astronomy',
'section': 'Section::::400.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
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'passage_text': 'The Hindu cosmological time cycles explained in the "Surya Siddhanta", give the average length of the sidereal year (the length of the Earth\'s revolution around the Sun) as 365.2563627 days, which is only 1.4 seconds longer than the modern value of 365.256363004 days. This remains the most accurate estimate for the length of the sidereal year anywhere in the world for over a thousand years.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10936',
'title': 'February 29',
'section': 'Section::::Leap years.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Solar years are actually slightly shorter than 365 days and 6 hours (365.25 days), which had been known since the 2nd century BC when Hipparchus stated that it lasted 365 + − days, but this was ignored by Julius Caesar and his astronomical adviser Sosigenes. The Gregorian calendar corrected this by adopting the length of the tropical year stated in three medieval sources, the Alfonsine tables, De Revolutionibus, and the Prutenic Tables, truncated to two sexagesimal places, 365 days or 365 + − days or 365.2425 days. The length of the tropical year in 2000 was 365.24217 mean solar days, Adding a calendar day every four years, therefore, results in an excess of around 44 minutes every four years, or about 3 days every 400 years. To compensate for this, three days are removed every 400 years. The Gregorian calendar reform implements this adjustment by making an exception to the general rule that there is a leap year every four years. Instead, a year divisible by 100 is not a leap year unless that year is also divisible by 400. This means that the years 1600, 2000, and 2400 are leap years, while the years 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, 2300, and 2500 are not leap years.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '652165',
'title': 'Mesoamerican calendars',
'section': 'Section::::Long Count.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 35,
'end_character': 636,
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'passage_text': "The 365-day and the 260-day calendars identified and named the days, but not the years. The combination of a solar year date and a 260-year date was enough to identify a specific date to most people's satisfaction, as such a combination did not occur again for another 52 years, above general life expectancy. To measure dates over periods longer than 52 years, the Mesoamericans devised the Long Count calendar. This calendar system was probably developed by the Olmecs and later adopted by the Maya. The use of the long count is best attested among the classic Maya, it is not known to have been used by the central Mexican cultures.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22804673',
'title': 'Palmoni',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'The astrologer Walter Gorn Old, writing under the nom de plume Sepharial, added from his own early 20th-century research, "I have made a calculation and find that with a solar year equal to 365.242264 days, we get in 1040 such years exactly 12,863 lunations, each of 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 2.8 seconds, which does not differ from the most recent astronomical estimate by a single second."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11572324',
'title': 'List of Indian inventions and discoveries',
'section': 'Section::::Discoveries.:Space.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 116,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 116,
'end_character': 460,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Earth\'s orbit (Sidereal year): The Hindu cosmological time cycles explained in the "Surya Siddhanta"(c.600 CE), give the average length of the sidereal year (the length of the Earth\'s revolution around the Sun) as 365.2563627 days, which is only a negligible 1.4 seconds longer than the modern value of 365.256363004 days. This remains the most accurate estimate for the length of the sidereal year anywhere in the world for over a thousand years.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17895',
'title': 'Leap year',
'section': 'Section::::Julian, Coptic and Ethiopian calendars.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
'end_character': 204,
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'passage_text': 'This rule gives an average year length of 365.25 days. However, it is 11 minutes longer than a tropical year. This means that the vernal equinox moves a day earlier in the calendar about every 131 years.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44328',
'title': 'Ulugh Beg',
'section': 'Section::::Science.:Astronomy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'In 1437, Ulugh Beg determined the length of the sidereal year as 365.2570370... = 365 6 10 8 (an error of +58\xa0seconds). In his measurements over the course of many years he used a 50\xa0m high gnomon. This value was improved by 28\xa0seconds in 1525 by Nicolaus Copernicus, who appealed to the estimation of Thabit ibn Qurra (826–901), which had an error of +2\xa0seconds. However, Ulugh Beg later measured another more precise value of tropical year as 365 5 49 15, which has an error of +25\xa0seconds, making it more accurate than Copernicus\'s estimate which had an error of +30\xa0seconds. Ulugh Beg also determined the Earth\'s axial tilt as 23°30\'17" in the sexagesimal system of degrees, minutes and seconds of arc, which in decimal notation converts to 23.5047 degrees.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'how did we find out that there are 365.25 days in a year?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Mathematics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Observation, and knowing when the sun should be where through relative position.\n\nWhen you chart the sun’s course every day of the year a pattern emerges (Note the position and degree of the light at the exact same time every day). That pattern is slightly off by a few degrees the following year, on a four your cyclical. This ellipsis is the foundation of time as we know it. ',
"With a [sundial](_URL_0_)\n\nA sundial tells you the time of day with the shadow of a stick: Noon is the point where the shadow casts the shortest shadow because it's highest in the sky at that time. It's also the easiest way to tell the cardinal directions without a compass, since the shadow is going to point exactly north at noon.\n\nNow if you start recording the distance between the stick and the shadow at noon each day of the year, you're going to figure out the dates of the summer solstice (where the sun is the highest in the year) and the winter solstice (where it is the lowest). The number of days between either of the solstices is the time it takes for the earth to revolve around the sun, and this will tell you that the year is 365 days long, a quarter day short of the more precise 365.25 days.\n\nHowever, after four years, the difference will add up to a full day, and the solstice will be recorded one day later than expected. This might have flown under the radar for a while since nailing the solstice to a day with nothing but a sundial is hard, but at some point they must have noticed that their calendar was wrong and corrected it. The Romans divided the difference between recorded and actual solstice by the number of years that passed, and got to 1/4 of a day per year.\n\nOther cultures came to different solutions to the problem, for example the Chinese lunar calendar occasionally jumps an entire month. I'm not quite sure how it works exactly though.\n\n\n"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'abs03p',
'query': 'how did we find out that there are 365.25 days in a year?',
'query_type': 'Mathematics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '37642',
'title': 'Tremor',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 373,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The doctor will perform a neurological examination to assess nerve function and motor and sensory skills. The tests are designed to determine any functional limitations, such as difficulty with handwriting or the ability to hold a utensil or cup. The patient may be asked to place a finger on the tip of her or his nose, draw a spiral, or perform other tasks or exercises.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41066666',
'title': 'The Eye Tribe',
'section': 'Section::::Technology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': "Before using the eye tracking device, a calibration is needed in order for the device to find a user's pupils and identify unique eye characteristics needed to help enhance the accuracy of tracking one's gaze. The tracker has an average accuracy of about 0.5\xa0degree of visual angle and can identify and follow the movement of an eye with sub millimeter precision, which is around the size of a fingertip.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1543423',
'title': 'Eye tracking',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 212,
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'passage_text': 'There are a number of methods for measuring eye movement. The most popular variant uses video images from which the eye position is extracted. Other methods use search coils or are based on the electrooculogram.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21715447',
'title': 'National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale',
'section': 'Section::::Performing the scale.:3. Visual field test.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 35,
'end_character': 599,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Assess the patient's vision in each visual fields. Each eye is tested individually, by covering one eye and then the other. Each upper and lower quadrant is tested by asking the patient to indicate how many fingers the investigator is presenting in each quadrant. The investigator should instruct the patient to maintain eye contact throughout this test, and not allow the patient to realign focus towards each stimulus. With the first eye covered, place a random number of fingers in each quadrant and ask the patient how many fingers are being presented. Repeat this testing for the opposite eye.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1099280',
'title': 'Eye examination',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'An eye examination is a series of tests performed by an ophthalmologist (medical doctor), optometrist, or orthoptist, optician (UK), assessing vision and ability to focus on and discern objects, as well as other tests and examinations pertaining to the eyes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3736545',
'title': 'Pupillary distance',
'section': 'Section::::Measuring pupillary distance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 440,
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'passage_text': 'Different methods for measuring exist but accurate measurement can usually be determined by an ECP during an eye examination. This is normally done with a small millimeter ruler referred to as a "PD stick" or with a corneal reflex pupillometer, which is a machine calibrated to help the optical professional more accurately measure the pupillary distance. There are also mobile phone and web apps that can measure one\'s pupillary distance.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15447219',
'title': 'Driving licence in the Netherlands',
'section': "Section::::Obtaining a driver's licence.\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 296,
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'passage_text': "The practical exam covers everything that should have been learned: looking in the inside mirror, then the wing mirror and then over one's shoulder at every turn (twice per turn), driving onto and on the motorway, knowing what is under the bonnet, what all the lights on the dashboard mean, etc.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Exactly how are manual eye exams conducted (without modern digital equipment) and how can a doctor measure your eyesight through looking at your eye?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['What do you mean measure your eyesight? As in determine your visual acuity?',
'Before the fancy digital eye scanner... They had you look through lens and ask if it was better or worse....'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'd3ivv2',
'query': 'exactly how are manual eye exams conducted (without modern digital equipment) and how can a doctor measure your eyesight through looking at your eye?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '619009',
'title': 'PlayStation Portable',
'section': 'Section::::Software.:System Software.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 468,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "While System Software updates can be used with consoles from any region, Sony recommends only downloading updates released for the model's region. System Software updates have added many features, including a web browser, Adobe Flash support, additional codecs for various media, PlayStation 3 (PS3) connectivity, and patches against security exploits (and the execution of homebrew programs). The most recent version, numbered 6.61, was released on January 15, 2015.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18797966',
'title': 'UpdateStar',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 474,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'UpdateStar 4, released in March 2009 introduced an enhanced recognition algorithm and a registry cleaner, which removes remnants of uninstalled software. Updates appear almost on a daily basis for a software setup with 60 to 80 programs on a typical PC making it nearly impossible for a PC user to keep up. The program is available as freeware as well as the commercial Premium Edition with additional security advice for program, a cleaner for system maintenance and more.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24755801',
'title': 'Barnes & Noble Nook 1st Edition',
'section': 'Section::::Hacking.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 48,
'end_character': 277,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A new hardware revision introduced in August 2010, identifiable by a serial number starting with 1003, running firmware 1.4.1, requires different software than the older models. Attempting to gain root access using software designed for older models renders the unit unusable.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41181813',
'title': 'Xbox One system software',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 548,
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'passage_text': 'Since launch, Microsoft has been updating the OS monthly, with updates downloaded from the Xbox Live service directly to the Xbox One and subsequently installed, or by using offline recovery images downloaded via a PC. In November 2015, a major system update known as the New Xbox One Experience was released, which brought very significant changes to the design and functionality of the system. The Windows 10-based Core had replaced the Windows 8-based one in this update, and the new system is sometimes referred to as "Windows 10 on Xbox One".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '357347',
'title': 'Tamper resistance',
'section': 'Section::::Software.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 54,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 54,
'end_character': 219,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A side effect of this is that software maintenance gets more complex, because software updates need to be validated and errors in the upgrade process may lead to a false-positive triggering of the protection mechanism.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11732933',
'title': 'PlayStation 3 system software',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 410,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "The process of updating is almost identical to that of the PlayStation Portable, PlayStation Vita, and PlayStation 4. The software may be updated by downloading the update directly on the PlayStation 3, downloading it from the user's local Official PlayStation website to a PC and using a USB storage device to transfer it to the PlayStation 3, or installing the update from game discs containing update data.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '507143',
'title': 'Upgrade',
'section': 'Section::::Risks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 548,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Upgrades of hardware involve a risk that new hardware will not be compatible with other pieces of hardware in a system. For example, an upgrade of RAM may not be compatible with existing RAM in a computer. Other hardware components may not be compatible after either an upgrade or downgrade, due to the non-availability of compatible drivers for the hardware with a specific operating system. Conversely, there is the same risk of non-compatibility when software is upgraded or downgraded for previously functioning hardware to no longer function.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does everything computerised need regular software updates now opposed to older models? E.g. my Xbox One needs to update monthly(ish) while my Xbox original never did (or could).',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Security is taken more seriously than it used to, particularly on consoles that are now much more online than they used to be (online multiplayer was a much newer thing for consoles during the xbox classic generation of consoles), and that are much closer to the computers we use every day. It was unlikely that your xbox would be an infection vector for viruses onto your home network, since it was a pretty shitty computer to run anything but games on; but your xbox one is more than capable, and it's probably connected to your network constantly as well.\n\nThreats are also constantly evolving; as more of the world becomes more computerized, there's more money to be made in cybercrime, and so organized crime and even some street-level gangs are making a move into digital theft and ransomware coding to get money. And no Microsoft or Sony or Nintendo-level company wants headlines about the latest ransomware that's exclusive to their console, so they keep a stream of updates that keep everything running.\n\nThe new and improved hardware also demands more complex software; more complex software means more bugs just by the very nature of coding, so bugfixes are near constant now.",
'Actually, the original Xbox DID have updates, but most people just received them via the disc, as opposed to downloading them. There weren\'t a whole lot of versions, though, and none provided major functionality changes. Mostly stability/anti piracy measures.\n\nIf you boot up your original Xbox and look at "About this Xbox" on the dashboard, it\'ll list the dashboard/system software version. Most recent is 1.00.5960.01.',
'The biggest reason is the rollout of 24x7 access to the internet. Before this was available internet access was limited to the times that you called in to your ISP modembank. These days your devices can access anything they want whenever they want, which means that the software providers are able to distribute updates whenever they want.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8u7qc3',
'query': 'why does everything computerised need regular software updates now opposed to older models? e.g. my xbox one needs to update monthly(ish) while my xbox original never did (or could).',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '788093',
'title': 'Major trauma',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 662,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Various organ systems respond to injury to restore homeostasis by maintaining perfusion to the heart and brain. Inflammation after injury occurs to protect against further damage and starts the healing process. Prolonged inflammation may cause multiple organ dysfunction syndrome or systemic inflammatory response syndrome. Immediately after injury, the body increases production of glucose through gluconeogenesis and its consumption of fat via lipolysis. Next, the body tries to replenish its energy stores of glucose and protein via anabolism. In this state the body will temporarily increase its maximum expenditure for the purpose of healing injured cells.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '51773044',
'title': 'Acute cardiac unloading',
'section': 'Section::::Myocardial infarction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 785,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'When the heart is damaged by a myocardial infarction a portion of muscle is permanently lost. The heart has a limited innate ability to replace dead muscle with new, functional muscle. The dead heart muscle is replaced by non-contractile fibrotic tissue, forming the myocardial scar. Scar tissue does not contract, and it does not help the heart pump blood. This persistently stresses the heart and increases the workload of the lasting myocardium as measured by MVO2. Clinical research indicates that as the size of the myocardial scar increases, so does the likelihood of the patient to develop heart failure. Acute cardiac unloading decreases cardiac MVO2 and has been demonstrated to limit the amount of scar tissue that forms, thus preserving heart function after a heart attack.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6150557',
'title': 'Myofibroblast',
'section': 'Section::::Function.:Wound healing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 364,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'After healing is complete, these cells are lost through apoptosis and it has been suggested that in several fibrotic diseases (for example liver cirrhosis, kidney fibrosis, retroperitoneal fibrosis) that this mechanism fails to work, leading to persistence of the myofibroblasts, and consequently expansion of the extracellular matrix (fibrosis) with contraction.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4199116',
'title': 'Bone hemostasis',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Bone is a living vascular organ containing channels for blood and bone marrow. When a bone is cut during surgery bleeding can be a difficult problem to control, especially in the highly vascular bones of the spine and sternum. Bleeding from soft tissue is normally stopped using a cautery that creates heat, causing blood vessels to collapse and become sealed. Since the blood in living bone flows through channels in the bone that do not collapse, a cautery is not effective in preventing bone bleeding. Blocking the holes in the bone typically stops bone bleeding. This can be done by mechanically blocking the holes (tamponade effect), or by inducing a blood clot to form.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '490305',
'title': 'Ischemia',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Restoration of blood supply to ischemic tissues can cause additional damage known as reperfusion injury that can be more damaging than the initial ischemia. Reintroduction of blood flow brings oxygen back to the tissues, causing a greater production of free radicals and reactive oxygen species that damage cells. It also brings more calcium ions to the tissues causing further calcium overloading and can result in potentially fatal cardiac arrhythmias and also accelerates cellular self-destruction. The restored blood flow also exaggerates the inflammation response of damaged tissues, causing white blood cells to destroy damaged cells that may otherwise still be viable.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18427821',
'title': 'Facial trauma',
'section': 'Section::::Prognosis and complications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
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'passage_text': 'Nerves and muscles may be trapped by broken bones; in these cases the bones need to be put back into their proper places quickly. For example, fractures of the orbital floor or medial orbital wall of the eye can entrap the medial rectus or inferior rectus muscles. In facial wounds, tear ducts and nerves of the face may be damaged. Fractures of the frontal bone can interfere with the drainage of the frontal sinus and can cause sinusitis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15690613',
'title': 'Autoimmune heart disease',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Myocarditis: Here the muscle bulk of the heart gets inflamed. Inflamed muscles have reduced functional capacity. This may be fatal, if left untreated as is in a case of pancarditis. On healing, there will be fibrosis and reduced functional capacity.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "After suffering an injury, why are we told to elevate that part of our body over our heart? Doesn't blood help heal the injured area and bring cells that heal it?",
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'category': 'Biology',
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'answers': ['Depends on how much blood we are talking about. Elevating the injury basically uses gravity to help overcome the blood pressure of that area, decreasing blood loss. I recall the story of a woman who cut her big toe - not a really horrible cut, but enough to produce a good amount of bleeding. Fearing the staining on her kitchen floor, she proceeded to wipe up the blood. As she moved backwards, wiping up the blood from her toe, she continued to bleed, so she continued to wipe. Being bent over and constantly moving, she eventually bled to death cleaning up her own blood. Had she just applied pressure and elevated her foot, she would have been fine.',
"Once you start swelling your blood vessels are squeezed. Arteries have the pressure of the heart to keep them open and flowing. \n\nYour veins are collapsed, and blood flow is restricted, because they don't have high blood pressure. By raising the damaged part you raise the pressure in the veins, which have an easier time draining toward the heart. Your lymphatic system, which is working hard as part of the healing process, also needs help with draining. \n\nIn addition, if you are bleeding elevation does help reduce blood pressure at the wound, and makes compression easier."],
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'query': "after suffering an injury, why are we told to elevate that part of our body over our heart? doesn't blood help heal the injured area and bring cells that heal it?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '11451897',
'title': 'ReCAPTCHA',
'section': 'Section::::Operation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In 2012, reCAPTCHA began using photographs taken from Google Street View project, in addition to scanned words. As for 2019 image identification captchas - such as store fronts, buses, cross-walks, traffic lights - became the only type of captcha offered by the system.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25137381',
'title': 'Google, Inc. v. American Blind & Wallpaper Factory, Inc.',
'section': 'Section::::Background.:Facts.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Google\'s AdWords program enables advertisers to trigger a display of their ads when Google users perform keyword searches. Per Google policy, advertisers may trigger their ads on arbitrary keywords, including trademarked keywords that they do not own. This permits competitors of American Blinds to place their ads alongside American Blind\'s ads when a user searches for "American Blind", "American Blinds", or "Decoratetoday"—all of which are registered trademarks of American Blind. In its stated objective to minimize user confusion concerning the affiliation of the ads, Google places ads in specially marked "Sponsored Links" sections of the web-page and prohibits unauthorized trademark use in the ad content. But despite requests from American Blind and others, Google refuses to discontinue its use of trademarks to trigger the ads.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28037152',
'title': 'NuCaptcha',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Static image-based CAPTCHAs are routinely used to prevent automated sign-ups to websites by using text or images of words disguised so that optical character recognition (OCR) software has trouble reading them. However, in common CAPTCHA systems, users often fail to correctly solve the CAPTCHA 7% - 25% of the time. NuCaptcha uses animated video technology that it claims make puzzles easier for humans to solve, but harder for bots and hackers to decipher.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '230834',
'title': 'CAPTCHA',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'This user identification procedure has received many criticisms, especially from people with disabilities, but also from other people who feel that their everyday work is slowed down by distorted words that are difficult to read. It takes the average person approximately 10 seconds to solve a typical CAPTCHA.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11546879',
'title': 'Google Street View',
'section': 'Section::::Privacy concerns.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Google Street View will blur houses for any user who makes a request, in addition to the automatic blurring of faces and licence plates. Privacy advocates have objected to the Google Street View, pointing to views found to show men leaving strip clubs, protesters at an abortion clinic, sunbathers in bikinis, and people engaging in activities visible from public property in which they do not wish to be seen publicly. Another concern is the height of the cameras, and in at least two countries, Japan and Switzerland, Google has had to lower the height of its cameras so as to not peer over fences and hedges. The service also allows users themselves to flag inappropriate or sensitive imagery for Google to review and remove.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1497849',
'title': 'List of Google products',
'section': 'Section::::Mobile applications.:Mobile standalone applications.\n',
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'passage_text': "BULLET::::8. Google Goggles – search based on pictures taken with a device's built-in camera; taking pictures of things (examples: famous landmarks, product bar-codes) causes searches for information on them.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47147050',
'title': "List of Google April Fools' Day jokes",
'section': 'Section::::2009.:Google Maps.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Google\'s CADIE has a recommended places to visit using Google Maps. Viewing "CADIE\'s recommended places for humans" one will see each of her suggested places listed, that, when clicked, displays a photo and humorous commentary.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do google captchas make you click street signs?',
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'category': 'Technology',
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'answers': ["They're used to train their image recognition software so that they can read street signs more accurately.",
'Google is working on self driving cars and they need their algorithms trained. So they crowd source it. And they know computers cant tell because that is why they are having you train their cars.',
'What about the one that just says “I am not a robot” and you just click it once and the box turns into a check mark and lets you go',
'As pointed out in other posts, they are using it to train their image recognition software. The machine learning algorithm they are using requires training. \n\nThey will start out with a massive database of known data that is used for the initial training. Then they will continually refine the algorithm over time. Both these steps take a lot of work because manually validating that a dataset is correct takes a lot of manpower.\n\nGoogle captcha essentially is a huge mechanical turk. By asking real people to validate what is in a picture they can now validate and refine the algorithm. [this training piece is a part of the algorithm, it\'s not a manual thing]. All the while the algorithm is also "guessing" and comparing it\'s answers with the manicured data set of known answers provided by humans.\n\nYou lower risk of getting bad data by asking say 30 people the same question. You can make some assumptions that if 80% of the people said box "X" is a road sign, car face.... that yep, it\'s that thing.\n\nEssentially Image Captcha is saving google millions of dollars in real human time to help improve their machine learning! And if you\'ve ever gotten a Captcha wrong (and you were right); it\'s most likely because the image didn\'t have enough answers to achieve a consensus to say you are right, but it does hold on to your answer to help build that consensus for the next person!',
'...and does the pole count as part of the sign?',
'Everything Google has you do is to feed/train a new technology it is working on.\n\nThe new image captchas are most likely helping train some sort of image recognition AI.',
'They run out of books to digitize for google books, so now they are digitizing street signs for google maps. ',
"Current bots have hard times with pictures, so it shows that you are human. You are also helping google develop their self-driving cars. That is why cars and street signs are what you are always clicking. You are essentially training their car bots while proving you aren't an internet bot.",
'The irony of all of this too, is that once machines are 100% successful at completing CAPTCHAs, they will be obsolete as a method for checking human vs. machine.',
"[A lot of people here aren't reading from Google's info on reCAPTCHA](_URL_0_)\n\nELI5: Google cuts up images into a grid 4x4 for small images, 5x5 for bigger ones, and so on and so forth. Google gives these images to their bots and teaches (trains) them to find which grid has what object. Google has the answers for this small set of images, and for the bots that guess correctly, they get to have clones made of them.\n\nThe reason Google breaks up these images into smaller grids because it's easier to find Waldo in a small box, but harder to find Waldo in a big, crowded image.\n\nGoogle's bots, after some time, are really good at spotting objects.\n\nA reCAPTCHA on a website asks a user to figure out which squares have a stop sign. Google and their bots know the answer to this. But Google is tired and doesn't want to go through new sets of images and identify more and more traffic light, for instance.\n\nGoogle then asks several bots to guess where the traffic light is. To make sure the bot's guess is right, the user, from earlier, that answered the first reCAPTCHA right is asked to find the traffic light. Many more of the user's friends are also asked the same question to make sure it's right.\n\nIf the bot and the users think the traffic light is in a particular square, then the bot is given a pat on the back, and has many clones made of it.\n\nA benefit of Google asking a lot of people what's a traffic light, what's a stop sign, what's a store front, is that when the bots get older and can drive cars, they can recognize when to stop, and where.\n\nAnother benefit is that Google's bots can help other people find things in images, like a person lost in a flood from an image taken from high above.\n\nMore detailed info from the link above:\n\n > reCAPTCHA offers more than just spam protection. Every time our CAPTCHAs are solved, that human effort helps digitize text, annotate images, and build machine learning datasets. This in turn helps preserve books, improve maps, and solve hard AI problems.\n\n--\n\nSide note: a lot of people still hate reCAPTCHA, but, it's quicker, now, is better at protecting sites, and contributes to image recognition.",
'What are you supposed to do with one like [this?](_URL_0_)',
"Do you know what this picture is? (It's a banana.) And this one? (It's a dog). People have very good eyes, and are very good at telling what is in a picture. Computers don't have eyes! They aren't very good at telling what is in a picture. They need some help from people. \n\nSome smart scientists want to teach computers how to tell what is in a picture, but they need help from lots and lots of people. When you click on the pictures of street signs, you are helping the computers learn how to see what is in a picture!\n\n",
"2 purposes:\n\n- Giving a task that is relatively hard for AI to perform reliably (making sure you're human and not a bot)\n- Creating training data (where is the sign & where it's not on a photo) to improve their image recognition, most likely in preparation for driverless vehicles.\n\nOld text-based captchas are being solved pretty easily by open-source deep learning setups these days, so they are not a good candidate to filter out bots anymore."],
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '339605',
'title': 'Frozen food',
'section': 'Section::::Preservatives.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Frozen products do not require any added preservatives because microorganisms do not grow when the temperature of the food is below , which is sufficient on its own in preventing food spoilage. Long-term preservation of food may call for food storage at even lower temperatures. Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), a tasteless and odorless stabilizer, is typically added to frozen food because it does not adulterate the quality of the product.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10646',
'title': 'Food',
'section': 'Section::::Safety.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Foods that spoil easily, such as meats, dairy, and seafood, must be prepared a certain way to avoid contaminating the people for whom they are prepared. As such, the rule of thumb is that cold foods (such as dairy products) should be kept cold and hot foods (such as soup) should be kept hot until storage. Cold meats, such as chicken, that are to be cooked should not be placed at room temperature for thawing, at the risk of dangerous bacterial growth, such as "Salmonella" or "E. coli".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7367038',
'title': 'Vacuum packing',
'section': 'Section::::Preventing freezer burn.\n',
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'passage_text': 'When foods are frozen without preparation, freezer burn can occur. It happens when the surface of the food is dehydrated, and this leads to a dried and leathery appearance. Freezer burn also ruins the flavor and texture of foods. Vacuum packing reduces freezer burn by preventing the food from exposure to the cold, dry air.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '339605',
'title': 'Frozen food',
'section': 'Section::::Effectiveness.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Freezing is an effective form of food preservation because the pathogens that cause food spoilage are killed or do not grow very rapidly at reduced temperatures. The process is less effective in food preservation than are thermal techniques, such as boiling, because pathogens are more likely to be able to survive cold temperatures rather than hot temperatures. One of the problems surrounding the use of freezing as a method of food preservation is the danger that pathogens deactivated (but not killed) by the process will once again become active when the frozen food thaws.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '339605',
'title': 'Frozen food',
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'passage_text': 'Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash freezing). The freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure. Cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature .\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10646',
'title': 'Food',
'section': 'Section::::Classifications and types of food.:Frozen food.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash freezing). The freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure. Cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature .\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '339605',
'title': 'Frozen food',
'section': 'Section::::Defrosting.\n',
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'passage_text': 'People sometimes defrost frozen foods at room temperature because of time constraints or ignorance; such foods should be promptly consumed after cooking or discarded and never be refrozen or refrigerated since pathogens are not killed by the freezing process.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why can you cook some things from frozen but not others?',
'selftext': 'For example if I buy a fresh chicken breast and freeze it myself, cooking it from frozen is bad. However I can buy already frozen chicken breast and cook it from frozen with no problems?',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["You *can't* cook originally fresh chicken from frozen??\n\nUh oh...",
' Well if you try to cook it straight out of the freezer you will cook the outside but on the inside it will still be frozen.',
"Usually stuff you cook from frozen has already been cooked once, and you're basically just heating it up. It's easier to do that than it is to make sure the food is actually cooked all the way through if you're trying to cook frozen, raw chicken.",
"I don't know what you've been told, but in terms of food safety, cooking all types of frozen chicken (whether you bought it frozen or not) is perfectly fine. \n\nHowever, cooking frozen chicken takes longer than defrosted chicken, which can be an issue because chicken can get dried out very easily.",
'The colder something is when you start cooking it, the harder it is for it to cook through evenly. With a raw-frozen chicken breast, you run the risk of over cooking the outside layers of the meat without the middle part getting cooked enough to be safe to eat. The heat just can’t penetrate to the center of the meat evenly enough because what it’s penetrating is so so cold. Under-cooked poultry is unsafe to eat because of microscopic critters that could be in there that are killed when the meat is cooked to a certain temperature (I think it’s 165 F for chicken).. \n\nIt’s not an issue for cooked-frozen chicken because it’s already been cooked and those critters have already been cooked/killed. The worst thing that happens in this case is that the middle of the meat is cold, but it was already cooked before you even bought it. Also, when companies prepare these pre-cooked chicken breasts, they tend to flatten them out for exactly the reasons I’m writing about here: They cook faster and more evenly that way. \n\nIt’s less of an issue with some meats than with others, I can only guess because they have fewer critters than live in them, or their critters get killed at a lower temperature. With beef, less of an issue. With pork, just as big an issue as with poultry.',
"It depends on the cooking process. Slow cooking processes work fine from frozen. Fast processes can be a problem, if the food can't transfer the heat fast enough the outside burns before the inside is cooked enough. Chicken can be more of a problem, because the required internal temp is higher. You can cook home frozen just like you cook equivalent pre-frozen. You can't cook a whole chicken with processes that would work for a breast filet, no matter who does the freezing.",
"It sounds like you might be confusing two different pieces of advice.\n\nOne common piece of advice is to make sure you defrost things before you cook them. This is not so much for food safety, as it is to ensure the thing you're cooking cooks evenly. If you put a frozen chicken breast in the oven, and bake it, it's likely that the outside will burn before the inside is cooked throughout, or that the whole piece will dry out when you try to cook it thoroughly. Defrosting normalizes the temperature and helps make sure all parts of the chicken (or whatever else you're cooking) cook at the same rate.\n\nThe other piece of advice is to not re-freeze things that have defrosted without first cooking them. This is true, but only for things that have thawed outside of the refrigerator. The concern here is, if food thaws to a warmer temperature (as if it were in your car, or in the garage, or out on the counter), as microbes previously inactivated by the freezing process, can again become active at temperatures above 40F and start multiplying leading to foodborne illness.\n\nSo for that reason most people will say if you thaw something, you need to cook it (to kill the microbes again) before re-freezing it.\n\nBut in reality, if you take a store bought piece of frozen chicken, thaw it in your fridge (at 35F), you could re-freeze it without worry.\n\nEDIT: spelling"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'dv8zde',
'query': 'why can you cook some things from frozen but not others?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '49707456',
'title': 'KeRanger',
'section': 'Section::::Discovery.:Encryption process.:Encrypted files.\n',
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'passage_text': 'After connecting to the C2 server, it will retrieve the encryption key, then start the process. It will first encrypt the "/Users" folder, then after that "/Volumes" There are also 300 file extensions that are encrypted, such as:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '296370',
'title': 'Certificate authority',
'section': 'Section::::Issuing a certificate.:Example.\n',
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'passage_text': "The rest of the communication then proceeds using the new (disposable) symmetric key, so when the user enters some information to the bank's page and submits the page (sends the information back to the bank) then the data the user has entered to the page will be encrypted by their web browser. Therefore, even if someone can access the (encrypted) data that was communicated from the user to www.bank.example, such eavesdropper cannot read or decipher it.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46999487',
'title': 'Identity-based conditional proxy re-encryption',
'section': 'Section::::Features.\n',
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'passage_text': 'One of the key features of IBCPRE is that when Alice as a data owner encrypts messages, the encryption is done for herself and only Alice herself can decrypt the encrypted messages using her secret key. There is no need for Alice to know in advance about who that she would like to share the encrypted messages with. In other words, picking the friends to share with by Alice can be done after she encrypts the messages and uploads to the Server.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '296356',
'title': 'Web of trust',
'section': 'Section::::Operation of a web of trust.:Simplified explanation.\n',
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'passage_text': "Users encrypt their information with the recipient's public key, and only the recipient's private key will decrypt it. Each user then digitally signs the information with their private key, so when the recipient verifies it against the users own public key, they can confirm that it is the user in question. Doing this will ensure that the information came from the specific user and has not been tampered with, and only the intended recipient can read the information (because only they know their private key).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '296370',
'title': 'Certificate authority',
'section': 'Section::::Issuing a certificate.:Example.\n',
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'passage_text': "Public-key cryptography can be used to encrypt data communicated between two parties. This can typically happen when a user logs on to any site that implements the HTTP Secure protocol. In this example let us suppose that the user logs on to their bank's homepage www.bank.example to do online banking. When the user opens www.bank.example homepage, they receive a public key along with all the data that their web-browser displays. The public key could be used to encrypt data from the client to the server but the safe procedure is to use it in a protocol that determines a temporary shared symmetric encryption key; messages in such a key exchange protocol can be enciphered with the bank's public key in such a way that only the bank server has the private key to read them.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1065362',
'title': 'End-to-end encryption',
'section': 'Section::::Challenges.:Man-in-the-middle attacks.\n',
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'passage_text': "End-to-end encryption ensures that data is transferred securely between endpoints. But, rather than try to break the encryption, an eavesdropper may impersonate a message recipient (during key exchange or by substituting his public key for the recipient's), so that messages are encrypted with a key known to the attacker. After decrypting the message, the snoop can then encrypt it with a key that they share with the actual recipient, or their public key in case of asymmetric systems, and send the message on again to avoid detection. This is known as a man-in-the-middle attack.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '175560',
'title': 'Ciphertext',
'section': 'Section::::Conceptual underpinnings.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': "In a symmetric-key system, Bob knows Alice's encryption key. Once the message is encrypted, Alice can safely transmit it to Bob (assuming no one else knows the key). In order to read Alice's message, Bob must decrypt the ciphertext using formula_6 which is known as the decryption cipher, formula_7\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does the https transfer the key to decrypt the data without compromising the contents of said data?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['To try to simplify, these kinds of protocols work by having the reciever send the lock, instead of the sender transmitting the key.\n\nAn analogy is that I send you a combination safe, you put the thing inside it and send it back to me. The combination to open the safe is only ever known by me, but this way once you put something into the safe you know nobody else (not even yourself) can open it.',
"If data could be encrypted with a paint colour, then...\n\nIf I wanted to send you encrypted data, first I would send you some random colour paint.\n\nNext, you and I would independently choose a second secret random colour paint (both different) and mix it with the first colour I just sent you. We would come up with two new colours.\n\nWe then send each other our new paint colours, and mix in our own second secret random colour with each other's new colour. The result is that we both come up with the same final colour (the final colour each being a total mix of the three colours: the original, your secret colour, and my secret colour).\n\nI can now use this final colour to encrypt the data, knowing that you will have independently come up with the exact same colour.\n\nIf someone else were watching us send these colours, they would get the first colour and the third pair of colours that were produced, but it would be very difficult for them to figure out what each of our secret colours were; it would be difficult for them to un-mix the third colour back to the first colour and whatever secret colour we each chose, so they would not be able to produce their own final colour.\n\nHTTPS uses mathematics that have similar properties, easy to compute one way, difficult to reverse."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'cemhl3',
'query': 'how does the https transfer the key to decrypt the data without compromising the contents of said data?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1241036',
'title': 'Official versions of Doom',
'section': 'Section::::Consoles.:3DO Interactive Multiplayer.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 57,
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'passage_text': '"Maximum" thoroughly panned this version for its lack of PAL optimization, large borders, choppy frame rate even on the smallest possible screen size, bland color palette, music which is lacking in atmosphere, and load times. They added that the frame rate and slowdown make the game too easy: "When large amounts of monsters arrive to beat the crap out of you, the game slows down to such an extent that you have ages to line up your shots and fire". With their only praise being for the intuitive and effective control configuration, they gave it one out of five stars. "GamePro" called it "the worst console version of "Doom" so far", chiefly due to the choppy frame rate.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '51415764',
'title': 'Bound (video game)',
'section': 'Section::::Development.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'The game\'s developers were forced to sacrifice visual effects for performance, because they did not want the game to run with motion blur or framerate drops, due to the hardware limitations of the PlayStation 4. The game runs at a stable 60 frames per second (FPS), and Staniszewski believes that games that run at lower FPS than 60 are not the "proper way that games should look on TVs".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '980242',
'title': 'MDK (video game)',
'section': 'Section::::Development.:Technology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
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'passage_text': 'Because sniper mode was a major part of the game, with the ability to zoom up to 100x, the team decided not to employ any of the usual techniques to limit pop-up, such as clipping and fogging. A major technical issue was that of frame rate. Shiny felt most PC games maintained frame rate by using big pixels in low resolution, which works as long as the game is not running SVGA mode. Based on their experiences developing for consoles, they wanted to take a different approach; using small pixels in high resolution. They set a target of maintaining a constant frame rate of at least 30fps at all times on all machines, and so they simply play-tested the game multiple times. Any moment when the frame rate dropped below 30, they either removed something from that particular part of the game, rewrote the graphics code, or altered the artwork until they could get the frame rate back up to where they wanted without having to reduce the resolution or increase the pixel size. According to Bruty, "We had no idea how fast we could get the engine when we started. The game would run too slow if we textured everything, so some parts were just flat-shaded for speed. We did our best to make that look like a design choice, or shadows, but it was a tricky balance."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13846141',
'title': 'Positron (video game)',
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'end_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'This game is notable because of its speed. In particular, the game has probably the fastest player fire-rate of any of the non-scrolling shooters of the period. Most similar games of the time will only let you fire again when the previous laser bolt has either hit an alien or left the screen. "Positron" has no such limits leading to a much quicker game. It also differs from most such games in that if a life is lost, the sheet begins again regardless of the number of enemies killed. This makes for an infuriating game if the player is killed by the last enemy of the sheet and can lead to effectively repeating the same sheet over until all lives are lost.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5911724',
'title': 'Enthusiast computing',
'section': 'Section::::Hardware description.:Display.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 629,
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'passage_text': 'It is clear that a fast response time and high refresh rate is desired in order to display smooth motion. A framerate of 60 frames per second (FPS) is generally the minimum acceptable framerate in a video game for enthusiasts, with some enthusiasts preferring 144 FPS or even 165 FPS, to match the refresh rate of their monitor (144\xa0Hz or 165\xa0Hz, respectively). Some gaming monitors can be overclocked to achieve even higher refresh rates. Apart from the primary display, some enthusiasts choose to use a secondary display or more to their PC. Many players game using 3 monitors, which requires 3 times the graphics performance.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25414501',
'title': 'Star Wars: The Force Unleashed II',
'section': 'Section::::Development.:Technology.:Special effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
'end_character': 670,
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'passage_text': 'Interpolating the graphics in 30FPS was opted due to the large variety of rendering technologies that were practical to developers, as well as a less stringent time schedule. Although Andreev felt that it was not impossible to produce a video game in 60FPS graphics, he felt that it would require much more rigorous efforts on art, engineering, and design. "It is fair to say that in a lot of cases," he explained, "during pre-production, studios try to see what it would take to make a 60FPS game. Then, they get something that doesn\'t look very pretty when running at 60, realising that all the art has to be produced very carefully as well as level and game design."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3074864',
'title': 'MOS Technology 8568',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'Owing to this somewhat cumbersome method of controlling the 8568, the maximum possible frame rate in bit-mapped mode is generally too slow for arcade-style action video games, in which bit-intensive manipulation of the display is required.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why does playing a game at higher frames than originally intended (E.g. 60fps instead of 30fps) often cause glitches with the physics?',
'selftext': 'If you change the game to be 60fps, shouldn’t everything adjust as a result?',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["These games run the FPS and the physics engine in the same loop, and make some assumptions about the speed. They don't calculate physics that would have happened since the last calculation, they just calculate another 1/30 of a second of physics. So, by increasing the FPS, you increase the number of physics calculations but not the time its calculated for, resulting in 'faster' physics.",
'Graphics and physics are processed separately. Think about the inside of your computer. It has a "processor", which is technically called a CPU, or "central processing unit", that handles all of the math and interactions between things, etc. Then you have the "graphics card", which is technically called a GPU, or "graphics processing unit". Note how they are both distinct processing units. Basically, graphics require so much memory that you have to do them separately.\n\nNow, the CPU tells the GPU what it should be doing in general, such as "make the character move forward by flying/walking/etc." but the GPU does the calculations of what it looks like, such as your feet hitting the ground and the weapon swaying in your arms. To a large degree, where you see your character is what the CPU recognizes for physics.\n\nSo, the CPU and GPU are linked, but let\'s say the GPU is updating information faster than the CPU (such as playing at 60 fps on a game intended for 30 fps). You run your character into a wall. Your character model running forward happens at a faster speed than the CPU registers the collision of your character against the wall. For a brief moment (milliseconds), your character model passes into the object model of the wall. When the CPU next refreshes, it calculates a collision, since it has a program saying those two models can\'t intersect, but since you are intersecting, it forces you out of the wall at high speeds.\n\nYou can do similar things playing at low FPS, but the logic is a backward (CPU registers movement but character model never intersects with another object).'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'cmuyip',
'query': 'why does playing a game at higher frames than originally intended (e.g. 60fps instead of 30fps) often cause glitches with the physics?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1703365',
'title': 'Straight razor',
'section': 'Section::::Modern use.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 85,
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'passage_text': 'Still others argue that straight razors provide a superior shave through a larger blade and greater control of the blade, including the blade angle. Straight razors cover a much greater area per shaving stroke, because their cutting edge is much longer than any of the multi-blade razors.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '155154',
'title': 'Shaving',
'section': 'Section::::Shaving methods.:Wet shaving.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'end_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': 'Double-edge razors are named so because the blade that they use has two sharp edges on opposite sides of the blade. Current multi-bladed cartridge manufacturers attempt to differentiate themselves by having more or fewer blades than their competitors, each arguing that their product gives a greater shave quality at a more affordable price.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1703365',
'title': 'Straight razor',
'section': 'Section::::Modern use.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 87,
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'passage_text': 'Straight razors are also much easier to clean and can handle tougher shaving tasks, such as longer facial hair, than modern multi-blade razors, which tend to trap shaving debris between their tightly packed blades and are easily clogged, even with relatively short stubble.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '155154',
'title': 'Shaving',
'section': 'Section::::Effects of shaving.:Razor burn.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 201,
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'passage_text': 'In some cases multi-bladed razors can cause skin irritation by shaving too close to the skin. Switching to a single- or double-bladed razor and not stretching the skin while shaving can mitigate this.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '155154',
'title': 'Shaving',
'section': 'Section::::Effects of shaving.:Razor burn.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
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'end_paragraph_id': 33,
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'passage_text': '"Razor burn" is an irritation of the skin caused by using a blunt blade or not using proper technique. It appears as a mild rash 2–4 minutes after shaving (once hair starts to grow through sealed skin) and usually disappears after a few hours to a few days, depending on severity. In severe cases, razor burn can also be accompanied by razor bumps, where the area around shaved hairs get raised red welts or infected pustules.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20261',
'title': 'Machete',
'section': 'Section::::Manufacturing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 39,
'end_character': 367,
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'passage_text': 'In comparison to most other knives, which are commonly heat treated to a very high degree of hardness, many machete blades are tempered to maximum toughness, often nearly spring tempered. This results in a tougher blade, more resistant to chipping and breaking, with an edge that is easier to sharpen but does not retain sharpness as well, due to its lower hardness.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '486442',
'title': 'Razor',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'These new safety razors did not require any serious tutelage to use. The blades were extremely hard to sharpen, and were meant to be thrown away after one use, and rusted quickly if not discarded. They also required a smaller initial investment, though they cost more over time. Despite its long-term advantages, the straight razor lost significant market share. And as shaving became less intimidating and men began to shave themselves more, the demand for barbers providing straight razor shaves decreased.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do more razor blades = a closer shave and more razor burn?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Each item on a razor blade pulls the skin tighter and tighter as it passes over the skin. A 5 blade razor will pull from the back of the head, and then each blade which will slice closer and closer to the stretched skin. Since your skin isn’t perfectly smooth you end up ‘shaving’ a little bit of your skin off which causes irritation and inflammation, aka razor burn.\n\nIf you suffer from this, use a single blade safety razor.',
'More blades removes more layers of skin, allowing you to remove more of the hair than like a single blade. Losing the extra layers of dermis causes the razor burn.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'cbhqx2',
'query': 'why do more razor blades = a closer shave and more razor burn?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '30074251',
'title': 'Emotional well-being',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'Good emotional health leads to better physical health, prevents diseases, and makes it possible to enjoy life and be happier. In this way one can become a "medicine person" through mirror neurons, those that lead to empathy and fire to imitate the emotions of others. Mirror neurons are what make people feel good when they are with someone who is positive, cheerful and motivational. At the other extreme are the so-called "toxic people", who make others around them feel bad.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23525212',
'title': 'Guided imagery',
'section': 'Section::::Evidence and explanation.:Psychoneuroimmunology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 92,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 92,
'end_character': 721,
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'passage_text': "Because of this interplay, a person's negative thoughts, feelings, and perceptions, such as pessimistic predictions about the future, regretful ruminations upon the past, low self-esteem, and depleted belief in self-determination and a capacity to cope can undermine the efficiency of the immune system, increasing vulnerability to ill health. Simultaneously, the biochemical indicators of ill health monitored by the immune system feeds back to the brain via the nervous system, which exacerbates thoughts and feelings of a negative nature. That is to say, we feel and think of ourselves as unwell, which contributes to physical conditions of ill health, which in turn cause us to feel and think of ourselves as unwell.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47978099',
'title': 'Audio therapy',
'section': 'Section::::Hypotheses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "Because of this interplay, a person's negative thoughts, feelings, and perceptions, such as pessimistic predictions about the future, regretful ruminations upon the past, low self-esteem, and depleted belief in self-determination and a capacity to cope can undermine the efficiency of the immune system, increasing vulnerability to ill health. Simultaneously, the biochemical indicators of ill health monitored by the immune system feeds back to the brain via the nervous system, which exacerbates thoughts and feelings of a negative nature. That is to say, we feel and think of ourselves as unwell, which contributes to physical conditions of ill health, which in turn cause us to feel and think of ourselves as unwell.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14230294',
'title': 'Distress (medicine)',
'section': 'Section::::Management.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 405,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'People often find ways of dealing with distress, in both negative and positive ways. Examples of positive ways are listening to music, calming exercises, coloring, sports and similar healthy distractions. Negative ways can include but are not limited to use of drugs including alcohol, and expression of anger, which are likely to lead to complicated social interactions, thus causing increased distress.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10145037',
'title': 'Affective events theory',
'section': 'Section::::Psychosomatic complaint and health concerns due to emotions experienced at work.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 40,
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'passage_text': "Research suggests that poor physical, mental, and emotional health can result from negative emotions experienced at work. This may be due to perfectionist dispositional tendencies that interact with daily hassels manifested through psychosomatic complaints. Workers who experience frequent thoughts of needing to be perfect tend to report more psychosomatic complaint. Psychosomatic complaint may also occur as a response to emotional dissonance caused by the need to suppress one's true feelings toward co-workers and more so toward patients, students, customers, or clients. Emotional labour or emotion work is required to achieve the effect required by the organization. As a consequence, workers may 'act' as opposed to 'feel' positive or negative emotions at work to remain compliant with an organizational code of conduct. However, adherence to such organizational norms may belie the true internal state of the individual worker. Authenticity and emotional harmony in such situations, may yield to dissonance and negatively impact on workers' health.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1889161',
'title': 'Helpfulness',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 580,
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'passage_text': 'This effect states that those who feel bad for another person in a situation will be more likely to help compared to a person who feels bad for themselves in that situation. For example, a study was performed that had people imagine that their best friend had cancer. In this study, the researchers examined people\'s attention to grief. Those that were focused on the worries of the best friend were those that were more helpful compared to the people who had more selfish worries such as " I will have to act happy when really I am sad about my friends situation" (Meyers, 447).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30074251',
'title': 'Emotional well-being',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'The implications of decreased emotional well-being are related to mental health concerns such as stress, depression, and anxiety. These in turn, contribute to physical health concerns such as digestive disorders, sleep disturbances, and general lack of energy. The profile of a person prone to emotional distress is likely someone with low self-esteem, pessimistic, emotionally sensitive, very self-critical…, people who need to constantly assert themselves through their emotions. They also tend to be timid, overly worried about the future, and focused on the past. As Dr. Marisa Navarro says in her book La Medicina Emocional (Emotional Medicine), "no one is safe from suffering this emotional state. It is a very serious problem that can result in constant states of anger, sadness, worry and even anxiety or depression".\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why and how is bottling up your feelings bad for your health',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It'll make you neurotic. If you can't process and come to acceptance of your emotions, it can lead to anxiety, depression, bouts of anger, unhealthy impulses, and self destructive coping mechanisms.",
'Because burying your feelings tends to make them last longer and even get worse. Negative feelings accumulate in our unconscious and cause negative emotional responses to other stimulus that may not have caused negative feelings without that extra baggage. \n\n\nWhen you are emotionally hurt, angry, etc, you experience a bunch of physical symptoms which are typically lumped together as “stress”. They can include increased heart rate and blood pressure, increased production of various hormones and other biochemical messages within your body, etc. \n\nAll of these physical responses actually have an evolutionary purpose - your body is trying to get ready for whatever physical exercise you may need to undergo to escape from whatever danger is causing your stress. Ultimately, your body is built to survive, and stress is an indicator to your body that survival may be at risk, better get ready. \n\nHowever, modern stress isn’t really about survival of the “better-run-or-get-eaten” variety. And moreover, it doesn’t go away in a few minutes to an hour the way evolution has taught our bodies stress is likely to behave. Instead, we remain stressed for days, weeks, months, and our bodies undergo that chemical “better be ready” thing far longer than our ancestors ever had to. So we end up with higher blood pressure and heart disease, weakened immune systems, lack of sleep, headaches, even just grinding our teeth. It can all affect our health negatively. ',
'Among other things stress can lead to heart disease. Just like lack of sleep caused by stress. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '7a6t3s',
'query': 'why and how is bottling up your feelings bad for your health',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2267424',
'title': "Beck's cognitive triad",
'section': "Section::::Beck's cognitive model of depression.\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 532,
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'passage_text': 'People with depression often view themselves as unlovable, helpless, doomed or deficient. They tend to attribute their unpleasant experiences to their presumed physical, mental, and/or moral deficits. They tend to feel excessively guilty, believing that they are worthless, blameworthy, and rejected by self and others. They may have a very difficult time viewing themselves as people who could ever succeed, be accepted, or feel good about themselves and this may lead to withdrawal and isolation, which further worsens the mood. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14585748',
'title': 'Belongingness',
'section': 'Section::::Behavior/social problems.:Depression.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 90,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 90,
'end_character': 576,
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'passage_text': 'People who are depressed often fail to satisfy their need for belonging in relationships and therefore, report fewer intimate relationships. Those who are depressed appear to induce negative affect in other individuals, which consequently elicits rejection and the loss of socially rewarding opportunities. Depressed people are less likely to feel a sense of belonging and are more likely to pay attention to negative social interactions. Research has found that depressive symptoms may sensitize people to everyday experiences of both social rejection and social acceptance.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50015690',
'title': 'Attachment and Health',
'section': 'Section::::Attachment Styles.:Insecure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 552,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Anxious-preoccupied people tend to view themselves less positively than they view others. They are more likely to become highly anxious when they are away from their attachment partners and are at risk of becoming, or seeming, dependent. They tend to agree with statements such as “I want to be completely emotionally intimate with others, but I often find that others are reluctant to get as close as I would like", and "I am uncomfortable being without close relationships, but I sometimes worry that others don\'t value me as much as I value them." \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25532085',
'title': 'Foreign language anxiety',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 466,
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'passage_text': 'Potential negative events that people cannot see or handle with their ability often leads to anxiety. Also, if individuals are highly anxious, that kind of habitualised reactions may cause those who have experienced many threatening situations in the past to be more likely perceive future situations as threatening. As well, if their anxiety are traits rather than states, self-efficacy must result from past successes, vicarious experiences and social persuasion.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14585748',
'title': 'Belongingness',
'section': 'Section::::Psychological needs.:Attachments.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': "The breaking of social bonds and threats to those bonds are primary sources of negative affect. People feel anxious, depressed, guilty or lonely when they lose important relationships. Social exclusion is the most common cause of anxiety. Anxiety is a natural consequence of being separated from others. Examples include children suffering from separation anxiety from being separated from their mothers. Adults act similarly when their loved ones leave for a period of time. Memories of past rejection and imagining social rejection all elicit negative emotions. Losses of attachments lead directly to anxiety. If people are excluded from social groups, people get anxious, yet the anxiety is removed when they experience social inclusion. Failing to feel accepted can lead to social and general depression. Depression and anxiety are significantly correlated. Social exclusion is also a major cause of jealousy, which is a common reaction when one's relationships are threatened. Jealousy is cross-culturally universal and in all cultures, sexual jealousy is common. It was said earlier that belongingness needs can only truly be met with social contact, but social contact by itself does not shield people against loneliness. Loneliness matters more when there is a lack of intimacy as opposed to lack of contact. Another negative affect is guilt, which is caused to make the other person want to maintain the relationship more, such as paying more attention to that person.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '922',
'title': 'Anxiety',
'section': 'Section::::Risk factors.:Psychological.:Evolutionary psychology.\n',
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'passage_text': 'An evolutionary psychology explanation is that increased anxiety serves the purpose of increased vigilance regarding potential threats in the environment as well as increased tendency to take proactive actions regarding such possible threats. This may cause false positive reactions but an individual suffering from anxiety may also avoid real threats. This may explain why anxious people are less likely to die due to accidents.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2195142',
'title': 'Wallflower (people)',
'section': 'Section::::Connection to Sociology.:Social anxiety.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': 'Although they recognize that the fear is excessive and unreasonable, people with social anxiety disorder feel powerless against their anxiety. They are terrified they will humiliate or embarrass themselves. The anxiety can interfere significantly with daily routines, occupational performance, or social life, making it difficult to complete school, interview and get a job, and have friendships and romantic relationships.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why do some humans become depressed/anxious when all alone and other humans don't?",
'selftext': "I generally become very depressed when I'm alone, while my friend is very happy being alone. Why is this?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['I don\'t believe there\'s a single person who wouldn\'t get depressed when left alone too long. We\'re a social species and there are many cases where extended isolation has severely damaged people\'s mental well-being. \n\nNow I think there are definitely people who get depressed faster than the others. Every person is different and it\'s not really a symptom of anything more than your personality.\n\nI generally am good left to my own devices. But, in a case like this where I\'m left alone too long I feel an itch to see people. I miss the company of others even if I don\'t relish actually speaking to them.\n\nThere\'s loads of things nowadays online about "introverts" and "extroverts" and people are very quick to say they are one or the other but psychology is not as simple as "you exhibit one behaviour. You are X". Everyone is different and needs their own levels of social interaction to keep sane and I think that may just be human nature. \n\nThere\'s nothing wrong with you for preferring your own company and there\'s nothing wrong with wanting to be around people as long as you\'re not doing harm to yourself and those around you. It\'s all about knowing yourself and your needs.',
'I imagine that in our evolution, being alone could mean you were losing some social opportunity, and could even be dangerous. Or it could be fine and give time to rest and plan.\n\nSo maybe there is natural brain variation in how people tend to respond. Or it may depend on how they are feeling about themselves and their social situation.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'g1o3qr',
'query': "why do some humans become depressed/anxious when all alone and other humans don't?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
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'title': 'Screaming',
'section': 'Section::::As a phenomenon.:Communication and language.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Elaine Scarry, writer and literature professor, talks about language in connection to pain and she thinks that pain almost destroys the language because it brings people back into a state where sounds and screams are dominating as they were their means of communication before they learned how to speak. Pain cannot actually be communicated, as it is a personal experience and can only be experienced individually. Pain, as any other concept, is actually an individual experience that can only be communicated as an idea and it also is to be interpreted as. Hegel writes: “The biggest relief when having pain is to be able to scream it out […] through this expression, the pain becomes objective and this makes the connection between the subject, who is alone in pain, and the object, that is not in pain.”\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3911668',
'title': 'Screaming',
'section': 'Section::::As a phenomenon.:In psychology.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In psychology, the scream is an important theme in the theories of Arthur Janov. In his book "The Primal Scream", Janov claims that the cure for neurosis is to confront the patient with his suppressed pain resulting from an experienced trauma. This confrontation gives birth to a scream. Janov believes that it is not necessary that it heals the patient from his trauma. The scream is only a form of expression of primal pain, which comes from one\'s childhood, and the reliving of this pain and its expression. This finally appears through the scream and can cure the patient from his neurosis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17389946',
'title': 'Crying',
'section': 'Section::::Function.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The question of the function or origin of emotional tears remains open. Theories range from the simple, such as response to inflicted pain, to the more complex, including nonverbal communication in order to elicit altruistic helping behavior from others. Some have also claimed that crying can serve several biochemical purposes, such as relieving stress and clearance of the eyes. Crying is believed to be an outlet or a result of a burst of intense emotional sensations, such as agony, surprise or joy. This theory could explain why people cry during cheerful events, as well as very painful events.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '143803',
'title': 'Tears',
'section': 'Section::::Social aspects.\n',
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'passage_text': "Some modern therapy movements such as Re-evaluation Counseling teach that crying is beneficial to health and mental well-being, encouraging it positively. An insincere display of grief or dishonest remorse is sometimes called crocodile tears in reference to an Ancient Greek anecdote that crocodiles would pretend to weep while luring or devouring their prey. In addition, in medical terms, someone is said to have crocodile tears syndrome as an uncommon consequence of recovery from Bell's palsy, in which faulty regeneration of the facial nerve causes sufferers to shed tears while eating.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '521571',
'title': 'Laryngitis',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Acute.:Trauma.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Often due to excessive use of the vocal folds such as excessive yelling, screaming, or singing. Though this often results in damage to the outer layers of the vocal folds, the subsequent healing may lead to changes in the physiology of the folds. Another potential cause of inflammation may be overuse of the vocal cords. Laryngeal trauma, including iatrogenic (caused by endotracheal intubation), can also result in inflammation of the vocal cords.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41757168',
'title': 'Laughter yoga',
'section': 'Section::::Scientific evidence.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': "Laughter has been shown to decrease cortisol, the body's stress hormone. When this hormone is elevated it can cause issues like high blood pressure, weight gain, and memory loss. It also increases endorphins, which lowers pain in the body. Yoga has been shown to decrease cortisol and increase endorphins. \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3911668',
'title': 'Screaming',
'section': 'Section::::As a phenomenon.:Communication and language.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Arnal and colleague demonstrated that human screams exploit a unique acoustic property, roughness, that selectively activates the auditory brain as well as the amygdala, a deep brain structure involved in danger processing.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does screaming relieve physical pain to an extent?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The theory is that the the part of the brain used for pain and the part of the brain we use for talking or yelling kind of “overlap,” so we can’t really use both at the same time. The brain is quite interesting, but sometimes it really sucks at multitasking, so we’re able to use one part or the other, but not at the same time. Screaming can even be used for pain management, although others around you may not appreciate it very much. It’s an interesting area that’s still being studied.',
'Evolutionary response. Part of the pain is purely psychological. Pain means that danger is nearby and the primal part of your brain wants you to warn the herd. You shout out conforming to instincts and the satisfied brain settles down for a while.',
'Screaming helps trigger our brain\'s "fight or flight" response. In the response the brain releases loads of adrenaline which helps our heart speed up, gives us maximum strength, and numbs our response to pain. This is why people talk about not even feeling being shot. The adrenaline is so high your response to pain is little to none.',
'Multiple doctors have told me that, if you have the urge to cry or scream, to do so. The reason why; bc it supposedly relaxes your body and eases the stiffness and tension, which then relieves some of the pain. ',
'The body has two basic modes of being: rest/digest and fight/flight. This allows us to respond to a changing environment and accidents. Pain is a signal that encourages us to rest/digest. However, if we face immediate danger then the body will create natural painkillers that temporarily relieve the pain, since our brain is telling our body that it needs to be in fight/flight mode: "No time to rest/digest now!"\n\nWhen we scream, we can activate our fight/flight response mode. Many warrior cultures used screaming to prepare for battle. This would make sense as a way of activating the body\'s natural painkillers.\n\nDepending on the context, screaming can also be intended as a signal to others. Humans are social creatures with brain chemistry that feels pain more strongly when we feel disconnected. Since physical pain is such a personal thing it is natural that the experience of it also triggers a feeling of disconnection, which is itself painful. Screaming as a signal to others could lead to social rewards that in themselves trigger natural painkillers.\n\nEdit: fixing autocorrect...',
'Alot of the top comments have really smart responses, but they ignore that when you scream, youre releasing more CO2 than normal, and in turn your heart will be pumping more oxygenated blood through your body. ',
'Additionally, why does yelling and swearing relieve stress in most people?',
'My psych professor explained the "pain gate" hypothesis to us: basically, the amount of information that is able to pass up and through to the part of the brain that processes pain is limited. By yelling, or rubbing your belly, or concentrating on something else or any number of stimuli or a combination of stimuli, you are giving your brain enough extra info to process that the raw "pain" data that gets through is limited.',
'In addition to the physiological responses shared, there is also a psychological one - our society has evolved toward altruism where our natural instinct is to help those who alert us to pain or danger. Screaming is your brains way of sending a distress signal to others around you who might be able to help. ',
'Not an expert, but it\'s mostly due to your brain focusing on something else. Like if you have a headache, watching a interesting movie or playing a video game makes your brain "forget" the pain (no loud sounds or bright lights of course)',
'I majored in sensory psych and among the course load I took “pain and suffering” and “sensory perception” and it has to do with giving your brain something else to process. The pain receptors are a more visceral, primitive system and so is auditory perception, than say your neocortex or outer layer brain processing of reasoning. The brain has limited bandwidth so when you give a good hard scream it is focusing on processing the yell and the scream and if it’s real good, the physical sensation of the primal yell. So it temporarily numbs you.\n\nThere are a lot of interesting things that numb pain. For instance capsaicin activates pain receptors and after several days of overloading pain receptors, the brain will “turn down” the pain signal in the same area so it is useful in chronic surface pain management. \n\nObviously screaming ain’t a long term treatment though. ',
'There is a theory that ties this together with endorphins and to a lesser extent adrenaline. This connects the "kia" (shouting while striking) in karate, the valsava and scream in lifting, and screaming / growling / cursing when you stub your toe on a table leg.\n\nThe temporary excitement kind of tells pain to quiet down so you can focus on the matter hand. In sport, it reduces natural inhibitions to allow for maximal effort. In toe-stubbing it basically gives you a break to run from or attack your table.',
'I honestly don\'t know the direct answer but it reminds me of a fantastic NPR show where an anthropologist discovers a word in a native tribe that makes them want to decapitate people. The word "Legit" seems to be a composite of intense emotions for these people. After his wife dies in an accident he says he finally understood the meaning behind the word as his only way of coping with the pain is through an intense wailing. I would say this is closely related. \n\n_URL_0_',
'I asked in college and my professor said “My understanding is that yelling or screaming release adrenaline and endorphins which are natural at creating euphoria or masking sympathies of pain.”\n\nSo, screaming creates a catharsis , which is pleasurable psychologically, hence endorphins released. \n\nBut screaming is a subconscious response to pain, which releases adrenaline to survive. \n\nThe two mix together to temporarily remove “feelings” of pain. ',
'Put in simple words...When you scream you exhale the air within your body which relaxes you and pain fades away a bit.',
'It’s actually quite simple. Screaming is linked in our brain to aggression and pain response. Both trigger a release of endorphins, such as adrenaline and cortisol, that result in a decrease of pain reactivity. Learned this in my anatomy class when studying fight or flight response.',
'“We found that the amygdala—but not auditory cortex—is specifically sensitive to temporal modulations in the roughness range (Figure 4B). These results demonstrate that rough sounds specifically target neural circuits involved in fear/danger processing [27, 28] and hence provide evidence that roughness constitutes an efficient acoustic attribute to trigger adapted reactions to danger.”\n\n_URL_0_',
'Screaming causes a feeling of rush inside you, and that feeling will temporarily override the feeling of pain.\n\nThere’s only a few feelings you can self generate inside you by your self, the ones I’m aware of are screaming as you’ve mentioned, speeding to cause a rush feeling of adrenaline (my favourite) and then self inflicting pain - which is not necessary if you’re aware of the other 2.\n\nThese work with both physical and emotional pain.',
'Limited understanding of the brain here, but working on the gate theory of pain and signal transmission between neurons it’s like; neurons are roadways leading to your brain that can only handle so much traffic, once a lane is full another gateway opens and signal moves forward. If you experience pain and utilize your senses; sound, sight, touch, smell, equilibrium, taste you can flood the lanes causing a traffic congestion. Pain takes a priority in the traffic lanes, like an ambulance or fire engine, but the more congestion there is the more information the brain has to process and so....yelling/screaming engages another sense organ/pathway causing ‘traffic’ which slows everything down. This, the activation of gateways along the pains path are already occupied, slowing down the signal of pain. Your not minimizing/relieving pain, just working the system)))))',
'Muscles store tension, and in most animals they have a natural deactivation mechanism (body tremors) that release this tension. In humans though due to our higher brain function and us being highly social we can override this deactivation mechanism because it\'s not always convenient at the given time to go through it. The problem is we tend to do it so much we can get stuck in the "on position" for the tension and our muscles get locked in place, this is trauma.\n\nSo when you scream you are activating multiple muscle groups, particularly in your core muscles and neck, common muscles that get locked in. By activating them you are actually releasing tension built into them and triggering a tremor that causes them to heal. There is also a hormonal release associated with it that floods your system with pain dampening hormones.\n\nIf you want to learn more about this look into **Polyvagal Theory**',
'TL;DR: Pain is encouraged by a disruptive event in your body, such as stubbing your toe. This sends a signal upwards in the nervous system to your brain. Pain is produced within the brain itself. When the brain determines that a certain sensation is unimportant, it will send a signal downwards to \'block\' the upward signal. This is called the descending pathway (DP). Screaming encourages your fight or flight response which will cause your brain to filter out the unnecessary pain signals by activating the DP.\n\n\n\nI know this post is a little old, but I think I can shed some light. I am a physical therapist and currently the field is heavily influenced by pain science, the study of how pain is produced, modulated, and perceived. I think the best way to answer this question is to first understand how pain is produced. Contrary to what you may think, the \'production\' of pain does not occur in the painful area. Let\'s use a stubbed toe as an example. When you stub your toe, dedicated nerves from your toe send a signal to your spinal cord that an event has occurred at your toe. Another nerve then sends the same signal to your thalamus (part of the brain) stating the same thing, "an event has occurred at your toe." From here the thalamus has to decide if this "event" is bad or not based on a lot of life experiences you already have and context of your surroundings (this is a simplified statement, the real process here is likely very complex).\n\nSo, if the thalamus determines the "event" is bad, it then sends a signal to your sensory cortex (another part of your brain) and pain is finally generated and perceived. This final step is the only thing that truly produces pain. If the thalamus had decided the event was normal and not dangerous, you would not perceive pain because the signal would stop there.\n\nNow that we understand the production of pain, we can talk a bit about how pain is modulated. This refers to our bodies ability to influence the intensity of the pain signal as it travels from your stubbed toe to your sensory cortex. There are many components to this, but I will just speak on one that is important to the question above: the descending pathway (DP). The DP is a series of nerves that travels from the brain to the spinal cord. When this is active, it sends it\'s signal to the same place in the spinal cord as your stubbed toe first did. However, it acts in the opposite way. Your stubbed toe encourages your spinal cord nerve to send the signal up to the brain. The DP tells that nerve not to. In a way, the DP says that this stubbed toe signal is not important, please ignore. This is a super important pathway and is actually similar to how opioids work but they come with some unfortunate side effects. I won\'t get into this too much here because I have already written a lot.\n\nThe DP is the pathway that most likely plays a role in how screaming alleviates the pain. As people have noted, screaming encourages the fight or flight response in you. This is called a sympathetic state of your nervous system. A sympathetic state will cause your brain to prioritize only the most important sensations to encourage survival. In that process, the DP will activate for any unimportant pain signals such as your stubbed toe. Running from a potential threat is more important than your toe, so your brain dampens that signal with the DP.\n\nEdit: formatting'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'b4jtsq',
'query': 'why does screaming relieve physical pain to an extent?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '29697910',
'title': 'Patient-centered outcomes',
'section': 'Section::::Key Outcomes.:Cost-Effective Care in the United States.\n',
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'passage_text': "The United States pays more in healthcare expenditure per capita than any other country. Healthcare expenditures the United States accounts for approximately 16% of the country's gross domestic product and per capita spending on healthcare is more than twice that of other developed nations. Given these statistics, healthcare in the United States is no better than in other countries, with the more than 50 million people uninsured and astronomical healthcare prices and expenditures. Much of what accounts for the high expenditures is the fact that a large percentage of money going into healthcare is put towards wasteful or unnecessary expenses. Examples of these non-economical expenditures include excessive administrative costs, fraud, and abuse within the healthcare system (both among providers and patients), and misallocated treatments and procedures. This misuse of funds jeopardizes providers to offer the best services to their patients and leaves reduced funds for research into developing new diagnostic and treatment technologies. Abuse of healthcare funds in the United States is a barrier that patient-centered outcomes face as it diverts funds from healthcare professionals who are dedicated to promoting the idea of patient-centered healthcare. \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32022',
'title': 'Economy of the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Health care.:Cost.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The high cost of health care in the United States is attributed variously to technological advance, administration costs, drug pricing, suppliers charging more for medical equipment, the receiving of more medical care than people in other countries, the high wages of doctors, government regulations, the impact of lawsuits, and third party payment systems insulating consumers from the full cost of treatments. The lowest prices for pharmaceuticals, medical devices, and payments to physicians are in government plans. Americans tend to receive more medical care than people do in other countries, which is a notable contributor to higher costs. In the United States, a person is more likely to receive open heart surgery after a heart attack than in other countries. Medicaid pays less than Medicare for many prescription drugs due to the fact Medicaid discounts are set by law, whereas Medicare prices are negotiated by private insurers and drug companies. Government plans often pay less than overhead, resulting in healthcare providers shifting the cost to the privately insured through higher prices.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27553159',
'title': 'Health care in the United States',
'section': 'Section::::System efficiency and equity.:Efficiency.:Value for money.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A study of international health care spending levels published in the health policy journal "Health Affairs" in the year 2000 found that the United States spends substantially more on health care than any other country in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and that the use of health care services in the U.S. is below the OECD median by most measures. The authors of the study conclude that the prices paid for health care services are much higher in the U.S. than elsewhere. While the 19 next most wealthy countries by GDP all pay less than half what the U.S. does for health care, they have all gained about six years of life expectancy more than the U.S. since 1970.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24987493',
'title': 'Health care reforms proposed during the Obama administration',
'section': 'Section::::Motivation.\n',
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'passage_text': "According to 2009 World Bank statistics, the U.S. had the highest healthcare costs relative to the size of the economy (GDP) in the world, even though estimated 50.2 million citizens (approximately 15.6% of the September 2011 estimated population of 312 million) lacked insurance. In March 2010, billionaire Warren Buffett commented that the high costs paid by U.S. companies for their employees' health care put them at a competitive disadvantage.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23455596',
'title': 'Healthcare reform debate in the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Cost debate.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In 2009, the U.S. had the highest health care costs relative to the size of the economy (GDP) in the world, with an estimated 50.2 million citizens (approximately 16% of the September 2011 estimated population of 312 million) without insurance coverage. Some critics of reform counter that almost four out of ten of these uninsured come from a household with over $50,000 income per year, and thus might be uninsured voluntarily, or opting to pay for health care services on a "pay-as-you-go" basis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16463132',
'title': 'Healthcare reform in the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Motivation.\n',
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'passage_text': "According to 2009 World Bank statistics, the U.S. had the highest health care costs relative to the size of the economy (GDP) in the world, even though estimated 50 million citizens (approximately 16% of the September 2011 estimated population of 312 million) lacked insurance. In March 2010, billionaire Warren Buffett commented that the high costs paid by U.S. companies for their employees' health care put them at a competitive disadvantage.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38853402',
'title': 'Health care finance in the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Payment systems.:Public.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The exemption of employer-sponsored health benefits from federal income and payroll taxes distorts the health care market. The U.S. government, unlike some other countries, does not treat employer funded health care benefits as a taxable benefit in kind to the employee. The value of the lost tax revenue from a benefits in kind tax is an estimated $150\xa0billion a year. Some regard this as being disadvantageous to people who have to buy insurance in the individual market which must be paid from income received after tax.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How is it that the US pay more taxes towards healthcare than most countries with universal healthcare, but majority of the citizens don't receive the benefits? Where does all of the tax money go?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['THe US does not pay more TAX MONEY towards healthcare. They do pay more money towards healthcare. That is a major distinction, because it introduces a private party that has a vested interest in collecting profit.',
"Well, there are various reasons.\n\n1) The US, by and large, does not price control it's medicine. That means that corporation can ask people and the governement to pay their price, rather than having to negotiate.\n\n2) High healthcare costs cause the poor to postpone visiting a doctor untill it gets really, really bad. This causes costs to go up. A small infection that could have been treated with a bit of antibiotics can turn into a lifethreatening condition if ignored for long enough.\n\n3) Overtreatment. Caused by defensive medicine and the way healthcare payments are made. In order to get more billable (and profitable items) or in order to avoid lawsuits, doctors often order unnecessairy but expensive tests.",
'Insurance companies salaries, costs and profits and the costs for people that process insurance claims in the docs office/hospital siphon off 30% or so. If we got rid of them costs would go down but there would be a huge number of newly unemployed.',
'One major factor in the UK\'s health system being relatively [cost-efficient per capita](_URL_0_) compared to the rest of the world is that NHS attempts to standardize purchase costs for medical items across all their hospitals, with the overall volume of orders being so large that there is significant leverage available for pricing negotiations.\n\nSecondly, the fact that the healthcare system is government funded means that there is a direct link between drug prices and the cost of funding, which gives the government a great incentive to keep the prices down.\n\nIn the US (as I understand it) there\'s a disconnect all the way along the chain. Looking just at medicine, drug companies sell drugs to healthcare providers. Healthcare providers "sell" them to patients, but healthcare insurers are often paying the bills. \n\nAs the healthcare provider is effectively a middle-man, the financial distress in this system is born by the healthcare insurers (ignoring people going bankrupt over medical bills, which is another entirely disgusting matter). The healthcare provider has no real reason to make the effort to decrease their bills for consumable items, as the cost is shunted on to the next party in any event.\n\nThe healthcare insurers have two options: press for lower prices to be provided by medical providers, or increase premiums. One of these is difficult to do as they\'re not party to purchasing contracts, and I\'m unsure if they\'d ever intervene in this way. The other involves passing cost along to a semi-captive market making a distress purchase.',
'Health care is very expensive in the US. Tax supported health care goes mainly to those over 65 and desperately poor people. ',
' > Where does all of the tax money go?\n\nTo the insurance companies, whose CEOs and senior executives are paid exhorfbitant salaries and bonuses in compensation.\n\n**Edit:** Downvotes by those in denial or disagreement (or insurance company trolls) in no way refute or impugn the statement.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '62lrpk',
'query': "how is it that the us pay more taxes towards healthcare than most countries with universal healthcare, but majority of the citizens don't receive the benefits? where does all of the tax money go?",
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '44904271',
'title': 'Microsoft Edge',
'section': 'Section::::Development.:Discontinuation of EdgeHTML and adoption of Chromium (2019–present).\n',
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'passage_text': 'On December 6, 2018, Microsoft announced its intent to base Edge on the Chromium source code, using the same rendering engine as Google Chrome but with enhancements developed by Microsoft. It was also announced that there will be versions of Edge available for Windows 7, Windows 8, and macOS, and that all versions will be updated on a more frequent basis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '981649',
'title': 'Trident (software)',
'section': 'Section::::Microsoft alternatives.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 55,
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'passage_text': 'In 2014, Trident was forked to create the engine EdgeHTML for Microsoft Edge on Windows 10. The new engine is "designed for interoperability with the modern web" and deprecates or removes a number of legacy components and behaviors, including document modes, ensuring that pure, standards-compliant HTML will render properly in browsers without the need for special considerations by web developers. This resulted in a completely new browser called Microsoft Edge, which replaces Internet Explorer as a stock browser of Windows and a base of Microsoft\'s web related services.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44904271',
'title': 'Microsoft Edge',
'section': 'Section::::Features.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'Microsoft initially announced that Edge would support the legacy Trident (MSHTML) layout engine for backwards compatibility, but later said that, due to "strong feedback", Edge would use a new engine, while Internet Explorer would continue to provide the legacy engine.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17000438',
'title': 'Font embedding',
'section': 'Section::::Controversy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'Because of the potential for copyright infringement, Microsoft Internet Explorer only permits embedded fonts that include digital rights management (DRM) protections. The Acid3 test requires font embedding with minimal DRM protections.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1770496',
'title': 'JavaScript engine',
'section': 'Section::::Notable engines.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Chakra is the current engine of the Microsoft Edge browser, forked from the same-named engine of Internet Explorer. However, Microsoft is now rebuilding Edge as a Chromium-based browser, so it will be using V8 instead of Chakra. Internet Explorer continues to use its version of Chakra.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5183232',
'title': 'Browser extension',
'section': 'Section::::History.:API conformity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': "Because of Chrome's success, Microsoft created a very similar extension API for its Edge browser, with the goal of making it easy for Chrome extension developers to port their work to Edge. But after three years Edge still had a disappointingly small market share, so in December 2018 Microsoft announced that Edge is being rebuilt as a Chromium-based browser. (Chromium is Google's open-source project that serves as the functional core of Chrome and many other browsers.) This remade Edge should have the same API as Chrome, which will enable users to install extensions directly from the Chrome Web Store.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1956399',
'title': 'Internet Explorer 3',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'This is the first version of Internet Explorer developed without Spyglass source code, but still used Spyglass technology, so the Spyglass licensing information remained in the program\'s documentation. In 1996 Microsoft said of its new browser ""Microsoft Internet Explorer 3.0 adds many new features which are great for HTML authors and demonstrates our accelerating commitment to W3C HTML standards.""\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why did Google let microsoft use chromium on edge?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['[Google is an advertising company, first and foremost](_URL_0_). Everything that they do, they do to further the goal of selling more ads.\n\nChrome, Drive, their MS Office knock-offs: their only purpose is to get people to use them and sink ever deeper into the Google ecosystem. That is why they are "free".',
"because it's the defacto standard; atleast for a majority of the mainstream internet now. IE sucked for everyone but especially for developers; i remember the stupid shit you had to do in order to achieve the same result as document.getelementbyid.innertext/innerhtml = blablahblah. hence you can probably defer from that fact that nobody would miss the old IE engine; whatever it was."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'e25los',
'query': 'why did google let microsoft use chromium on edge?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3577810',
'title': 'Omission (law)',
'section': 'Section::::Criminal law.:Failure to provide medical treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': 'In death with dignity situations where a patient is incapable of communicating his wishes, a doctor may be relieved of his duty, as the House of Lords recognised in "Airedale National Health Service Trust v Bland" (1993) AC 789. Here a patient who had survived for three years in a persistent vegetative state after suffering irreversible brain damage in the Hillsborough disaster continued to breathe normally, but was kept alive only by being fed through tubes. It was held that treatment could properly be withdrawn in such circumstances, because the best interests of the patient did not involve him being kept alive at all costs. Lord Goff nevertheless drew a fundamental distinction between acts and omissions in this context:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '398561',
'title': 'General anaesthesia',
'section': 'Section::::Maintenance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 73,
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'passage_text': 'At the end of surgery, administration of anaesthetic agents is discontinued. Recovery of consciousness occurs when the concentration of anaesthetic in the brain drops below a certain level (usually within 1 to 30 minutes, depending on the duration of surgery).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6553484',
'title': 'Brain biopsy',
'section': 'Section::::Aftercare.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'The patient is monitored in the recovery room for several hours following the biopsy. Neurological assessments are performed once the patient is fully awake and if left without deficit, most patients can be discharged the day after surgery.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7562669',
'title': 'Hospital emergency codes',
'section': 'Section::::Codes.:Code blue.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 98,
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'passage_text': 'In some hospitals or other medical facilities, the resuscitation team may purposely respond slowly to a patient in cardiac arrest, a practice known as "slow code", or may fake the response altogether for the sake of the patient\'s family, a practice known as "show code". Such practices are ethically controversial, and are banned in some jurisdictions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4578333',
'title': 'Tremulous',
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.:Humans.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'Human players do not automatically regenerate health over time, however they are equipped with a one-time use medkit which heals the remaining health at the time of activation over a period of time, and can be replenished at a medical station.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '804779',
'title': 'Cardiac surgery',
'section': 'Section::::Types of cardiac surgery.:Open-heart surgery.\n',
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'passage_text': "Dr. Wilfred G. Bigelow of the University of Toronto found that procedures involving opening the patient's heart could be performed better in a bloodless and motionless environment. Therefore, during such surgery, the heart is temporarily stopped, and the patient is placed on cardiopulmonary bypass, meaning a machine pumps their blood and oxygen. Because the machine cannot function the same way as the heart, surgeons try to minimize the time a patient spends on it.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60575',
'title': 'Cardiac arrest',
'section': 'Section::::Management.:Do not resuscitate.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 85,
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'passage_text': 'Some people choose to avoid aggressive measures at the end of life. A do not resuscitate order (DNR) in the form of an advance health care directive makes it clear that in the event of cardiac arrest, the person does not wish to receive cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Other directives may be made to stipulate the desire for intubation in the event of respiratory failure or, if comfort measures are all that are desired, by stipulating that healthcare providers should "allow natural death".\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How are doctors so sure a person can't regain consciousness once their vitals shuts down?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["They have seen many people's vital signs shut down. When none of those people can be revived after X minutes, they start to think that nobody can ever be revived after X minutes. Nothing is every 100.0% certain, but they make decisions based on most probably outcomes.",
'A heart beat circulates blood carrying oxygen around the body, without oxygen cells rapidly start to die and other organs fail, without a heartbeat and lungs breathing all organs including the brain are going to get worse rather than better.',
"The part of the brain that controls organs is a very basic part of the brain that the earliest organisms used. Higher level of thinking comes with millions of years of advancement. Therefore, certain things shut down in a somewhat predicable order and if *that* part of the brain is deteriorating, then it doesn't look good for the more advanced parts such as conscious thinking.",
'I\'m going to assume that by "vitals" you mean the two vital organs heart and lungs.\n\nThe truth is we don\'t know on an individual basis who is going to survive what period of cardiac arrest (which is when the heart stops), but data from group studies enable us to give educated opinions based on systematic experience.\n\nThere are a few key facts to consider: the airways and lungs supply oxygen to the blood, and the heart takes that oxygen-filled blood and pumps it around to the body. Together these two organs keep the body well supplied with oxygen, which is crucial for cells to extract energy from the food we eat.\n\nSome cells can survive longer without oxygen by burning the food in an alternative way, but they sacrifice a lot of energy for this. Our brain cells can\'t do this because they need maximum energy output 24/7 because they\'re working so hard.\n\nOur brain is really what we "are" - it is where our personality, our consciousness and our memories reside, it is what we use to feel love, joy and all other emotions. Therefore, as soon as the brain dies, we are dead, no matter if the heart is beating or not. The heart is nothing more than a special muscle.\n\nThis means that if we stop breathing, or our heart stops beating, the single-most important organ for survival *is the same organ that is worst equipped to cope with a lack of oxygen*. The brain burns through oxygen so quickly that if it doesn\'t get a constant supply of it, it will start to die within minutes. And, crucially, brain tissue doesn\'t regenerate like skin or bone.\n\nThat\'s why if a heart stops for many minutes, and no one is doing CPR, it is highly likely that even if you can get the heart beating again, the person will never wake up again because too much brain tissue has already died.\n\nThere is a lot of data where scientists have looked at the time between when the heart stops, and when the heart started beating again. For every minute with no heart beat (and no CPR) the chance of a successful recovery decreases about 10 percetage points (meaning that after 10 minutes the chances of recovery are practically zero). Experiments with animals and single cells in laboratories show similar results.\n\n**TL;DR: The heart and lungs supply oxygen to the brain. The brain can\'t handle oxygen deprivation, which is what happens when "the vitals shut down". If the brain is dead, there is no chance of regaining consciousness**.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'fdd1pi',
'query': "how are doctors so sure a person can't regain consciousness once their vitals shuts down?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '50732180',
'title': 'The Role of Serotonin in Visual Orientation Processing',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine) is a monoamine neurotransmitter that plays a role in mood, eating, sleeping, arousal and potentially visual orientation processing. To investigate its function in visual orientation, researchers have utilised MDMA, or as it is commonly referred to, Ecstasy (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine). MDMA is known to affect serotonin neurons in the brain and cause neurotoxicity. Serotonin has been hypothesised to be involved in visual orientation because individuals who use MDMA exhibit an increase in the magnitude of the tilt aftereffect (TAE). The TAE is a visual illusion where viewing lines in one direction, for an extended period of time, produces the perception of a tilt in the opposite direction to vertical lines subsequently viewed. This effect is proposed to occur due to lateral inhibition to orientation sensitive neurons in the occipital lobe. Lateral inhibition is where neurons that become activated to a particular orientation send inhibitory signals to their neighbouring neurons. The degree of orientation that each neuron becomes maximally excited to is referred to as the tuning bandwidth. Lateral inhibition consequently plays a pivotal role in each neuron's tuning bandwidth, such that if lateral inhibition no longer occurs, a greater number of neurons will become stimulated to the same orientation. This results in the activated neurons becoming adapted to the same orientation stimulus, if the stimulus is viewed for a period of time. As a consequence, if those neurons are subsequently 'shown' another stimulus that differs slightly in its orientation, those neurons are no longer able to achieve the same level of response as compared to other non-adapted neurons.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '699110',
'title': 'Light therapy',
'section': 'Section::::Techniques.:Light boxes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
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'passage_text': 'The production of the hormone melatonin, a sleep regulator, is inhibited by light and permitted by darkness as registered by photosensitive ganglion cells in the retina. To some degree, the reverse is true for serotonin, which has been linked to mood disorders. Hence, for the purpose of manipulating melatonin levels or timing, light boxes providing very specific types of artificial illumination to the retina of the eye are effective.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50732180',
'title': 'The Role of Serotonin in Visual Orientation Processing',
'section': 'Section::::MDMA and Visual Orientation Processing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'Recent research investigating MDMA has revealed the neurotoxic effect of the drug on brain serotonin neurons. Long term and potentially permanent changes to serotonergic axons have been noted in animal and primate studies where they were administered doses of MDMA similar to those taken by some human users. MDMA has subsequently been used to investigate the role that serotonin may play in visual orientation processing. Serotonin neurons are thought to reside in the occipital lobe, which is an area of the brain responsible for visual processing of line orientation, edges, motion and stereoscopic depth perception. Because MDMA is known to affect serotonin and that serotonin is thought to be involved in vision, individuals who take MDMA may exhibit differences in their visual orientation processing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2327886',
'title': 'Theanine',
'section': 'Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacodynamics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'Theanine increases serotonin, dopamine, GABA, and glycine levels in various areas of the brain, as well as BDNF and NGF levels in certain brain areas. However, its effect on serotonin is still a matter of debate in the scientific community, with studies showing increases and decreases in brain serotonin levels using similar experimental protocols. It has also been found that injecting spontaneously hypertensive mice with theanine significantly lowered levels of 5-hydroxyindoles in the brain. Researchers also speculate that it may inhibit glutamate excitotoxicity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50732180',
'title': 'The Role of Serotonin in Visual Orientation Processing',
'section': 'Section::::MDMA and Visual Orientation Processing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': "The relationship between the effect of MDMA and serotonin's role in visual orientation processing has been investigated following a prior study conducted in the 1990s by Maisini, Antonietti and Moja (1990). Their experiment involved subjects ingesting a mixture which significantly reduced brain serotonin levels. This reduction in serotonin resulted in an increase in the magnitude of the TAE in those subjects. This study has since been used as the foundation for the idea that MDMA neurotoxicity, due to its effect on serotonin neurons, could influence the magnitude of the TAE in individuals who use MDMA.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50732180',
'title': 'The Role of Serotonin in Visual Orientation Processing',
'section': 'Section::::Present Research.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'The results of the study indicated that the amphetamine abstinent Ecstasy group showed a broader tuning bandwidth than the controls. This demonstrates that MDMA use produces changes to serotonergic functioning as it disrupts lateral inhibition between orientation sensitive neurons. This disruption causes the neurons to activate to a wider range of orientations other than their preferred orientation. This finding, therefore, supports the idea that serotonin plays a role in sharpening the tuning bandwidths of orientation neurons. Overall, the results support the idea that "MDMA-mediated serotonin depletion can lead to broader orientation tuning bandwidths" p.\xa0163. The authors do, however, go on to say that although deficits in certain tasks are present, the extent of these deficits requires further investigation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50732180',
'title': 'The Role of Serotonin in Visual Orientation Processing',
'section': 'Section::::Present Research.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': 'A study by Brown, Edwards, McKone and Ward (2007), additionally investigated MDMA\'s effect on serotonin neurons. Their research also stemmed from Masini et al. (1990). They were interested in serotonin\'s role in lateral inhibition to orientation sensitive neurons and how MDMA use may change this system and produce wider tuning bandwidths. The study consisted of two groups, Ecstasy users and controls, who were shown brief displays of the TAE illusion. The results of the study support the idea that serotonin damage due to MDMA use causes lateral inhibition to diminish amongst orientation sensitive neurons in the occipital lobe. This was demonstrated by the Ecstasy group showing a greater increase in the magnitude of the TAE illusion compared to the controls. The authors stated that perhaps "serotonin is involved in the extent to which the sensitivity of neurons is reduced during adaptation" p.\xa0445. It could be that the decrease in sensitivity of the post-adaptation orientation neurons is further diminished by decreased serotonergic functioning, which increases the magnitude of the TAE. Their research lends support to the idea that MDMA use affects lateral inhibition and that serotonin plays a role in visual orientation processing.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'blue light from screens reduces melatonin, but doesn’t that mean more serotonin?',
'selftext': 'Wouldn’t it be better to have less melatonin so there’s more brain “space” for serotonin? Thank you!',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['No, it doesnt work that way. Oddly enough dopamine and melatonin are inversely linked (one goes up and the other goes down). But contrary to popular belief that has more of an effect on movement than on mood. But it is thought to be related to why people can get a bit addicted to screen time.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'duohmk',
'query': 'blue light from screens reduces melatonin, but doesn’t that mean more serotonin?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '328341',
'title': '49th parallel north',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "From a point on the ground at this latitude, the sun is above the horizon for 16 hours, 12 minutes during the summer solstice and 8 hours, 14 minutes during the winter solstice This latitude also roughly corresponds to the minimum latitude in which astronomical twilight can last all night near the summer solstice. Slightly less than 1/8 of the Earth's surface is north of the 49th parallel.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18178423',
'title': '30th parallel south',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'At this latitude the sun is visible for 14 hours, 5 minutes during the December solstice and 10 hours, 13 minutes during the June solstice. On December 21, the sun is at 83.83 degrees up in the sky and at 36.17 degrees on June 21.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9264',
'title': 'Ecliptic',
'section': "Section::::Sun's apparent motion.\n",
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'passage_text': "Because Earth takes one year to orbit the Sun, the apparent position of the Sun takes one year to make a complete circuit of the ecliptic. With slightly more than 365 days in one year, the Sun moves a little less than 1° eastward every day. This small difference in the Sun's position against the stars causes any particular spot on Earth's surface to catch up with (and stand directly north or south of) the Sun about four minutes later each day than it would if Earth would not orbit; a day on Earth is therefore 24 hours long rather than the approximately 23-hour 56-minute sidereal day. \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18180838',
'title': '60th parallel south',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'At this latitude the sun is visible for 18 hours, 52 minutes during the summer solstice and 5 hours, 52 minutes during the winter solstice. On December 21, the sun is at 53.83 degrees up in the sky and 6.17 degrees on June 21.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5672031',
'title': 'Orbit of the Moon',
'section': 'Section::::Properties.:Inclination.:Inclination to the equator and lunar standstill.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 437,
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'passage_text': 'At higher latitudes, there will be a period of at least one day each month when the Moon does not rise, but there will also be a period of at least one day each month when the Moon does not set. This is similar to the seasonal behaviour of the Sun, but with a period of 27.2 days instead of 365 days. Note that a point on the Moon can actually be visible when it is about 34 arc minutes below the horizon, due to atmospheric refraction.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18180788',
'title': '50th parallel south',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'At this latitude the sun is visible for 16 hours, 22 minutes during the December solstice and 8 hours, 4 minutes during the June solstice. On December 21, the sun is at 63.83 degrees in the sky and on June 21, the sun is at 16.17 degrees in the sky.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28483',
'title': 'Solstice',
'section': 'Section::::Cultural aspects.:Solstice determination.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 43,
'end_character': 537,
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'passage_text': "In 2012, the journal DIO found that accuracy of one or two hours with balanced errors can be attained by observing the Sun's equal altitudes about S = twenty degrees (or d = about 20 days) before and after the summer solstice because the average of the two times will be early by q arc minutes where q is (πe cosA)/3 times the square of S in degrees (e = earth orbit eccentricity, A = earth's perihelion or Sun's apogee), and the noise in the result will be about 41 hours divided by d if the eye's sharpness is taken as one arc minute.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If it takes about 8 minutes for sunlight to reach earth doesn’t that mean that it’s true position in the sky is 8 minutes ahead?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["EDIT: sorry, the first thing you said is not entirely true. The second is fine.\n\nThe sun's position in the sky is due to the rotation of the earth, much more than the orbit around the sun + difference from the speed of light. If the light reached us instantly, the sun would be an imperceptible fraction further forward or back (not sure which, need someone smarter). But it wouldn't be 8 minutes worth of rotation ahead in the sky.\n\nThe other thing you said is still true, yes some or even all of the stars we see could be dead and we won't know about it until the light gets here. The sun could disappear right now and you wouldn't know for 8 minutes.",
'Yes and yes, most of the starts we see are probably dead and or in different point in the sky by now. Also if the sun exploded or just went out we wouldn’t know for 8 minutes ish ',
'Whose position in the sky? The Sun\'s? We\'re orbiting the Sun, it\'s mostly "fixed in the sky" as far as position, and its apparent movement (sunrise, noon, sunset, etc.) is because of the Earth\'s rotation, so our "Sun position" observation would be instantaneous.\n\nStars that are far away COULD be dead, yes, but their light is traveling still. We see them as they were billions of years ago.',
"short answer - yes, to both questions\n\nto add a bit more, when the sun goes down, due to the 8(ish) minute delay and refraction in the atmosphere, the sun's position is actually just below the horizon when it appears to be just touching it\n\n"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'as54vl',
'query': 'if it takes about 8 minutes for sunlight to reach earth doesn’t that mean that it’s true position in the sky is 8 minutes ahead?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1192900',
'title': 'Tiffany & Co.',
'section': 'Section::::Products.:Diamonds.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Retail jewelers, especially the prestigious Fifth Avenue stores, prefer not to buy back diamonds from customers, because the offer they would make would most likely be considered ridiculously low ... Most jewelers would prefer not to make a customer an offer that might be deemed insulting and also might undercut the widely held notion that diamonds go up in value. Moreover, since retailers generally receive their diamonds for engagement rings from wholesalers on consignment, and need not pay for them until they are sold, they would not readily risk their own cash to buy diamonds from customers. Rather than offer customers a fraction of what they paid for diamonds, retail jewelers almost invariably recommend to their clients firms that specialize in buying diamonds "retail."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32548295',
'title': 'Pure Gold Jewellers',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': "Pure Gold Jewellers is a jewellery retailer with 120 stores across the Middle East, in the UAE, Oman, Kuwait, Qatar, Jordan, KSA, Bahrain, Sri Lanka and 200 stores in India. The company's stores sell a variety of jewellery in diamonds, gold, platinum, Murano glass and precious stones. \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2697304',
'title': 'Gold as an investment',
'section': 'Section::::Gold price.:Influencing factors.:Gold jewelry recycling.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 282,
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'passage_text': 'In recent years the recycling of second-hand jewelry has become a multibillion-dollar industry. The term "Cash for Gold" refers to offers of cash for selling old, broken, or mismatched gold jewelry to local and online gold buyers. There are many websites that offer these services.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45654605',
'title': 'Recycled diamond',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Market expansion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 288,
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'passage_text': 'From 2000 onwards, businesses such as pawnbrokers and jewelers began to experience large increases in scrap gold buying from the public. A boom in this industry saw the gold price jump from $250 to $1,900. This led to an increase in the number of pawnbrokers receiving jewelry trade ins.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21607397',
'title': 'World Series ring',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Memorabilia.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 329,
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'passage_text': "The most valuable rings can sell for a million dollars or more, most notably the rings belonging to the 1927 Yankees starting lineup. Babe Ruth's ring, after being in the possession of Charlie Sheen for 20 years, sold at auction for over 4 million dollars in 2017. Its whereabouts are currently unknown as the buyer is unknown. \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21387753',
'title': 'Cash4Gold',
'section': 'Section::::Company history.:Controversy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 745,
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'passage_text': 'Channel 10 News in San Diego did an investigation where they sent in a ring containing over 2\xa0grams of gold worth $17 in weight to three different sites. The payout from Cash4Gold was $7.91. Consumer Reports, using its "mystery shopper" team, sent 24 identical gold pendants and chains (purchased for $175 each) to Cash4Gold.com and its competitors. The determined melt value of the jewelry was calculated at around $70 each when gold was above $900 an ounce. In comparison with Pawn shop and Jewelry store quotes (which ranged from $25 to $50), Cash4Gold.com quoted between $7.60~$12.72 melt value for the jewelry. Similar low quotes were also given by Cash4Gold.com competitors GoldKit (around $7.81~$20.59) and GoldPaq (around $8.22~$13.11).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4954087',
'title': 'Diamonds as an investment',
'section': 'Section::::Financial feasibility.:Polished diamonds.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 427,
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'passage_text': 'The investment parameter of diamonds is their high value per unit weight, which makes them easy to store and transport. A high-quality diamond weighing as little as 2 or 3\xa0grams could be worth as much as 100 kilos of gold. This extremely condensed value and portability does bestow diamonds as a form of emergency funding. People and populations displaced by war or extreme upheaval have used this portable asset successfully.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How much money do Jewelers make knowing they have to stock their entire store with gold and diamonds?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The rule in the jewelry business is "triple key", meaning if the wholesale price is $1000 the jeweler will usually start the price at $3000. This helps deal with the extra costs of running a jewelry store, which are quite high. This may sound like a large markup, but consider most retail markups are 5x or higher compared to wholesale.\n\nAs opposed to what another commenter said, most jewelry on display will be considered "memo" merchandise, meaning it is not owned by the shop but by a wholesaler, it is being held by the shop until it sells or the memo expires. When sold, the jeweler pays the wholesaler for the merchandise and keeps the difference.\n\nSource: nearly 10 years in the business'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'az5pey',
'query': 'how much money do jewelers make knowing they have to stock their entire store with gold and diamonds?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '47660',
'title': 'Espresso',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Espresso has more caffeine per unit volume than most coffee beverages, but because the usual serving size is much smaller, the total caffeine content is less than a mug of standard brewed coffee, contrary to a common belief. Although the actual caffeine content of any coffee drink varies by size, bean origin, roast method and other factors, a typical serving of espresso contains 120 to 170 milligrams of caffeine whereas a typical serving of drip coffee contains 150 to 200mg.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47660',
'title': 'Espresso',
'section': 'Section::::Nutrition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 39,
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'passage_text': 'Probably owing to its higher amount of suspended solids than typical coffee which is absent of essential nutrients, espresso has significant contents of the dietary mineral magnesium, the B vitamins niacin and riboflavin, and 212\xa0mg of caffeine per 100 grams of liquid brewed coffee (table).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '604727',
'title': 'Coffee',
'section': 'Section::::Caffeine content.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 131,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 131,
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'passage_text': 'While the percent of caffeine content in coffee seeds themselves diminishes with increased roast level, the opposite is true for coffee brewed from different grinds and brewing methods using the same proportion of coffee to water volume. The coffee sack (similar to the French press and other steeping methods) extracts more caffeine from dark roasted seeds; the percolator and espresso methods extract more caffeine from light roasted seeds:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5612891',
'title': 'History of coffee',
'section': 'Section::::Americas.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 58,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 58,
'end_character': 800,
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'passage_text': "A recent change to the coffee market are lattes, Frappuccinos and other sugary coffee drinks. With the rise of lattes and Frappuccinos becoming more popular this has caused coffee houses to be able to use cheaper coffee beans in their coffee, which has hurt the Latin American countries' economy. The cheaper coffee beans are called Robusta and they contain more caffeine than the more expensive beans. The cheaper beans' higher caffeine content is also a factor in their popularity. These cheaper beans hurt the Latin American economy because the producers receive less money for the production of the cheaper beans than they do for the production of the higher quality beans. Since the producers get paid less, they are receiving a smaller income, which in turn hurts the economy of Latin America.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47660',
'title': 'Espresso',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Espresso (, ) is coffee of Italian origin, brewed by forcing a small amount of nearly boiling water under pressure ("expressing") through finely ground coffee beans. Espresso is generally thicker than coffee brewed by other methods, has a higher concentration of suspended and dissolved solids, and has "crema" on top (a foam with a creamy consistency). As a result of the pressurized brewing process, the flavors and chemicals in a typical cup of espresso are very concentrated. Espresso is also the base for other drinks such as a caffè latte, cappuccino, caffè macchiato, caffè mocha, flat white, or caffè Americano.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3735620',
'title': 'Italian cuisine',
'section': 'Section::::Drinks.:Coffee.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 130,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 130,
'end_character': 441,
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'passage_text': 'A common misconception is that espresso has more caffeine than other coffee; in fact the opposite is true. The longer roasting period extracts more caffeine. The modern espresso machine, invented in 1937 by Achille Gaggia, uses a pump and pressure system with water heated to and forced at high pressure through a few grams of finely ground coffee in 25–30 seconds, resulting in about 25 milliliters (0.85 fl oz, two tablespoons) of liquid.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '604727',
'title': 'Coffee',
'section': 'Section::::Processing.:Brewing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 83,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 83,
'end_character': 529,
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'passage_text': 'The espresso method forces hot pressurized and vaporized water through ground coffee. As a result of brewing under high pressure (ideally between 9–10 atm), the espresso beverage is more concentrated (as much as 10 to 15 times the quantity of coffee to water as gravity-brewing methods can produce) and has a more complex physical and chemical constitution. A well-prepared espresso has a reddish-brown foam called "crema" that floats on the surface. Other pressurized water methods include the moka pot and vacuum coffee maker.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does drip coffee make me much more jittery than espresso, even when using the same amount of coffee beans for each?',
'selftext': 'For the exact numbers: Espresso: 18g beans -- > ~2oz Drip: 18g beans -- > ~10oz',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Espresso is extracted fast so not as much caffeine gets transferred to coffee from the bean',
'Caffeine is water soluble, in general the more water and the longer it stays in contact with the ground beans the more caffeine is extracted from the beans. BTW, French press has something like 3x the caffeine of regular coffee owing to the long time the beans are left in contact with the water.',
"Espresso actually has less caffeine than drip coffee, because the water is in contact with the beans for less time and doesn't absorb as fast.\n\nFor reference, a 12-oz cup of drip coffee usually has between about 150-250 mg of caffeine, depending on roast and type. A single shot of espresso (which is how much most coffee places will put in a 12-oz) is usually around 70-90 mg. So the amount of beans isn't the deciding factor - the type of brew is."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '73uuvs',
'query': 'why does drip coffee make me much more jittery than espresso, even when using the same amount of coffee beans for each?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2648712',
'title': 'Eye strain',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'When concentrating on a visually intense task, such as continuously focusing on a book or computer monitor, the ciliary muscle tightens. This can cause the eyes to get irritated and uncomfortable. Giving the eyes a chance to focus on a distant object at least once an hour usually alleviates the problem.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46188158',
'title': 'Eyes exercise',
'section': 'Section::::Functions and effect.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 374,
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'passage_text': 'As a result of doing eyes exercise by massaging the acupoint, not only do our eyes have timely rest from daily work and academic assignments, but it also helps to accelerate the blood circulation and bring nutrition to nerve. Doing eye exercises regularly contributes to protection of eyesight and prevention of short-sighted cases, especially among children and teenagers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '74844',
'title': 'Glasses',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Corrective.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 714,
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'passage_text': 'Corrective lenses are used to correct refractive errors by bending the light entering the eye in order to alleviate the effects of conditions such as nearsightedness (myopia), farsightedness (hypermetropia) or astigmatism. The ability of one\'s eyes to accommodate their focus to near and distant focus alters over time. A common condition in people over forty years old is presbyopia, which is caused by the eye\'s crystalline lens losing elasticity, progressively reducing the ability of the lens to accommodate (i.e. to focus on objects close to the eye). Few people have a pair of eyes that show exactly equal refractive characteristics; one eye may need a "stronger" (i.e. more refracting) lens than the other.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1627267',
'title': 'Cyclospasm',
'section': 'Section::::Reasons.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'Primary reasons is eye fatigue as a result of excessive pressure on the eyes because of reading, watching TV, computer, poor lighting, etc. Some other reasons are poor posture, poor diet, lack of sleep, etc.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1894873',
'title': 'Eye movement',
'section': 'Section::::Physiology.:Saccades.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 39,
'end_character': 526,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The eyes are never completely at rest. They make fast random jittering movements even when we are fixated on one point. The reason for this random movement is related to the photoreceptors and the ganglion cells. It appears that a constant visual stimulus can make the photoreceptors or the ganglion cells become unresponsive; on the other hand a changing stimulus will not. Therefore, the random eye movement constantly changes the stimuli that fall on the photoreceptors and the ganglion cells, making the image more clear.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '447382',
'title': 'Bates method',
'section': 'Section::::Underlying concepts.:Accommodation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 1177,
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'passage_text': 'Accommodation is the process by which the eye increases optical power to maintain focus on the retina while shifting its gaze to a closer point. The long-standing medical consensus is that this is accomplished by action of the ciliary muscle, a muscle "within" the eye, which adjusts the curvature of the eye\'s crystalline lens. This explanation is based in the observed effect of atropine temporarily preventing accommodation when applied to the ciliary muscle, as well as images reflected on the crystalline lens becoming smaller as the eye shifts focus to a closer point, indicating a change in the lens\' shape. Bates rejected this explanation, and in his 1920 book presented photographs that he said showed that the image remained the same size even as the eye shifted focus, concluding from this that the lens was not a factor in accommodation. However, optometrist Philip Pollack in a 1956 work characterized these photographs as "so blurred that it is impossible to tell whether one image is larger than the other", in contrast to later photographs that clearly showed a change in the size of the reflected images, just as had been observed since the late 19th century.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3359692',
'title': 'Vergence',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Vergence movements are closely connected to accommodation of the eye. Under normal conditions, changing the focus of the eyes to look at an object at a different distance will automatically cause vergence and accommodation, sometimes known as the "accommodation-convergence reflex".\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do we have to "wait" for our eyes to adjust?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Eyes adjust by deforming the [lens](_URL_0_) in your eyes. The shape of a lens change the path of the light that goes through it. By changing the shape our eyes makes so that the light has a path that makes the image of what you are seeing form exactly on the back of you eye, thus making it good (otherwise it would be blurry).\n\nWhy do we have to wait? There literally are muscles to deform the lens, so you have to wait for then to move and then to adjust, based on what your brain tells them. In the same way as when you want to raise your arm you have to wait for your muscles to actually raise it.',
"Im going to try and explain this from a system engineers perspective.\n\nLets say you are in a dark room and the light turns on suddenly. Your eyes adjust. What actually happens though? Light from the bulb hits sensors in your eyes that convert the light signal into a voltage; then that voltage travels through your nerves to your brain.\n\nOnce your brain hears this signal indicating a lot of light, it determines that your eyes need to adjust. It sends a voltage signal through your nerves to your eye muscles to contract your pupil; and it takes time for your muscles to tense up and for your pupil to actually adjust. The pupil can't move very fast, and I would venture to guess that most of the time is spent actually moving the pupil.\n\nBasically, every little step in the process takes time. Not sure if this is at all what you are looking for, but there it is."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6jugpl',
'query': 'why do we have to "wait" for our eyes to adjust?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '26302354',
'title': 'Drug-facilitated sexual assault',
'section': 'Section::::Crime reports, prosecution, and statistics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 343,
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'passage_text': 'The drugs are also difficult to detect. Because of the very small amounts of drugs typically administered to achieve these effects, it is difficult to test for the presence of these drugs since they are quickly eliminated from the body. The lack of confirmation through toxicology cannot necessarily be equated being empirical data of itself.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '428629',
'title': '2C-B',
'section': 'Section::::Effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- While the effects of the drug often render users unable to concentrate deeply on anything in particular, some can become engrossed in an activity such as watching a movie or playing a video game, distracting themselves from the visual and auditory effects of the drug\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21017052',
'title': 'Placebo-controlled study',
'section': 'Section::::Implementation issues.:Unblinding.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 33,
'end_character': 461,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In some cases, a study participant may deduce or otherwise obtain information that has been blinded to them. For example, a patient taking a psychoactive drug may recognize that they are taking a drug. When this occurs, it is called unblinding. This kind of unblinding can be reduced with the use of an active placebo, which is a drug that produces effects similar to the active drug, making it more difficult for patients to determine which group they are in.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1243554',
'title': 'Pharmacovigilance',
'section': 'Section::::Adverse event reporting.:Individual Case Safety Report (ICSR).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
'end_character': 438,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'If a reporter can\'t recall the name of the drug they were taking when they experienced an adverse event, this would not be a valid case. This concept also applies to adverse events. If a patient states that they experienced "symptoms", but cannot be more specific, such a report might technically be considered valid, but will be of very limited value to the pharmacovigilance department of the company or to drug regulatory authorities.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26264352',
'title': 'Quadro Tracker',
'section': 'Section::::Description and claims.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 528,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The device could supposedly even detect drugs after they had been ingested by a person. A marketing brochure stated: "The tracker will also locate specific drugs in solution. This means that even a person who had been using drugs will have traces in their bodily fluids, blood, etc. Thus the Tracker will indicate people who are using drugs, as well as those who are merely carrying it. Therefore extreme caution should be taken if searching a person, or making accusations, as they may, indeed, not be carrying drugs on them!"\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '690877',
'title': '2,5-Dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine',
'section': 'Section::::Effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 411,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Effects of this drug include substantial perceptual changes such as blurred vision, multiple images, vibration of objects, visual alterations, distorted shapes, enhancement of details, slowed passage of time, increased sexual drive and pleasure, and increased contrasts. It may cause mystical experiences and changes in consciousness. It may also cause pupillary dilation and a rise in systolic blood pressure.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32388475',
'title': 'Druggability',
'section': 'Section::::Prediction of druggability.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 282,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'If a drug has already been identified for a target, that target is by definition druggable. If no known drugs bind to a target, then druggability is implied or predicted using different methods that rely on evolutionary relationships, 3D-structural properties or other descriptors.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How do certain drugs cause you to see things in high detail that aren't actually there?",
'selftext': "It's mindboggling to me. In one of my experiences, I saw little green dots covering one of my walls. I could walk up and touch each one and they never moved. It was as if I painted them there and could only see them under the influence.",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["_URL_0_\n\nHallucinogens work by shutting down neurons that have the effect of calming other cells in the visual cortex (the bit of the brain that works out what you are seeing). So these cells start firing as if they are really dealing with real visual information. \n\nHuman eyes are actually not that great and the brain has to do A LOT to make the partial information from the eye into a proper picture. Mess that with slightly and not only does weird stuff visual stuff happen, the brain acts as though it's all real."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '74eczr',
'query': "how do certain drugs cause you to see things in high detail that aren't actually there?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '8309',
'title': 'Duesberg hypothesis',
'section': 'Section::::AIDS in Africa.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 531,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Because reported AIDS cases in Africa and other parts of the developing world include a larger proportion of people who do not belong to Duesberg\'s preferred risk groups of drug addicts and male homosexuals, Duesberg writes on his website that "There are no risk groups in Africa, like drug addicts and homosexuals." However, many studies have addressed the issue of risk groups in Africa and concluded that the risk of AIDS is not equally distributed. In addition, AIDS in Africa largely kills sexually active working-age adults.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '368736',
'title': 'Misconceptions about HIV/AIDS',
'section': 'Section::::AIDS denialism.:HIV is not the cause of AIDS.:The distribution of AIDS cases casts doubt on HIV as the cause. Viruses are not gender-specific, yet only a small proportion of AIDS cases are among women.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 70,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 70,
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'passage_text': 'The distribution of AIDS cases, whether in the United States or elsewhere in the world, invariably mirrors the prevalence of HIV in a population. In the United States, HIV first appeared in populations of injection-drug users (a majority of whom are male) and gay men. HIV is spread primarily through unprotected sex, the exchange of HIV-contaminated needles, or cross-contamination of the drug solution and infected blood during intravenous drug use. Because these behaviors show a gender skew—Western men are more likely to take illegal drugs intravenously than Western women, and men are more likely to report higher levels of the riskiest sexual behaviors, such as unprotected anal intercourse—it is not surprising that a majority of U.S. AIDS cases have occurred in men.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19222491',
'title': 'HIV/AIDS in the Dominican Republic',
'section': 'Section::::Prevalence.\n',
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'passage_text': 'HIV/AIDS was first reported in the Dominican Republic in 1983 and continued spreading until the mid-1990s, when prevalence started to decrease. However, due to sex tourism, child sex tourism, and prostitution in tourism industry workers, spread of the epidemic began to increase again. Heterosexual intercourse reportedly the primary form of transmission of the disease, accounting for 81 percent of HIV infections in 15- to 44-year-olds of both sexes. However, because of strong stigma against homosexuality, it is possible that the number of infections resulting from men having sex with men, or male child prostitutes, may be higher than listed or may simply go unreported.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '350679',
'title': 'HIV/AIDS in Africa',
'section': 'Section::::Causes and spread.:Behavioral factors.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 54,
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'passage_text': 'High-risk behavioral patterns have been cited as being largely responsible for the significantly greater spread of HIV/AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa than in other parts of the world. Chief among these are the traditionally liberal attitudes espoused by many communities inhabiting the subcontinent toward multiple sexual partners and pre-marital and outside marriage sexual activity. HIV transmission is most likely in the first few weeks after infection, and is therefore increased when people have more than one sexual partner in the same time period. In most of the developed world outside Africa, this means HIV transmission is high among prostitutes and other people who may have more than one sexual partner concurrently. Within the cultures of sub-Saharan Africa, it is relatively common for both men and women to be carrying on sexual relations with more than one person, which promotes HIV transmission. This practice is known as concurrency, which Helen Epstein describes in her book, "The Invisible Cure: Africa, the West, and the Fight against AIDS", in which her research into the sexual mores of Uganda revealed the high frequency with which men and women engage in concurrent sexual relationships. In addition, in sub-Saharan Africa AIDS is the leading killer and a large reason for the high transmission rates is because of the lack of education provided to youth. When infected, most children die within one year because of the lack of treatment. The entire population in Sub-Saharan Africa is being infected with HIV, from men to women, and from pregnant woman to children. Rather than having more of a specific group infected, male or female, the ratio of men and women infected with HIV are quite similar. With the HIV infection, 77% of men, women, and children, develop AIDS, and die in Sub-Saharan Africa. Of those deaths, “more than 90% of AIDS orphans and children [were] infected with HIV.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24255',
'title': 'Pandemic',
'section': 'Section::::Current pandemics.:HIV and AIDS.\n',
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'passage_text': 'HIV originated in Africa, and spread to the United States via Haiti between 1966 and 1972. AIDS is currently a pandemic, with infection rates as high as 25% in southern and eastern Africa. In 2006, the HIV prevalence rate among pregnant women in South Africa was 29.1%. Effective education about safer sexual practices and bloodborne infection precautions training have helped to slow down infection rates in several African countries sponsoring national education programs. Infection rates are rising again in Asia and the Americas. The AIDS death toll in Africa may reach 90–100 million by 2025.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2435657',
'title': 'History of West Africa',
'section': 'Section::::Health.:Disease.:HIV/AIDS.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 145,
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'passage_text': 'AIDS was at first considered a disease of gay men and drug addicts, but in Africa it took off among the general population. As a result, those involved in the fight against HIV began to emphasize aspects such as preventing transmission from mother to child, or the relationship between HIV and poverty, inequality of the sexes, and so on, rather than emphasizing the need to prevent transmission by unsafe sexual practices or drug injection. This change in emphasis resulted in more funding, but was not effective in preventing a drastic rise in HIV prevalence.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '350679',
'title': 'HIV/AIDS in Africa',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'AIDS was at first considered a disease of gay men and drug addicts, but in Africa it took off among the general population. As a result, those involved in the fight against HIV began to emphasize aspects such as preventing transmission from mother to child, or the relationship between HIV and poverty, inequality of the sexes, and so on, rather than emphasizing the need to prevent transmission by unsafe sexual practices or drug injection. This change in emphasis resulted in more funding, but was not effective in preventing a drastic rise in HIV prevalence.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is it in the west HIV infections are still primarily related with homosexual activity and drug use but in Africa where the vast majority of worldwide cases is it primarily spread through heterosexual transmission?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['\nBetter access to contraceptives in the West. Less contraceptives are used in homosexual activities because no risk of pregnancy, drug use because sharing needles. ',
"Intravenous drug users and people who have anal sex are at the most risk for being infected with HIV, but with enough time, it can spread to even people who are at low-risk for infection. The HIV virus originated in Central Africa, most likely making the transition from monkeys to humans via the consumption of bushmeat some time around the turn of the 20th century. It has had more than a century to spread across Africa, whereas the first known cases *outside* of Africa occurred in the 1960s. After it's reached a critical mass of people, it spreads very easily through mother-to-child transmission and heterosexual sex transmission.\n\nOutside of Africa, it has mostly only affected those who are the highest risk. Inside of Africa, it has had enough time to affect almost everyone. ",
'Drug use is actually the far minority - less than 10% of new HIV cases.\n\nIt is true that more than 2/3 of new HIV cases are in homosexual/bisexual men in the west - this is due to a couple of factors:\n\n1) Anal sex is one of the most reliable ways to transmit the virus due to the physiological makeup of the involved tissue. This is non-gender specific, but male homosexuals generally have more anal sex than heterosexual couples. \n\n\n2) Stigma - gay men are more likely to avoid getting tested for HIV to avoid the stigma associated with it, which makes it a self-reinforcing problem.\n\n\n3) Condom use is far more common in the west, which reduces transfer of the virus. Condoms are often used by heterosexual couples to prevent pregnancy, which also reduces the rate of HIV infection. \n\n\n4) Condoms are LESS common in under-developed countries, so heterosexual sex more frequently spreads the virus. Generally speaking as well, even in western countries - those demographics that are generally economically disadvantaged (and thus less likely to be able to reasonably afford condoms) have higher rates of heterosexual HIV transmission.',
'So, what\'s not commonly discussed in relation to HIV is that it\'s actually pretty hard to transmit. Through straight vaginal sex, it\'s something like a 1 in 1,250 for the women to catch it from the man, and 1 in 2,500 for the man to catch it from the women. Assuming that no condom is used and the man ejaculates inside the women. \n\nHowever, that\'s not the case with anal sex, where the chances are around 1 in 70 for the "bottom" and 1 in 170 for the "top". Again, assuming they ejaculate inside.\n\nAnother thing to consider is that the overall immune response of the body. In lower-income countries, they don\'t have the immune resistance that higher income countries do. Immune systems might be lowered because of other infections in the body or because of poor nutrition or just general poorer health.\n\nSo the rate for a man/women infection in a lower income country is actually much higher, at 1:160 and 1:260 respectively (depending on the direction or transmission, with men having better odds).\n\nI got those numbers from here: _URL_0_\n\nNow, don\'t go running around having sex without a condom because the odds are not that bad. Human brains are REALLY bad at thinking about the odds of something happening to us. The way statistics feel vs the reality of the situation is often mishandled by the human brain. So just use a condom.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '97kp02',
'query': 'why is it in the west hiv infections are still primarily related with homosexual activity and drug use but in africa where the vast majority of worldwide cases is it primarily spread through heterosexual transmission?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '214701',
'title': 'Water purification',
'section': 'Section::::Other water purification techniques.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 94,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::1. Boiling: Bringing water to its boiling point (about 100\xa0°C or 212 F at sea level), is the oldest and most effective way since it eliminates most microbes causing intestine related diseases, but it cannot remove chemical toxins or impurities. For human health, complete sterilization of water is not required, since the heat resistant microbes are not intestine affecting. The traditional advice of boiling water for ten minutes is mainly for additional safety, since microbes start getting eliminated at temperatures greater than . Though the boiling point decreases with increasing altitude, it is not enough to affect the disinfecting process. In areas where the water is "hard" (that is, containing significant dissolved calcium salts), boiling decomposes the bicarbonate ions, resulting in partial precipitation as calcium carbonate. This is the "fur" that builds up on kettle elements, etc., in hard water areas. With the exception of calcium, boiling does not remove solutes of higher boiling point than water and in fact increases their concentration (due to some water being lost as vapour). Boiling does not leave a residual disinfectant in the water. Therefore, water that is boiled and then stored for any length of time may acquire new pathogens.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52636',
'title': 'Boiling',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:In cooking.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
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'passage_text': 'Boiling can be done in several ways: The food can be placed into already rapidly boiling water and left to cook, the heat can be turned down and the food can be simmered or the food can also be placed into the pot, and cold water may be added to the pot. This may then be boiled until the food is satisfactory.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52636',
'title': 'Boiling',
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'passage_text': 'Boiling water is used as a method of making it potable by killing microbes that may be present. The sensitivity of different micro-organisms to heat varies, but if water is held at 70\xa0°C (158\xa0°F) for ten minutes, many organisms are killed, but some are more resistant to heat and require one minute at the boiling point of water.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '953864',
'title': 'Kettle',
'section': 'Section::::Electric kettles.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'In modern designs, once the water has reached boiling point, the kettle automatically deactivates, preventing the water from boiling away and damaging the heating element. A more upright design, the "jug"-style electrical kettle, can be more economical to use, since even one cup of water will keep the element covered. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11111531',
'title': 'Chip heater',
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'passage_text': 'Water had to be run at a trickle in order to heat up to a desirable temperature. The rate of combustion was controlled by the flues and the ash box. With lots of fuel and open flues the water could boil quickly, which was not a desirable result. With practice the correct combination of fuel, flue settings and water flow could result in enough hot water for a shower or bath in approximately 20 minutes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26009047',
'title': 'Thermal cooking',
'section': 'Section::::Method.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'The pot is filled with food and water and heated to cooking temperature outside of the flask on a stove, usually to boiling. It is then sealed inside the vacuum flask for several hours. The flask minimises heat loss, keeping the food hot enough to continue cooking and avoid bacterial growth for many hours.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '150135',
'title': 'Spontaneous generation',
'section': 'Section::::Modern tests.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
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'passage_text': 'In 1745, John Needham performed a series of experiments on boiled broths. Believing that boiling would kill all living things, he showed that when sealed right after boiling, the broths would cloud, allowing the belief in spontaneous generation to persist. His studies were rigorously scrutinized by his peers and many of them agreed.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Growing up my mother always told me to never start a pot of boiling water from hot tap water only cold. What's the logic behind that if any?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
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'answers': ['In the past, hot water was stored in a separate holding tank where it was kept heated. This water was not necessarily "safe" for drinking as the same water could be sitting for days at a time. \n\nI\'ve also heard that old lead pipes leach lead into hot water, but not into cold water. This explains why hot water would be fine for bathing, laundry, etc., but not for consumption. Can anyone verify this? \n\nIt\'s safe now (unless you live in a very old house), but in the past people had to be careful of these things. ',
"The logic is hot water is more likely to have lead from your pipes (back when people thought your water pipes contain lead). Since the water is hot, it would be more likely to have a little bit of lead that came off the pipes due to the heat of the water. \n\nToday, plumbing pipes can't legally contain lead but the logic still remains that in case the hot water is hot enough to attract pieces of your pipes in it then cold water is a safer bet, but overall isn't an issue nowadays AFAIK.",
"Hot water comes from a tank that can be full of scale/rust/dust that constantly gets topped up whenever you use the hot tap so just from that standpoint it doesn't seem like a good idea.",
"Answering from a British perspective, traditionally only the kitchen cold tap got water directly from the supply. The supply also fed a cold water storage cistern in the loft that then fed the bathroom cold taps and the hot water storage cylinder, which in turns feeds the hot water taps. Sometimes instead all the cold taps got a direct supply and the storage cistern was just for feeding the hot water cylinder. Now that storage cistern isn't sealed airtight, although it should have a lid. That means that dirt, insects, and so on (even a rat, in one reported case) can get into the cistern especially if the lid is missing and that means that any tap fed from it isn't properly safe to drink. It's *probably* fine, I drank from the bathroom taps all the time as a child and never got sick, but better safe than sorry.\n\nIf the kitchen cold tap is noticeably forceful, whereas all the other taps flow more gently, then your house probably has a system like this.\n\nEDIT PS: I don't know exactly why that system became the most common, but an advantage is you probably have about 300 litres (80 US gallons) of water stored, useful if the mains supply is cut.",
"The water at my house gets so hot it'll literally burn skin, even if it has added sediment it's so hot it boils faster ",
"Pipes tend to pick up sediment over time. Hot water is better at dissolving that sediment then cold water, so if you run the water hot it might pick up junk from the sides of your pipes that can affect the taste of whatever you're cooking. Cold water doesn't do that as much.",
"If you've ever seen an old hot water tank drained to the bottom, you'll understand why she wanted to use cold water. It's a thick, rust coloured sludge by the end, and I live in a place that doesn't have hard water.\n\nCold water = fresh from the water supply, less sediment, less risk of bacteria from sitting around nice and warm.",
"It's a psychological or folkloric holdover from older plumbing systems that offered both cold and hot water, indoors. [Here's a video](_URL_0_) with an explanation of the system and the reasoning.\n",
'Since when does cold water boil faster than hot water?\nWhat hair-brained school did you people go to?',
'Here in Iceland we got natural hot water and it has silica in it which tastes awful so if you need hot water for drinking, you heat up the cold water ',
'There are a few reasons.\n\nModern homes now have "pex" piping which is a type of plastic, hot water dissolves more of the bad plastic stuff.\n\nVery old piping used to contain lead, which again, dissolves more rapidly in hot water.\n\nWater tanks can hold water for a long time, this is not an issue for bacteria since the water should be warm enough to effectively be pasteurized but it does give it more time to dissolve chemicals.\n\nThe difference between hot and cold tap water isn\'t poison vs safe, hot water simply contains a tiny fraction more of chemicals you do not necessarily want in your water.',
'If you\'re referring to speed of heating, it\'s not scientifically correct. I don\'t have an in depth knowledge, but have read about it. And think about it logically. If you have a pot of water at 0° and a pot at 50° and heat them both, eventually the water that was 0° will rise to 50°. So how is that different than using water starting at 50°? \n\nThis is an excerpt from Scientific American Magazine:\n\nTakamasa Takahashi, a physicist at St. Norbert College in De Pere, iWis., attempts a definitive answer:\n\n"Cold water does not boil faster than hot water. The rate of heating of a liquid depends on the magnitude of the temperature difference between the liquid and its surroundings (the flame on the stove, for instance). As a result, cold water will be absorbing heat faster while it is still cold; once it gets up to the temperature of hot water, the heating rate slows down and from there it takes just as long to bring it to a boil as the water that was hot to begin with. Because it takes cold water some time to reach the temperature of hot water, cold water clearly takes longer to boil than hot water does. There may be some psychological effect at play; cold water starts boiling sooner than one might expect because of the aforementioned greater heat absorption rate when water is colder.\n\n ',
'The hot water picks up minerals and, worst of all, lead from the solder in the pipes. Cold water picks up less of that',
'Cold Water = Water coming straight from the source through PEX pipe. \n\nHot Water = Water coming through the source, into a hot water boiler via some copper piping, from there it could sit in that tank for a couple days depending on how much you use your hot water. ',
"If you are from Britain, this seems like a good answer: _URL_0_\n\ntl;dr: Cold Water used to be directly from city, while Hot Water used to have a separate tank that could've gotten contaminated.",
'_URL_0_\n\n > The claim has the ring of a myth. But environmental scientists say it is real.\n\n > The reason is that hot water dissolves contaminants more quickly than cold water, and many pipes in homes contain lead that can leach into water. And lead can damage the brain and nervous system, especially in young children.\n\n > Lead is rarely found in source water, but can enter it through corroded plumbing. The Environmental Protection Agency says that older homes are more likely to have lead pipes and fixtures, but that even newer plumbing advertised as “lead-free” can still contain as much as 8 percent lead. A study published in The Journal of Environmental Health in 2002 found that tap water represented 14 to 20 percent of total lead exposure.',
"This actually comes from the fact that lots of older homes didn't use potable water systems for their hot water. Particularly in Briton, where the radiators also rand from the same boiler as the hot tap.\n\nThis is also why older systems had left-and-right taps and spigots instead of a combining valve or tap.\n\nSo in modern times in modern homes it probably doesn't matter.\n\nThe tales of old wives will, however, last forever.",
"There's a very simple reason not to drink hot water: Hot water may contain higher levels of lead than cold water, since the hot water dissolves more lead from old pipes and solder than cold water does. There may also be a reservoir of lead precipitates sitting in the bottom of the water heater, which will (potentially) increase the amount of lead even further, depending on the kinetics of dissolution.\n\nSource: am chemist, deal with lead in water nowadays (among other things).",
"This has got to be nonsense. Someone with some actual scientific knowledge please set this straight. The lining of a hot water tank is ceramic. There shouldn't be anything dissolving into it. It should be exactly (or nearly exactly) identical to cold water only it's hotter. I'm no physicist but my rudimentary high school and college science classes have given me enough knowledge to know that hot water should boil much faster than cold water.",
'In most cities, municipal cold water supply coming into the house. \n\nIt gets split off in two in the house. One to the cold water pipes, the other to a hot water heater.\n\nUp until 1986, hot water heaters and the copper pipes have lead solder joining things together. Hot water can leach the lead out faster especially so if its sitting in pipes and a tank for long periods of time in contact with it.\n\nEven if you grew up in the 90s, you likely were in a house that was older and built before the mid 80s. ',
"Everyone already answered, but I'd like to add that this advice doesn't apply if you have a tankless water heater. Since that water also comes straight from the service and hasn't been sitting around in a tank, it's perfectly fine to use that, and will speed up the process since it needs less energy on the stove. Just make sure it's straight tankless and doesn't have a recirculator.",
"It's cheaper. Notice how when you use hot water from a tank, you have to run the water for 20 seconds before it becomes hot. That water is effectively wasted hot water even though it is now cold. This is because it came out of the hot water tank as hot but it was cooled by the pipes that brought it to your tap. You are paying the electrical bill for heating that volume of water that came out before the water out your tap turns hot. You can see how it is wasteful and expensive to frequently use small volumes of hot water.",
"It's the mistaken belief that cold water boils quicker because the molecules are in a denser state the colder the water is. They are conveniently forgetting that you have to warm the water to the same point the other(hot) water was before continuing on to boiling.\n\nI've seen this amazing logic at work, so I could see others doing the same thing.",
'The only reason I am personally cautious about using hot tap water is because [there may be lead in your water supply.](_URL_0_) \n\nIf your pipes or the solder connecting them contain lead, hot water adds to the corrosion that increases lead levels in the water.\n\nYou may think that it is unlikely your pipes contain any lead, but you are probably wrong. \n\nFrom the link above:\n"While homes built before 1986 are the most likely to have lead plumbing, it can be found in newer homes as well. Until two years ago, the legal limit for "lead-free" pipes was up to 8% lead.\n\nAs of January 1, 2014, all newly installed water faucets, fixtures, pipes and fittings must meet new lead-free requirements, which reduces the amount of lead allowed to 0.25%. But that doesn\'t apply to existing fixtures, such as what is found in many older homes and public water suppliers"\n\nWhether or not your mother was aware of this concern, I think it\'s a compelling one and a good thing she taught you not drink the hot tap water! It may be one of the factors why we have to explain to each other like we\'re 5 all the time!',
'[Tom Scott did a great vid on this topic.](_URL_0_) Not sure what part of the world you come from though.',
"My mother told me it is unsafe to drink from hot water storage because of Legionnaires' disease. Legionnaires' disease is caused by Legionella bacteria which can contaminate hot water tanks and hot tubs. \n",
'Something everyone else overlooked: The water heater probably has (they have been this way for decades) a Sacrificial Anode which is a metal rod designed to dissolve to reduce the charge of other metals, thereby inhibiting rust inside the tank parts and rest of the system. When it dissolves, where does it go? \n \n_URL_1_\n \n_URL_0_',
"The water comes into your home drinkable. How it gets from that drinkable state, to your faucet and into your glass, matters. Water is a solvent. Put it in contact with many different materials like copper, lead and tin and it will tend to leach those elements into the water. The ability to do this goes up with temperature. \n\nIn addition to that the hot water heater is a place where sediments and minerals are deposited and over the years they build up until the hot water has large amounts of dissolved metals and minerals in it. \n\nIt's not exactly unsafe to drink, but it affects the flavor of anything you make with it and over time you are going to get a lot more exposure to metals and minerals in your food. \n\nA hot water heater is not a coffee maker. It does not heat the water up so that you can enjoy a cup of tea. It is not a clean system, it is there for utility like clothes washing, showers, and other non drinking uses. \n\nYou could also choose to drink water from a garden hose, but it is a little more apparent there, that what the water moves through imparts a taste to it. Namely the taste of garden hose much like the taste of water heater. ",
"I'll attempt to sum up all the reasons:\n\n1. Lead and other contaminants dissolve much more easily in hot water. This can lead to unwanted tastes, and could possibly build up to harmful amounts of chemicals in the bloodstream if consumed routinely.\n\n2. The hot water tank isn't necessarily a clean place. A sludge made of minerals and bacteria can easily form. Additionally, in Britain, [the hot water from the tank isn't rated as potable water.](_URL_0_)\n\n3. The old myth that cold water heats faster.\n\n4. Water heaters are less efficient than heating water on the stove because of all the water that gets pulled out of the tank and just sits there cooling in the pipes.\n\nIf you want to make your water boil faster, boil some of it in an electric kettle or the microwave while letting the rest heat on the stove.",
"This is if your house has a big water heater tank. In order to keep the hot water tank from corroding an anode rod is placed in side as a sacrificial component. The anode metal, magnesium or aluminum most likely, that dissolves from the rod is now floating around your tank making the water taste funky and making you ingest metal particles that you most likely wouldn't get from your cold water supply",
'Hot water can be dusty due to storage or other things depending on the heating system. Cold water usually has a shorter path with less stagnation',
"It's simply because in some water systems your hot tap sits in a tank (in the loft usually) whereas the cold tap is 'fresh' water. \n\nsource: have asked lots of old people why they say this",
'There is no scientific explanation which says that using cold water is better than starting with hot water if you want to boil it. If you start with hot water it will boil sooner. If there are more solutes in the hot water from the tap they raise the boiling point of water by a fraction of a degree so they do not matter. However the electric water heaters we use have a sacrificial anode made of either one of these metals: magnesium, zinc or aluminium. They dissolve slowly thus protecting the main structure of the heater from corrosion. They end up in the water from the hot water tap. Their concentration is very low but zinc and aluminium might cause some people to be worried.',
'Because hot water + gas required to boil it costs more than cold water + gas required to heat it.',
"Historically in England the hot water tanks were not sealed so nasty stuff could get into the tank (insects, rats, dirt, etc). The cold water came straight from the pipes so was safe.\n\nFor this reason the English (some still now!) are hesitant to drink water from the hot tap, and even tend to have separate hot and cold taps (instead of a 'mixing' tap that combines the water).\n\nIt could be an actual concern that the hot-tap water is tainted, or a cultural memory from when that was in fact true.",
'Added sediment/particulates/chemicals from the water heating system. Stuff that raises the boiling point, and also things you may not want in your food.',
"They tell you on every Alton Brown episode like ever! It sits in your water heater and gets all manky and gross while it's waiting to be used. Cold water, not so much. People are really over thinking this.",
'TL;DR: You are filling your pipes with hot water that you paid to heat but will never get to use. \n\nQuestions of chemistry and water freshness aside, there is a reasonable energy waste consideration here. \n\nIf your water heater is not located at your faucet, you need to run your hot water until heated water reaches the faucet. That means you need to fill all of the pipes in between your hot water heater and your aucet woth heated water. Right when those pipes are filled you start to feel warm water. Its not hot elyet because the cold pipes it travelled through cooled it off. \n\nNow if you are like me you wait until the really hot water comes out. This is essentially running more hot water until the pipes are heated and no longer cool the water. \n\nNow you fill your kettle. And leave your pipes full of hot water that will cool over time unless used relatively soon. \n\nIf you held a bucket under the faucet from start until when you begin filling the kettle you would be able to measure the amount of heated water that is wasted in this transaction. \n\nThe money you spent to heat all of that water is lost unless you use the heated water that is left sitting in the pipes for some other task you would normally do this avoiding that beginning filling and heating of the pipes waste.\n\nIf you fill the kettle with cold water, you only pay to heat the water you put in the kettle. \n\nThere are some other things to think about like efficiency of your hot water heater vs that of your stove, but I have always made the assumption that the potential efficiency difference would not counter the cost of the waste.',
"Just anther theory...\n\nMany homes with water softeners don't connect the softener to the kitchen cold line for drinking purposes. \n\nSoftened water has less essential minerals such as calcium, it tastes a lot worse too. So ideally, you wouldn't want to drink softened water for taste and nutrition.\n\nThis carries over with cooking. It makes a surprising difference with drinks like coffee. But to that end, the hot-water is always connected to the water softener, because that's what you use to wash dishes. Hard water leaves nasty water spots.",
"Hey /u/blank8855, Tom Scott made a great 3min video on this subject:\n_URL_0_\n\nTL;DW - hot water storage tank may not be drinkable in the UK.\n\nAlso explains why there's no mixer taps in old UK houses.",
"Holy Jesus I only made it through the first 100 or so comments and all of them were people who have no idea what they're talking about acting like absolute authorities (and karma whoring on the top comment to reiterate the same wrong points of course). Makes me really question believing anything I read here.",
'Well the Idea is that the heat from your burner transfers to the cold water faster as the difference in temperature is greater. So at first heat is transferred faster to the cold water. It is not actually faster. I am sure that someone told someone that cold things rise in temperature faster than hotter things, and then promptly tuned them out.\n ',
'"Clean with hot, cook with cold" is something our manager used to say often at a restaurant I worked at when I was a kid. Not much to add to the explanations already given, but just a simple and relevant anecdote that has stuck with me.',
'Growing up my mother told me someday I would buy. galley with good oars, sail to distant shores. Stand up high in the prow, noble barque I steer. Steady course for the haven, hew many foe, hew many foe. ',
'This happened to me...\n\nI was doing a freezer repair at a customer\'s home and needed hot water to melt the ice built up inside the freezer. Lady puts a pot on the stove and its taking for fucking ever to get hot. I asker her if she used cold water or something and she\'s like "Of course! Everyone knows you can\'t boil hot water". What the fuck kind of logic is that?! \n\n'],
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'query_id': '63hdi6',
'query': "growing up my mother always told me to never start a pot of boiling water from hot tap water only cold. what's the logic behind that if any?",
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '575131',
'title': 'Raw milk',
'section': 'Section::::Legal status.:North America.:United States.\n',
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'passage_text': "Proponents of raw milk (in the U.S.) advance two basic arguments for unpasteurized milk. They state that pasteurization destroys or damages some of the milk's nutrients, and that while pasteurization may kill dangerous bacteria, it also kills off good bacteria that raw milk supporters have stated to have health benefits. The United States Food and Drug Administration has stated that this is false, and that pasteurizing milk does not destroy any of its nutritive value.\n",
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'title': 'United States raw milk debate',
'section': 'Section::::Pasteurization.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Pasteurization is widely accepted to improve the safety of milk products by reducing the exposure to pathogens. Opponents of pasteurization argue that unpasteurized milk has benefits associated with superior taste, nutritional qualities and certain health benefits over pasteurized milk. While pasteurization of milk kills off bacterial pathogens, other bacteria species with possible health benefits are also destroyed. Pasteurization of cow\'s milk destroys any potential pathogens and increases the shelf life. During pasteurization, however, these lactic acid bacteria are mostly destroyed. A 2009 systematic review of the food safety of unpasteurized milk concluded that science-based data to substantiate claims of health benefits "are lacking or do not exist" and the risks associated with disease outbreaks as a result of raw milk consumption are "considerably higher".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '575131',
'title': 'Raw milk',
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'passage_text': 'Many governmental officials and the majority of public health organizations hold to the need for pasteurization. Before pasteurization, many dairies, especially in cities, fed their cattle on low-quality food, and their milk was rife with dangerous bacteria. Pasteurizing it was the only way to make it safely drinkable. As pasteurization has been standard for many years, it is now widely assumed that raw milk is dangerous. The Cornell University Food Science Department has compiled data indicating that pathogenic microorganisms are present in between 0.87% and 12.6% of raw milk samples.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '10341263',
'title': 'United States raw milk debate',
'section': 'Section::::Pasteurization.:History.\n',
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'passage_text': "Pasteurization was first used in the United States in the 1890s after the discovery of germ theory to control the hazards of highly contagious bacterial diseases, including bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis, that could be easily transmitted to humans through the drinking of raw milk. Initially after the scientific discovery of bacteria, no product testing was available to determine if a farmer's milk was safe or infected, so all milk had to be treated as potentially contagious. After the first test was developed, some farmers actively worked to prevent their infected animals from being killed and removed from food production, or would falsify the test results so that their animals would appear to be free of infection.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10341263',
'title': 'United States raw milk debate',
'section': 'Section::::Pasteurization.:Health effects of pasteurized milk.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Pasteurization opponents say that raw milk contains bacteria beneficial to the human digestive system, but pasteurization is not selective and affects all bacteria whether beneficial or infectious. These bacteria include species considered to be probiotics, such as "Lactobacillus acidophilus", useful for the culturing of yogurt and cheese. Fermented milk products with levels of "L. acidophilus" significantly higher than those found in raw milk have been associated with decreased incidence of pediatric diarrhea, decreased levels of toxic amines in the blood of dialysis patients with small bowel bacterial overgrowth, aided lactose digestion in lactose-intolerant subjects, and a reduction in coronary heart disease risks. However, food scientists and FDA officials maintain that such "good bacteria" can be found in pasteurized products, including yogurt, and argue that the destruction of pathogens far outweighs any proposed benefit to keeping the beneficial microbes alive.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '620730',
'title': 'Weston A. Price Foundation',
'section': 'Section::::Activism.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Food and Drug Administration disagree with this, noting that the pasteurization process "does not significantly change the nutritional value of milk" and that consumption of raw milk poses a "severe health risk". They point out that prior to the widespread use of pasteurization, many diseases were commonly transmitted by raw milk, while by 2005 they made up less than 1% of food and water contamination disease outbreaks.. The director of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration Division of Plant- and Dairy-Food Safety, John Sheehan, called the organization\'s claims on the health benefits and safety of raw milk "false, devoid of scientific support, and misleading to consumers"\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10341263',
'title': 'United States raw milk debate',
'section': 'Section::::Pasteurization.:Health effects of pasteurized milk.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Pasteurization is credited with dramatically reducing pathogens found in milk. This improves the shelf-life and safety of the processed milk. Advocates of drinking raw milk claim various health benefits they attribute to raw milk that are lost in the pasteurization process, and claim that raw milk can be produced as hygienically as pasteurized milk. Raw milk advocates may go as far as to claim that untreated milk is a "miracle cure" for illnesses such as asthma or gastrointestinal disorders. A 2006 systematic review of infections associated with raw milk contends that pasteurized milk is substantially safer than raw milk, and comparably nutritious to raw milk, therefore there is no scientific reason for choosing raw milk products. Similarly, a recent review authored by the Belgian Federal Agency for the Safety of the Food Chain and experts from Belgian universities and institutions concluded that "raw milk poses a realistic health threat due to a possible contamination with human pathogens. It is therefore strongly recommended that milk should be heated before consumption. With the exception of an altered organoleptic [flavor] profile, heating (in particularly ultra high temperature and similar treatments) will not substantially change the nutritional value of raw milk or other benefits associated with raw milk consumption."\n',
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'title': 'Why do we have to pasteurize cow milk but not breast milk?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
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'answers': ["The difference is that Brest milk isn't generally kept for long times where bacteria and pathogens can get in and start multiplying, Its almost always ingested teat to mouth. As opposed to cow or goat milk.",
"Milk is sterile when it comes out of the cow or human. But as soon as it touches anything it becomes contaminated with bacteria. Milk is also an amazing growth medium for bacteria, its impossible to keep the milk totally sterile and even a small amount of bacteria will very rapidly multiply.\n\nWhat matters for the consumer of the milk is how long it will take those initial bacteria to multiply until the milk is no longer safe to drink, which is itself a matter of the type and quantity of bacteria that get into the milk.\n\nIf you're talking about a woman pumping breast milk and storing it in the fridge for a day or two, its fairly safe to assume that the equipment she's using is relatively clean and that the woman wasn't rolling around in her own feces moments before milking herself. Because of that, the initial quantity of bacteria in the milk is going to be low and there isn't going to be anything too bad in there. As long as the milk isn't being stored for more than a few days the risk it poses is negligible.\n\nBut neither of those things is safe to assume with a cow. And in your worst case scenario where the cow was rolling around in feces and milked using dirty equipment, the milk you get is going to be filled with large amounts of listeria and other pathogens. Which is ultimately why we pasteurize cow milk - its a simple, low cost method of completely mitigating against a serious health risk.\n\nThat being said, its entirely possible that you could find a dairy that follows extremely high standards of cleanliness selling unpasteurized milk and that milk will last just as long as your average woman's breast milk (and there are certainly small dairies out there that try to do just that). The problem you have in drinking milk like that is you're relying on everything with the dairy being perfect - which is something that you have absolutely no control over. And all it takes is no one noticing a cow shitting all over itself a few hours before getting milked for anyone drinking that milk to develop a serious illness."],
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'query': 'why do we have to pasteurize cow milk but not breast milk?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '218972',
'title': 'Canada goose',
'section': 'Section::::Survival.:Predators.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Once they reach adulthood, due to their large size and often aggressive behavior, Canada geese are rarely preyed on, although prior injury may make them more vulnerable to natural predators. Beyond humans, adults can be taken by coyotes and grey wolves ("Canis lupus"). Avian predators that are known to kill adults, as well as young geese, include snowy owls ("Bubo scandiacus"), golden eagles ("Aquila chrysaetos") and bald eagles ("Haliaeetus leucocephalus") and, though rarely on large adult geese, great horned owls ("Bubo virginianus"), peregrine falcons ("Falco peregrinus"), and gyrfalcons ("Falco rusticolus"). Adults are quite vigorous at displacing potential predators from the nest site, with predator prevention usually falling to the larger male of the pair. Males usually attempt to draw attention of approaching predators and toll (mob terrestrial predators without physical contact) often in accompaniment with males of other goose species. Eagles of both species frequently cause geese to fly off en masse from some distance, though in other instances, geese may seem unconcerned at perched bald eagles nearby, seemingly only reacting if the eagle is displaying active hunting behavior. Canada geese are quite wary of humans where they are regularly hunted and killed, but can otherwise become habituated to fearlessness towards humans, especially where they are fed by them. This often leads to the geese becoming overly aggressive towards humans, and large groups of the birds may be considered a nuisance if they are causing persistent issues to humans and other animals in the surrounding area.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '218972',
'title': 'Canada goose',
'section': 'Section::::Relationship with humans.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In North America, nonmigratory Canada goose populations have been on the rise. The species is frequently found on golf courses, parking lots, and urban parks, which would have previously hosted only migratory geese on rare occasions. Owing to its adaptability to human-altered areas, it has become one of the most common waterfowl species in North America. In many areas, nonmigratory Canada geese are now regarded as pests by humans. They are suspected of being a cause of an increase in high fecal coliforms at beaches. An extended hunting season, deploying noise makers, and hazing by dogs have been used in an attempt to disrupt suspect flocks. A goal of conservationists has been to focus hunting on the nonmigratory populations (which tend to be larger and more of a nuisance) as opposed to migratory flocks showing natural behavior, which may be rarer.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27535075',
'title': 'List of birds of Leicestershire and Rutland',
'section': 'Section::::Ducks, geese and swans.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The swans, ducks and geese are medium to large birds that are adapted to an aquatic existence with webbed feet and bills which are flattened to a greater or lesser extent. In many ducks the male is colourful while the female is dull brown. The diet consists of a variety of animals and plants. The family is well represented in the counties, especially in winter when large numbers visit from further north.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '2736310',
'title': 'Domestic goose',
'section': 'Section::::Origins and characteristics.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Like their wild ancestors, domestic geese are very protective of their offspring and other members of the flock. The gander will normally place himself between any perceived threat and his family. Owing to their highly aggressive nature, loud call and sensitivity to unusual movements, geese can contribute towards the security of a property. In late 1950s South Vietnam, the VNAF used flocks of geese to guard their parked aircraft at night due to the noise they would make at intruders.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '211346',
'title': 'List of birds of Great Britain',
'section': 'Section::::Ducks, geese and swans.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The swans, ducks and geese are medium to large birds that are adapted to an aquatic existence with webbed feet and bills which are flattened to a greater or lesser extent. In many ducks the male is colourful while the female is dull brown. The diet consists of a variety of animals and plants. The family is well represented in Britain, especially in winter when large numbers visit from Greenland, Scandinavia and Russia. There are about 160 species worldwide with 55 in Britain.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10779974',
'title': 'List of birds of Wales',
'section': 'Section::::Ducks, geese and swans.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The swans, ducks and geese are medium to large birds that are adapted to an aquatic existence with webbed feet and bills which are flattened to a greater or lesser extent. In many ducks the male is colourful while the female is dull brown. The diet consists of a variety of animals and plants. The family is well represented in Wales, especially in winter when large numbers visit from Greenland, Scandinavia and Russia. There are about 160 species worldwide, 53 in Britain and 47 in Wales.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '2655767',
'title': 'Domestic duck',
'section': 'Section::::Domestication.\n',
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'passage_text': "Almost all varieties of domestic duck except the muscovy have been derived from the mallard. Domestication has greatly altered their characteristics. Domestic ducks are mostly polygamous, where wild mallards are monogamous. Domestic ducks have lost the mallard's territorial behaviour, and are less aggressive than mallards. Despite these differences, domestic ducks frequently mate with wild mallard, producing fully fertile hybrid offspring.\n",
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'title': 'why did some animals in the same family become hyper aggressive like geese, whereas ducks are relatively benign?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Geese have earned their vicious reputation from their behaviour when they protect their nests. They nest on the ground where there are many predators, so they are very protective. \n\n(Some) ducks like wood ducks nest in tree hollows and are not faced with the same pressure and are more docile/less evident. ',
'I\'m going to try an ELI15:\n\nSometimes a lot of behaviour is evolutionary. It\'s a bit of a generalization to say that geese are hyper aggressive and ducks are meek (although anyone who\'s been in Canada can tell you Canada geese have no fear). Realistically, there\'s no exact answer (as far as I know), but I can talk a bit about conflict in birds.\n\nHere\'s the example I\'ll bring up between two very closely related birds: the blue heron and the great egret. \nBlue herons and great egrets lay similarly sized nests. In herons, most of the chicks coexist alright. In egrets, however, the chicks will often (85%? of the time) kill one another (exemplifying **siblicide**). Parents typically won\'t interfere with this behaviour - I suppose this could be defined as aggression. In fact, the parenting style was seen as an explanation for the siblicide. On the other hand, heron chicks do not really kill one another that often, since they had a different parenting style (loosely speaking). In the vein of great science, Mock & Parker decided to test out cross fostering (that is, having herons raise egrets and egrets raise herons).\n\nThey found that, in short, when a heron parents egret chicks, they still fight. I\'m not going to mention the mechanism that encourages the siblicide in egrets, but the long and short is that egret chicks are vicious and will continue to kill one another, often leaving one chick to grow to adulthood. That is, the siblicide is **obligate** behaviour. When egrets parented herons, the mechanism for siblicide is there (parenting), and siblicide that *wasn\'t* there previously developed in the chicks, with the largest chick killing the rest of the nest. So, the siblicide (aggression, I guess) was both "innate" behaviour (again, *very* loosely speaking) and "outside" behaviour encouraged (facilitated) by the parents.\n\n**tl;dr**: even closely related species (birds, for example) can have wildly different behaviours. Aggression is not necessarily environmental. In the case of geese and ducks it\'s probably many factors. There is, as far as I know, no short answer.\n\nsome sources: \n\n_URL_2_ (Mock & Parker on the herons/egrets)\n\nmore reading\n\n_URL_3_\n_URL_0_\n\n\n\n\nEdit: more in depth about the experiment is here: \n_URL_1_',
'Depends on where they live and what they eat. Many animals have evolved to mooch off humans. Take wolves vs. dogs or tigers vs. cats. \n\nAlso, smaller animals have a stronger propensity toward flight (rather than fight). Wild ducks aren’t aggressive but they aren’t friendly... they’ll get the heck outta dodge if a strange animal approaches because they are easy prey. \n\nGeese on the other hand are large enough that they have the clout to stand up to foxes, coyotes, raccoons, rodents, or anyone who tries to mess with them or their babies. ',
'Rottweilers and collies and poodles and wolves have very different behavior patterns. Some of it is inherited and some of it is learned. \n\nAs another poster pointed out, too, this behavior comes from being able to survive attacks. Ducks rely especially on camouflage while geese rely on more aggressive behavior. They have different adaptations for the same danger. \n\n***ELI5**: In a prison, you can be the guy who keeps his head down or the guy who beats someone up the first day. One keeps predators from thinking of you, the other makes them think twice about messing with you.*',
'One reason is competition over resources.\n\nA couple million years ago the Congo river separated some primates from each other. The ones in the more resource abundant environment became bonobos, which are fairly benign and social.\n\nThe other ones in the less resourceful area became chimps, more aggressive and competitive. ',
'I\'ll try to answer (as a biology student): \n\n\nThere is no one path to reproductive success. The behavior can be genetically determined or developmentally determined (learned), but overall it must only be a strategy that is stable for a species to reproduce within a certain environment. In other words, any strategy is sufficient insofar as it leads to reproduction. \n\n\nLet\'s say for example (an example that ignores actual biological realities) that in a geese population, all the male geese are passive and this is the only trait that affects successful reproduction within a non-monogamous population and it is genetically determined. One male goose is born with a mutation that makes him hyper aggressive. He passes on many copies of his genes reproducing successfully many times because he chases off his competitors. This continues until all the male geese within the population are aggressive. If that aggression rises to the level of fatality (the hyper aggressive geese kill each other), then the more passive of the aggressive geese will begin to have more opportunities to pass on their genes. If it does not than the more aggressive goose will mate more. \n\n\nHowever, reality isn\'t that neat. One goose could develop a weirdly shaped penis that scrapes out all his competitors\' sperm and thus not need to be aggressive. Another could develop a strategy that involves wooing a mate with colorful feathers. Another could just mate with the same bird over and over again ensuring that he/she reproduces. Another could be aggressive within an environment in which that leads to death (i.e. an island with a lot of bears). Natural selection is not a razor that inevitably leads to a hierarchical ideal of "progress" or "improvement" in which one strategy or behavior is "better" than another. It is a chaotic process by which the only measure of success is reproduction under environmental pressures. The possibilities are essentially limitless, even for very similar animals in very similar environments.',
"I work at a place with a collection of several different species of wildfowl, and it's not really true that geese are aggressive whilst ducks are benign. There's a lot of difference in levels of aggression between different geese and duck species, and it generally has to do with a couple of factors - the resources available in the environment they are usually found in, and their ability to blend in to that environment to avoid danger.\n\nThe Cereopsis, or Cape Barren Goose, lives on rocky beaches in Australia, and has to defend the scarce resources in its territory. They are highly aggressive at all times, and are built like tanks. Hawaiian geese, aka Nenes, on the other hand, only show aggression towards other Nenes or other species when defending a nest - the rest of the time they're very chill and friendly. They are an island species with few natural predators and relatively good camouflage, so fighting for them is too much of a risk except when defending the next generation.\n\nIn ducks, it works the same way - larger, more conspicuous species originating from habitats where resources are scarcer tend towards aggression, and smaller, better camouflaged species from more abundant habitats are much more chill. Like any generalisation, there are exceptions - Buffleheads are tiny, but they are really feisty little ducks!",
'The short answer is evolution. One behavior pattern is rewarded over another in a given environment.\n\nDucks are very hyper aggressive, though. Geese do attack people more than ducks do, but ducks are assholes.\n\nI would like to bring up the fact that ducks rape more than any other animal on Earth. They rape so much, that the female duck has evolved two vaginal paths. They can choose which one they allow the male to access. They even rape the victim of rape in order to regain their own dominance over them... male or female.\n\nThere are observed cases where multiple mallards were vieing for dominance, and another male duck being chain raped for more than 15 mins.\n\nThere was even an Ig Nobel Prize awarded for a research paper on the observation of one duck flying into a window killing itself. The crazy observation was homosexual necrophilic rape.\n\n\n_URL_0_'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '8xfsq1',
'query': 'why did some animals in the same family become hyper aggressive like geese, whereas ducks are relatively benign?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '18973446',
'title': 'Geometry',
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'passage_text': 'Geometry (from the ; "geo-" "earth", "-metron" "measurement") is a branch of mathematics concerned with questions of shape, size, relative position of figures, and the properties of space. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is called a geometer.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '24742',
'title': 'Paul Dirac',
'section': 'Section::::Personal life.:Religious views.\n',
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'passage_text': 'It seems to be one of the fundamental features of nature that fundamental physical laws are described in terms of a mathematical theory of great beauty and power, needing quite a high standard of mathematics for one to understand it. You may wonder: Why is nature constructed along these lines? One can only answer that our present knowledge seems to show that nature is so constructed. We simply have to accept it. One could perhaps describe the situation by saying that God is a mathematician of a very high order, and He used very advanced mathematics in constructing the universe. Our feeble attempts at mathematics enable us to understand a bit of the universe, and as we proceed to develop higher and higher mathematics we can hope to understand the universe better.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '3657318',
'title': 'Nature study',
'section': 'Section::::Definitions.\n',
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'passage_text': 'NATURE-STUDY, as a process, is seeing the things that one looks at, and the drawing of proper conclusions from what one sees. Its purpose is to educate the child in terms of his environment, to the end that his life may be fuller and richer. Nature-study is not the study of a science, as of botany, entomology, geology, and the like. That is, it takes the things at hand and endeavors to understand them, without reference primarily to the systematic order or relationships of objects. It is informal, as are the objects which one sees. It is entirely divorced from mere definitions, or from formal explanations in books. It is therefore supremely natural. It trains the eye and the mind to see and to comprehend the common things of life; and the result is not directly the acquiring of science but the establishing of a living sympathy with everything that is.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '655974',
'title': 'Rigour',
'section': 'Section::::In specific disciplines.:Physics.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::1. First, there is the general question, sometimes called "Wigner\'s Puzzle", "how it is that mathematics, quite generally, is applicable to nature?" However, scientists believe that its record of successful application to nature justifies the study of mathematical physics.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '54962',
'title': 'Geophysics',
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'passage_text': 'Geophysics is a subject of natural science concerned with the physical processes and physical properties of the Earth and its surrounding space environment, and the use of quantitative methods for their analysis. The term "geophysics" sometimes refers only to the geological applications: Earth\'s shape; its gravitational and magnetic fields; its internal structure and composition; its dynamics and their surface expression in plate tectonics, the generation of magmas, volcanism and rock formation. However, modern geophysics organizations use a broader definition that includes the water cycle including snow and ice; fluid dynamics of the oceans and the atmosphere; electricity and magnetism in the ionosphere and magnetosphere and solar-terrestrial relations; and analogous problems associated with the Moon and other planets.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '252582',
'title': 'Landscape ecology',
'section': 'Section::::Important terms.:Scale and heterogeneity (incorporating composition, structure, and function).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
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'passage_text': 'A main concept in landscape ecology is "scale". Scale represents the real world as translated onto a map, relating distance on a map image and the corresponding distance on earth. Scale is also the spatial or temporal measure of an object or a process, or amount of spatial resolution. Components of scale include composition, structure, and function, which are all important ecological concepts. Applied to landscape ecology, "composition" refers to the number of patch types (see below) represented on a landscape and their relative abundance. For example, the amount of forest or wetland, the length of forest edge, or the density of roads can be aspects of landscape composition. "Structure" is determined by the composition, the configuration, and the proportion of different patches across the landscape, while "function" refers to how each element in the landscape interacts based on its life cycle events. "Pattern" is the term for the contents and internal order of a heterogeneous area of land.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14389994',
'title': 'Natural landscape',
'section': 'Section::::Origins of the term.:The natural and conservation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'Matters are complicated by the fact that the words nature and natural have more than one meaning. On the one hand there is the main dictionary meaning for nature: "The phenomena of the physical world collectively, including plants, animals, the landscape, and other features and products of the earth, as opposed to humans or human creations". On the other hand, there is the growing awareness, especially since Charles Darwin, of humanities biological affinity with nature.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does Math describe Nature so well ?',
'selftext': "I'm studying physics at the moment and am astonished at how beautifully interconnected all the equations are and how it all makes sense. How does math describe physics and all other sciences so well?",
'category': 'Mathematics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Well, remember, we designed the math to describe nature. There are tons of theories in mathematical physics that didn't describe natural phenomena all that well, so we discarded them.",
'The subset of Math you are studying, multi-variable calculus, was specifically developed to support physics in pursuit of an explanation of the real world. Lots of other Math, from set theory to calculus of variations to Morse-Bott theory, is just not related to the real world (even though C of V does have some optics implications). Math is a big subject.',
"Math came about and evolved from our attempts to understand the universe. It was not developed independently and then found to describe physical processes. What you are being taught is the end result of centuries of refining the mathematical models of observed phenomena- the efforts of hundreds of mathematicians, all building on what came before. The math was evolved specifically to show the beauty you are seeing now in how the universe operates. Just like a painter mixes colors to match what she or he sees, the mathematician derives formulas to match physical observation. \n \nThey may not be showing you all the false starts and incorrect theories. If this interests you, a couple recommendations: Einstein's own book on relativity is surprisingly accessible. James Gleick's book on Chaos is a fantastic example of how math is evolved to match nature, and it's a great read. \n\n",
'I disagree with most of the other posters. Math was NOT made to understand or represent nature. It is entirely separate. Mathematics is pure logic. There is nothing in nature we could find to contradict any mathematics, nor is there any possible universe where math could be different. Mathematics is the study of implications. If we know X then Y MUST also be true. There is nothing new we learn in terms of the world. Mathematics is usually understood as starting from a set of unprovable assumptions and then deriving what you can from it. Now the history of mathematics is filled with examples of us studying the type of problems we may see in our lives. How much material do I need to construct a fence around my field. How much stone do I need to build a pyramid. So a lot of the things we study are basically the abstractions of these type of problems, but there is nothing that necessarily makes that so.\n\nNow Mathematics is used in science mostly since it is good at showing the implications of structure and our universe has structure. The link to the world is usually grounded in the things which are seen as explaining that structure. Mass and distance are what is important about how an object moves due to gravity. We then know since the world has structure that if we know mass and distance, then we must know the gravity force. It is the same type of things as before. We find the things in nature such that we know some things, then we also MUST know these other things. Math is good at that. In some sense, the world must be predictable and uniform to some extent to even allow things like humans to exist, so predictable and uniform basically means there is structure we can codify in math.',
"This is a serious philosophical issue. Here is Wigner's take on it\n\n_URL_0_",
"In my experience, it doesn't describe Nature that well. Being an engineering student, there are many things that analytical mathematics just cannot do. For example- if you want to know where an orbiting body will be, even for the simplest case of a single gravitating body, a time relation for position is impossible to find. The only way to do this for the two, restricted three, three, or n body problem is repeated iteration, so you get a very accurate approximation, but not the exact answer. Many other things are this way in engineering. Fluid mechanics, turbulent flows, all of these can only be well approximated even though they're a natural process. Coiling honey falling from a spoon? Math can't explain that exactly either!"],
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'query_id': '5sgnao',
'query': 'how does math describe nature so well ?',
'query_type': 'Mathematics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '159266',
'title': 'Gene expression',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Gene expression is the process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a functional gene product. These products are often proteins, but in non-protein coding genes such as transfer RNA (tRNA) or small nuclear RNA (snRNA) genes, the product is a functional RNA.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48081378',
'title': 'Genomic and Medical Data',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The genome is the entire DNA content that is present within one cell of an organism. Experts in genomics strive to determine consummate DNA sequences and perform genetic mapping to help understand disease.Genomics involves the study of all genes at the DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid), mRNA (Messenger Ribonucleic Acid), and proteome level as well as the cellular or tissue level.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3631372',
'title': 'Inducer',
'section': 'Section::::Function.\n',
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'passage_text': 'For a gene to be expressed, its DNA sequence must be copied (in a process known as transcription) to make a smaller, mobile molecule called messenger RNA (mRNA), which carries the instructions for making a protein to the site where the protein is manufactured (in a process known as translation). Many different types of proteins can affect the level of gene expression by promoting or preventing transcription. In prokaryotes (such as bacteria), these proteins often act on a portion of DNA known as the operator at the beginning of the gene. The promoter is where RNA polymerase, the enzyme that copies the genetic sequence and synthesizes the mRNA, attaches to the DNA strand.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1098818',
'title': 'Gene expression programming',
'section': 'Section::::Encoding: the genotype.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'The genome of gene expression programming consists of a linear, symbolic string or chromosome of fixed length composed of one or more genes of equal size. These genes, despite their fixed length, code for expression trees of different sizes and shapes. An example of a chromosome with two genes, each of size 9, is the string (position zero indicates the start of each gene):\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42888',
'title': 'Human genome',
'section': 'Section::::Noncoding DNA (ncDNA).:Regulatory DNA sequences.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
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'passage_text': 'The human genome has many different regulatory sequences which are crucial to controlling gene expression. Conservative estimates indicate that these sequences make up 8% of the genome, however extrapolations from the ENCODE project give that 20-40% of the genome is gene regulatory sequence. Some types of non-coding DNA are genetic "switches" that do not encode proteins, but do regulate when and where genes are expressed (called enhancers).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6235',
'title': 'Cell nucleus',
'section': 'Section::::Function.:Gene expression.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 62,
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'passage_text': 'Gene expression first involves transcription, in which DNA is used as a template to produce RNA. In the case of genes encoding proteins, that RNA produced from this process is messenger RNA (mRNA), which then needs to be translated by ribosomes to form a protein. As ribosomes are located outside the nucleus, mRNA produced needs to be exported.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12388',
'title': 'Genome',
'section': 'Section::::Origin of term.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The term "genome" was created in 1920 by Hans Winkler, professor of botany at the University of Hamburg, Germany. The Oxford Dictionary suggests the name is a blend of the words "gene" and "chromosome". However, see omics for a more thorough discussion. A few related "-ome" words already existed, such as "biome" and "rhizome", forming a vocabulary into which "genome" fits systematically.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Genome vs. gene expression',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Genome are all of your genes in your DNA.\n\nGene expression is wheter or not a gene is expressed.\n\nWe, human, have lots of DNA but only a minority of it is expressed, it\'s called "coding DNA" , the non expressed part of our DNA is very much studied now because we realised how important it could be in terms of regulation of the coding DNA and its implication in diseases.\n\nAnd lots of things affect expression, like non-coding DNA seems to regulate coding DNA. \n\n & #x200B;',
"Your genome is all the DNA that defines how your body operates. It's the same in all the cells in your body (except for sperm/egg cells - they have half your genome).\n\nGene expression defines what kind of cell each one is. So a skin cell and a muscle cell have different gene expression patterns.\n\nGene expression regulation is *incredibly* complicated, but the most basic principle is described by the central dogma of biology. DNA is transcribed to RNA and RNA is translated to proteins. Proteins do most of the work in a cell, including transcription and translation. They also regulate transcription and translation.\n\nTo define where a transcription starts and ends, the DNA has specific codes that are recognized by a protein RNA polymerase which starts making an RNA version of the gene. The binding of the RNA polymerase is regulated by other proteins called transcription factors. These can be regulated by chemicals, hormones etc. Transcription factors enhance or decrease the ability of the RNA polymerase to make mRNA.\n\nThe way the DNA is structured also determines what genes are expressed. The DNA strands are wound around histones. The histones are grouped in such a way that some DNA is accessible, while other DNA is blocked in. Different types of histones have different configurations, and so they affect which genes are expressed.\n\nOnce the mRNA is made, it can be translated into proteins, but again there are mechanisms that affect this. Some non-coding RNA is made by the RNA polymerase, and these can trigger degradation of mRNA to further regulate which proteins are ultimately produced by the cell.\n\nSo to summarize, expression is affected by the cell type and signals from inside and outside the cells (chemicals, sugars, hormones etc.). The regulation uses structure (histones etc.), protein signals (transcription factors etc.) and RNA signals to determine which genes are expressed (meaning which proteins are made)."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'a3o81v',
'query': 'genome vs. gene expression',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '4782123',
'title': 'Units of energy',
'section': 'Section::::Food industry.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'The calorie equals the amount of thermal energy necessary to raise the temperature of one gram of water by 1 Celsius degree, from a temperature of 14.5 degrees Celsius, at a pressure of 1 atm. For thermochemistry a calorie of 4.184 J is used, but other calories have also been defined, such as the International Steam Table calorie of 4.1868 J. Food energy is measured in large calories or kilocalories, often simply written capitalized as "Calories" (= 10 calories).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16270616',
'title': 'Glossary of environmental science',
'section': 'Section::::C.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- calorie – a basic measure of energy that has been replaced by the SI unit the joule; in physics it approximates the energy needed to increase the temperature of 1\xa0gram of water by 1\xa0°C which is about 4.184 joules. The Calories in food ratings (spelled with a capital C) and nutrition are ‘big C’ Calories or kcal.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39219551',
'title': 'A calorie is a calorie',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The tautological phrase means that regardless of the form of food calorie a person consumes (whether a carbohydrate, protein or fat calorie) the energetic value of such a calorie, is identical to any other. One dietary calorie contains 4,184 joules of energy. With this knowledge, it is easy to assume that all calories have equal value.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6423',
'title': 'Calorie',
'section': 'Section::::Nutrition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': 'To facilitate comparison, specific energy or energy density figures are often quoted as "calories per serving" or "kilocalories per 100\xa0g". A nutritional requirement or consumption is often expressed in calories per day. One gram of fat in food contains nine calories, while a gram of either a carbohydrate or a protein contains approximately four calories. Alcohol in a food contains seven calories per gram.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33366803',
'title': 'Introduction to the metric system',
'section': 'Section::::Units.:Science and technology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 60,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Calorie (cal) – a non-SI unit of energy that is still used in the food industry (which uses "calories" and "kilocalories" interchangeably to denote the kilogram-calorie, or 1000 small calories). The calorie was defined as the energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of water by 1\xa0°C. Any measurement that uses calories can also use joules, using the conversion , or for the dietary ("large") calorie.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29979736',
'title': 'Snacking',
'section': 'Section::::Healthy snacking.:Nutrient density and energy density.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
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'passage_text': "In contrast to nutrient density, energy density is the amount of calories per gram of food. For instance, snacking on two scoops (1 c.) of chocolate ice cream contains 287 calories per 132\xa0grams making the energy density 2.17. As an alternative, one could have a snack containing celery (2 stalks), peanut butter (1 Tbsp), milk (1 c.), and an apple, which would contain similar calorie content (281 calories), but weigh 478\xa0grams making the energy density .59. Other alternatives include salads, fruits, nuts, frozen yogurt, and cereal (1 c.) without milk. Especially when one's under pressure or frustrated, a low energy density is preferable because the food has a low ratio of calories to grams, allowing one to consume more food per calorie. Choosing a healthy snack with lower energy density will increase the amount of food one can ingest, and thus increase satiation and satiety levels, while increasing nutrient intake compared to chocolate ice cream.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5391288',
'title': 'Bicycle performance',
'section': 'Section::::Energy efficiency.:Energy input.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'The energy input to the human body is in the form of food energy, usually quantified in kilocalories [kcal] or kiloJoules [kJ=kWs]. This can be related to a certain distance travelled and to body weight, giving units such as kJ/(km∙kg). The rate of food consumption, i.e. the amount consumed during a certain period of time, is the input power. This can be measured in kcal/day or in J/s = W (1000 kcal/d ~ 48.5 W).\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If calories are the measure of how much energy there is in food - how can things be 0 calorie?',
'selftext': "I mean - isn't there still energy in those 0 calorie cookies? Would you starve to death if you tried to live on those and Coke Zero?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Yes. It has zero nutritional value. Zero calorie stuff is just a bunch of chemicals that your brain tells you is tasting good.',
"Yes, you'd starve. 0-calorie food is made of stuff you can't digest. Since you can't digest it, it comes out in basically the same form it came in, which often causes... intestinal difficulties.\n\nDue to some wiggle room in labeling laws, you can have up to 5 calories/serving and still label food as 0-calorie.",
"ok, so essentially calories are the value attributed to the amount of simple and complex sugars that a material has inside of it. Wether that's carbohydrates, fats or protein calories are the estimated value of how much energy that food stores in it.\n\nCalorie free, or extremely low-calorie foods use substitute ingredients to provide something that may still have nutritional values, however provides very little in the way of caloric value.\n\nCase in point, Coke Zero. While it helps quench your thirst, and will settle/calm your stomach, it will not provide you any significant boost in energy. This is because Coke Zero is made with many inorganic and processed chemicals that will not provide your body with beneficial nutrition or chemical based energy that it needs. The chemicals pass through your body almost undisturbed until you either pee/poop them out. The only useful thing is whatever water your body can strip chemicals off of to use.\n\nOther foods, such as rice cakes, may have 1-2 calories, however still have other minerals and nutrints, such as sodium or Vitamin A, but still have no fuel to add to the mix.\n\nIts like your body is a car. Do you need brake fluid? not every day. Do you need oil? Yes, but in small amounts every 1-4 months. Do you need Gas? Yes, every 2-5 days depending on how you drive.\n\nIn this instance, equate GAS to CALORIES. Oil, transmission fluid, etc... these are going to be other minerals and vitamins you NEED, but arn't actively used to make you GO. They work with the things that make you GO to make sure you keep GOING, but they arn't the fuel your body burns."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '5w8cd4',
'query': 'if calories are the measure of how much energy there is in food - how can things be 0 calorie?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '392690',
'title': 'Console game',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The differences between consoles create additional challenges and opportunities for game developers, as the console manufacturers (e.g. Nintendo, Microsoft, Sony) may provide extra incentives, support and marketing for console exclusive games. To aid development of games for consoles, manufacturers often create game development kits that developers can use for their work.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '773853',
'title': 'Game programming',
'section': 'Section::::Tools.:Programming languages.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
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'passage_text': 'For consoles, the support of the target platform is usually the most considered factor. In the past, video games for consoles were written almost exclusively in assembly due to limited resources in terms of both storage and processing speed. However, as technology has advanced, so have the options for game development on consoles. Nintendo, Microsoft, and Sony all have differing SDKs for their Wii U, Nintendo Switch, Xbox One, and PlayStation 4 consoles, respectively.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4373654',
'title': 'Video game culture',
'section': 'Section::::Video game and traditional media forms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 90,
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'passage_text': 'Computer games have developed in parallel to both the video game and the arcade video game. The personal computer and console machines such as the Dreamcast, Nintendo GameCube, PlayStation 2 and Xbox offered a new dimension to game playing. The consoles have now largely been replaced by the Xbox 360, Wii and, the PlayStation 4, and the personal computer is still a leading gaming machine..\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60168818',
'title': 'Platform ecosystem',
'section': 'Section::::Example.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'Video game systems are an iconic example of platform ecosystems. Consoles need to launch with high quality games. Since it is difficult to induce game developers to make games for a console that has not yet been widely adopted, most game console producers must produce games themselves (or subsidize their production) to ensure that high quality games are available when the console launches. On the other hand, end users want more games than just those produced by the console producer, so console producers like Microsoft, Sony and Nintendo also license third-party developers to produce games for their consoles. They carefully screen the licensed games for quality and compatibility, and they may require the game developers to sign exclusivity agreements or to customize the games for the console.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39901743',
'title': 'List of PowerPC-based game consoles',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Even though these consoles share much in regard to instruction set architecture, game consoles are still highly specialized computers so it is not common for games to be readily portable or compatible between devices. Only Nintendo has kept a level of portability between their consoles, and even there it is not universal.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3879451',
'title': 'Gaming computer',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Because of the large variety of parts that can go into a computer built to play video games, gaming computers are frequently custom-assembled, rather than pre-assembled, either by gaming and hardware enthusiasts or by companies that specialize in producing custom gaming machines. In order to generate interest, gaming computer manufacturers that sell complete systems often produce boutique models, allowing them to compete on aesthetic design in addition to the hardware inside.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3879451',
'title': 'Gaming computer',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'In modern times, the primary difference between a gaming computer and a comparable mainstream PC is the inclusion of a performance-oriented video card, which hosts a graphics processor and dedicated memory. These are generally a requirement to play modern games on the market.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why aren’t more major electronics companies making video game consoles?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The cost is way too high for the profits available. You have to invest huge sums in games and then make profit from selling hardware at very low margins. It's more a question of why anybody is still making consoles.",
"There is almost zero profit in consoles. They are loss leaders. For a while, Microsoft was losing $100 for every XBox sold, but they try to make it back with games. So unless you own a crapload of game studios, it's not worth it to make the hardware.",
'For a console to be successful, it has to have a large following, and a lot of development behind it. That’s hard to create from nothing. Also, most people only have room in their lives and budgets to devote to one console. A customer that has put a lot of $$$ into one console usually can’t afford to do the same with another, and has less incentive to do so. What you see (PS, Xbox, Nintendo) are the three current exceptions to the rule that creating a console is damn difficult.\n\nIt’s a lot like smartphones and why they quickly converged on just two major players. It’s no coincidence that both were created by huge corporations with a solid vision and a crapload of resources to risk on the venture. ',
"First, creating a console takes a lot of time and money. If they don't sell enough, they lose lots of money.\n\nThey have to compete with other consoles that exist. Are you going to buy a PlayStation, an XBox, or a Huawei JoyMech? \n\nAll the companies making games? You're saying they need to translate games even more. It already takes time and money to translate a game from Windolish to Xboxese and PlayStationian. Now they have to translate it into JoyMechan as well?\n\n OUYA tried doing this halfway. It used a language that was already out there (Android) and simply made things show bigger on a TV and use a consult controller. \n\nIt still failed, badly. Barely lasted 3 years. The problem? \n\nNobody wanted to make games for this new thing. Nobody wanted to make games in a new language. Not enough people wanted to buy the new thing instead of another Xbox. \n\nAnd there wasn't enough people using it to make high enough sales and make money."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7sk9lx',
'query': 'why aren’t more major electronics companies making video game consoles?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '454300',
'title': 'Constellation program',
'section': 'Section::::Missions.:Justification for a return to the Moon.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 62,
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'passage_text': 'The National Space Society (NSS), a private nonprofit, regards a return to the Moon as a high priority for the US space program, in order to develop the body of scientific knowledge of the Moon, particularly in regards to its potential for the creation of new industries, in order to provide further funding for further space exploration.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38293476',
'title': 'List of missions to the Moon',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': "Missions to the Moon have been conducted by the Soviet Union, United States, European Space Agency, Japan, India, People's Republic of China and Israel. The Moon has also been visited by five spacecraft not dedicated to studying it; four spacecraft have flown past it to gain gravity assistance, and a radio telescope, Explorer 49, was placed into selenocentric orbit in order to use the Moon to block interference from terrestrial radio sources.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4478991',
'title': 'CSTS',
'section': 'Section::::Background.:CSTS as an answer to the Orion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'In a July 2006 interview with New Scientist, NASA Administrator Mike Griffin however suggested interest in international cooperation in the general context of NASA\'s Moon exploration plans. ""The US will return to the Moon but we think we will do it better, that it will be more rewarding for all, if it can do it in the company of as many of our ISS partners as we can, and with new partners."" In this statement Griffin speaks of a general cooperation, not a cooperation in developing the Orion, the actual vehicle to be used for Moon missions, which will be an entirely American built spacecraft.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8319448',
'title': 'Lunar outpost (NASA)',
'section': 'Section::::Criticism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 47,
'end_character': 790,
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'passage_text': 'Buzz Aldrin, the second of twelve men to have walked on the Moon, disagrees with NASA\'s current goals and priorities, including their plans for a lunar outpost. While not necessarily opposed to sending people back to the Moon, Aldrin argues that NASA should concentrate on a crewed mission to Mars and leave further lunar exploration and the establishment of a base there to a consortium of other countries under U.S. leadership. In a July 2009 editorial in the "Washington Post", he said that NASA\'s Vision for Space Exploration "is not visionary; nor will it ultimately be successful in restoring American space leadership. Like its Apollo predecessor, this plan will prove to be a dead end littered with broken spacecraft, broken dreams and broken policies." He continued by saying that\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50080688',
'title': 'Rice–Texas football rivalry',
'section': 'Section::::Kennedy speech.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 567,
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'passage_text': '"But why, some say, the moon? Why choose this as our goal? And they may well ask, why climb the highest mountain? Why, 35\xa0years ago, fly the Atlantic? Why does Rice play Texas? We choose to go to the moon! We choose to go to the moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard, because that goal will serve to organize and measure the best of our energies and skills, because that challenge is one that we are willing to accept, one we are unwilling to postpone, and one which we intend to win, and the others, too."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '770420',
'title': 'Rice Stadium (Rice University)',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Kennedy speech.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 567,
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'passage_text': '"But why, some say, the moon? Why choose this as our goal? And they may well ask, why climb the highest mountain? Why, 35\xa0years ago, fly the Atlantic? Why does Rice play Texas? We choose to go to the moon! We choose to go to the moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard, because that goal will serve to organize and measure the best of our energies and skills, because that challenge is one that we are willing to accept, one we are unwilling to postpone, and one which we intend to win, and the others, too."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8941807',
'title': 'Lunar Explorers Society',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'The Moon has not been visited by man since 1972, and though the first manned exploration efforts provided a huge scientific return, no further human exploration of the Moon has been done. However, several robotic lunar exploration missions have been conducted since the beginning of the 1990s. These missions fuelled the desire to return to the Moon among many lunar enthusiasts, and this was the background for the establishment of the Lunar Explorers Society in 2000.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does some scientists/countries still want to go on the moon ?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The moon is the closest large object to earth in space, so going to the moon allows us to develop and test a lot of technology related to landing on and moving around on solid, non-earth objects. Mars would be better to colonize for several reasons (atmosphere, temperature, soil, similar hours in a day, etc.), but we don't have the technology to set up a space colony yet and the moon is a much closer place to do testing.",
'The single largest reason is that it has a lower "Delta V" than Earth. That\'s just a way of saying that since the escape velocity on Earth is about four times higher than the Moon, it costs a lot more fuel to lift the same load out of Earth\'s gravity well than the Moon\'s.* If we\'re serious about doing things in space, and not just LEO, we\'re going to need to address the high Dv required to leave Earth. Fuel is *expensive* in every sense, because the essential problem of rocketry is that you have to lift your own fuel. Therefore fuel savings become a massive proposition, defining what kind of loads you can affordably send into LEO or further. \n\nThe reason why people look at the moon, is that it\'s a compromise between a pure space station, and a colony. You can reap the benefits of having a *little* gravity, while still having close access to freefall and vacuum. As with Mars, shielding from radiation would be accomplished by tunneling, and there might be something useful for fuel conversion there as well. It doesn\'t present all of the advantages of a space station or a bubble-formed asteroid colony, but it has the advantage of being something we actually could conceivably make soon.\n\nThe problems are numerous though, and while the Moon has a much lower gravity than Earth, it\'s still a problem. \n\n*Actually Dv is just "Change in velocity" and is shorthand for all of the acceleration you\'ll need for the whole mission, most of which is going to be a result of escaping from Earth\'s gravity well. Obvious Dv is a function of the gravity well you\'re in, and obvious how much you need to accelerate defines your fuel budget. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5vrc53',
'query': 'why does some scientists/countries still want to go on the moon ?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '10456310',
'title': 'Amtolmetin guacil',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism of action.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 239,
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'passage_text': 'Amtolmetin guacil stimulates capsaicin receptors present on gastrointestinal walls, because of presence of vanillic moiety and also releases NO which is gastro protective. It also inhibits prostaglandin synthesis and cyclooxygenase (COX).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2910903',
'title': 'Enteric coating',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 856,
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'passage_text': 'By preventing the drug from dissolving into the stomach, enteric coating may protect gastric mucosa from the irritating effects of the medication itself. When the drug reaches the neutral or alkaline environment of the intestine, its active ingredients can then dissolve and become available for absorption into the bloodstream. Drugs that have an irritant effect on the stomach, such as aspirin or potassium chloride, can be coated with a substance that will dissolve only in the small intestine. However, it has been shown that enteric coated aspirin may lead to incomplete inhibition of platelets. Likewise, certain groups of proton pump inhibitors (esomeprazole, omeprazole, pantoprazole and all grouped azoles) are acid-activated. For such types of drugs, enteric coating added to the formulation tends to avoid activation in the mouth and esophagus.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32127388',
'title': 'FODMAP',
'section': 'Section::::Absorption.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 292,
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'passage_text': 'Nevertheless, although FODMAPs can cause certain digestive discomfort in some people, not only do they not cause intestinal inflammation, but they help to prevent it because they produce beneficial alterations in the intestinal flora that contribute to maintain the good health of the colon.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '210596',
'title': 'Irritable bowel syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Management.:Diet.:FODMAP.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 70,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 70,
'end_character': 812,
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'passage_text': 'FODMAPs are fermentable oligo-, di-, monosaccharides and polyols, which are poorly absorbed in the small intestine and subsequently fermented by the bacteria in the distal small and proximal large intestine. This is a normal phenomenon, common to everyone. The resultant production of gas potentially results in bloating and flatulence. Although FODMAPs can produce certain digestive discomfort in some people, not only do they not cause intestinal inflammation, but they avoid it, because they produce beneficial alterations in the intestinal flora that contribute to maintain the good health of the colon. FODMAPs are not the cause of irritable bowel syndrome nor other functional gastrointestinal disorders, but rather a person develops symptoms when the underlying bowel response is exaggerated or abnormal.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1395311',
'title': 'Food intolerance',
'section': 'Section::::Research directions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 70,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 70,
'end_character': 1215,
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'passage_text': 'FODMAPs are fermentable oligo-, di-, monosaccharides and polyols, which are poorly absorbed in the small intestine and subsequently fermented by the bacteria in the distal small and proximal large intestine. This is a normal phenomenon, common to everyone. The resultant production of gas potentially results in bloating and flatulence. Although FODMAPs can produce certain digestive discomfort in some people, not only do they not cause intestinal inflammation, but they avoid it, because they produce beneficial alterations in the intestinal flora that contribute to maintain the good health of the colon. FODMAPs are not the cause of irritable bowel syndrome nor other functional gastrointestinal disorders, but rather a person develops symptoms when the underlying bowel response is exaggerated or abnormal. A low-FODMAP diet might help to improve short-term digestive symptoms in adults with irritable bowel syndrome, but its long-term follow-up can have negative effects because it causes a detrimental impact on the gut microbiota and metabolome. It should only be used for short periods of time and under the advice of a specialist. More studies are needed to assess the true impact of this diet on health.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1051772',
'title': 'Staphylococcal enteritis',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 318,
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'passage_text': 'Staphylococcal enteritis is an inflammation that is usually caused by eating or drinking substances contaminated with staph enterotoxin. The toxin, not the bacterium, settles in the small intestine and causes inflammation and swelling. This in turn can cause abdominal pain, cramping, dehydration, diarrhea and fever.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24866018',
'title': 'Capsinoids',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanisms of action: capsaicin vs. capsinoids.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 471,
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'passage_text': 'Like capsaicin, capsinoids activate TRPV1 receptors, although they are not hot in the mouth. Capsinoids cannot reach the TRPV1 oral cavity receptors, located slightly below the surface in the mouth, because of structural differences from capsaicin. On the other hand, both capsaicin and capsinoids activate TRPV1 receptors in the same manner. Research has indicated that the TRPV1 receptors in the gut are important for the metabolic effects of capsaicin and capsinoids.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why can you feel capsaicin irritating your mouth, stomach, and butt but don't seem to feel anything when it's passing through your intestines?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Oh I've felt it. You try some good peppers or other high scovile oily food and you feel it working it's way through. It's not the same sensation, but you know it's there.\n\nAs for why you feel it less sit is because capsaicin triggers pain receptors and your main gut just doesn't have many pain receptors. Why would it? Skin, mouth, and anus have way more pain receptors because they are far more likely to come into contact with pain causing things.",
'Capsaicin is similar to an oil. Acid breaks it down, so once in your stomach the acid breaks it down. This stops it from irritating the mucus membrane in your stomach and intestines. This is why spicy foods are often served with a lime.\n\nCapsaicin is also fat soluble, which is why milk products also help with the heat.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9575nh',
'query': "why can you feel capsaicin irritating your mouth, stomach, and butt but don't seem to feel anything when it's passing through your intestines?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '32512',
'title': 'Vitamin',
'section': 'Section::::Intake.:Effects of cooking.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 581,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The USDA has conducted extensive studies on the percentage losses of various nutrients from different food types and cooking methods. Some vitamins may become more "bio-available" – that is, usable by the body – when foods are cooked. The table below shows whether various vitamins are susceptible to loss from heat—such as heat from boiling, steaming, frying, etc. The effect of cutting vegetables can be seen from exposure to air and light. Water-soluble vitamins such as B and C dissolve into the water when a vegetable is boiled, and are then lost when the water is discarded.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '602960',
'title': 'Food processing',
'section': 'Section::::Benefits and drawbacks.:Drawbacks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 369,
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'passage_text': 'Processing of food can decrease its nutritional density. The amount of nutrients lost depends on the food and processing method. For example, heat destroys vitamin C. Therefore, canned fruits possess less vitamin C than their fresh alternatives. The USDA conducted a study of nutrient retention in 2004, creating a table of foods, levels of preparation, and nutrition.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24608545',
'title': 'Plateau principle',
'section': 'Section::::The plateau principle in nutrition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 578,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Dr. Wilbur O. Atwater, who developed the first database of food composition in the United States, recognized that the response to excessive or insufficient nutrient intake included an adjustment in efficiency that would result in a plateau. He observed: "It has been found by numerous experiments that when the nutrients are fed in large excess, the body may continue for a time to store away part of the extra material, but after it has accumulated a certain amount, it refuses to take on more, and the daily consumption equals the supply even when this involves great waste."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '602960',
'title': 'Food processing',
'section': 'Section::::Nutrient losses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 38,
'end_character': 597,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Processing foods often involves nutrient losses, which can make it harder to meet your needs if these nutrients aren\'t added back through fortification or enrichment. For example, using high heat during processing can cause vitamin C losses. Another example is refined grains, which have less fiber, vitamins and minerals than whole grains. Eating refined grains, such as those found in many processed foods, instead of whole grains may increase your risk for high cholesterol, diabetes and obesity, according to a study published in "The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition" in December 2007.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14133',
'title': 'Hydroponics',
'section': 'Section::::Nutrient solutions.:Inorganic hydroponic solutions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 89,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 89,
'end_character': 562,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Selective absorption of nutrients by plants often imbalances the amount of counterions in solution. This imbalance can rapidly affect solution pH and the ability of plants to absorb nutrients of similar ionic charge (see article membrane potential). For instance, nitrate anions are often consumed rapidly by plants to form proteins, leaving an excess of cations in solution. This cation imbalance can lead to deficiency symptoms in other cation based nutrients (e.g. Mg) even when an ideal quantity of those nutrients are dissolved in the solution.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '596383',
'title': 'Slow cooker',
'section': 'Section::::Disadvantages.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 761,
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'passage_text': 'Some vitamins and other trace nutrients are lost, particularly from vegetables, partially by enzyme action during cooking and partially due to heat degradation. When vegetables are cooked at higher temperatures these enzymes are rapidly denatured and have less time to act during cooking. Since slow cookers work at temperatures well below boiling point and do not rapidly denature enzymes, vegetables tend to lose trace nutrients. Blanched vegetables, having been exposed to very hot water, have already had these enzymes rendered largely ineffective, so a blanching or sauteing pre-cook stage leaves more vitamins intact. This is often a smaller nutrient loss than over-boiling and can be lessened to an extent by not removing the lid until the food is done.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '382619',
'title': 'TV dinner',
'section': 'Section::::Health concerns.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 687,
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'passage_text': 'The freezing process tends to degrade the taste of food and the meals are thus heavily processed with extra salt and fat to compensate. In addition, stabilizing the product for a long period typically means that companies will use partially hydrogenated vegetable oils for some items (typically dessert). Partially hydrogenated vegetable oils are high in trans fats and are shown to adversely affect cardiovascular health. The dinners are almost always significantly less nutritious than fresh food and are formulated to remain edible after long periods of storage, thus often requiring preservatives such as butylated hydroxytoluene. There is, however, some variability between brands.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Do nutrients in food change when heated/frozen, and if so, how?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Yes and no. Freezing won't change anything about the nutritional value of food, but cooking will. \n\nThere are many molecules that the human body cannot easily digest, and therefor cannot extract nutrients from. Cooking food can help to break those down into digestible molecules, and allows people to get a greater nutritional benefit from the food. There are also some chemicals our bodies need that can be broken down by high heat, so in those cases cooking can make things less nutritious."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'el0liq',
'query': 'do nutrients in food change when heated/frozen, and if so, how?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '33895801',
'title': 'Ivy Bridge (microarchitecture)',
'section': 'Section::::Ivy Bridge features and performance.:Thermal performance and heat issues when overclocking.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 30,
'end_character': 258,
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'passage_text': 'Intel claims that the smaller die of Ivy\xa0Bridge and the related increase in thermal density is expected to result in higher temperatures when the CPU is overclocked; Intel also stated that this is as expected and will likely not improve in future revisions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12008694',
'title': 'Junction temperature',
'section': 'Section::::Maximum junction temperature calculation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 433,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In modern processors from manufacturer such as Intel, AMD, Qualcomm , the core temperature is measured by a sensor. If the core reaches its TJMax, this will trigger a protection mechanism to cool the processor. If the temperature rises above the TJMax, the processor will trigger an alarm to warn the computer operator who can then discontinue the process that is causing the overheating or shut down the computer to prevent damage.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '208875',
'title': 'Underclocking',
'section': 'Section::::When used.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 441,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Some processors underclock automatically as a defensive measure, to prevent overheating which could cause permanent damage. When such a processor reaches a temperature level deemed too high for safe operation, the "thermal control circuit" activates, automatically decreasing the clock and CPU core voltage until the temperature has returned to a safe level. In a properly cooled environment, this mechanism should trigger rarely (if ever).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '798370',
'title': 'Computer cooling',
'section': 'Section::::Damage prevention.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 1224,
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'passage_text': 'Because high temperatures can significantly reduce life span or cause permanent damage to components, and the heat output of components can sometimes exceed the computer\'s cooling capacity, manufacturers often take additional precautions to ensure that temperatures remain within safe limits. A computer with thermal sensors integrated in the CPU, motherboard, chipset, or GPU can shut itself down when high temperatures are detected to prevent permanent damage, although this may not completely guarantee long-term safe operation. Before an overheating component reaches this point, it may be "throttled" until temperatures fall below a safe point using dynamic frequency scaling technology. Throttling reduces the operating frequency and voltage of an integrated circuit or disables non-essential features of the chip to reduce heat output, often at the cost of slightly or significantly reduced performance. For desktop and notebook computers, throttling is often controlled at the BIOS level. Throttling is also commonly used to manage temperatures in smartphones and tablets, where components are packed tightly together with little to no active cooling, and with additional heat transferred from the hand of the user.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21306150',
'title': 'Random-access memory',
'section': 'Section::::Memory wall.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 46,
'end_character': 219,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'CPU speed improvements slowed significantly partly due to major physical barriers and partly because current CPU designs have already hit the memory wall in some sense. Intel summarized these causes in a 2005 document.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21808348',
'title': 'Computer hardware',
'section': 'Section::::Types of computer systems.:Personal computer.:Motherboard.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 618,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The CPU (central processing unit), which performs most of the calculations which enable a computer to function, and is sometimes referred to as the brain of the computer. It is usually cooled by a heatsink and fan, or water-cooling system. Most newer CPUs include an on-die graphics processing unit (GPU). The clock speed of CPUs governs how fast it executes instructions, and is measured in GHz; typical values lie between 1\xa0GHz and 5\xa0GHz. Many modern computers have the option to overclock the CPU which enhances performance at the expense of greater thermal output and thus a need for improved cooling.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '49420',
'title': 'CMOS',
'section': 'Section::::Temperature range.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 62,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 62,
'end_character': 279,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'There were theoretical indications as early as August 2008 that silicon CMOS will work down to –233\xa0°C (40\xa0K). Functioning temperatures near 40\xa0K have since been achieved using overclocked AMD Phenom II processors with a combination of liquid nitrogen and liquid helium cooling.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do CPU temperatures drop so rapidly?',
'selftext': 'I was using Intel Power Gadget to monitor my Mac’s CPU temps, and I noticed that the temperature would sometimes drop from 80 degrees to around 70 within a second. It makes sense to me why the temps would increase cause the electrons moving through the CPU cause that. But how can the temps drop so immediately when all these processes are going on?',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Depends on the exact configuation, but computers have fantastically efficient cooling systems onboard to keep the CPU at safe temperatures when just idling/keeping the OS running, that can max out to disperse more heat when it's doing heavy processing.",
"It's measuring the temperature of the CPU die, which is very small (The size of your thumbnail, or a US dime). The die has a very low thermal capacitance, meaning it does not store heat very well. So when it stops producing as much heat, the temperature drops very quickly as the head spreader and heat sink absorb and dissipate the heat.",
"The temperature sensor you're reading is most likely part of the silicon die, and inside a particular CPU core(which is very small, so it doesn't have much thermal mass). As the silicon in a CPU has the same atomic structure as diamond, it has a very high thermal conductivity, so when heat stops being generated in this particular core, the core temperature drops to the average die temperature very quickly. \n\nIt takes much longer for the average die temperature or the heatsink temperature to change. This is why when you start a stress test the temperature will jump up almost instantly, but then slowly creep up as the heatsink comes up to the new equilibrium temperature. \n\nFor an analogy: The CPU core(what you're measuring), is the heating element of a stove, while the heatsink temperature is the pot of water on top of it. If you boil a pot of water, the heating element will heat up much more quickly than the pot of water, and can get hot enough to glow red. When you turn the burner off, it very quickly cools down to not-glowing temperatures, but it will take a long time for the temperature to go all the way back down to room temperature because the pot of water is still holding a lot of heat."],
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '215509',
'title': 'Paleolithic diet',
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'passage_text': 'The digestive abilities of anatomically modern humans, however, are different from those of pre-"H. s. sapiens" humans, which has been used to criticize the diet\'s core premise. During the 2.6 million year-long Paleolithic era, the highly variable climate and worldwide spread of human populations meant that humans were, by necessity, nutritionally adaptable. Supporters of the diet mistakenly presuppose that human digestion has remained essentially unchanged over time.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '53970984',
'title': 'Pleistocene human diet',
'section': 'Section::::Neolithic adaptations.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The evolution of the human diet has not stopped since the end of the Paleolithic. Major functional adaptations have arisen in the last few thousand years as human technology has altered the environment. The most prevalent dietary adaptation since the Neolithic is lactase persistence, an adaptation that allows humans to digest milk. This adaptation appears roughly 4000 years ago in Europe. For populations more dependent on agriculture and domesticated animals, the importance of being able to add another edible resource should be noted.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '53970984',
'title': 'Pleistocene human diet',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Due to the variety of environments inhabited, physiologies of the humans and human ancestors alive during the Paleolithic over 2.8 million years, we can’t ascribe a single set diet to any species, regional or cultural group. Increasing amounts of animal protein is viewed by some scientists as essential to the evolution of a larger human brain. Larger brain sizes required a greater caloric intake and the shift from earlier hominins is viewed as a generally greater reliance and shift to more animal protein (Aiello 2009). Meat eating was undoubtedly a factor in the increase in human brain size, but its importance in human diet cannot be assumed across all times and places, and is heavily dependent on the local environment. In colder climates meat might be necessary due to the decreased availability of plant based foods, and in hotter tropical climates a wider range of plants would be available.\n',
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'title': 'Paleolithic',
'section': 'Section::::Human way of life.:Diet and nutrition.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A modern-day diet known as the Paleolithic diet exists, based on restricting consumption to the foods presumed to be available to anatomically modern humans prior to the advent of settled agriculture.\n',
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'title': 'Human',
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'passage_text': 'Humans are omnivorous, capable of consuming a wide variety of plant and animal material. Varying with available food sources in regions of habitation, and also varying with cultural and religious norms, human groups have adopted a range of diets, from purely vegan to primarily carnivorous. In some cases, dietary restrictions in humans can lead to deficiency diseases; however, stable human groups have adapted to many dietary patterns through both genetic specialization and cultural conventions to use nutritionally balanced food sources. The human diet is prominently reflected in human culture, and has led to the development of food science.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '15760517',
'title': 'Sociology of food',
'section': 'Section::::Food Distribution.:Early History and Culture.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Since the beginning of mankind, food was important simply for the purpose of nourishment. As primates walked the Earth, they solely consumed food for a source of energy as they had to hunt and forage because food was not easily on hand. By early humans fending for themselves, they had figured out that they needed a high energy diet to keep going on a daily basis to survive.\n',
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'passage_text': "The diet advises eating only foods presumed to be available to Paleolithic humans, but there is wide variability in people's understanding of what foods these were, and an accompanying ongoing debate. The diet is based on avoiding not just modern processed foods, but also the foods that humans began eating after the Neolithic Revolution.\n",
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'title': 'How did humans develop such that a well balanced human diet consist of a wide variety of foods when throughout most of human history we only had access to a few foods?',
'selftext': "This seems like it'd doom our survival as a species.",
'category': 'Biology',
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'answers': ['Eating sub optimally does not mean a swift certain death. It means a slightly lower quality of life (think of how you feel from a week of eating fast food vs a week of eating healthy), deteriorating more quickly (your brain may slow down faster as you age), a slightly higher risk of developing disease, etc.\n\nGood nutrition is just maximizing your optimal health, not something as polarizing as going from dying of every disease at 20 vs living forever.',
'A \'well balanced diet\' is, in part, a fabrication from the advertising departments of food companies. Think "this bowl of Fruit Loops is part of a balanced healthy breakfast" \n\nAlso, consider that a lot of modern processed food lacks the overall nutrition of whole natural foods. \n\nSo if someone\'s diet consists largely of nutrient poor processed foods, then they really should try to \'eat a balanced diet\'. But a diet of whole/natural foods will be more balanced by default. \n\nIt\'s been popularized as the paleo diet. ',
'Grains, roots, leafy vegetables, fruits and meat were all available in the environment in which humans evolved. Agriculture provides more dependable food and selective breeding makes it more palatable. Except in areas of overpopulation, drought or war, a varied diet is and has been available.\n',
"It's not that the body evolved to need a well balanced diet- we humans can survive on pretty unbalanced food just fine.\n\nWhat a well balanced diet is is that we have discovered that certain food combinations optimize the nutrients that out body gets.\n\nThink of your body like a car, food is fuel, you can put pretty much any gasoline in your car as fuel. But, you know, some gasoline works better in your car than others, some leaves buildups that make the car run worse, some contain additives that help keep the engine cleaner, and there are different octane levels that, while they can all technically burn in your car, often there is one specific one that is best suited to being used.\n\nTL;DR: your body can get by on a lot of things, and the well balanced diet is less a requirement of your body than the result of a lot of trial and error trying to figure out what is most optimal to eat.",
"No one really answered this for you they just talked about diets so let me give it a shot. \nUntil recently the world was a large place with many isolated groups of people who would pick what foods could sustain them by their region. \nOnce regions were colonized and trade began, food options for those who benefitted from the trade increased. \nThousands of years for isolated groups to determine what suits their needs best per region then becomes a global buffet from trade. \nAnd like people and culture who make steps forward and back due to war, famine and natural disasters so does the food. \nAnthropologists often argue that new (past 100 years or so) mass agricultural techniques has limited our food diversity, with many plants and animals going extinct. \nAnd I doubt that will change much with Monsanto's great ideas for seed regulation and GMOs. ",
'Hunter/gatherer societies lived on an incredibly diverse diet, sometimes upwards of 70+ different fruits/grains/roots. Millions (billions) of people living off of wheat/rice/potatoes/corn is relatively new in the grand scheme of things ',
"You're looking at it the wrong way. Think of animals as complicated machines that can run on a variety of fuels. We can live long(ish) healthy(ish) lives in all kinds of environments, during all kinds of climates. We're adapted for versatility and survival.\n\nBut we've reached this point where, due to the intricacies of civilization, we can have very nearly ANY food that we want. So now we're in the middle of trying to figure out what combination of food is the very, very, very best for us. We could survive just fine living only on what we can grow and kill in a twenty mile radius of where we are right now (okay, not everybody can, but a surprising number of people could), but that isn't the question anymore. The new question is: what is OPTIMUM. And to figure that out, we can take a look at all of the people all over the world and start asking: which people have the best X and why is that? Who has the healthiest skin? Is that because of the sun? The atmosphere where they live? Genetics? Or something that they eat? And how can w spread whatever causes that great skin to everyone in the world?",
"We evolved to eat as little as possible to survive and reproduce. Reproduction is the measure nothing else. If it doesn't contribute to survival and reproduction it is irrelevant. In fact evolutionarilly living a very long time isn't actually ideal since you are not reproducing and might not even be contributing.\n\nToday we really care about living a long life, living to your 50s is considered dying really young. Back in older times 50s was a pretty good age to reach! You may very well be seeing your grand kids or MAYBE even great-grandkids!",
"History, being the part of the human past that has been written down, is not that long. When you consider that the human digestive system has been evolving for millions of years, a few thousand is relatively small. In fact, the diet you are likely most familiar with is very uncommon throughout Homo sapiens' past. \n\n\nIn prehistory, the human diet was much more widely varied than it is today. Hunter/gatherers had to range far and wide to get the foods they needed to survive. It wasn't until a period known to archaeologists as the [neolithic(new stone age) period](_URL_1_) that humans began to narrow their food sources with agriculture(5-10k years ago) and a more sedentary life. The period is named this way because we find stone tools used for processing large quantities of grains associated with the time period. The most common of these are known as [manos and metates](_URL_0_).\n\n\nedit:spelling",
'There are a number of issues with the question/premise.\n\nA "well-balanced diet" is largely a nutrition science idea, and even the best nutrition science is still rather limited. There are a huge number of things about food that we don\'t know - it\'s actually a pretty complex subject. \n\nSo, what determines a "well-balanced" diet? If we\'re talking what makes people feel the best (energy, good sleep, etc.) and have the best medical markers of health (low blood pressure, low cholesterol, healthy weight, good lung capacity, good heart rate, etc) it\'s still likely to vary. Part of it is likely biology. We\'re just now learning more about how different cultures actually may extract different amounts of nutrients from the same food. (Asians vs. Caucasians eating seaweed for example, or being able to process soy products better.)\n\nBut even just, what works for your body? Some people swear by low carb, for example. I have no energy and am super cranky if I try low carb. \n\nLastly, "well-balanced diet" is not remotely necessary for survival. Arguably, a lot of people on a "western" diet don\'t eat "well-balanced" in any of the typical accepted versions of the term. Too much sugar, too much over-processed food, etc. But it\'s not necessary to eat a well-balanced diet simply to *survive.* You can survive in a lethargic state, in a tired state, with high blood pressure or cholesterol, etc. In fact, a lot of us *are* surviving in that state. It\'s not desirable, IMO, but it\'s happening.\n\nThe rise of "western" diseases like diabetes, hypertension, heart attacks.. a lot of these are diet-based, but it\'s not because we\'re trying to "diversify" or have a "well-balanced" diet. It\'s more likely (from what evidence we do have) the result of the *type* of diet we\'re consuming. The extra processed junk, the massive amounts of sugar, things like that.\n\nHumans by and large can survive on a wide range of diets, and even be pretty healthy on a lot of them. The idea of a "well-balanced" diet is science trying to figure out what it hasn\'t yet been able to solve. \n\nCheck out Michael Pollan\'s work on nutrition, like In Defense of Food. It\'s pretty fascinating stuff, tracking the rise of government food pyramids and the removal of "imitation" labeling, the anti-fat craze that was not medically backed, and a whole lot of looking at other cultures throughout history, and what they ate.\n\nIt\'s really interesting.',
'Our ancestors had access to more foods than you think. Just not all at once. As recently as the 19th century in northern climates during the winter fresh foods were reduced to things like potatoes, apples, carrots, and cabbages that would keep all winter. When spring came they were hungry for fresh food. Rhubarb is the first thing to come up, and stewed rhubarb was considered a tonic. Then all summer peas, beans, tomatoes, etc were eaten as they became available.\n\nMeat and fish were also available seasonally. So during the year they ate a varied diet as things came in and out of season.',
'We as a species have always retained a pretty high diversity of foods in our diet. If anything, we would likely not have evolved if it weren\'t for the ability of our hominid ancestors, specifically H. erectus, to cook and process food. There is a theory in evolutionary anthropology about the relative balance of the gut and the brain, sometimes referred to as the gray ceiling. The idea being that both the digestive tract and the brain are biologically "expensive" organs requiring lots calories to do their jobs. When H. erectus developed cooking anywhere from 750kya to 1mya, hominids suddenly gained the ability to get much more out of their foods, nutritionally speaking. Cooking and food processing made digestion easier, allowing for the greater extraction of nutrients, and allowing for the gradual increase in size and neural convolution of the hominid brain. If anything we have required dietary variation for our development as a species and to maintain the calories to support our complex brains.\n\nBy about 250kya, H. Sapiens appeared on the world stage, and by 20kya, we had developed agriculture. There has been lots written on the downsides of agriculture, especially as it pertains to overall health of localized human populations (the prevalence of dental caries in Native American populations really sticks out in my brain), but let\'s not lose sight of the forest for the trees: except in certain instances of localized population collapse due to crop failure, agriculture has been a huge net positive for human as a species. Agriculture has crucially provided us the ability to have a readily available source of high calorie foods and as such has supported the development of both cities and civilization as we understand them today. Even though the relative diversity of foods may have declined as groups developed crop specialization, humans have always required multiple food sources for proper nutrition and survival. While there is clearly a plethora of literature available evaluating the role of famine in causing local population collapse, the idea that humans as a species would subsist solely off of a single food source is a bit of a misconception. The Native American groups of the Southwest subsisted on more than just maize. Unless there were extreme circumstances affecting a localized population, such as a natural disaster or crop collapse, humans have always sought out food diversity by supplementing major crops with other vegetables, adding protein to their diet through animal meat and/or milk, and by trading with other groups for other types of food. This has been the ultimate key to our species\' success.\n\ntl;dr--While agricultural development created a sort of dietary bottleneck, it has never been so extreme as to cause a species-wide population collapse. In actuality, the ready availability of calorie dense food brought about by the development of agriculture far outweighed any nutritional deficits on a species wide scale and ultimately led to rapid population growth.\n\nSource: Masters in Biological anthropology/human skeletal bio',
"It's just not true.\n\nNatural human diet is a really low-calorie one. Some people can live a decent life with 60gr of rice a day (250 cal/day).\n\nThe problem is the american 2000 cal/day diet. Without variety, it kills you.",
'Since all humans on earth began as hunter gatherers, there was really no need for major food production or farming. The thought process of most early hunter gatherers began with preferences to what is available around them. Back in the late Pleistocene hunter gathers were still active because wild animals were abundant. Thus yielding more calories and higher reward than farming or domesticating wild edible plants. However, if we look at the Fertile Crescent which began major food production around 8,500 BC, we can see that a big factor in domestication and farming of local native plants is the advancement of farming technology. We see flint sickles, woven baskets, tools for grinding cereals and breaking husks, and even the process of toasting edible seeds so that they do not sprout in storage. With the advancement of food production came an increase of population density. There is a correlation between farming and population density. With more population there are more people to work. This allowed people to focus on farming and others to focus on the other necessities of a community. With that also came trade. In this sense the trade was founder plants that could be taken to other parts of the world to begin a variety of available goods. For example, around 2500 B.C. Southern Native Americans traded with Mexican Indians (who had an efficient system of food production) and began growing new crops such as beans and corn. All of these processes began a cycle that leads us to the availability of a wide variety of foods and goods. ',
"You're looking at it backwards. It's not that you have to have dozens of foods or else you die. It's that you can survive off of many different types of diets, and still keep going. Sure, you're at your best when you have a varied diet, but that isn't always required.\n\nThis is very different than something like a Koala, which can ONLY eat eucalyptus leaves, or a panda that can ONLY eat bamboo. \n\nMost animals require foods that are only available in certain types of ecosystems. Humans on the other hand, have evolved the ability to survive in EVERY ecosystem.",
"Before humans settled down and started growing their own food, they ate a much wider variety of foods. They also were much healthier. They ate hundreds of different plants and animals on a regular basis, compared to a few dozen at most for much of agricultural history. Pre-agriculture humans were taller on average than humans are today, and had considerably less tooth decay than humans have for most of history since. They also didn't have the sort of repetitive stress injuries that their agricultural descendants got from grinding seeds into flour for hours on end. \n\nThat said, the humans that didn't settle down and accept crappier health outcomes were never able to accumulate much stuff, or develop much advanced culture, or develop advanced weapons and other technology like their agricultural cousins. The difference in capabilities was so great that the agricultural humans could just march in and take the land that the hunter-gatherer humans were living on, and the hunter-gatherers couldn't do anything about it. Not only did they not have the technology, but they didn't have the numbers, since agriculture allowed for much higher population densities.\n\nTL;DR: Adapting to eating fewer types of food was good for the survival of the community, but bad for the survival of the individual.",
'Why do you think humans only had access to a few foods? Humans had access to a wide variety of foods, such as animals, fish, mollusks, fungi, fruit, root vegetables, various herbs, wild grains, LOTS of stuff. ',
'Organisms that can eat a wide variety of food are more likely to survive, reproduce, and pass on those omnivorous traits.',
'Copied and changed a comment I made lower down. We ate primarily plants, roots, tubers, etc. were staples. Hunter gatherers, depending on location, are traditionally about a 70/30 split between plant matter and meat. I think you\'re also making the assumption that the most of human history has been post agriculture. Humans were primarily hunter gatherers for longer than we\'ve been farming. \n\nHumans ate literally everything that was edible. Before, the rise of civilization hunter gatherers had access to the best environments, which is where people typically settled pushing out the surrounding people as it expanded and biomes were changed by farmland. That meant that we weren\'t just eating roots and tubers, but wild onions and other "precursor" plants to common fruits and vegetables of today, as well as lots of leaves and natural herbs which were packed with nutrition. \n\nA typical hunter gatherer group would stay in a particular spot for a short amount of time until they exhausted most of the easy food, depending on need of course, for a few miles around. Then they move to a new spot outside of their foraging range and stay there until there isn\'t easy food. This could be as short as a few days if they\'re on the move to weeks/months at where they spend the spring/summer months, all depending on location. This means that they might subsist on one particular plant for a little while as a staple, with other little things being thrown in. Then move to a new area with a slightly different diet/move entire regions if they migrate. This means that we needed to be able to live on a large variety of food types and this constant moving meant that most diets weren\'t just one food and people didn\'t become deficient in things because of variety. It wasn\'t until people became sedentary and the agricultural revolution happened that people began subsisting on a few food sources year round and chronic deficiencies became a real problem. \n\nYes people lived longer, grow bigger, and support a bigger population because of more food but there\'s times in our history, medieval Europe for example, when the peasants were in worse condition than you would find in a stable hunter gatherer society. It was due to this evolution of being able to subsist on one particular food as a staple for months at a time that allowed people to live on several staple crops year round. Due to our nomadic nature we have to be very flexible in our diet and that has also led our bodies to be able to compensate when it runs into deficiencies.',
'What do you mean by "balanced diet"? I survive on cookies and peppermint tea. They\'re kinda hard to balance.',
'What do you mean we only had access to a few foods? Nature is bountiful, take any ancenstral human and Im sure they had access to a wide variety of food. Name any ancient human anywhere. ',
"There are some very good answers here, but not all of them address a common misconception:\n\nThere's no such thing as an essential food. Only essential nutrients. Your body doesn't care where the nutrients come from, only that it gets at least a little bit of each of them regularly. Most deficiencies that cause health problems don't set in for several weeks at least, so unless you're eating nothing but Doritos, you're probably getting trace amounts of all the essential nutrients from many sources.\n\nAnd there are even a few foods that contain a wide enough variety of nutrients, albeit in small quantities, that can sustain you almost indefinitely. Look at the Eskimos. They survive on almost nothing but whale and seal blubber for 8 months a year, with virtually no plants in their diet at all. It's basically pure fat, that's high in protein and calories, and very low in everything else. But they *can* survive on it because the blubber contains just enough of all your body's required vitamins and minerals to stave off severe deficiencies like scurvy (absence of vitamin C).",
"since when did we develop a well balanced diet? it seems like every few years scientific advice for a proper diet changes. I'm pretty sure being a dietician isn't even a real job.\n\nI've given up trying to figure out what to eat properly, because its just too much of a headache to find undisputed information. also we are fucking up the planet so much even healthy food like tuna needs to be moderated because of mercury levels. these days i just eat what i feel like and also try to eat so i feel good the next day as well. and I can go for a run or play sport without feeling sick.",
"Wait what? Before modernisation of human society you couldn't swing a soft juicy prey animal without discovering 3 new species of edible plants. We are currently living in the most narrow band of food options. Ever."],
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'passage_text': 'The route of transmission is important to epidemiologists because patterns of contact vary between different populations and different groups of populations depending on socio-economic, cultural and other features. For example, low personal and food hygiene due to the lack of a clean water supply may result in increased transmission of diseases by the fecal-oral route, such as cholera. Differences in incidence of such diseases between different groups can also throw light on the routes of transmission of the disease. For example, if it is noted that polio is more common in cities in underdeveloped countries, without a clean water supply, than in cities with a good plumbing system, we might advance the theory that polio is spread by the fecal-oral route.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A localized disease is an infectious or neoplastic process that originates in and is confined to one organ system or general area in the body, such as a sprained ankle, a boil on the hand, an abscess of finger.\n',
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'title': 'Oral and maxillofacial pathology',
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'passage_text': 'A great many diseases involve the mouth, jaws and orofacial skin. Some example pathologies which can involve the oral and maxillofacial region are listed. Some are more common than others, and this list is by no means complete. The examples are considered according to a surgical sieve.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Infection begins when an organism successfully enters the body, grows and multiplies. This is referred to as colonization. Most humans are not easily infected. Those who are weak, sick, malnourished, have cancer or are diabetic have increased susceptibility to chronic or persistent infections. Individuals who have a suppressed immune system are particularly susceptible to opportunistic infections. Entrance to the host at host-pathogen interface, generally occurs through the mucosa in orifices like the oral cavity, nose, eyes, genitalia, anus, or the microbe can enter through open wounds. While a few organisms can grow at the initial site of entry, many migrate and cause systemic infection in different organs. Some pathogens grow within the host cells (intracellular) whereas others grow freely in bodily fluids.\n',
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'title': 'Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas',
'section': 'Section::::Depopulation from disease.:Virulence and mortality.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Thus both infectious diseases and populations tend to evolve towards an equilibrium in which the common diseases are non-symptomatic, mild or manageably chronic. When a population that has been relatively isolated is exposed to new diseases, it has no resistance to the new diseases (the population is "biologically naive"). These people die at a much higher rate, resulting in what is known as a "virgin soil" epidemic. Before the European arrival, the Americas had been isolated from the Eurasian-African landmass. The peoples of the Old World had had thousands of years for their populations to accommodate to their common diseases.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Some diseases are capable of changing from local to disseminated diseases. Pneumonia, for example, is generally confined to one or both lungs but can become disseminated through sepsis, in which the microbe responsible for the pneumonia "seeds" the bloodstream or lymphatic system and is transported to distant sites in the body. When that occurs, the process is no longer described as a localized disease, but rather as a disseminated disease.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '56544854',
'title': 'Road expansion',
'section': 'Section::::Effects on societies.:Diseases.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Road expansion increases the incursion of common diseases into communities such as malaria and also increase the vulnerability of communities to previously uncommon diseases such as HIV. This occurs as pests and pathogens use roads as a pathway to spread from one place to another place. Human enteric pathogen levels, for instance, were 2–8-times higher in Ecuadorian villages near roads than in more remote areas and incursions of dengue fever, malaria, and HIV were higher among people living near roads than in remote communities.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do some diseases tend to localize to specific areas while others remain more general? For example, Hand, foot, and mouth disease, or genital herpes.',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["I suppose you're talking about communicable diseases. It all depends. But for viruses for instance, they can never infect a cell unless they bind to a receptor and get internalized. Not all cells express a receptor for a given virus, for example that's why you don't get the flu in your leg it binds to receptors in your airways. HIV to B cells in the immune system. Bacteria on the other hand, it depends on how they evolved. Some bacteria evolved mechanisms of immune evasion in particular environments, like the intestine and salmonella. Bacteria like to hide from the immune system because it's pretty good at killing them, so they tend to stay in the interstitium or in cells where the infection took place. H pylori for example evolved to dig into the mucosa in the stomach and hide from the acid by secreting a neutralizing buffer in its vicinity. Prions are another form of pathogen, they infect other prion proteins that are otherwise healthy. These proteins are most commonly found in the brain, so that's where prion disease progresses. You get the idea, but there's a lot more to the story obviously"],
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'query_id': 'd7sjh9',
'query': 'why do some diseases tend to localize to specific areas while others remain more general? for example, hand, foot, and mouth disease, or genital herpes.',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1543423',
'title': 'Eye tracking',
'section': 'Section::::Practice.:Eye-tracking while driving a car in a difficult situation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In the bottom image the novice is busy estimating the distance between the left wall and the parked car, while the experienced driver can use his peripheral vision for that and still concentrate his view on the dangerous point of the curve: If a car appears there, he has to give way, i. e. stop to the right instead of passing the parked car.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24169585',
'title': 'Benjamin Harjo Jr.',
'section': 'Section::::Style.\n',
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'passage_text': '"When you\'re traveling down the highway, you see an image whether it\'s dirt on the back of a truck or a splat on a windshield or two birds sitting by the side of the road picking at something. All those things have inspired me at some point in my creativity."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '670227',
'title': 'Acura RL',
'section': 'Section::::Second generation (2004–2012).:Safety.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Bumper-mounted cameras gave the driver a view out at each front corner to assist in parking, and also to see the amount of clearance down the road if the car were in an alley-like situation, where driver vision around the corner would require moving much of the car out into the path of possible oncoming traffic.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1509250',
'title': 'Intelligent Parking Assist System',
'section': 'Section::::How it works.:Functions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'The driver is responsible for checking to see if the representative box on the screen correctly identifies the parking space; if the space is large enough to park, the box will be green in color; if the box is incorrectly placed, or lined in red, using the arrow buttons moves the box until it turns green. Once the parking space is correctly identified, the driver presses OK and takes his/her hands off the steering wheel, while keeping the foot on the brake pedal. When the driver slowly releases the brake, while keeping the foot on the brake pedal, the car will then begin to back up and steer itself into the parking space.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '920613',
'title': 'Cars (film)',
'section': 'Section::::Production.:Animation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
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'passage_text': 'Unlike most anthropomorphic cars, the eyes of the cars in this film were placed on the windshield (which resembles the Tonka Talking Trucks, the characters from Tex Avery\'s "One Cab\'s Family" short and Disney\'s own "Susie the Little Blue Coupe"), rather than within the headlights. According to production designer Bob Pauley, "From the very beginning of this project, John Lasseter had it in his mind to have the eyes be in the windshield. For one thing, it separates our characters from the more common approach where you have little cartoon eyes in the headlights. For another, he thought that having the eyes down near the mouth at the front end of the car feels more like a snake. With the eyes set in the windshield, the point of view is more human-like, and made it feel like the whole car could be involved in the animation of the character. This decision was heavily criticized by automotive blog Jalopnik.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5926392',
'title': 'Automatic parking',
'section': 'Section::::Development.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': 'An automatic parking system uses various methods to detect objects around the vehicle. Sensors installed on the front and rear bumpers can act as both a transmitter and a receiver. These sensors emit a signal that will be reflected back when it encounters an obstacle near the vehicle. Then, the carputer will use the time of flight to determine the position of the obstacle. Other systems use cameras, e.g. Omniview technology, or radars to detect obstacles and measure the parking space size and distance from the roadside.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17346467',
'title': 'Toyota Corolla (E140)',
'section': 'Section::::E140 narrow-body.:Japan.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The Japan model included a rear-view monitor which displays an image of the area at the rear of the vehicle while backing up to reduce the burden on the driver while parking. Also, the optional Intelligent Parking Assist system supports steering operations when parallel parking and backing into a parking space. Ultrasonic sensors installed on the front of the vehicle detect other parked vehicles and, based on the results, estimate the physical dimensions of a vacant parking space and set the target parking position.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do some cars have a birds eye view of of the car when they’re parking?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The car has cameras in the front, rear, and in the two side mirrors. Those images are stitched together (kind of the same way that your phone creates a panorama) to give a kind of 360° view of the car's surroundings. That image is then displayed in such a way that it looks sort of like a bird's-eye view instead of like the 360° panorama that it actually is."],
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'query_id': 'cj3rpj',
'query': 'how do some cars have a birds eye view of of the car when they’re parking?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '38760557',
'title': 'Kitsunebi',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
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'passage_text': 'They are said to appear from between ten and several hundred in a line, and just when one thinks that they have increased, they would suddenly disappear then multiply once again. In the Nagano Prefecture, a ton of lights like that of a paper lantern would appear in a line and flicker.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '251399',
'title': 'Observable universe',
'section': 'Section::::The universe versus the observable universe.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'Some parts of the universe are too far away for the light emitted since the Big Bang to have had enough time to reach Earth or its scientific space-based instruments, and so lie outside the observable universe. In the future, light from distant galaxies will have had more time to travel, so additional regions will become observable. However, due to Hubble\'s law, regions sufficiently distant from the Earth are expanding away from it faster than the speed of light (special relativity prevents nearby objects in the same local region from moving faster than the speed of light with respect to each other, but there is no such constraint for distant objects when the space between them is expanding; see uses of the proper distance for a discussion) and furthermore the expansion rate appears to be accelerating due to dark energy. Assuming dark energy remains constant (an unchanging cosmological constant), so that the expansion rate of the universe continues to accelerate, there is a "future visibility limit" beyond which objects will "never" enter our observable universe at any time in the infinite future, because light emitted by objects outside that limit would never reach the Earth. (A subtlety is that, because the Hubble parameter is decreasing with time, there can be cases where a galaxy that is receding from the Earth just a bit faster than light does emit a signal that reaches the Earth eventually.) This future visibility limit is calculated at a comoving distance of 19 billion parsecs (62 billion light-years), assuming the universe will keep expanding forever, which implies the number of galaxies that we can ever theoretically observe in the infinite future (leaving aside the issue that some may be impossible to observe in practice due to redshift, as discussed in the following paragraph) is only larger than the number currently observable by a factor of 2.36.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4399390',
'title': 'Great Dangaioh',
'section': 'Section::::Plot.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': "Somewhere in Japan, a bright light suddenly blasted from the ground. The light in a blink destroyed everything within a hundred-mile radius. People argued that falling space debris caused it, but others felt that the unusual movement of terrestrial magnetism caused the light. The truth, however, remained hidden and blurred from people's memories. A little girl named Miya is the only one that knows what the light is.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5985207',
'title': 'Expansion of the universe',
'section': 'Section::::Understanding the expansion of the universe.:Measuring distances in expanding space.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
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'passage_text': 'The light took much longer than 4 billion years to reach us though it was emitted from only 4 billion light years away, and, in fact, the light emitted towards the Earth was actually moving "away" from the Earth when it was first emitted, in the sense that the metric distance to the Earth increased with cosmological time for the first few billion years of its travel time, and also indicating that the expansion of space between the Earth and the quasar at the early time was faster than the speed of light. None of this surprising behavior originates from a special property of metric expansion, but simply from local principles of special relativity integrated over a curved surface.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '894139',
'title': 'Causal contact',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The only objects not in causal contact are those for which there is no event in the history of the universe that could have sent a beam of light to both. For example, if the universe were not expanding and had existed for 10 billion years, anything more than 20 billion light-years away from the earth would not be in causal contact with it. Anything less than 20 billion light-years away "would" because an event occurring 10 billion years in the past that was 10 billion light-years away from both the earth and the object under question could have affected both. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '251399',
'title': 'Observable universe',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'As the universe\'s expansion is accelerating, all currently observable objects will eventually appear to freeze in time, while emitting progressively redder and fainter light. For instance, objects with the current redshift "z" from 5 to 10 will remain observable for no more than 4–6 billion years. In addition, light emitted by objects currently situated beyond a certain comoving distance (currently about 19 billion parsecs) will never reach Earth.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16786863',
'title': 'Ant on a rubber rope',
'section': 'Section::::Metric expansion of space.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
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'passage_text': 'By thinking of photons of light as ants crawling along the rubber rope of space between the galaxy and us, we can see that just as the ant can eventually reach the end of the rope, so light from distant galaxies, even some that appear to be receding at a speed greater than the speed of light, can eventually reach Earth, given sufficient time.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why is it that light can travel for a billion years across the universe, but as soon as you flick off a light switch it disappears instantly?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Light travels very fast. A source is needed for the light. \n\nWhen you turn off the light, it's no longer emitting light. The light wave that was sent just before you take it off takes almost zero time to reach the point where the light is absorbed (whatever the light is shining on in the room).\n\nThe light that is traveling billions of years just hasn't reached the point where the light wave is absorbed.",
'Your question in the subject line is answered in the text box. \nIn the billions of years in space, it doesn\'t encounter anything. Because it is space, the absence of stuff to encounter. \n \nAs for the why hitting stuff makes that light "disappear". \nWhen the light hit stuff, it gets turned into heat and stops being light. \nThe light bulb makes the wall slightly hotter. \n \nGranted there isn\'t a whole lot of energy involved. \nMost light sources made by human are producing heat by accident, overwhelming the amount of heat made by light.',
'I\'m not sure I can ELI5 particle physics, but the majority of photons are converted into a different kind of energy when they come into contact with another force.\n\nWhat we know as "heat" energy is really just "kinetic" energy. Everything is made of particles, and heat is (on a basic level) just vibrating particles.\n\nLight can travel across the universe because it is unlikely to hit anything. No matter what sci-fi tells us, if you picked a direction and headed that way in space you would be extremely unlikely to ever come into contact with anything.\n\nIn a room, the photons will be absorbed by... well by anything they touch. Any photons reflected from a wall will either be reflected or absorbed by what they hit next until every photon has been absorbed.\n\nAs light travels crazy fast (as in 7 times around the planet in a second fast) this will all occur in a moment, basically instantly to the eye.\n\nHowever, if you could get a super duper mega slow motion camera, you would see the room slowly fade to darkness as the photons were absorbed, imparting teeny tiny little parts of warmth to whatever they touch.',
"Because not all of the light is reflected. Some of it is absorbed (and re-radiated as heat). Your blue wall, absorbs red, yellows, and greens (not completely, but enough). But even this blue light is not completely reflected. Some of it is absorbed too.\n\nEvery time the light bounces some of those photons are absorbed. And because light is really really fast, even if it takes 100 or 1,000 or 10,000 bounces across your 10m room to absorb so much you cant see it, it's still basically instantaneous. \nLight travels at 300,000km/s. The 100km (10m x 10,000 bounces) travel of light happens in 1/3,000 of a second.",
"The second part is your real question, you are wondering why the light disappears instead of bouncing around in the room. The answer is that it does bounce around in the room, it is just that it bounces around so fast that it is absorbed effectively instantaneously. Material absorbs light, the less light it absorbs the more reflective it is. But even the most perfect mirror absorbs some of the light that hits it. Light just travels so damn fast that even really reflective materials absorb it 'instantaneously', although if you could measure how many times it bounces back and forth you'd find it takes ever so slightly longer to go dark in a room made of mirrors than your normal off-white semigloss."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'd89je3',
'query': 'why is it that light can travel for a billion years across the universe, but as soon as you flick off a light switch it disappears instantly?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '212427',
'title': 'Flame',
'section': 'Section::::Temperature.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In fires (particularly house fires), the cooler flames are often red and produce the most smoke. Here the red color compared to typical yellow color of the flames suggests that the temperature is lower. This is because there is a lack of oxygen in the room and therefore there is incomplete combustion and the flame temperature is low, often just . This means that a lot of carbon monoxide is formed (which is a flammable gas) which is when there is greatest risk of backdraft. When this occurs, combustible gases at or above the flash point of spontaneous combustion are exposed to oxygen, carbon monoxide and superheated hydrocarbons combust, and temporary temperatures of up to occur.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4556850',
'title': 'Propane torch',
'section': 'Section::::Complete and incomplete combustion.:Flame temperature.\n',
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'passage_text': 'An air-only torch will burn at around 1,995\xa0°C (3,623\xa0°F), less if heat loss to the surroundings is taken into account. Even glass bead-making torches, which are essentially Bunsen burners with an added air pump, can only achieve actual operating temperatures of . Oxygen-fed torches can be much hotter at up to 2,820\xa0°C (5,110\xa0°F), depending on the fuel-oxygen ratio, and whether MAPP or propane gas is used. Actual flame temperatures are generally lower due to incomplete combustion and heat loss to the surroundings.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '345756',
'title': 'Lighter',
'section': 'Section::::Operation.\n',
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'passage_text': "A metal enclosure with air holes generally surrounds the flame, and is designed to allow mixing of fuel and air while making the lighter less sensitive to wind. The high energy jet in butane lighters allows mixing to be accomplished by using Bernoulli's principle, so that the air hole(s) in this type tend to be much smaller and farther from the flame.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '345756',
'title': 'Lighter',
'section': 'Section::::Other types.:Flameless lighter.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
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'passage_text': 'A "flameless lighter" is a safe alternative to traditional lighters. The "flameless lighter" uses an enclosed heating element which glows, so that the device does not produce an open flame. Typical flameless heating elements are an electrically heated wire or an artificial coal.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11145',
'title': 'Fire',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Fire is hot because the conversion of the weak double bond in molecular oxygen, O, to the stronger bonds in the combustion products carbon dioxide and water releases energy (418 kJ per 32 g of O); the bond energies of the fuel play only a minor role here. At a certain point in the combustion reaction, called the ignition point, flames are produced. The "flame" is the visible portion of the fire. Flames consist primarily of carbon dioxide, water vapor, oxygen and nitrogen. If hot enough, the gases may become ionized to produce plasma. Depending on the substances alight, and any impurities outside, the color of the flame and the fire\'s intensity will be different.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27346453',
'title': 'Cool flame',
'section': 'Section::::Parameters.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Cool flame can occur in hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, oils, acids, waxes, and even methane. The lowest temperature of a cool flame is poorly defined and is conventionally set as temperature at which the flame can be detected by eye in a dark room (cool flames are hardly visible in daylight). This temperature slightly depends on the fuel to oxygen ratio and strongly depends on gas pressure – there is a threshold below which cool flame is not formed. A specific example is 50% n-butane–50% oxygen (in volume percent) which has a cool flame temperature (CFT) of about 300\xa0°C at . One of the lowest CFTs (156\xa0°C) was reported for a CHOCH + O + N mixture at . The CFT is significantly lower than the auto-ignition temperature (AIT) of conventional flame (see table).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '345756',
'title': 'Lighter',
'section': 'Section::::Other types.:Jet lighter.\n',
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'passage_text': 'As opposed to lighters of the naphtha or standard butane type (whether refillable or disposable), which combust incompletely and thus create a sooty, orange "safety" flame, jet lighters produce a blue flame that in some cases is almost invisible and invariably burns at a far higher temperature. The spark in such lighters is almost always produced by an electric arc (as seen below), but some arc lighters burn with incomplete combustion.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do lighters have smaller flames when cold and bigger flames when warm?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
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'answers': ["Butane gets thicker when cold so it doesn't come out as fast so it only produced a small Flame. ",
"Butane boils at 30f degrees. The only reason it's a liquid is because the pressure forces it to be that way. When you hit the button, the open valve lets the butane literally boil and steam out. The lower the temperature, the slower the boil. Below 30 degrees lighters don't work at all because there's no pressure. "],
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'query': 'why do lighters have smaller flames when cold and bigger flames when warm?',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '22549887',
'title': 'GRB 090423',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'A gamma-ray burst is an extremely luminous event flash of gamma rays that occurs as the result of an explosion, and is thought to be associated with the formation of a black hole. The burst itself typically only lasts for a few seconds, but gamma-ray bursts frequently produce an "afterglow" at longer wavelengths that can be observed for many hours or even days after the burst. Measurements at these wavelengths, which include X-ray, ultraviolet, optical, infrared, and radio, enable follow up study of the event.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48803',
'title': 'Gamma-ray burst',
'section': 'Section::::Rate of occurrence and potential effects on life.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Gamma ray bursts can have harmful or destructive effects on life. Considering the universe as a whole, the safest environments for life similar to that on Earth are the lowest density regions in the outskirts of large galaxies. Our knowledge of galaxy types and their distribution suggests that life as we know it can only exist in about 10% of all galaxies. Furthermore, galaxies with a redshift, "z", higher than 0.5 are unsuitable for life as we know it, because of their higher rate of GRBs and their stellar compactness.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '175184',
'title': 'European Southern Observatory',
'section': 'Section::::ESO telescopes: research and discoveries.:Gamma-ray bursts.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are bursts of highly energetic gamma rays lasting from less than one second to several minutes. They are known to occur at great distances from earth, near the limits of the observable universe.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21779590',
'title': 'GRB 970508',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'A gamma-ray burst is a highly luminous flash associated with an explosion in a distant galaxy and producing gamma rays, the most energetic form of electromagnetic radiation, and often followed by a longer-lived "afterglow" emitted at longer wavelengths (X-ray, ultraviolet, optical, infrared, and radio).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5468844',
'title': 'Stanford E. Woosley',
'section': 'Section::::Research interest.\n',
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'passage_text': "According to Woosley's collapsar model, gamma-ray bursts arise from the collapse of stars that are too massive to successfully explode as supernovae. Instead, they result in a hypernova, which produce black holes.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1870708',
'title': 'Near-Earth supernova',
'section': 'Section::::Past events.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Gamma ray bursts from "dangerously close" supernova explosions occur two or more times per billion years, and this has been proposed as the cause of the end Ordovician extinction, which resulted in the death of nearly 60% of the oceanic life on Earth.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13640867',
'title': 'Gamma-ray burst progenitors',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Gamma-ray burst progenitors are the types of celestial objects that can emit gamma-ray bursts (GRBs). GRBs show an extraordinary degree of diversity. They can last anywhere from a fraction of a second to many minutes. Bursts could have a single profile or oscillate wildly up and down in intensity, and their spectra are highly variable unlike other objects in space. The near complete lack of observational constraint led to a profusion of theories, including evaporating black holes, magnetic flares on white dwarfs, accretion of matter onto neutron stars, antimatter accretion, supernovae, hypernovae, and rapid extraction of rotational energy from supermassive black holes, among others.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'how a gamma ray burst could kill us all at any moment',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': [" Gamma ray bursts occur when very dense stars die and go supernova - basically, they explode. If such a star were to explode close enough to our Solar System, dangerous gamma rays would bathe the Earth, killing us off - think a dangerous nuclear leak, but on a cosmic scale.\n\n The odds of a gamma ray burst affecting us are astronomically small, however, so don't let that fact keep you up at night."],
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'query_id': 'd94a75',
'query': 'how a gamma ray burst could kill us all at any moment',
'query_type': 'Physics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '21290714',
'title': 'Proprioception',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical relevance.:Impairment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
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'passage_text': 'People who have a limb amputated may still have a confused sense of that limb\'s existence on their body, known as phantom limb syndrome. Phantom sensations can occur as passive proprioceptive sensations of the limb\'s presence, or more active sensations such as perceived movement, pressure, pain, itching, or temperature. There are a variety of theories concerning the etiology of phantom limb sensations and experience. One is the concept of "proprioceptive memory", which argues that the brain retains a memory of specific limb positions and that after amputation there is a conflict between the visual system, which actually sees that the limb is missing, and the memory system which remembers the limb as a functioning part of the body. Phantom sensations and phantom pain may also occur after the removal of body parts other than the limbs, such as after amputation of the breast, extraction of a tooth (phantom tooth pain), or removal of an eye (phantom eye syndrome).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27920631',
'title': 'Visual capture',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Mirror box technique.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
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'passage_text': 'A phantom limb is the sensation that an amputated limb is still attached. This can cause pain and distress amongst many amputees, and was thought to be incurable. However, in 1998, Vilayanur S. Ramachandran created a mirror box, which allows for an amputee to place their intact limb on one side of the box, and observe their amputated limb by looking at the mirror image of their actual limb. Through visual capture, the visual system is able to override the somatosensory system and send feedback to the brain that the arm is actually okay and not in any specific pain. This has resulted in numerous solutions to problems that individuals with phantom limb pain were having as they could now train their brain via visual capture that the limb was not actually cramped in the position it was when amputated, but rather free to move around and act as a normal limb.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27162986',
'title': 'Arterial embolism',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 69,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'If extensive necrosis and gangrene has set in an arm or leg, the limb may have to be amputated. Limb amputation is in itself usually remarkably well tolerated, but is associated with a substantial mortality (~50%), primarily because of the severity of the diseases in patients where it is indicated.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33896087',
'title': 'Limb-sparing techniques',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Limb-sparing techniques, also known as limb-saving or limb-salvage techniques, are performed in order to give patients an alternative to amputation. There are many different types of limb-sparing techniques, including arthrodesis, arthroplasty, alloprosthetic composite, endoprosthetic reconstruction, prosthetic implants, and rotationplasty.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '325877',
'title': 'Phantom limb',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'A phantom limb is the sensation that an amputated or missing limb is still attached. Approximately 60 to 80% of individuals with an amputation experience phantom sensations in their amputated limb, and the majority of the sensations are painful. Research continues into the mechanisms underlying phantom limb pain (PLP) and into effective treatments to control it. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41119526',
'title': 'Tactile hallucination',
'section': 'Section::::Tactile hallucination in Phantom Limbs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'Phantom limb pain is a type of tactile hallucination because it creates a sensation of excruciating pain in a limb that has been amputated. In 1996, VS Ramachandran conducted a research on several amputees to pinpoint the neural reasons behind these illusionary pains. Most of these amputees that had an unbearable phantom limb pain are reported by patients whose limb was paralyzed before amputation. VS Ramachandran proposed the "learned paralysis" hypothesis. The hypothesis suggested that every time the patients tried to move their paralyzed limb, they received sensory feedback (through vision and proprioception) that the limb did not move. This feedback hardwired itself into the brain circuitry, so that, even when the limb was no longer present, the brain had learned that the phantom limb was paralyzed. As a treatment for phantom limb pains, VS Ramachandran devised a mirror box that would superimpose the mirror image of the normal arm in place of the missing arm and the patient would immediately be relieved of the pain. This suggested that the brain had a plastic nature in the somatosensory system and the brain had reorganized its somatosensory region to accommodate for this new change. Patients that experience this phantom limb pain are very important in research studies for their role in determining brain plasticity. The vivid tactile sensation of the arm that is no longer present suggest the highly complex nature of the brain to reorganize different functions which were once thought to be hardwired to specific regions (localization).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '417063',
'title': 'V. S. Ramachandran',
'section': 'Section::::Research and theory.:Phantom limbs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'When an arm or leg is amputated, patients often continue to feel vividly the presence of the missing limb as a "phantom limb" (an average of 80%). Building on earlier work by Ronald Melzack (McGill University) and Timothy Pons (NIMH), Ramachandran theorized that there was a link between the phenomenon of phantom limbs and neural plasticity in the adult human brain. To test this theory, Ramachandran recruited amputees, so that he could learn more about if phantom limbs could "feel" a stimulus to other parts of the body.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Can you keep an amputated limb?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Depends on where you live but in the US you either bury the limb(by former owner's request) or they incinerate or donate it for study.",
'I am pretty sure they get incinerated and I am sure it depends on why it was amputated. If it was due to an infectious disease from bacteria I doubt they would let you keep it from fear of the disease spreading. If it was for another reason you might be able to keep it. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6erj44',
'query': 'can you keep an amputated limb?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2165927',
'title': 'Depth of focus',
'section': 'Section::::"Depth of focus" versus "depth of field".\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'The same factors that determine depth of field also determine depth of focus, but these factors can have different effects than they have in depth of field. Both depth of field and depth of focus increase with smaller apertures. For distant subjects (beyond macro range), depth of focus is relatively insensitive to focal length and subject distance, for a fixed "f"-number. In the macro region, depth of focus increases with longer focal length or closer subject distance, while depth of field decreases.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11068325',
'title': 'Focus stacking',
'section': 'Section::::Technique.:In photography.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'Getting sufficient depth of field can be particularly challenging in macro photography, because depth of field is smaller (shallower) for objects nearer the camera, so if a small object fills the frame, it is often so close that its entire depth cannot be in focus at once. Depth of field is normally increased by stopping down aperture (using a larger f-number), but beyond a certain point, stopping down causes blurring due to diffraction, which counteracts the benefit of being in focus. It also reduces the luminosity of the image. Focus stacking allows the depth of field of images taken at the sharpest aperture to be effectively increased. The images at right illustrate the increase in DOF that can be achieved by combining multiple exposures.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10497504',
'title': 'Image sensor format',
'section': 'Section::::Sensor size and depth of field.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'An alternative is to consider the depth of field given by the same lens in conjunction with different sized sensors (changing the angle of view). The change in depth of field is brought about by the requirement for a different degree of enlargement to achieve the same final image size. In this case the ratio of depths of field becomes\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8544',
'title': 'Drawing',
'section': 'Section::::Perspective.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 59,
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'passage_text': 'Depth can also be portrayed by several techniques in addition to the perspective approach above. Objects of similar size should appear ever smaller the further they are from the viewer. Thus the back wheel of a cart appears slightly smaller than the front wheel. Depth can be portrayed through the use of texture. As the texture of an object gets further away it becomes more compressed and busy, taking on an entirely different character than if it was close. Depth can also be portrayed by reducing the contrast in more distant objects, and by making their colors less saturated. This reproduces the effect of atmospheric haze, and cause the eye to focus primarily on objects drawn in the foreground.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18427873',
'title': 'Focus recovery based on the linear canonical transform',
'section': 'Section::::Depth of field and perceptual focus.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'In photography, depth of field (DOF) means an effective focal length. It is usually used for stressing an object and deemphasizing the background (and/or the foreground). The important measure related to DOF is the lens aperture. Decreasing the diameter of aperture increases focus and lowers resolution and vice versa.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2165927',
'title': 'Depth of focus',
'section': 'Section::::"Depth of focus" versus "depth of field".\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'Where depth of field often can be measured in macroscopic units such as meters and feet, depth of focus is typically measured in microscopic units such as fractions of a millimeter or thousandths of an inch.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8367',
'title': 'Depth of field',
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'passage_text': 'For many cameras, depth of field (DOF) is the distance between the nearest and the furthest objects that are in acceptably sharp focus in an image. The depth of field can be calculated based on focal length, distance to subject, the acceptable circle of confusion size, and aperture. A particular depth of field may be chosen for technical or artistic purposes. Limitations of depth of field can sometimes be overcome with various techniques/equipment.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does Depth of Field become more narrow with an increase in format?',
'selftext': 'Ex: 35mm compared to say, 4x5 or 8x10, DOF is noticeably shorter (or more narrow) on larger formats, even with equivalent focal length lenses. * I understand how this can be controlled with aperture, but that is not the intended question.',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The relevant factor to depth of field is the actual focal length, not the equivalent focal length.\n\nTo shoot on a larger format, you need a longer focal length to get the equivalent framing.\n(eg. 100mm lens on a FF still camera matches the field of view of a 50mm lens on a micro 4/3 camera. So in common photography usage you might call the 50mm m4/3 lens "100mm equivalent,\' comparing it to the standard of full frame).\n\nBut the way the optics work, the equation for depth-of-field uses the actual focal length measurement in mm, not the \'equivalent\'.\n\nSo if you shot a head-and-shoulders portrait with both cameras from the same distance, with your 50mm FF lens on your 5D and a 100mm m4/3 lens on your GH4, both at f/2.8 and at ISO 200, your 5D\'s picture would have almost exactly half the depth-of-field of your GH4\'s picture.\n\nI say \'almost exactly\' because the actual full equation that incorporates the frame size on the imaging plane very slightly attenuates the effect. For practical purposes it is half.',
'The equivalent lens aspect of your question is the catch. \n\nIf you put the same exact lens in front of two different sensors of varying sizes the depth of field doesn\'t change... Some might argue that the "acceptable sharpness" might alter your perception of what is "in focus". In this case the shot size would be altered by the size of the sensor... effectively cropping the image circle which zooms in on the sharpness quality of your lens and may result in "acceptable sharpness" changes. You can account for this on some depth of field calcs with CoC number.\n\nLets ignore CoC and acceptable focus stuff and just imagine you wish to match shot sizes of two different sized sensors from the same camera position. In this case you must use a wider lens for your smaller sensor to equal the large sensor shot size. Different focal length lenses have different depth of fields at the same distance to subject.\n\nAlternatively if you were to use the same lens on the mixed size sensors you would have to move the camera back on the smaller sensor camera to achieve the same shot size... This results in your subject being further away and if you check any depth of field chart they will certainly increase in depth of field the further away your subject is.\n\nThis is why you get shallower depth with larger formats. So with smaller sensors you either need to move back and refocus or use a wider lens... Both options add depth of field.\n\nThis all assumes the F-Stop is set the same in all my scenarios.\n\nHope this is clear enough. ',
'By equivalent focal length I meant to refer to the fact that larger formats require longer lenses. 50mm on a 35mm format = 80mm on 120 format = ?? on a 4x5 format, etc. \n\nIn other words, if these factors are "equalized" (each uses its own 1:1 lens, same aperture) by what means is the DOF more narrow on the larger format. I have seen some 8x10, for example where the eyes are in focus, but the nose is barely. \n\nIs this simply the result of the optics of a longer lens (even though the focal length might "equal" 1:1 on that particular format)\n\nDamn I hope that makes sense.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '8qtpjd',
'query': 'why does depth of field become more narrow with an increase in format?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '27653752',
'title': 'Retina display',
'section': 'Section::::Reception.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': '"to our eyes, there has never been a more detailed, clear, or viewable screen on any mobile device. Not only are the colors and blacks deep and rich, but you simply cannot see pixels on the screen…webpages that would be line after line of pixelated content when zoomed out on a 3GS are completely readable on the iPhone 4, though the text is beyond microscopic."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '882706',
'title': 'Xinerama',
'section': 'Section::::Known problems.:Static configuration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': "Physical screens cannot be added or removed dynamically, and there is no way to change the resolution of a screen. This is particularly difficult for mobile computer users, who may use an external physical display in addition to the computer's built-in screen, but only at certain locations. It is recommended that RandR or ATI's or nVidia's single GPU method be used in these cases. Xinerama's lack of support for adding or removing screens causes several problems:\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27653752',
'title': 'Retina display',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'Apple\'s Retina displays are not an absolute standard but vary depending on the size of the display on the device, and how close the user would typically be viewing the screen. Where users view the screen at a closer distance to their eyes, as on smaller devices with smaller displays, the displays have more PPI (Pixels Per Inch), while larger devices with larger displays where the user views the screen further away use fewer PPI. Later device versions have had additional improvement, either counted by an increase in the screen size (the iPhone 6 Plus) and/or contrast ratio (the iPhone 6 Plus, and iMac with Retina 4K/5K Display), and/or more recently with PPI count (iPhone X, XR, XS, and XS Max), thus Apple using the name “Retina HD Display", "Retina 4K/5K Display", "Super Retina HD Display", or "Liquid Retina HD Display".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7681',
'title': 'ClearType',
'section': 'Section::::How ClearType works.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'If the computer controlling the display knows the exact position and color of all the subpixels on the screen, it can take advantage of this to improve the apparent resolution in certain situations. If each pixel on the display actually contains three rectangular subpixels of red, green, and blue, in that fixed order, then things on the screen that are smaller than one full pixel in size can be rendered by lighting only one or two of the subpixels. For example, if a diagonal line with a width smaller than a full pixel must be rendered, then this can be done by lighting only the subpixels that the line actually touches. If the line passes through the leftmost portion of the pixel, only the red subpixel is lit; if it passes through the rightmost portion of the pixel, only the blue subpixel is lit. This effectively triples the horizontal resolution of the image at normal viewing distances; the drawback is that the line thus drawn will show color fringes (at some points it might look green, at other points it might look red or blue).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19644137',
'title': 'Mobile phone',
'section': 'Section::::Hardware.:Display.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 35,
'end_character': 787,
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'passage_text': 'Screen sizes are measured in diagonal inches; feature phones generally have screen sizes below 3.5 inches. Phones with screens larger than 5.2 inches are often called "phablets." Smartphones with screens over 4.5 inches in size are commonly difficult to use with only a single hand, since most thumbs cannot reach the entire screen surface; they may need to be shifted around in the hand, held in one hand and manipulated by the other, or used in place with both hands. Due to design advances, some modern smartphones with large screen sizes and "edge-to-edge" designs have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '616886',
'title': 'Flicker (screen)',
'section': 'Section::::Software artifacts.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'end_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'When it is not feasible to set each pixel only once, double buffering can be used. This creates an off-screen drawing surface, drawing to it (with as much flicker as you want), and then copying it all at once to the screen. The result is the visible pixels only change once. While this technique cuts down on software flicker, it can also be very inefficient.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8822002',
'title': 'Hitachi DX07',
'section': 'Section::::Smallest Visible Pixel Size for a Hand Held Device.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The smallest visible pixel size ("p") for a hand held device can be calculated assuming the screen is held at a comfortable distance (250mm) for someone with "normal" vision (able to see detail at a 1/60 degree angle):\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why can't you see pixels on a phone screen as easily as you can on a monitor?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Say you have a phone that is 1080p and a monitor that is also 1080p. You have the same number of pixels, but they are closer together on the smaller screen of the phone.',
'The size of the display and the resolution.\n\nA phone screen is typically 1080p or higher now, same with most monitors. \n\nMobile display density is a lot higher, while monitors are typically not as high.\n\nIf a display is 1080p, its 1920x1080, equating to just over 2 million pixels.\n\nIf you stuff all of them onto a phone, it’s going to be a lot sharper.\n\nImagine taking a chunk of play doh. \n\nMake it roughly the same size of your phone screen, and it’s going to be a lot dense and thicker.\n\nMake it the same size of your monitor display, it’s going to be thinner.',
'Put simply: they are smaller\n\nMonitors are made to be seen at a distance greater than you typically use the a phone screen at, large things far away look like smaller thing closer to you'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'flwa96',
'query': "why can't you see pixels on a phone screen as easily as you can on a monitor?",
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '38089600',
'title': 'Serial Killers: The Method and Madness of Monsters',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Serial Killers: The Method and Madness of Monsters (2004) is a non-fiction true crime history by Peter Vronsky, a criminal justice historian. It surveys the history of serial homicide, its culture, psychopathology, and investigation from the Roman Empire to the early 2000s. The book describes the rise of serial murder from its first early recorded instances in ancient Rome to medieval and Renaissance Europe, and Victorian Britain, and its rise and escalation in the United States and elsewhere in the world, in the postmodern era. The book also surveys a range of theoretical approaches to serial killers interspersed with dozens of detailed case studies of both notorious and lesser known serial murderers, illustrating the theory in practice. Considered by some a definitive history of serial homicide, this was the book serial killer Dennis Rader, the BTK Killer, was reading when he was arrested in 2005.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42626',
'title': 'Serial killer',
'section': 'Section::::In popular culture.:Theories.:Biological and sociological.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 93,
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'passage_text': 'Theories for why certain people commit serial murder have been advanced. Some theorists believe the reasons are biological, suggesting serial killers are born, not made, and that their violent behavior is a result of abnormal brain activity. Holmes and Holmes believe that "until a reliable sample can be obtained and tested, there is no scientific statement that can be made concerning the exact role of biology as a determining factor of a serial killer personality." The "Fractured Identity Syndrome" (FIS) is a merging of Charles Cooley\'s "looking glass self" and Erving Goffman\'s "virtual" and "actual social identity" theories. The FIS suggests a social event, or series of events, during one\'s childhood or adolescence results in a fracturing of the personality of the serial killer. The term "fracture" is defined as a small breakage of the personality which is often not visible to the outside world and is only felt by the killer.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1711292',
'title': 'My Life Among the Serial Killers',
'section': 'Section::::Serial killer traits.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
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'end_paragraph_id': 19,
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'passage_text': 'The recurring characteristic serial killers share, Morrison contends, is the emotional age of an infant. Serial killers lack a coherent personality and are missing large parts of their humanity. They are generally charismatic and able to fit in by learning to behave as normal people do, while lacking the empathy most normal people possess. Most serial killers are fluent liars, often protest against the injustice of their incarceration and are unable to understand that they did anything wrong. They have a fractured psyche which is incapable of connecting their crimes with the consequences, and often proclaim no memory of the murders. She also notes frequent instances of hypochondria among serial killers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38089600',
'title': 'Serial Killers: The Method and Madness of Monsters',
'section': 'Section::::Outline.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Part one covers the history of serial murder from its ancient roots to approximately the mid-1960s, when Vronsky argues it became viral in its postmodernity. Vronsky proposes that modern culture, media, and society degrade certain classes of people in the perception of homicidal psychopaths, who serially target and murder them in an attempt to satisfy increasingly addictive sexual, hedonistic fantasies. Vronsky points to the high proportion of street prostitutes, runaway youths, cruising homosexuals, or people who are homeless, impoverished, disabled, or elderly among serial killer victims; i.e., victims who are often characterized as society\'s "throwaways". Vronsky argues that only the presence of children and young college girls among preferred victims of serial killers raise concerns about these predators in society at large. He reviews several sources of statistical data on serial homicide, its patterns, and trends, particularly in the United States, and explores the myth of the recent “serial killer epidemic”.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1711292',
'title': 'My Life Among the Serial Killers',
'section': "Section::::Morrison's theory of why people become serial killers.\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
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'passage_text': "The book presents various facts, perceptions and descriptions of serial killers in a diffused way and ties the ideas together at the end while presenting the theory that the origin of a serial killer's behavior is genetic. An illustrative example notes that serial killers experience profound physiological events during their crimes that are related to the hypothalamus and that the serial killer's lack of emotion has a similar connection to the hypothalamus. Morrison also describes how serial killers' crimes are similar to drug addiction.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42626',
'title': 'Serial killer',
'section': 'Section::::Etymology and definition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'The English term and concept of "serial killer" are commonly attributed to former FBI Special agent Robert Ressler who used the term "serial homicide" in 1974 in a lecture at Bramshill Police Academy in Britain. Author Ann Rule postulates in her book, "Kiss Me, Kill Me" (2004), that the English-language credit for coining the term goes to LAPD detective Pierce Brooks, who created the Violent Criminal Apprehension Program (ViCAP) system in 1985.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42626',
'title': 'Serial killer',
'section': 'Section::::In popular culture.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 90,
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'end_paragraph_id': 90,
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'passage_text': 'Serial killers are also portrayed in fictional media, oftentimes as having substantial intelligence and looking for difficult targets, despite the contradiction with the psychological profile of serial killers.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is the, if there exists any, the science behind the human fascination with serial killers and crime shows?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Humans want to see consequences to actions that they understand are deviant and are curious to the the thinking behind their "logical" thinking (i.e., planning, motivation, efficacy, etc.)',
'In the true/oft-neglected-but-intended format of this sub:\n\nDid you ever steal a cookie from the cookie jar? How tasty did it taste? Tastier than an unstolen or maybe even earned cookie? Yes?\n\nThen imagine instead that you were able to steal every cookie in the jar and that they all tasted good, but then less and less good as you move on, eating every single cookie you can get your sweet little five year old hands on/in/around. \n\nSuddenly that last cookie doesn\'t taste as good and then the only thing tastier than the first cookie might be the baker-type-person who baked the first cookie. Then before too long you\'re out there eating bakers.\n\nIn terms of serial killer docs, the viewer (you) loves cookies. You can almost imagine killing for a cookie in the most unfortunate of times. But here is a man killing for cookies left and right, which is gluttonous and gross but you can almost relate. So you do relate, watching these shows every night, with an ever-dwindling tray/bag of Chips Ahoy: saying "yuck" and "yum" at the same time.',
'Humans are information addicts. We thrive because of our big brains and innate curiosity.\n\nCrime shows tick multiple boxes for why they get a rise out of us. On one level, we\'re fascinated by learning about dangers. Because learning about someone else\'s death or the killers and predators that stalk us, might provide us with information that will help us prevent our own death.\n\nAlong the same line, surviving danger gives us a rush. It\'s the hormones that make us alert and jittery to help us deal with danger. After the danger passes, those hormones don\'t immediately disappear. So we feel giddy, giggly, energised.\n\nThat\'s why we like horror and scary stories. We get that "I survived the danger" rush without the actual danger.\n\nYour physiological reactions don\'t really differentiate between factual and fictional danger. That\'s why things like movies, books, tv, theatre etc. can move us.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'fg86e9',
'query': 'what is the, if there exists any, the science behind the human fascination with serial killers and crime shows?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '9422452',
'title': 'Galactic tide',
'section': 'Section::::Effects on bodies within a galaxy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 412,
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'passage_text': "The Sun's gravity is sufficiently weak at such a distance that these small galactic perturbations may be enough to dislodge some planetesimals from such distant orbits, sending them towards the Sun and planets by significantly reducing their perihelia. Such a body, being composed of a rock and ice mixture, would become a comet when subjected to the increased solar radiation present in the inner Solar System.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52459',
'title': 'Counter-Earth',
'section': 'Section::::Greek Pythagorean universe.:Counter-Earth.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 365,
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'passage_text': '"If there was a single Earth revolving at some distance from the center of space, then the universe\'s center of gravity, located in the Earth as its only dense body, would not coincide with its spatial center ... The universe, consequently, would be off center, so to speak—lopsided and asymmetric—a notion repugnant to any Greek, and doubly so to a Pythagorean." \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '190919',
'title': 'Sunrise',
'section': 'Section::::Appearance.:Optical illusions and other phenomena.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 35,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The Sun appears to rise above the horizon and circle the Earth, but it is actually the Earth that is rotating, with the Sun remaining fixed. This effect results from the fact that an observer on Earth is in a rotating reference frame.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52015',
'title': 'Proper motion',
'section': 'Section::::Introduction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'This motion is caused by the movement of the stars relative to the Sun and Solar System. The Sun travels in a nearly circular orbit (the "solar circle") about the center of the Milky Way at a speed of about 220\xa0km/s at a radius of from the center, which can be taken as the rate of rotation of the Milky Way itself at this radius.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6139438',
'title': 'Formation and evolution of the Solar System',
'section': 'Section::::Galactic interaction.:Galactic collision and planetary disruption.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 82,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 82,
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'passage_text': 'It is a common misconception that this collision will disrupt the orbits of the planets in the Solar System. Although it is true that the gravity of passing stars can detach planets into interstellar space, distances between stars are so great that the likelihood of the Milky Way–Andromeda collision causing such disruption to any individual star system is negligible. Although the Solar System as a whole could be affected by these events, the Sun and planets are not expected to be disturbed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1111581',
'title': 'Reaction (physics)',
'section': 'Section::::Examples.:Gravitational forces.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 840,
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'passage_text': "The Earth, among other planets, orbits the Sun because the Sun exerts a gravitational pull that acts as a centripetal force, holding the Earth to it, which would otherwise go shooting off into space. If the Sun's pull is considered an action, then Earth simultaneously exerts a reaction as a gravitational pull on the Sun. Earth's pull has the same amplitude as the Sun but in the opposite direction. Since the Sun's mass is so much larger than Earth's, the Sun does not generally appear to react to the pull of Earth, but in fact it does, as demonstrated in the animation (not to precise scale). A correct way of describing the combined motion of both objects (ignoring all other celestial bodies for the moment) is to say that they both orbit around the center of mass, referred to in astronomy as the barycenter, of the combined system.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6139438',
'title': 'Formation and evolution of the Solar System',
'section': 'Section::::Future.:The Sun and planetary environments.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 74,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 74,
'end_character': 929,
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'passage_text': "This is a relatively peaceful event, nothing akin to a supernova, which the Sun is too small to undergo as part of its evolution. Any observer present to witness this occurrence would see a massive increase in the speed of the solar wind, but not enough to destroy a planet completely. However, the star's loss of mass could send the orbits of the surviving planets into chaos, causing some to collide, others to be ejected from the Solar System, and still others to be torn apart by tidal interactions. Afterwards, all that will remain of the Sun is a white dwarf, an extraordinarily dense object, 54% its original mass but only the size of the Earth. Initially, this white dwarf may be 100\xa0times as luminous as the Sun is now. It will consist entirely of degenerate carbon and oxygen, but will never reach temperatures hot enough to fuse these elements. Thus the white dwarf Sun will gradually cool, growing dimmer and dimmer.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If Earth and every planet is falling towards our Sun, and our solar system is falling towards our galactic center, where is our entire galaxy falling towards, and if it isn’t falling, what force is holding it up?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['There is no force holding anything celestial up. It is merely floating in a vacuum, space. Gravity is the force binding everything together, which is ultimately responsible for the current shape of the galaxy',
'The OP is correct in using falling as relative between the two objects. The earth “falls” towards the sun, just is going too fast and so always misses. The Milky Way, as far as I understand, is falling towards andromeda galaxy, eventually to “collide” and become a big super galaxy. Any one galaxy is always attracted to a bigger one nearby, these form clusters, and clusters of galaxies are attracted towards each other, too. It gets pretty meta.',
"The Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies are falling towards each other due to crash in a few hundred million years. \n\nThey are also falling towards the shared centre of gravity of the Laniakea supercluster. \n\nThe entire observable universe seems to be moving in the same direction, but it can't be falling towards anything as gravity from beyond the edge of the observable universe can't have reached here yet. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'athffn',
'query': 'if earth and every planet is falling towards our sun, and our solar system is falling towards our galactic center, where is our entire galaxy falling towards, and if it isn’t falling, what force is holding it up?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '310094',
'title': 'Sore throat',
'section': 'Section::::Management.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 294,
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'passage_text': 'There is an old wives tale that having a hot drink can help with common cold and influenza symptoms, including sore throat, but there is only limited evidence to support this idea. If the sore throat is unrelated to a cold and is caused by for example tonsillitis, a cold drink may be helpful.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '501250',
'title': 'Naproxen',
'section': 'Section::::Interactions.:Drug–food interactions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 267,
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'passage_text': 'Alcohol consumption increases the risk of gastrointestinal bleeding when combined with NSAIDs like naproxen in a dose-dependent manner (that is, the higher the dose of naproxen, the higher the risk of bleeding). The risk is highest for people who are heavy drinkers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1646674',
'title': 'Glycopyrronium bromide',
'section': 'Section::::Side effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 357,
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'passage_text': "Since glycopyrronium reduces the body's sweating ability, it can even cause hyperthermia and heat stroke in hot environments. Dry mouth, difficulty urinating, headaches, diarrhea and constipation are also observed side effects of the medication. The medication also induces drowsiness or blurred vision, an effect exacerbated by the consumption of alcohol.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1179611',
'title': 'Bendroflumethiazide',
'section': 'Section::::Adverse effects.:Alcohol.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 305,
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'passage_text': 'Bendroflumethiazide is known to have an adverse interaction with alcohol. It is advised that those using this diuretic should abstain from alcohol consumption during use, as it is possible to experience a sudden drop in blood pressure, especially if standing up (an effect known as postural hypotension).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3508232',
'title': 'Aftershave',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'It often contains an antiseptic agent such as denatured alcohol, stearate citrate or witch hazel to prevent infection of cuts, as well as to act as an astringent to reduce skin irritation. Menthol is used in some varieties as well to numb damaged skin.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52641149',
'title': '2016 Irkutsk mass methanol poisoning',
'section': 'Section::::Causes and event.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 1056,
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'passage_text': 'The hawthorn-scented bath lotion, or "boyaryshnik", that caused the mass methanol poisoning was purchased as a drink because of its low price amid poor economic conditions—such liquids were not subject to the alcohol excise tax, which had been increased as part of an anti-alcohol effort in 2009, or other restrictions placed in recent years to help curb alcohol consumption in the country. Although the bottles are typically half the size of traditional vodka, their alcohol content is such that they can be diluted into a strength similar to vodka. Moreover, they were often available from vending machines at any time of the night, while government-regulated liquor could only be sold within legally defined hours. The machines were often deliberately placed near poorer areas of Russian cities, where the product would be appealing to those seeking a cheaper alternative to regular alcohol. "Everybody knew that it was not bath oil," one individual told "The New York Times" after the poisoning. "That label was just meant to fend off the inspectors."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18348855',
'title': 'Harmful algal bloom',
'section': 'Section::::Harmful effects.:Human health.:Drinking water.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 55,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 55,
'end_character': 561,
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'passage_text': "Symptoms from drinking toxic water can show up within a few hours after exposure. They can include nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, or trigger headaches and gastrointestinal problems. Although rare, liver toxicity can cause death. Those symptoms can then lead to dehydration, another major concern. In high concentrations, the toxins in the algal waters when simply touched can cause skin rashes, irritate the eyes, nose, mouth or throat. Those with suspected symptoms are told to call a doctor if symptoms persist or they can't hold down fluids after 24 hours.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does it hurt more to drink cold water after having menthol of some kind? Can it actually hurt the throat?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Menthol actually activates the same receptors in your mouth and throat that sense cold, and it sticks to these receptors for a while. So everything cold that you drink or eat afterwards seems even colder. When things are very cold the cold sensation becomes painful. So a drink that is normally pleasantly cold may feel uncomfortably cold if you've just had some menthol before drinking it."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'eb9ou0',
'query': 'why does it hurt more to drink cold water after having menthol of some kind? can it actually hurt the throat?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '13874919',
'title': 'Arctocyonidae',
'section': 'Section::::Characteristics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 409,
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'passage_text': 'Genera assigned to this group had relatively short limbs lacking the specializations associated with ungulates (e.g. reduced side digits, fused bones, and hoofs), and long, heavy tails. Their primitive anatomy makes it unlikely that they were able to run down prey, but with their powerful proportions, claws, and long canines, some genera may have been able to overpower smaller animals in surprise attacks.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '66275',
'title': 'Coati',
'section': 'Section::::Behavior.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 296,
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'passage_text': 'When provoked, or for defense, coatis can be fierce fighters; their strong jaws, sharp canine teeth, and fast scratching paws, along with a tough hide sturdily attached to the underlying muscles, make it very difficult for potential predators (e.g., dogs or jaguars) to seize the smaller mammal.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '57559',
'title': 'Predation',
'section': 'Section::::Specialization.:Physical adaptations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 46,
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'passage_text': 'Many predators are powerfully built and can catch and kill animals larger than themselves; this applies as much to small predators such as ants and shrews as to big and visibly muscular carnivores like the cougar and lion. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23254',
'title': 'Paralysis',
'section': 'Section::::Other animals.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 671,
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'passage_text': 'Many animal species use paralysing toxins to capture prey, evade predation, or both. It was shown that in stimulated muscles the decrease in frequency of the miniature potentials runs parallel to the decrease in postsynaptic potential as well as to the decrease in muscle contraction. In invertebrates, this clearly indicates that, e.g., "Microbracon" (wasp genus) venom causes paralysis of the neuromuscular system by acting at a presynaptic site. "Philanthus" venom inhibits the fast as well as the slow neuromuscular system at identical concentrations. It causes a decrease in the frequency of the miniature potentials without affecting their amplitude significantly.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1260420',
'title': 'Anti-predator adaptation',
'section': 'Section::::Warding off attack.:Defensive structures.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 35,
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'passage_text': 'Many animals are protected against predators with armour in the form of hard shells (such as most molluscs), leathery or scaly skin (as in reptiles), or tough chitinous exoskeletons (as in arthropods).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3182598',
'title': 'Soft-bodied organism',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Soft-bodied organisms are animals that lack skeletons, a group roughly corresponding to the group Vermes as proposed by Carl von Linné. All animals have muscles but, since muscles can only pull, never push, a number of animals have developed hard parts that the muscles can pull on, commonly called skeletons. Such skeletons may be internal, as in vertebrates, or external, as in arthropods. However, a large number of animals groups do very well without hard parts. This include animals such as earthworms, jellyfish, tapeworms, squids and an enormous variety of animals from almost every part of the kingdom Animalia.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19333613',
'title': 'Sea anemone',
'section': 'Section::::Anatomy.:Musculature and nervous system.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'The muscles and nerves are much simpler than those of most other animals, although more specialised than in other cnidarians, such as corals. Cells in the outer layer (epidermis) and the inner layer (gastrodermis) have microfilaments that group into contractile fibers. These fibers are not true muscles because they are not freely suspended in the body cavity as they are in more developed animals. Longitudinal fibres are found in the tentacles and oral disc, and also within the mesenteries, where they can contract the whole length of the body. Circular fibers are found in the body wall and, in some species, around the oral disc, allowing the animal to retract its tentacles into a protective sphincter.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How is it animals, specially predators, have such strong muscles?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Besides natural selection, an interesting thing about evolution is that the more an organism depends on a certain organ the more that organ develops in order to meet the needs. Predators like lions and cheetahs have strong muscles and bite forces because they depend on the muscles so much. \nA great way to understand this is to observe how working out affects us. Say you started to lift 1.5kg dumbbells everyday. It would be hard at first, your arms will feel like jelly after the workout, but after a week or two it gets easier. Why? Because your muscles have developed more to meet the demand. The result you've got stronger muscles now. Same goes with the jaws, when you're a child you're asked to eat all sorts of things that are good for you, because when you chew different textures of food, hard and soft, your jaws develop more stronger. \nAnimals exhibit such strength from millennia of evolution. Their lifestyle hasn't changed as much as human's have, they still hunt in the wild, and to do that they need strong muscles.",
'Imagine how good your muscles would need to be if you had to walk for miles all day every day to possibly get food. And you had to chase your food down instead of getting it out of the refrigerator.',
"their lifestyle involves constant exercise to survive and the weak ones die of starvation \n\nthink about when people lived as hunter-gatherers a long time ago. Their day-to-day routine would have made them on par with today's olympic level athletes because their daily routine involved constant exercise.",
'Thinking back a fair way now, as it was explained to me at the time... in evolution there has to be a choice between gross musculature ie apes and bears and lions etc that are really strong and have lots of twitchy muscle fibres... and humans that can make very fine and controlled movements, requiring a very different type of muscle fibres.\n\nBasically apes can smash stuff like the Hulk, but Banner can use tools to create a Gammer Radiation Emitter.\n\nSo over time, as humans learnt how to create weapons, evolution took as down the "fine motor skills" path rather than the "tear the head right off of an elk" path.',
'Evolution. Humans basically evolved to fill the niche of endurance hunting. We persue prey so relentlessly that it effectively dies of exhaustion. Such an approach requires muscles tuned for endurance not strength. In addition it favours those who are more intelligent.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'f4lhbb',
'query': 'how is it animals, specially predators, have such strong muscles?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2581346',
'title': 'Vauxhall Prince Henry',
'section': 'Section::::Road test.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'end_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': '"The engine is by no means silent. Exhaust and tappet noise with a continuous if subdued howl of pinions all merge with other unidentifiable sounds but there is no suggestion these noises may not be maintained so long as the driver wishes with unflagging regularity for hour after hour. The seat puts the driver up high and its easy to underestimate road speed. It is one thing to go fast in a straight line but quite another to cover a distance at high average speed. This car has truly amazing roadholding, it is high and narrow yet it passes through roundabouts almost as if there were none there. It is the designer\'s perfect balance of the whole chassis which makes this phenomenon possible."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4335254',
'title': 'Loudspeaker enclosure',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "The forward- and rearward-generated sounds of a speaker driver appear out of phase from each other because they are generated through opposite motion of the diaphragm and because they travel different paths before converging at the listener's position. A speaker driver mounted on a finite baffle will display a physical phenomenon known as interference which can result in a perceivable frequency-dependent sound attenuation. This phenomenon is particularly noticeable at low frequencies where the wavelengths are large enough that interference will affect the entire listening area.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42544174',
'title': 'Sonic Movement',
'section': 'Section::::Project features.:3D sound.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 685,
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'passage_text': 'Sound designer Peter Mohlin has attempted to use sound three-dimensionally, providing noises for when a car changes speeds, changes direction or turns on or off, with Herndon quoting that, “In a way, we’ve transformed the steering wheel into a kind of musical controller." According to "CD News", "Instead of current two dimensional sound – when a car is near or far away, or when it accelerates or decelerates – they have attempted to make sounds three dimensional to indicate what the car is doing more naturally." For example, as the car accelerates the noise rotates around the car at an increasing rate, eventually cutting as wind and tire noise reach a sufficient decibel level.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27215',
'title': 'Transport in Saint Lucia',
'section': 'Section::::Trucking.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': 'Residents and motor vehicle users have always been complaining about the loudness of these trucks when using the roads. The loudness of these trucks have caused many hearing problems and disturbances to homes, businesses and the nearby Victoria Hospital located to the road where trucks mainly pass. The noise of these trucks is mainly heard when they have a load on them which causes the truck to put power on the engine leading to the noise. Also more noise is heard when the trucks have a bare chassis and traversing on rough roads e.g. when passing on the Millennium Highway. When the trucks pass on these rough roads the chassis passes in potholes which causes it to make the noise.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '821611',
'title': 'Complex harmonic motion',
'section': 'Section::::Different Types of Complex Harmonic Motion.:Resonance.:Real-life Application.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Parts of a car may vibrate if you drive over a bumpy road at a speed where the vibrations transmitted to the body are at the resonant frequency of that part. (Actually, cars are designed not to do this by choosing parts with natural frequencies that are not likely to be produced by driving).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4491258',
'title': 'Roadway noise',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Speed.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'Traffic operations noise is affected significantly by vehicle speeds, since sound energy roughly doubles for each increment of ten miles an hour in vehicle velocity; an exception to this rule occurs at very low speeds where braking and acceleration noise dominate over aerodynamic noise. Small reductions in vehicle noise occurred in the 1970s as states and provinces enforced unmuffled vehicle ordinances. The vehicle fleet noise has not changed very much over the last three decades; however, if the trend in hybrid vehicle use continues, substantial noise reduction will occur, especially in the regime of traffic flow below 35 miles per hour. Hybrid vehicles are so quiet at low speeds that they create a pedestrian safety issue when reversing or maneuvering when parking etc. (but not when travelling forward), and so are typically fitted with electric vehicle warning sounds.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2940423',
'title': 'Rokon (motorcycle manufacturer)',
'section': 'Section::::RT340 TCR Automatic/CVT.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'Riding on loose surfaces is sometimes complicated, as rear wheel breakaway does not cause telltale changes in the engine sound. However, most other riding is intuitive and sometimes much more convenient as the automatic avoids engine stalls and other problems with gear selection. Operation is loud (90.3 dB(A)) as the engine is always running fast except at idle. Despite low front wheel weight, about 43%, it had trouble pulling wheelies, a problem for Enduro riding. \n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why does a passing vehicle's sound go from a high to a low note",
'selftext': 'For example it always goes "Weeeee oooooohhhh" why does it not sound like "Oooooooh weeee"',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It's a doppler effect. Sound is higher when the wavelengths are shorter, so when the car is coming towards you it pushes the air towards you and gets a boost and it is shorter. \n\nIt's lower pitched when the wavelengths are all stretched out, and when it's moving away they stretch out because it's running away from you ",
'Doppler effect. \n\nThe sound waves pile up in front of the car. Because the waves are so close together, the frequency is higher. Thus, as the car approaches, the pitch is higher.\n\nThe sound waves are spread joy behind the car. Because the waves are further apart, the frequency is lower. Thus, as the car leaves, the pitch is lower.\n\nImagine dragging something across the surface of water. The water in front is higher than the water in the back. Sound waves do the same thing.\n\n_URL_0_',
'For simplicity\'s sake, let\'s say we\'re standing two feet from a straight road with that car on it.\n\nThe car always goes "Weeeee oooooohhhh" because the car\'s velocity toward you always goes from positive to negative. If he repeats in reverse, his velocity towards you still goes from positive to negative.\n\nWithout actually changing the sound at the source - that\'s cheating - the car would have to drive away from you, into a wormhole, and end up behind you to go "Oooooooh (wormhole) weeee". Or drive from you around a whole race track or something to end up on the other side.\n\nSlightly related fun fact: we imagine the Doppler effect is the strongest when the car is near us, but it\'s actually the strongest when the car is far away. We just don\'t notice it because the *change* in the Doppler effect is the least at a distance, so the sound seems to stay the same; this *change* is what is striking about cars passing us, as that is where the *change* is maximized.',
"Think of the sound waves as the waves created by a boat moving through the water. The bow waves are more compressed than the waves at the aft section of the boat. The forward motion keeps the waves at the front 'compressed' but the waves at the aft section are free to have a greater wavelength (no force driving the compression). It's a bit simplified, but for the purpose of providing a visual with the other explanations, it will suffice.",
'As others have stated, this is a result of the doppler effect. \n\nThe reason for this is that sound has a speed that it will *always* travel at through a given medium. So if you take a sound emission, say a siren on an ambulance, and look at it as is sits still you could draw circles radiating outward from the point of origin. It would look like a bullseye. Now, when you introduce motion to the siren, you do not change the speed at which the sound can move in the air. This results in the ambulance chasing after the sound that it already emitted, as well as running away from the sound in the direct that it is coming from. So you end up taking that bullseye with uniform sound and skewing it. T[he center ring moves in the direction of motion and all the other rings follow suit.](_URL_0_) Since sound is just a series of pressure waves moving through the air as some frequency, the fact that they are building up in the front makes the pressure waves come in higher frequency. More pressure waves per second means a higher pitch. The converse happens in the rear. You end up decreasing the frequency of the pressure waves which lowers the pitch.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nBonus fact: This is why sonic booms happen. See how those rings are bunching up in the above link? As you increase your speed, this effect is following suit. If you get to the speed that sound travels at in air (mach 1) you will be producing sound and the sound in front of you will have nowhere to go. Instead of it being a wave that continuously moves forward you just make one, bigger and bigger wave at the front of you. Once you exceed the speed of sound all of the sound you emit will be behind you. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '9ph5cq',
'query': "why does a passing vehicle's sound go from a high to a low note",
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1137241',
'title': 'Savings account',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'A savings account is a deposit account held at a retail bank that pays interest but cannot be used directly as money in the narrow sense of a medium of exchange (for example, by writing a cheque). These accounts let customers set aside a portion of their liquid assets while earning a monetary return. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1796274',
'title': 'Cycle of poverty',
'section': 'Section::::Causes of the cycle.:Factors maintaining personal poverty.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 59,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Banking – People who cannot maintain a minimum daily balance in a savings account are often charged fees by the bank, whereas people with larger amounts of wealth can earn interest on savings and substantial returns from investments. Unbanked people must use higher-cost alternative financial services services, such as check-cashing services for payroll and money orders for transferring to other people. People who have had previous credit problems, such as overdrafting an account, may not be eligible to open a checking or savings account. Major reasons for not opening a bank account include not trusting banks, being concerned about not making a payment due to a bank error or delay, not understanding how banks work, and not having enough money to qualify for a free account.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39750262',
'title': 'Monetary reform in the Soviet Union, 1991',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': "In reality, deposits in several savings banks, including those in different cities, were allowed and common. As there was no technical way to link different accounts, an ad-hoc decision was made to make notes of withdrawals on the last pages of passport, where bank's officers made a mark of the amounts withdrawn from the deposit.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '69268',
'title': 'Individual Savings Account',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'An Individual Savings Account (ISA; ) is a class of retail investment arrangements available to residents of the United Kingdom. It qualifies for a favourable tax status. Payments into the account are made from after-tax income. The account is exempt from income tax and capital gains tax on the investment returns, and no tax is payable on money withdrawn from the scheme either. Cash and a broad range of investments can be held within the arrangement, and there is no restriction on when or how much money can be withdrawn. Funds cannot be used as security for a loan. Until the Lifetime ISA was introduced in 2017 it was not a specific retirement product, but any type can be a useful tool for retirement planning alongside pensions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '797776',
'title': 'Health savings account',
'section': 'Section::::Operation.:Withdrawals.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'There are several ways that funds in a health savings account can be withdrawn. Some health savings accounts include a debit card, some supply checks for account holder use, and some allow for a reimbursement process similar to medical insurance. Most health savings accounts have more than one possible method for withdrawal, and the methods available vary. Checks and debits do not have to be made payable to the provider. Funds can be withdrawn for any reason, but withdrawals that are not for documented qualified medical expenses are subject to income taxes and a 20% penalty. The 20% penalty is waived for persons who have reached the age of 65 or have become disabled at the time of the withdrawal. Then, only income tax is paid on the withdrawal and in effect, the account has grown tax-deferred. Medical expenses continue to be tax free. Prior to January 1, 2011, when new rules governing health savings accounts in the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act went into effect, the penalty for non-qualified withdrawals was 10%.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30873450',
'title': 'Deposit account',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "A deposit account is a savings account, current account or any other type of bank account that allows money to be deposited and withdrawn by the account holder. These transactions are recorded on the bank's books, and the resulting balance is recorded as a liability for the bank and represents the amount owed by the bank to the customer. Some banks may charge a fee for this service, while others may pay the customer interest on the funds deposited.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '146738',
'title': 'Interest',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'For example, a customer would usually pay interest to borrow from a bank, so they pay the bank an amount which is more than the amount they borrowed; or a customer may earn interest on their savings, and so they may withdraw more than they originally deposited. In the case of savings, the customer is the lender, and the bank plays the role of the borrower.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What would a bank gain from putting my money in a savings account vs. a checking account with them?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Savings account generally imply you are going to leave it in there for extended periods, giving them more capital to loan and gain additional funds from. ',
"You're limited by how many transactions you can make with a savings account, whereas most people are constantly adding and removing money from checking.\n\nBanks need a certain amount of what's called liquidity - cash on hand, available to lend or pay out. Having lots of stable savings accounts allows the bank to maintain a constant level of liquidity, which makes their business a lot safer.",
'Here in South Africa, savings accounts have higher transactional fees but pay out higher interest.\n\nSo swiping your savings linked card or using the atm costs more money than on a current /cheque account. But you gain more interest on a positive balance. \n\nNow the bank wants to make money and if you only open a savings they lose by paying higher interest, but win because you use the card day to day and pay fees.\n\nIf you take out a current for day to day use the bank scores on paying lower interest.\n\nIf you take out a savings and a current the bank scores by having you pay 2 account fees.\n\nSo basically you get choice to feel empowered, but the bank takes your fees anyway. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9odel3',
'query': 'what would a bank gain from putting my money in a savings account vs. a checking account with them?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '33880223',
'title': 'Odontaster validus',
'section': 'Section::::Research.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': 'Another research study examined the parameters required for successful fertilisation of the eggs of "Odontaster validus" compared to similar temperate water sea stars. It was found that a density of sperm of 105 sperm per millilitre was sufficient to cause a high proportion of eggs to be fertilised and that this was at least ten times the density required by comparable species in less harsh environments. The sperm still retained a minimal fertilisation ability after 24 hours but had a narrow tolerance to variations in water temperature.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '57880',
'title': 'In vitro fertilisation',
'section': 'Section::::Method.:Co-incubation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 102,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The sperm and the egg are incubated together at a ratio of about 75,000:1 in a culture media in order for the actual fertilisation to take place. A review in 2013 came to the result that a duration of this co-incubation of about 1 to 4 hours results in significantly higher pregnancy rates than 16 to 24 hours. In most cases, the egg will be fertilised during co-incubation and will show two pronuclei. In certain situations, such as low sperm count or motility, a single sperm may be injected directly into the egg using intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI). The fertilised egg is passed to a special growth medium and left for about 48 hours until the egg consists of six to eight cells.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13798173',
'title': 'Sperm motility',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Sperm motility describes the ability of sperm to move properly through the female reproductive tract (internal fertilization) or through water (external fertilization) to reach the egg. Sperm motility can also be thought of as the "quality", which is a factor in successful conception; sperm that do not "swim" properly will not reach the egg in order to fertilize it. Sperm motility in mammals also facilitates the passage of the sperm through the cumulus oophorus (a layer of cells) and the zona pellucida (a layer of extracellular matrix), which surround the mammalian oocyte. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1152003',
'title': 'Hyperactivation',
'section': 'Section::::Importance to Fertilization.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'Before reaching the egg, the sperm are often trapped in epithelial cells in a Fallopian tube, meaning they are rendered inert unless they undergo hyperactivation. The change in motion and force of the tail movements enable the sperm to escape from the epithelium. Thus, only those sperm which have undergone hyperactivation have the ability to fertilize the egg.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2324040',
'title': 'Sperm',
'section': 'Section::::Sperm in animals.:Sperm size.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': 'Related to sperm quality is sperm size, at least in some animals. For instance, the sperm of some species of fruit fly ("Drosophila") are up to 5.8\xa0cm long — about 20 times as long as the fly itself. Longer sperm cells are better than their shorter counterparts at displacing competitors from the female’s seminal receptacle. The benefit to females is that only healthy males carry ‘good’ genes that can produce long sperm in sufficient quantities to outcompete their competitors.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '153187',
'title': 'Intracytoplasmic sperm injection',
'section': 'Section::::Indications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'It can be used in teratozoospermia, because once the egg is fertilized, abnormal sperm morphology does not appear to influence blastocyst development or blastocyst morphology. Even with severe teratozoospermia, microscopy can still detect the few sperm cells that have a "normal" morphology, allowing for optimal success rate.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5789060',
'title': 'Gryllus bimaculatus',
'section': 'Section::::Breeding.:Polygamy.:Polygamy in males.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "Males will show the same drive to mate with previous mates as with new mates. The ability of a male cricket's sperm to successfully fertilize a female's egg after mating varies depending on various traits. An example of one trait that increases fertilization success is the amount of sperm that is effectively delivered through mating. The more sperm that is deposited results in greater fertilization success because more eggs are able to hatch. The order in which various males mate with one female before fertilization also affects fertilization success. The last male that mates with a female tends to have the highest fertilization success. Traits that increase the ability of a male's sperm to successfully fertilize a female's egg compared to that of another male are most advantageous. This is because these traits have been selected for over traits that have lower fertilization success.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Is the fastest sperm to reach and fertilise the egg necessarily the fittest or healthiest? If not, what usually determines its success?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Luck, a hehehehehell lot of luck. The first ones to reach the egg usually die penetrating it.',
'Mostly luck. It\'s not necessary fittest or healthiest of all, because most sperm cells aren\'t lucky by definition of luck. A group of sperm cells will move together and many of them should die out just to make path to their target easier for other cells. \n\nBut to fertilize the egg, they should be healthy enough and to complete some "checks". That is like a basic check that their DNA is not damaged badly, under the point when cells become unable to do it\'s job, but not enough to ensure that DNA don\'t have any mutation - they almost certainly will have some minor mutations.',
"As others have said, it's luck.\n\nCarrying an extra X chromosomes, female sperm are slightly heavier and thus a little bit slower. However they live slightly longer. Becoming a girl or a boy depends slightly on the timing of ejaculation vs ovulation.\n\nIf she already ovulated, boy is slightly more likely, if she will ovulate in 2 days, girl is slightly more likely.\n\nBut it's mostly luck, the sperm right behind you might have had another gender than you. Consider that if you ever feel like arguing abortion rights, women sexuality, why women should earn less or other nonsense like that. Less than a second difference and that could have been you.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nEDIT: Due to genetic defects, 60% of conceptions will spontaneously abort. Even the winner could be so flawed that they don't make it past the first few cell divisions. Luck is more important than anything.",
"Actually, the first sperm cells to reach the egg don't fertilize it. Usually it's one of the last sperm cells that do. The membrane of the egg cell is quite strong and the first wave of sperm cells weaken it so the last ones have a chance to penetrate it."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'btxiij',
'query': 'is the fastest sperm to reach and fertilise the egg necessarily the fittest or healthiest? if not, what usually determines its success?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '4892591',
'title': 'Breast implant',
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'passage_text': "A breast implant is a prosthesis used to change the size, shape, and contour of a person's breast. In reconstructive plastic surgery, breast implants can be placed to restore a natural looking breast mound for post–mastectomy breast reconstruction patients or to correct congenital defects and deformities of the chest wall. They are also used cosmetically to enhance or enlarge the appearance of the breast through breast augmentation surgery.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '630851',
'title': 'Breast augmentation',
'section': 'Section::::Complications and limitations.:Technical limitations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 149,
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'passage_text': "When the patient's body has insufficient adipocyte tissue to harvest as injectable breast filler, a combination of fat grafting and breast implants might provide the desired outcome. Although non-surgical breast augmentation with fat graft injections is not associated with implant-related medical complications (filler leakage, deflation, visibility, palpability, capsular contracture), the achievable breast volumes are physically limited; the large-volume, global bust augmentations realised with breast implants are not possible with the method of structural fat grafting. Global breast augmentation contrasts with the controlled breast augmentation of fat-graft injection, in the degree of control that the plastic surgeon has in achieving the desired breast contour and volume. The controlled augmentation is realised by infiltrating and diffusing the fat grafts throughout the breast; and it is feather-layered into the adjacent pectoral areas until achieving the desired outcome of breast volume and contour. Nonetheless, the physical fullness-of-breast achieved with injected fat-grafts does not visually translate into the type of buxom fullness achieved with breast implants; hence, patients who had plentiful fat-tissue to harvest attained a maximum breast augmentation of one brassiėre cup-size in one session of fat grafting to the breast.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47677297',
'title': 'Cosmetic surgery in Australia',
'section': 'Section::::Types of cosmetic surgery available.:Augmentation mammaplasty.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': 'Also known as breast augmentation, Augmentation Mammaplasty involves the use of breast implants or the transfer of fat tissue to restore and create volume or improve symmetry of the breast. The implants used are most commonly composed of silicone which are inserted underneath the skin/muscle through a small incision. Breast Augmentation frequently is performed in conjunction with mastopexy.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4892591',
'title': 'Breast implant',
'section': 'Section::::History.:19th century.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 99,
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'passage_text': "Since the late nineteenth century, breast implants have been used to surgically augment the size (volume), modify the shape (contour), and enhance the feel (tact) of a woman's breasts. In 1895, surgeon Vincenz Czerny effected the earliest breast implant emplacement when he used the patient's autologous adipose tissue, harvested from a benign lumbar lipoma, to repair the asymmetry of the breast from which he had removed a tumor. In 1889, surgeon Robert Gersuny experimented with paraffin injections, with disastrous results.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '630851',
'title': 'Breast augmentation',
'section': 'Section::::Non-implant breast augmentation.:Post-mastectomy procedures.:Tissue engineering.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 138,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The autologous fat graft replacement of breast implants (saline and silicone) resolves medical complications such as: capsular contracture, implant shell rupture, filler leakage (silent rupture), device deflation, and silicone-induced granulomas, which are medical conditions usually requiring re-operation and explantation (breast implant removal). The patient then has the option of surgical or non-implant breast corrections, either replacement of the explanted breast implants or fat-graft breast augmentation. Moreover, because fat-grafts are biologically sensitive, they cannot survive in the empty implantation pocket, instead, they are injected to and diffused within the breast-tissue matrix (recipient site), replacing approximately 50% of the volume of the removed implantas permanent breast augmentation. The outcome of the explantation correction is a bust of natural appearance; breasts of volume, form, and feel, thatalthough approximately 50% smaller than the explanted breast sizeare larger than the original breast size, pre-procedure.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '630851',
'title': 'Breast augmentation',
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'passage_text': "The surgical implantation approach affects the global augmentation of the breast hemisphere using a breast implant filled with either saline solution or silicone gel; moreover, the surgical augmentation approach can include the application of transplanted autologous skin flaps harvested from the woman's body. The fat-graft transfer approach augments the size and corrects contour defects of the breast hemisphere with grafts of autologous adipocyte fat tissue, drawn from the woman's body.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28246551',
'title': 'Trans-umbilical breast augmentation',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'In 1964, the American plastic surgeons T.D. Cronin and F.J. Gerow reported the first breast augmentation procedure using silicone gel-filled implants. In that implantation procedure, the breast implant devices were inserted through an incision to the inframammary fold (IMF), where the breast meets the chest of the woman.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do we use implants for breast enlargement instead of something biological like stomache fat?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Fat is a living tissue. Transplants of living tissue are more expensive and have higher risk of complications. Implants are biologically inert and relatively easy to implant.',
'Might also have to do with the structure of the breast and how the added fat is stored, stomach/thigh fat is used in Brazilian butt lifts (makes bum bigger) so obviously fat transplants can work ',
'This actually is a thing, but you have to use large amounts of fat as not all of it "takes" and has arguably more complication potential than implants (though it also produces ~~better~~ more natural looking results than implants). The Wikipedia page for "Breast Augmentation" (won\'t link because I\'m not going to go there on this work computer...) has a rather large section devoted to the method you should check out.',
"This is a thing, relicating the fat and 'sculpting' the area youre taking fat from with liposuction, they then sterilize the fat, and reinject it but into the breasts this time. The only issue is that a lot of the time the fat will be reabsorbed and the procedure has to be re-done. No gangreen or completely disgusting affects unless its done improperly/with insterile equipment."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6bh372',
'query': 'why do we use implants for breast enlargement instead of something biological like stomache fat?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '28795896',
'title': 'Structured derivations',
'section': 'Section::::Examples.:A simple equation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Solving a simple equation illustrates the basic structure of a structured derivation. The start of the solution is indicated by a bullet (formula_1) followed by the task we are to solve (in this case the equation formula_2).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '537048',
'title': 'Equation solving',
'section': 'Section::::Methods of solution.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': 'The methods for solving equations generally depend on the type of equation, both the kind of expressions in the equation and the kind of values that may be assumed by the unknowns. The variety in types of equations is large, and so are the corresponding methods. Only a few specific types are mentioned below.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23000',
'title': 'Polynomial',
'section': 'Section::::Equations.:Solving equations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 87,
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'passage_text': 'There may be several meanings of "solving an equation". One may want to express the solutions as explicit numbers; for example, the unique solution of is . Unfortunately, this is, in general, impossible for equations of degree greater than one, and, since the ancient times, mathematicians have searched to express the solutions as algebraic expression; for example the golden ratio formula_30 is the unique positive solution of formula_31 In the ancient times, they succeeded only for degrees one and two. For quadratic equations, the quadratic formula provides such expressions of the solutions. Since the 16th century, similar formulas (using cube roots in addition to square roots), but much more complicated are known for equations of degree three and four (see cubic equation and quartic equation). But formulas for degree 5 and higher eluded researchers for several centuries. In 1824, Niels Henrik Abel proved the striking result that there are equations of degree 5 whose solutions cannot be expressed by a (finite) formula, involving only arithmetic operations and radicals (see Abel–Ruffini theorem). In 1830, Évariste Galois proved that most equations of degree higher than four cannot be solved by radicals, and showed that for each equation, one may decide whether it is solvable by radicals, and, if it is, solve it. This result marked the start of Galois theory and group theory, two important branches of modern algebra. Galois himself noted that the computations implied by his method were impracticable. Nevertheless, formulas for solvable equations of degrees 5 and 6 have been published (see quintic function and sextic equation).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '894157',
'title': 'Academic Games',
'section': 'Section::::Games Played.:Math Games.:Equations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'Equations is a mathematics game created in 1965 for 2-3 players. The game uses a playing mat with Forbidden, Permitted, and Required sections and 24 cubes, each labeled with numbers and mathematical operations. At the beginning of each "shake", one player uses up to six cubes to set a "goal." All players must use the remaining cubes to devise a solution that equals the goal or win by challenging an impossible board + goal situation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '646796',
'title': 'Regula falsi',
'section': 'Section::::Numerical analysis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
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'passage_text': 'Many equations, including most of the more complicated ones, can be solved only by iterative numerical approximation. This consists of trial and error, in which various values of the unknown quantity are tried. That trial-and-error may be guided by calculating, at each step of the procedure, a new estimate for the solution. There are many ways to arrive at a calculated-estimate and "regula falsi" provides one of these.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '537048',
'title': 'Equation solving',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'In mathematics, to solve an equation is to find its solutions, which are the values (numbers, functions, sets, etc.) that fulfill the condition stated by the equation, consisting generally of two expressions related by an equality sign. When seeking a solution, one or more free variables are designated as unknowns. A solution is an assignment of expressions to the unknown variables that makes the equality in the equation true. In other words, a solution is an expression or a collection of expressions (one for each unknown) such that, when substituted for the unknowns, the equation becomes an identity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3754688',
'title': 'Sharp EL-5120',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': "BULLET::::- Solver: an interactive expression solver which can, in theory, numerically solve any equation versus any variable, using Newton's method. It may however fail to solve certain classes of equations depending on the expression format and starting values of the variables, so it is often necessary to rewrite the expression or experiment with initial values.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do physicists "solve" equations?',
'selftext': 'I was watching Interstellar the other day and Michael Caine\'s character is tasked to "solve gravity." The work was a huge equation on a bunch of blackboards. They talked about running iterations and that it only has to work once. What does that mean, how does one solve those science equations like E= mc^2 ? Thanks.',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Solving an equation is where you know the equation in one form, and want to rewrite it to another form, so it's easier to calculate the value of one of it's variables.\n\nIn your example of E = mc^2, say you know the energy E and the speed of light c, but want to know what the mass m is. You can rewrite that equation to E/c^2 = m. You have now 'solved the equation for m'.\n\nI'm not sure of how this fits into the context of the math in the movie - given that Hollywood is known to take liberties with scientific terminology - but that's what solving an equation means.",
'It depends on the equation. Note that it is also important to *derive* an equation, that is to come up with one that accurately models or predicts something. The equation you posted is trivial to solve. Take a mass value and multiply it by the speed of light twice. But deriving it, coming up with it, was more difficult.\n\nMany equations in physics are not so simple. Many are a type of "differential equation". These equations equate the rates of change of a function, constants and variables with each other. For example, you can model an oscillating spring. Its length is proportional to its acceleration, the velocity\'s rate of change over time. This is a differential equation. An early physics student would be tasked with finding a function that outputs a position at a given time. The equation was derived by Newton, Newton\'s second law. It can then have values substituted in for different situations, like a spring, and be solved.\n\nThe equation for gravity was derived by Einstein. It is a very complicted differential equation known as a field equation. It contains tensors which are a compact way of writing lots of information. It\'s basically a set of equations combined into one equation of tensors. It is very hard to solve. After Einstein derived it people began to try to solve it in different scenarios. The wierd affects gravity has on time is found in those solutions. The description of a black hole is found in a solution with particular values.\n\nNote that there are two ways of solving equations like this. Analytically and numerically. An analytic solution is an exact solution written down relativley simply. You can plug the solution into the equation and get an exact equality. But not all equations can be solved analytically. Some we dont know if an analytic solution exists, others have been shown that an analytic solution certainly doesn\'t exist. When this happens we can turn to a numeric solution. A numeric solution gives an approximate answer. Something like, the solution is bigger than 1 but less than 2. These numeric solutions usually get more accurate with more calculations being done. This is when we turn to computers. They can calculate very fast and hone in on a very accurate approximation. From bigger than 1 but less than 2 down to 1.4999999 plus or minus a small bit. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6y6ey2',
'query': 'how do physicists "solve" equations?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '53683',
'title': 'Nuclear fallout',
'section': 'Section::::Factors affecting fallout.:Location.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'There are two main considerations for the location of an explosion: height and surface composition. A nuclear weapon detonated in the air, called an air burst, produces less fallout than a comparable explosion near the ground. A nuclear explosion in which the fireball touches the ground pulls soil and other materials into the cloud and neutron activates it before it falls back to the ground. An air burst produces a relatively small amount of the highly radioactive heavy metal components of the device itself.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7459891',
'title': 'Underground nuclear weapons testing',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'The extreme heat and pressure of an underground nuclear explosion causes changes in the surrounding rock. The rock closest to the location of the test is vaporised, forming a cavity. Farther away, there are zones of crushed, cracked, and irreversibly strained rock. Following the explosion, the rock above the cavity may collapse, forming a rubble chimney. If this chimney reaches the surface, a bowl-shaped subsidence crater may form.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7137951',
'title': 'Schlenk line',
'section': 'Section::::Dangers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 371,
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'passage_text': 'An explosion can occur due to the common use of liquid nitrogen in the cold trap, used to protect the vacuum pump from solvents. If a reasonable amount of air is allowed to enter the Schlenk line, liquid oxygen can condense into the cold trap as a pale blue liquid. An explosion may occur due to reaction of the liquid oxygen with any organic compounds also in the trap.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7459891',
'title': 'Underground nuclear weapons testing',
'section': 'Section::::Effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'The effects of an underground nuclear test may vary according to factors including the depth and yield of the explosion, as well as the nature of the surrounding rock. If the test is conducted at sufficient depth, the test is said to be "contained", with no venting of gases or other contaminants to the environment. In contrast, if the device is buried at insufficient depth ("underburied"), then rock may be expelled by the explosion, forming a crater surrounded by ejecta, and releasing high-pressure gases to the atmosphere (the resulting crater is usually conical in profile, circular, and may range between tens to hundreds of metres in diameter and depth). One figure used in determining how deeply the device should be buried is the "scaled depth of burial", or "-burst". This figure is calculated as the burial depth in metres divided by the cube root of the yield in kilotons. It is estimated that, in order to ensure containment, this figure should be greater than 100.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50893060',
'title': 'Nuclear blackout',
'section': 'Section::::Bomb effects.:Within the atmosphere.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'end_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'When a nuclear bomb is exploded near ground level, the dense atmosphere interacts with many of the subatomic particles being released. This normally takes place within a short distance, on the order of meters. This energy heats the air, promptly ionizing it to incandescence and causing a roughly spherical fireball to form within microseconds.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7459891',
'title': 'Underground nuclear weapons testing',
'section': 'Section::::Effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'The energy of the nuclear explosion is released in one microsecond. In the following few microseconds, the test hardware and surrounding rock are vaporised, with temperatures of several million degrees and pressures of several million atmospheres. Within milliseconds, a bubble of high-pressure gas and steam is formed. The heat and expanding shock wave cause the surrounding rock to vaporise, or be melted further away, creating a "melt cavity". The shock-induced motion and high internal pressure cause this cavity to expand outwards, which continues over several tenths of a second until the pressure has fallen sufficiently, to a level roughly comparable with the weight of the rock above, and can no longer grow. Although not observed in every explosion, four distinct zones (including the melt cavity) have been described in the surrounding rock. The "crushed zone", about two times the radius of the cavity, consists of rock that has lost all of its former integrity. The "cracked zone", about three times the cavity radius, consists of rock with radial and concentric fissures. Finally, the "zone of irreversible strain" consists of rock deformed by the pressure. The following layer undergoes only an elastic deformation; the strain and subsequent release then forms a seismic wave. A few seconds later the molten rock starts collecting on the bottom of the cavity and the cavity content begins cooling. The rebound after the shock wave causes compressive forces to build up around the cavity, called a stress containment cage, sealing the cracks.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '427992',
'title': 'Water hammer',
'section': 'Section::::Water hammer during an explosion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'When an explosion happens in an enclosed space, water hammer can cause the walls of the container to deform. However, it can also impart momentum to the enclosure if it is free to move. An underwater explosion in the SL-1 nuclear reactor vessel caused the water to accelerate upwards through of air before it struck the vessel head at with a pressure of . This pressure wave caused the steel vessel to jump 9 feet 1 inch (2.77 m) into the air before it dropped into its prior location. It is imperative to perform ongoing preventative maintenance to avoid water hammer as the results of these powerful explosions have resulted in fatalities.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do nuclear explosions take the form of a shroom?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It's because of the air rise up. The center of the explosion is really hot, so the air expanses and it become lighter than the cold air above, so it starts rising. Then it drags the cold air around the explosion inside. \nWhen the hot air gets higher, it starts to get cold, it stops rising and spread out like a mushroom while the base is dragged in and up by the cold air.",
"Yes. But it's not just nuclear, any sufficiently big explosion is going to look like that. But aside from nuclear that's just volcanic explosions or explosions of whole munition warehouses. \n\nExplosions start out as a sphere of hot gas, the effect of the rest of the atmosphere moving back in shapes the smoke and debris into mushroom - the original sphere moves up forming the cap because it's hot, air rushing in from all sides shapes the stem, the ring is formed by the vortex from the updraft along the stem.",
"Yes, they do look like that (you can find lots of videos of nuclear tests on YouTube) and it's not just nuclear explosions - volcanic eruptions and large conventional bombs can also produce a mushroom cloud.\n\nThe shape forms because the explosion heats the air, and hot air rises, drawing the smoke upwards. But the rising air column is slowed down by friction with the cooler air around it, so as the air rises it starts to curl back on itself, forming a mushroom shaped cloud."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'dhognl',
'query': 'why do nuclear explosions take the form of a shroom?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3893437',
'title': 'Joint (geology)',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'A joint is a break (fracture) of natural origin in the continuity of either a layer or body of rock that lacks any visible or measurable movement parallel to the surface (plane) of the fracture. Although they can occur singly, they most frequently occur as joint sets and systems. A "joint set" is a family of parallel, evenly spaced joints that can be identified through mapping and analysis of the orientations, spacing, and physical properties. A "joint system" consists of two or more intersecting joint sets.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29663881',
'title': 'Tension (geology)',
'section': 'Section::::Jointing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Tensile stress forms joints in rocks. A joint is a fracture that forms within a rock, whose movement to open the fracture is greater than the lateral movement that takes place. Joints are formed in the direction perpendicular to the least principal stress, meaning that they are formed perpendicular to the tensile stress. One way in particular that joints can be formed is due to fluid pressure, as well as at the crest of folds in rocks. This occurs at the peak of the fold or due to the fluid pressure because a localized tensile stress forms, eventually leading to jointing. Another way in which joints form is due to the change in the weight of the overburden. Since rocks lay under a great deal of overburden, they undergo high temperatures and high pressures. Over time, the rocks are eroded and the weight of the overburden is lifted, so the rocks cool and are under less pressure, which causes the rock to change shape, often forming breaks. As the compression is lifted from the rocks, they are able to react to the tension on them by forming these breaks, or joints.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3893437',
'title': 'Joint (geology)',
'section': 'Section::::Formation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'Joints result from brittle fracture of a rock body or layer as the result of tensile stresses. These tensile stresses either were induced or imposed from outside, e.g. by the stretching of layers; the rise of pore fluid pressure as the result of either external compression or fluid injection; or the result of internal stresses induced by the shrinkage caused by the cooling or desiccation of a rock body or layer whose outside boundaries remained fixed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3378138',
'title': 'Tyler Cymet',
'section': 'Section::::Research and publications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': "He has done extensive research in musculoskeletal medicine focusing on fibromyalgia, and the structure of the musculoskeletal system and how it affects function. He proposed an explanation for the articular crack (knuckle, neck and other joint sounds) that has caused debate in the medical community. Dr. Cymet's research has shown a potential protective joint effect from joint cracking.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1565703',
'title': 'Crepitus',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
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'passage_text': "Crepitus can easily be created and observed by exerting a small amount of force on a joint, thus 'cracking it'. This is caused by bubbles of nitrogen forming in the synovial fluid bursting. Almost every joint in the body can be 'cracked' in this way, but the joints which require the least amount of effort include the hallux, knuckles and neck joints.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7042',
'title': 'Cracking joints',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
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'passage_text': 'There were several theories to explain the cracking of joints. Synovial fluid cavitation has some evidence to support it. When a spinal manipulation is performed, the applied force separates the articular surfaces of a fully encapsulated synovial joint, which in turn creates a reduction in pressure within the joint cavity. In this low-pressure environment, some of the gases that are dissolved in the synovial fluid (which are naturally found in all bodily fluids) leave the solution, making a bubble, or cavity, which rapidly collapses upon itself, resulting in a "clicking" sound. The contents of the resultant gas bubble are thought to be mainly carbon dioxide. The effects of this process will remain for a period of time known as the "refractory period," during which the joint cannot be "re-cracked," which lasts about twenty minutes, while the gases are slowly reabsorbed into the synovial fluid. There is some evidence that ligament laxity may be associated with an increased tendency to cavitate.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3125571',
'title': 'Knuckle',
'section': 'Section::::Cracking.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': "The physical mechanism behind the popping or cracking sound heard when cracking joints such as knuckles has recently been elucidated by cine MRI to be caused by tribonucleation as a gas bubble forms in the synovial fluid that bathes the joint. Despite this evidence, many still believe it to be caused by synovial fluid filling the vacuum left by the joint's displacement.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'joint cracking',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["While still debateded, but we do know that carbon dioxide bubbles form in the joint cavity fluid, which then as you move your joint, would sometimes collapse.\n\nWhen the bubbles pop, you hear that distinctive pop noise. And bubbles don't form at a moment's notice, it takes time for the bubble to form which is why you can't repeatedly crack.\n\nAs for arthritis, they haven't found a medical connection yet.",
"It's the forming of bubbles by a process called cavitation. Basically you're making the volume of the joint larger, but the amount of gas/fluid/tissue stays the same so the pressure reduces. Because of this, it forms bubbles a little similar to the way soda forms bubbles when you open the cap. Then these bubbles pop making the noise. Unfortunately this doesn't really explain why you can't do it again immediately, as presumably the gases are still in the same area.\n\nCheck out the [wikipedia article](_URL_0_), it has some good explanations.",
"So question to supplement...\n\nWhy having never popped some joints, now starting popping, and now HAVE to pop? Is the initiation of popping the joint a self-driving long-term condition. Or was it just inevitable to need to alleviate the pressure as age continues? \n\n(i.e. I used to not be able to pop my neck. Now, early 30's, I HAVE to pop my neck several times a day to alleviate pressure. Did I bring this on?)"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'dc2nh0',
'query': 'joint cracking',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1333814',
'title': 'Tread',
'section': 'Section::::Tires.:Off-road tires.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 284,
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'passage_text': 'Off-road tires used in mud or dirt feature individual knob patterns to allow the tire to bite into the surface and lever the sides of the tread to get a better grip. Given the smaller contact patch, these tires tend to wear quickly when used on asphalt (depending on type of rubber).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2248271',
'title': 'Tire bead',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'It is common amongst drivers of off-road vehicles to decrease the air pressure in their tires. This makes the tread of the tire spread out, creating more surface area for the tire\'s tread to grip the terrain. If the pressure is too low, there may not be enough pressure to keep the bead on the wheel, thus causing the bead to pop off the wheel; this is often referred to as "losing a bead". Beadlocks, which clamp the bead on the wheel, are often used in this case.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6118725',
'title': 'Rain tyre',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.:Grooves.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'Rain tyres are cut or moulded with patterned grooves or tread in them. This allows the tyre to quickly displace the water between the ground and the rubber on the tyre. If this water is not displaced, the car will experience an effect known as hydroplaning as the rubber will not be in contact with the ground. These grooves do not help the car grip contrary to popular belief, however if these grooves are too shallow, the grip will be impaired in wet conditions as the rubber will not be able to make good contact with the ground. The patterns are designed to displace water as quickly as possible to the edges of the tyre or into specially cut channels in the centre of the tyre. Not all groove patterns are the same. Optimal patterns depend on the car and the conditions. The grooves are also designed to generate heat when lateral forces are applied to the tyre.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '292211',
'title': 'Mud',
'section': 'Section::::Problems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': 'Mud can pose problems for motor traffic when moisture is present, because every vehicle function that changes direction or speed relies on friction between the tires and the road surface, so a layer of mud on the surface of the road or tires can cause the vehicle to hydroplane.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1333814',
'title': 'Tread',
'section': 'Section::::Tires.:Street tires.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'end_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'The grooves in the rubber are designed to allow water to be expelled from beneath the tire and prevent hydroplaning. The proportion of rubber to air space on the road surface directly affects its traction. Design of tire tread has an effect upon noise generated, especially at freeway speeds. Generally there is a tradeoff of tread friction capability; deeper patterns often enhance safety, but simpler designs are less costly to produce and actually may afford some roadway noise mitigation. Tires intended for dry weather use will be designed with minimal pattern to increase the contact patch. Tires with a smooth tread (i.e., having no tread pattern) are known as slicks and are generally used for racing only, since they are quite dangerous if the road surface is wet.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5343488',
'title': 'Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics',
'section': 'Section::::Lateral dynamics.:Turning.:Tires.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 115,
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'end_paragraph_id': 115,
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'passage_text': 'Also, because real tires have a finite contact patch with the road surface that can generate a scrub torque, and when in a turn, can experience some side slipping as they roll, they can generate torques about an axis normal to the plane of the contact patch.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26111059',
'title': 'Road debris',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 276,
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'passage_text': 'Road spray or tire kickup is road debris (usually liquid water) that has been kicked up, pushed out, or sprayed out from a tire. In 2004, a AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety study revealed that vehicle-related road debris caused 25,000 accidents and nearly 100 deaths a year.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do we not notice rubber on the roads if tires slowly wear down on them?',
'selftext': "Why can't we take our hand, touch the road, and feel rubber? Might be a silly question, but this question got me thinking in the shower this morning.",
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The quantities are super small and it doesnt stick to the road so well. If you put your hand to the road you may feel dust, and that dust is at least partially rubber.\n\nIf it helps you can visualize them more as smaller versions of that residue left over from using an eraser.',
'The tiny grains of rubber leave the road in two ways. \n\n1. They are washed away by rainwater, ending up wherever the drains or ditches near the road lead.\n2. They are carried away by the wind. Buildings right near very major roads often end up with a fine layer of rubber and dirt on them.',
'If you go to a race track you will notice it a lot more, on the daily drive they slowly deteriorate and get washed away by the weather and cleaners.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6z1t2f',
'query': 'how do we not notice rubber on the roads if tires slowly wear down on them?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '52380879',
'title': 'James Webb Space Telescope timeline',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'The James Webb Space Telescope is a planned international 21st century space observatory. It is intended to be a premier observatory of the 2020s, combining the largest mirror yet on a near-infrared space telescope with a suite of technologically advanced instruments from around the world. JWST is expected to cost at least 8.8 billion dollars, including design, construction, and five years of operations (does not include extended mission funding) or International contributions. Its likely peak year for funding was probably 2014, when the project used more than US$650 million.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36053297',
'title': '2012 National Reconnaissance Office space telescope donation to NASA',
'section': 'Section::::Potential uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 752,
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'passage_text': "Whether using the NRO telescopes would save NASA money is unclear. While each is worth at least $250 million, their larger size compared to the proposed WFIRST design would require a larger rocket and camera. According to one NASA estimate using an NRO telescope would raise the cost of WFIRST by $250 million above its $1.5 billion budget. Another estimate states that NASA would save up to $250 million. The agency's deputy acting director for astrophysics Michael Moore states that using both telescopes may ultimately save NASA $1.5 billion. David Spergel estimates that using an NRO telescope would add about $100 million to WFIRST's cost, but would prefer to spend another $200 million for a coronagraph to improve its direct-imaging capability.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20584918',
'title': 'Saturn V',
'section': 'Section::::Cost.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 121,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 121,
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'passage_text': 'From 1964 until 1973, $6.417 billion (equivalent to $ in ) in total was appropriated for the R&D and flights of the Saturn V, with the maximum being in 1966 with $1.2 billion (equivalent to $ in ). That same year, NASA received its biggest budget of $4.5 billion, about 0.5 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP) of the United States at that time.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15043',
'title': 'International Space Station',
'section': 'Section::::Cost.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 239,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 239,
'end_character': 699,
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'passage_text': 'The ISS has been described as the most expensive single item ever constructed. In 2010 the cost was expected to be $150\xa0billion. This includes NASA\'s budget of $58.7\xa0billion (inflation-unadjusted) for the station from 1985 to 2015 ($72.4\xa0billion in 2010 dollars), Russia\'s $12\xa0billion, Europe\'s $5\xa0billion, Japan\'s $5\xa0billion, Canada\'s $2\xa0billion, and the cost of 36 shuttle flights to build the station; estimated at $1.4\xa0billion each, or $50.4\xa0billion in total. Assuming 20,000 person-days of use from 2000 to 2015 by two- to six-person crews, each person-day would cost $7.5\xa0million, less than half the inflation-adjusted $19.6\xa0million ($5.5\xa0million before inflation) per person-day of "Skylab".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35959810',
'title': 'Vinasat-2',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 307,
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'passage_text': 'The satellite costs about US$280\xa0million and weighing 3,000\xa0kg, was constructed by US-based Lockheed Martin. It will be able to provide capacity equal to 13,000 channels of telephone/internet/data communications or 150 Television channels; greater number of sensor responses; and higher bandwidth capacity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4266335',
'title': 'Thirty Meter Telescope',
'section': 'Section::::Background.:Partnerships and funding.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 320,
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'passage_text': 'In 2008, the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ) joined TMT as a Collaborating Institution. The following year, the telescope cost was estimated to be $970 million to $1.4 billion. That same year, the National Astronomical Observatories of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (NAOC) joined TMT as an Observer.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25100839',
'title': 'X-ray astronomy satellite',
'section': 'Section::::Proposed (future) X-ray observatory satellites.:eROSITA and ART-XC.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 50,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 50,
'end_character': 398,
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'passage_text': 'According to Mikhail Pavlinsky, deputy head of the Space Research Institute (SPI), the total project cost nears €50 million. Under the agreement, Germany will provide the main of the two X-ray telescopes (eROSITA), while Russia will install it on its platform, prepare the spacecraft, and take care of all related issues. Russia will also install an additional telescope (ART-XC) on this platform.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does something like the James Webb Space Telescope cost $8 billion?',
'selftext': 'It\'s really hard to comprehend this amount of money and how it would be spent. Has any similar project released easy to understand details about how the money is spent? Even saying something like "$50 million to build the mirrors" doesn\'t help me understand. That\'s less than 0.7% of the total, but I still think "wow, why does it cost so much?" I\'m not suggesting that it\'s too much money, it\'s just very difficult to comprehend where it is all going.',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Who made it? A huge team of NASA engineers working for years and years to develop technology never seen before. These are real smart dudes who don't work for chump change. ",
'It will be lifted to a very high orbit. Resupplying the ISS cost about ten thousand dollars a pound. It will need stabilizing so may well include a generous amount of rocket fuel. There is a good estimate of what the final weight will be. \n\nEveryone at NASA is paid a good wage. It is a government agency. So the budget swells. \n\nA similar telescope could be constructed some other way for a much lower price. Part of the price is extensive testing. It will be in an inaccessible orbit. The Hubble was useless until it was repaired which was only possible in low Earth orbit.',
'Most of the money is for the development of completely new and unique components. When you push way beyond what has ever been done before, there are no factories making the components you need -- you must have each one custom designed by excellent engineers, and (for space mission) manufactured flawlessly since repairs are not realistic.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5vp2dc',
'query': 'how does something like the james webb space telescope cost $8 billion?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '17681122',
'title': 'Central nervous system disease',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:movement-disorder.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 273,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "A tumor is an abnormal growth of body tissue. In the beginning, tumors can be noncancerous, but if they become malignant, they are cancerous. In general, they appear when there is a problem with cellular division. Problems with the body's immune system can lead to tumors.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13059707',
'title': 'List of cancer types',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 391,
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'passage_text': 'This is a list of cancer types. Cancer is a group of diseases that involve abnormal increases in the number of cells, with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. Not all tumors or lumps are cancerous; benign tumors are not classified as being cancer because they do not spread to other parts of the body. There are over 100 different known cancers that affect humans.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19965',
'title': 'Morphogenesis',
'section': 'Section::::Cancer morphogenesis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 212,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Cancer can result from disruption of normal morphogenesis, including both tumor formation and tumor metastasis. Mitochondrial dysfunction can result in increased cancer risk due to disturbed morphogen signaling.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1342811',
'title': 'Benign tumor',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism.:Benign vs malignant.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 1636,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'One of the most important factors in classifying a tumor as benign or malignant is its invasive potential. If a tumor lacks the ability to invade adjacent tissues or spread to distant sites by metastasizing then it is benign, whereas invasive or metastatic tumors are malignant. For this reason, benign tumors are not classed as cancer. Benign tumors will grow in a contained area usually encapsulated in a fibrous connective tissue capsule. The growth rates of benign and malignant tumors also differ; benign tumors generally grow more slowly than malignant tumors. Although benign tumors pose a lower health risk than malignant tumors, they both can be life-threatening in certain situations. There are many general characteristics which apply to either benign or malignant tumors, but sometimes one type may show characteristics of the other. For example, benign tumors are mostly well differentiated and malignant tumors are often undifferentiated. However, undifferentiated benign tumors and differentiated malignant tumors can occur. Although benign tumors generally grow slowly, cases of fast-growing benign tumors have also been documented. Some malignant tumors are mostly non-metastatic such as in the case of basal cell carcinoma. CT and chest radiography can be a useful diagnostic exam in visualizing a benign tumor and differentiating it from a malignant tumor. The smaller the tumor on a radiograph the more likely it is to be benign as 80% of lung nodules less than 2\xa0cm in diameter are benign. Most benign nodules are smoothed radiopaque densities with clear margins but these are not exclusive signs of benign tumors.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4440593',
'title': 'Histone methylation',
'section': 'Section::::Mutations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 1138,
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'passage_text': 'In recent years it has come to the attention of researchers that many types of cancer are caused largely due to epigenetic factors. Cancer can be caused in a variety of ways due to differential methylation of histones. Since the discovery of oncogenes as well as tumor suppressor genes it has been known that a large factor of causing and repressing cancer is within our own genome. If areas around oncogenes become unmethylated these cancer-causing genes have the potential to be transcribed at an alarming rate. Opposite of this is the methylation of tumor suppressor genes. In cases where the areas around these genes were highly methylated, the tumor suppressor gene was not active and therefore cancer was more likely to occur. These changes in methylation pattern are often due to mutations in methyltransferase and demethyltransferase. Other types of mutations in proteins such as isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1) and isocitrate dehydrogenase 2 (IDH2) can cause the inactivation of histone demethyltransferase which in turn can lead to a variety of cancers, gliomas and leukemias, depending on in which cells the mutation occurs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '414192',
'title': 'Ovarian cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.:Pathology.:Secondary ovarian cancer.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 131,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 131,
'end_character': 514,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Ovarian cancer can also be a secondary cancer, the result of metastasis from a primary cancer elsewhere in the body. About 7% of ovarian cancers are due to metastases, while the rest are primary cancers. Common primary cancers are breast cancer, colon cancer, appendiceal cancer, and stomach cancer (primary gastric cancers that metastasize to the ovary are called Krukenberg tumors). Krukenberg tumors have signet ring cells and mucinous cells. Endometrial cancer and lymphomas can also metastasize to the ovary.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1342811',
'title': 'Benign tumor',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 282,
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'passage_text': 'Although most benign tumors are not life-threatening, many types of benign tumors have the potential to become cancerous (malignant) through a process known as tumor progression. For this reason and other possible negative health effects, some benign tumors are removed by surgery.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'how are cancer and tumors related? Does one cause another?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Cancers are a type of aggressive tumor. While tumors themselves are overgrowths of cells , they are not always dangerous. Tumors are just byproducts of uninstructed cells. Cancers are dangerous subcategories of tumors causing the mass make of harmful cells the body doesn’t view as a threat due to it essentially being made by your own body.',
'A tumor is an abnormal growth of tissue. It can be benign or it can be malignant. A malignant tumor is cancer. It grows very fast, it creates its own blood supply, it can spread throughout the body, and it can invade and destroy other tissue. A benign tumor is not cancer. It grows more slowly, it doesn’t make its own blood supply, it won’t invade other tissue, and it won’t spread to other parts of the body.',
"Tumors are cells that are ignoring only some of the rules the body sets for them. Cancer cells have gone completely renegade.\n\nSpecifically, the body sets clear rules for which cells are allowed to divide (and thus grow their tissue) and when. That's how you grow and maintain your organs and other bodily tissues. If cells were allowed to divide whenever they wanted to, you'd end up with strange bulbous growths that would leech blood and nutrients while making a mess of things and getting in everyone's way. Sound familiar? Yes, that's a tumor.\n\nTumors aren't necessarily that harmful as long as they aren't messing things up too much. If they are small, self-contained, and in a place where they can't do much harm, you can live with a tumor for a very long time without serious complaints. If they are larger or if they are interfering with vital functions, a tumor may become a problem in and of itself and have to be removed for that reason.\n\nA more important issue, though, is that cells who've already broken some of the body's rules may start breaking others. Specifically: the very important rule that, with some exceptions (e.g. blood), cells need to stay in their designated place within the body. When cells break this rule as well, we call them *malignant* or *cancerous.* These cells are now traveling throughout the body and settling in different places, where they start dividing again and growing new tumors. This is very bad. As I said, you can live with a contained tumor quite happily if it isn't interfering with anything important. But if tumors start to grow everywhere, that's a different ball game. Some of these tumors are bound to be in dangerous places, and even if they aren't, their numbers alone can start to pose a problem.\n\nMoreover, once you're at this stage, it becomes much harder to remove the bad cells. A single, large-ish tumor can be easily detected, surgically removed, irradiated, or otherwise targeted specifically. But once you have many small tumors growing all over the place, you're fighting a guerrilla war. The enemy is now spread over many places, and hard to track. We're getting better and better at fighting these sorts of wars, and we can subdue cancers for longer and longer, to the point where more and more people are dying *with* cancer, not *of* it. But it all depends on how far the cancer has spread, as well as the type of cancer and how aggressive it is. In any case, the earlier you detect it, the better, and often a *benign* (i.e. not (yet) cancerous) tumor will be removed for that reason.",
"Cancer: Cells that are growing in an unchecked manner. Normal Cells reproduce in a certain way at a certain rate, cancer cells don't have these instructions and as a result grow unconstrained.\n\nTumors are an abnormal growth of tissues somewhere on the body. Basically, the instructions on how the cells are supposed to grow has been ignored.\n\nA tumor can be a result of a cancer. A cell growing rapidly and without check could form a mass (tumor) - that would be a malignant tumor. However, it could be non-cancerous cells making up the tumor (benign). \n\nCancer can also effect cells that can't form solid masses like a tumor - so if you have Lymphoma or lukemia, you wouldn't see tumors, since the cancer is in your blood."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'f5sqvd',
'query': 'how are cancer and tumors related? does one cause another?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '57388076',
'title': 'BankAxept',
'section': 'Section::::Use of the service.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 276,
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'passage_text': 'Because the customers have to use a PIN code in the BankAxept system, but not with many other systems, it is also much more frequent that stolen debit cards are abused in card fraud with merchants that only have an agreement with the international payment systems and online.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '458524',
'title': 'EMV',
'section': 'Section::::Implementation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 160,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 160,
'end_character': 579,
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'passage_text': 'Chip and PIN systems can cause problems for travellers from countries that do not issue Chip and PIN cards as some retailers may refuse to accept their chipless cards. While most terminals still accept a magnetic strip card, and the major credit card brands require vendors to accept them, some staff may refuse to take the card, under the belief that they are held liable for any fraud if the card cannot verify a PIN. Non-chip-and-PIN cards may also not work in some unattended vending machines at, for example, train stations, or self-service check-out tills at supermarkets.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3250682',
'title': 'Merchant account',
'section': 'Section::::Rates and fees.:Discount rates.:Six-tier pricing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 44,
'end_character': 505,
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'passage_text': 'As a result of the Walmart Settlement and to compete against PIN-based debit cards (which are processed outside of the Visa and MasterCard networks), Visa and MasterCard lowered the interchange rates for debit cards well below those for credit cards. Some providers can pass on the lower cost of these cards directly to merchants. Consequently, the three tiers programs have added two classifications for debit cards that are processed without a PIN or with a PIN for a total of six rate classifications.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9008',
'title': 'Debit card',
'section': 'Section::::Debit cards around the world.:United States.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 222,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 222,
'end_character': 595,
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'passage_text': 'Some consumers prefer "credit" transactions because of the lack of a fee charged to the consumer/purchaser. A few debit cards in the U.S. offer rewards for using "credit". However, since "credit" transactions cost more for merchants, many terminals at PIN-accepting merchant locations now make the "credit" function more difficult to access. For example, if you swipe a debit card at Wal-Mart or Ross in the U.S., you are immediately presented with the PIN screen for online debit. To use offline debit you must press "cancel" to exit the PIN screen, and then press "credit" on the next screen.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4368047',
'title': 'Debit card cashback',
'section': 'Section::::Fees, operation and advantages.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 266,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The services are restricted to debit cards where the merchant pays a fixed fee for the transaction, it is not offered on payments by credit card because they would pay a percentage commission on the additional cash amount to their bank or merchant service provider.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9008',
'title': 'Debit card',
'section': 'Section::::Debit cards around the world.:Mexico.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 152,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 152,
'end_character': 334,
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'passage_text': "In Mexico, many companies use a type of debit card called a payroll card (tarjeta de nómina), in which they deposit their employee's payrolls, instead of paying them in cash or through checks. This method is preferred in many places because it is a much safer and secure alternative compared to the more traditional forms of payment.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15905419',
'title': 'Credit card fraud',
'section': 'Section::::Compromised accounts.:Card not present transaction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 446,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Merchant associations have developed some prevention measures, such as single-use card numbers, but these have not met with much success. Customers expect to be able to use their credit card without any hassles and have little incentive to pursue additional security due to laws limiting customer liability in the event of fraud. Merchants can implement these prevention measures but risk losing business if the customer chooses not to use them.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How come some vendors require my debit card pin but others do not?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Your debit card has Visa (or another credit card company) backing it. Each transaction can be run as debit (processed by your bank directly, requires your PIN) or credit (processed through Visa, does not require your PIN).\n\nProcessing as credit through Visa is to your advantage as the consumer. The consumer protections are much greater. If there is fraud or a dispute, you have a lot more power to get it fixed quickly.\n\nVendors don\'t want you to choose this option, because when you do they have to pay Visa a transaction fee. This is why some shady Point of Sale systems will force debit even if you try to pick credit. You could complain to Visa about these places and they would probably be forced to fix it, but ain\'t nobody got time fo\' dat.\n\nWhen you use debit, the money is literally pulled out of your account immediately without that intermediate "credit stage". This is a big deal, for example if you use it to check in at a hotel then the full amount of the hotel\'s holding amount will immediately be pulled out of your checking account. Versus the credit card approach where it is just a "pre-authorization" transaction that doesn\'t actually hit your account until they complete the posting.',
'You can spend up to £29.99 with contactless payment but will need to enter your pin for transactions of anything more.\n\nOr.. have i completely misunderstood.',
" Source: almost 10 years of card-specific processing.\n\nYour card issuer (the bank) has a preference on how they verify their cardholder, whether it's via PIN, signature, or not at all. This is primarily what drives the PIN request, but certain transactions require it regardless, such as ATMs. That's the simple answer.\n\nFor more color: Prior to the advent of chip cards, transactions made with your PIN posted at the same time as they authorized due to the additional verification token, whereas transactions without it always had a lag between authorization and posting. However, chip cards muddy the waters. Sometimes, PIN transactions will travel along the signature networks, and vice versa; it depends a lot on issuer vs. Merchant network affiliation and a whole bunch of other industry nonsense.\n\nI could go on and on, but the long and short of it is that the PIN request is driven by your financial institution's preferences. That's it!",
"Similarly, how come when I use my credit card sometime I have to sign and other times I don't? I've had to sign and not sign at the same store before. ",
"McDonalds is the only place where it's like SWIPE BAM. You're good.\n\nOther places are dial up, you pass a clip board (such as checking out of the airport or something) sign it, wait for the other copy to print out. I can go on and on "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8n8pi6',
'query': 'how come some vendors require my debit card pin but others do not?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '616746',
'title': 'Minbari',
'section': 'Section::::Biology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 468,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The Minbari sense of taste is not as developed as that of human beings, but they have a more acute sense of hearing. Because of this weak sense of taste, Minbari prefer hot, spicy foods. Minbari do not drink beverages containing alcohol because it affects their systems in a way that causes psychosis and homicidal rages, even in small amounts. Minbari also have a lower tolerance for hot and humid weather than humans, because their race evolved in a colder climate.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34591824',
'title': 'BitterDB',
'section': 'Section::::Summary.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 924,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Basic taste qualities like sour, salty, sweet, bitter and umami serve specific functions in identifying food components found in the diet of humans and animals, and are recognized by proteins in the oral cavity. Recognition of bitter taste and aversion to it are thought to protect the organism against the ingestion of poisonous food compounds, which are often bitter. Bitter taste receptors are expressed not only in the mouth but also in extraoral tissues. BitterDB database, available at http://bitterdb.agri.huji.ac.il/bitterdb/, includes over 670 compounds that were reported to taste bitter to humans. The compounds can be searched by name, chemical structure, similarity to other bitter compounds, association with a particular human bitter taste receptor, and so on. The database also contains information on mutations in bitter taste receptors that were shown to influence receptor activation by bitter compounds.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12465661',
'title': 'Acquired taste',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'An acquired taste is an appreciation for something unlikely to be enjoyed by a person who has not had substantial exposure to it. In the case of food and drink, this may be due to a strong odor (such as certain types of cheese, durian, hákarl, black salt, nattō, asafoetida, surströmming, or stinky tofu), taste (alcoholic beverages, Vegemite or Marmite, bitter teas, salty liquorice, malt bread, unsweetened chocolate, garnatálg), mouthfeel (such as sashimi and sushi featuring uncooked seafood), appearance, or association (such as eating insects or organ meat).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21282070',
'title': 'Taste',
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'passage_text': 'The sensation of taste includes five established basic tastes: sweetness, sourness, saltiness, bitterness, and umami. Scientific experiments have demonstrated that these five tastes exist and are distinct from one another. Taste buds are able to distinguish between different tastes through detecting interaction with different molecules or ions. Sweet, savory, and bitter tastes are triggered by the binding of molecules to G protein-coupled receptors on the cell membranes of taste buds. Saltiness and sourness are perceived when alkali metal or hydrogen ions enter taste buds, respectively.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '2961628',
'title': 'Special senses',
'section': 'Section::::Taste.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The sensation of taste includes five established basic tastes: sweetness, sourness, saltiness, bitterness, and umami. Scientific experiments have proven that these five tastes exist and are distinct from one another. Taste buds are able to differentiate among different tastes through detecting interaction with different molecules or ions. Sweet, umami, and bitter tastes are triggered by the binding of molecules to G protein-coupled receptors on the cell membranes of taste buds. Saltiness and sourness are perceived when alkali metal or hydrogen ions enter taste buds, respectively.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11890889',
'title': 'Taste receptor',
'section': 'Section::::Function.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Taste helps to identify toxins, maintain nutrition, and regulate appetite, immune responses, and gastrointestinal motility. Five basic tastes are recognized today: salty, sweet, bitter, sour, and umami. Salty and sour taste sensations are both detected through ion channels. Sweet, bitter, and umami tastes, however, are detected by way of G protein-coupled taste receptors.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5992',
'title': 'Traditional Chinese medicine',
'section': 'Section::::Herbal medicine.:Traditional categorization.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The classification according to the Five Flavors, (五味, , sometimes also translated as Five Tastes): acrid, sweet, bitter, sour, and salty. Substances may also have more than one flavor, or none (i.e., a "bland" flavor). Each of the Five Flavors corresponds to one of zàng organs, which in turn corresponds to one of the Five Phases. A flavor implies certain properties and therapeutic actions of a substance; e.g., saltiness drains downward and softens hard masses, while sweetness is supplementing, harmonizing, and moistening.\n',
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'title': 'how do humans taste things like smoke and metallic flavors if there are only five tastes (salty,sweet, sour, bitter, umami)?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['While the tongue only detects 5 ‘tastes’, smell is also a compnent, and it is this that creates ‘flavour’. Without any sense of smell an apple and onion would taste VERY similar. Food is ‘smelt’ through olfactory glands in the nose, via the internal nasal cavity.\n\nEDIT: Corrected location of glands per several commenters below. Thanks guys.',
'The taste of food is a combination of the balances of the 5 flavors, and the scent of the food. A large percentage of what we taste is actually dictated by what we smell. This is why food has almost no taste when you have a cold. ',
'Consider this: how can humans see thousands of colors if their have only red, green, and blue cones in their eyes?\n',
'I’m a little apprehensive seeing as how nobody has asked this question: what the actual fuck is “umami flavour”? As a follow up I’d like to add that I’m not actually mentally disabled. I’m just an uncultured Canadian pleb. Plez hep meh. ',
'Umami? What food tastes like that?',
'It\'s not just those 5! There has been some good research over the last decade that suggests "fat" is the 6th flavor that mammals (including humans) can taste.\n\n > After a short overview of the gustatory pathway, this review brings together the key findings consistent with the existence of a sixth taste modality devoted to the perception of lipids.\n\n[Taste of Fat: A Sixth Taste Modality?](_URL_0_)',
'I could be wrong but I believe the "five tastes" theory is outdated and oversimplified , much like the five senses. ',
"Metal doesn't actually have a smell or taste. What we perceive as a metallic smell/taste (from coins, keys, etc) is actually caused by volatile oils on our body undergoing rapid oxidisation (e.g. rust is one form of oxidisation) upon contact with metal.",
'The same way that your monitor can use a massive array of red, green, and blue LEDs to create a full spectrum of colored and grey scale images. ',
'Taste isn\'t what you may think. Imagine a drinking glass you own. If you freeze water in it, the cup will kinda hold on to the ice cube if you turn it upside down because it\'s such a perfect fit. But if put that ice cube in a different cup, even slightly different, and it won\'t stay in upside down at all. The cups are your taste receptors and the ice are \'tastes\'. \n\nYou tongue is covered in cups. When the cups have ice in them they send a signal. Similar cups, when also full, will add to the signal adding up together and making it stronger. This is half of the story. The rest of taste is in your brain, which decides what the signal means. Is it an emergency? Is it a very weak signal? Different brains might give a different answer to the same signal.\n\nLet\'s just call the \'ice cubes\' \'shapes\' now because that\'s what is important, the shape.\n\nI put tastes in quotes earlier because this allows us to taste a sensation. For example when we burn our tongue, what is really happening is we triggered special sensors on our tongues whose whole job is, "When you detect heat, throw out a bunch of shapes that fit in the \'my tongue is on fire\' cups!!!". It, for whatever reason, is the same shape as capsaicin, which is what we taste when we have food that is hot, as in spicy hot. Because of this, plants have evolved to produce all sorts of wonderful capsaicin containing compounds that make our food so delicious.\n\nSo when you taste something, it means it is the right shape to trigger our cups to signal, or it is stimulating our tongue to release a shape that does trigger the cups.\n\nThe smoke I imagine is a shape thing and the metal I imagine is something strange a property of metal has that messes with the way the signal system works.',
"Someone might have talked about this already, but metal doesn't actually have a smell or a taste. The metallic 'smell' is from the oil on your skin reacting with the metal. If you smelled metal that hadn't been handled, it wouldn't smell like anything. Similarly with taste, your saliva reacts with the metal. I'm no expert so I can't go super in depth, hope that kinda helps though",
'There are not only five tastes.\n\nIt\'s a useful model for teaching schoolkids, but it\'s not an accurate one.\n\nThere are, in total, around thirty tastes.\n\nI\'ll go over them.\n\nSweetness is detected by G protein coupled receptors, which respond to sugars, aldehydes, alcohols and ketones.\n\nSourness is quite simple, it is activated by hydrogen ions (it basically responds to low pH) and detects acidity.\n\nSaltiness is activated by small singly charged cations, Li+, Na+ and K+. The larger Ca2+ and Mg2+ cations have a much weaker response. Other cations, like ammonium, do not elicit this response.\n\nBitterness is the most complex of tastes, using a G coupled receptor (to gustducin) like with sweetness, to form over 25 different taste receptors. Some types of bitterness, such as beer or wine, are pleasant. Other types are unpleasant, like dandelion milk. These have as much a claim to be basic tastes by themselves as any other receptor does. We even have a very tightly coupled receptor which responds to a molecule nobody\'s yet discovered, a completely unknown taste which was likely down to an unpleasant plant we encountered somewhere in our past. \n\nUmami is another G coupled receptor, which is tightly coupled to detect the glutamate ion, the anion of the amino acid glutamic acid, a very versatile amino acid used as the building block of proteins. Most people describe it as "savoury" or "meaty", but it is properly called "umami". Nucelodites like guanylic acid and inosinic acid can also complement glutamate. Ribonucleotides are also often used to trigger the umami taste.\n\nThat\'s five basic tastes, and researchers at Purdue University believe they have found a sixth, that of rancid oils, which likely has its own receptors and therefore is a basic taste. Oils are usually triglycerides, which contribute to mouthfeel, but have no taste. Once the triglyceride begins to break into fatty acids (e.g. via bacterial fermentation), it imbues a taste which is pleasant in low concentrations, but as concentration increases becomes unpleasant and finally inedible. Fatty acids are a good nutrient, however their presence indicates food which is likely spoiled as they are not found in isolation in the human diet to any large degree.\n\nThe somatosensory system is also involved in taste, adding coolness (e.g. mint, menthol), pungency (chilli peppers, black peppers), numbness (sichuan pepper), astringency (tannins in tea, rhubarb, chestnuts), metallicness (blood) and we\'re still discovering new tastes such as calcium and fattiness, which are present in mice and may be present in humans.\n\nSo, in the ELI5 summary, of "basic tastes", there are as many as six, and then the 25-strong bitterness complex, as well as those added by the somatosensory system, as well as temperature.'],
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'query_id': '951j9e',
'query': 'how do humans taste things like smoke and metallic flavors if there are only five tastes (salty,sweet, sour, bitter, umami)?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '11963992',
'title': 'Atmospheric convection',
'section': 'Section::::Concerns regarding severe deep moist convection.:Tornadoes.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Tornadoes wind speeds generally average between and . They are approximately across and travel a few kilometers before dissipating. Some attain wind speeds in excess of , may stretch more than a across, and maintain contact with the ground for more than .\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '11593538',
'title': 'Severe weather',
'section': 'Section::::High winds.:Tornado.\n',
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'passage_text': "Tornadoes' wind speeds generally average between and . They are approximately across and travel a few miles (kilometers) before dissipating. Some attain wind speeds in excess of , may stretch more than two miles (3.2\xa0km) across, and maintain contact with the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100\xa0km).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '165198',
'title': 'Wind speed',
'section': 'Section::::Highest speed.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The fastest wind speed not related to tornadoes ever recorded was during the passage of Tropical Cyclone Olivia on 10 April 1996: an automatic weather station on Barrow Island, Australia, registered a maximum wind gust of 408\xa0km/h (220\xa0kn; 253\xa0mph; 113\xa0m/s). The wind gust was evaluated by the WMO Evaluation Panel who found that the anemometer was mechanically sound and the gust was within statistical probability and ratified the measurement in 2010. The anemometer was mounted 10 m above ground level (and thus 64 m above sea level). During the cyclone, several extreme gusts of greater than 300\xa0km/h (160\xa0kn; 83\xa0m/s) were recorded, with a maximum 5-minute mean speed of 176\xa0km/h (95\xa0kn; 110\xa0mph; 49\xa0m/s), the extreme gust factor was in the order of 2.27–2.75 times the mean wind speed. The pattern and scales of the gusts suggest that a mesovortex was embedded in the already strong eyewall of the cyclone.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37530',
'title': 'Tornado',
'section': 'Section::::Extremes.\n',
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'passage_text': "While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional anemometers would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by mobile Doppler radar units, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301\xa0±\xa020\xa0mph (484\xa0±\xa032\xa0km/h) in the F5 Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma, tornado which killed 36 people. Though the reading was taken about above the ground, this is a testament to the power of the strongest tornadoes.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '454078',
'title': 'Tornado records',
'section': 'Section::::Largest and most powerful tornadoes.:Highest forward speed.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The highest forward speed of a tornado on record was 73 miles per hour (117\xa0km/h) from the 1925 Tri-State Tornado. Other weak tornadoes have approached or exceeded this speed, but this is the fastest forward movement observed in a major tornado.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3724479',
'title': 'Enhanced Fujita scale',
'section': 'Section::::Differences from the Fujita scale.\n',
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'passage_text': "Since the new system still uses actual tornado damage and similar degrees of damage for each category to estimate the storm's wind speed, the National Weather Service states that the new scale will likely not lead to an increase in a number of tornadoes classified as EF5. Additionally, the upper bound of the wind speed range for EF5 is open—in other words, there is no maximum wind speed designated.\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '1567358',
'title': 'Gustnado',
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'passage_text': 'The average gustnado lasts a few seconds to a few minutes, although there can be several generations and simultaneous swarms. Most have the winds of an EF-0 or EF-1 tornado (up to 110 mph or 177 km/h), and are commonly mistaken for tornadoes. However, unlike tornadoes, the rotating column of air in a gustnado "usually" does not extend all the way to the base of the thundercloud. Gustnadoes actually have more in common with (minor) whirlwinds. They are not considered true tornadoes (unless they connect the surface to the ambient cloud base) by most meteorologists and are not included in tornado statistics in most areas. Sometimes referred to as spin-up tornadoes, that term more correctly describes the rare tornadic gustnado that connects the surface to the ambient clouded base, or more commonly to the relatively brief but true tornadoes that are associated with a mesovortex.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'the limit of tornado wind speed and why tornadoes might never become EF6',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Tornado and hurricane scales run from "Ehh"(EF0/Tropical storm) to "OH SHIT!"(EF5/Cat 5), in both cases we give the upper category an open upper bound. EF5 tornadoes have wind speeds > 200 MPH, even if you find a 300 MPH tornado, it would still be greater than 200 MPH and fall into the EF5 bucket \n\nAn EF5 tornado will demolish pretty much everything it comes across and throw train cars like toys. Even if the wind speed increases, the damage is pretty complete already\n\nThere\'s also the concern of thinning the scale out too much. There are lots of EF0-EF3 tornadoes but significantly fewer EF4 and even fewer EF5s. If you added more granularity then you might see an EF6 once every few years and an EF7 once a decade but those won\'t be useful classifications. A few, nice large buckets makes categorization much easier for those categorizing and those understanding what it means\n\nIf you hear there\'s an EF5 tornado coming you should think "OH SHIT" rather than "Well, at least its not an EF6 ¯\\\\\\_(ツ)_/¯"',
"_URL_0_\n\nthings fall off at EF5, where they classify anything at or above 200 MPH winds as EF5.\n\nand then\n\n_URL_1_\n\nthe article cites measured ground gusts (in australia, during a cyclone) as high as ~250 mph. New Hampshire is cited - on top of the Mt Washington Observatory, at ~230 mph.\n\nIt also cites calculated fastest wind speeds during a tornado in Oklahoma at 282-322 mph. But the only reason they had to calculate it was because the wind speeds would destroy the instruments.\n\n;;\n\nI think the main reason why they don't bother to classify them differently above 200 mph winds is because they are already *so destructive* at that level. The effective destruction is only so much.\n\nThink of it like a scenario where your house gets flooded and submerged. Does it really matter if it's 20 feet under water, or 200 feet? Not really - the whole thing is still ruined/damaged."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '90ozyu',
'query': 'the limit of tornado wind speed and why tornadoes might never become ef6',
'query_type': 'Physics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '4459886',
'title': 'Password strength',
'section': 'Section::::Password guess validation.:Human-generated passwords.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The full strength associated with using the entire ASCII character set (numerals, mixed case letters and special characters) is only achieved if each possible password is equally likely. This seems to suggest that all passwords must contain characters from each of several character classes, perhaps upper and lower case letters, numbers, and non-alphanumeric characters. In fact, such a requirement is a pattern in password choice and can be expected to reduce an attacker\'s "work factor" (in Claude Shannon\'s terms). This is a reduction in password "strength". A better requirement would be to require a password NOT to contain any word in an online dictionary, or list of names, or any license plate pattern from any state (in the US) or country (as in the EU). If patterned choices are required, humans are likely to use them in predictable ways, such a capitalizing a letter, adding one or two numbers, and a special character. This predictability means that the increase in password strength is minor when compared to random passwords.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1228060',
'title': 'Internet privacy',
'section': 'Section::::Risks to Internet privacy.:Other potential Internet privacy risks.\n',
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'passage_text': "BULLET::::- Use of weak passwords that are short, consist of all numbers, all lowercase or all uppercase letters, or that can be easily guessed such as single words, common phrases, a person's name, a pet's name, the name of a place, an address, a phone number, a social security number, or a birth date.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1123994',
'title': 'LAN Manager',
'section': 'Section::::Cryptanalysis.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::3. A 14-character password is broken into 7+7 characters and the hash is calculated for the two halves separately. This way of calculating the hash makes it exponentially easier to crack, as the attacker needs to brute force 7 characters twice instead of 14 characters. This makes the effective strength of a 14-characters password equal to only formula_1, or twice that of a 7-character password, which is significantly less complex than the formula_2 theoretical strength of a 14-character password.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30854993',
'title': 'Digital self-defense',
'section': 'Section::::Password Strength.\n',
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'passage_text': 'According to Microsoft an ideal password should be at least 14 characters in length and have letters, punctuation, symbols, and numbers, where complexity is added by the inclusion of uppercase letters.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24304',
'title': 'Password',
'section': 'Section::::Factors in the security of a password system.:Password security architecture.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Some systems require characters from various character classes in a password—for example, "must have at least one uppercase and at least one lowercase letter". However, all-lowercase passwords are more secure per keystroke than mixed capitalization passwords.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'LAN Manager',
'section': 'Section::::Security weaknesses.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Secondly, passwords longer than 7 characters are divided into two pieces and each piece is hashed separately; this weakness allows each half of the password to be attacked separately at exponentially lower cost than the whole, as only formula_4 different 7-character password pieces are possible with the same character set. By mounting a brute-force attack on each half separately, modern desktop machines can crack alphanumeric LM hashes in a few hours. In addition, all lower case letters in the password are changed to upper case before the password is hashed, which further reduces the key space for each half to formula_5.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '377018',
'title': 'Combination lock',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Single-dial locks.\n',
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'passage_text': "Depending on the quality of the lock, some single-dial combination locks can also be defeated relatively easily. Typical padlocks are manufactured with generous tolerances, allowing two, three or even more digits of 'play' in the correct access sequence. Given a 60-number dial with three cams and three digits of play, the search space is reduced from 60 × 60 × 60 to 20 × 20 × 20, a 96% reduction in potential combinations.\n",
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'title': 'A small-case 4-letter password has 456,976 possible combinations. Why is there a need for even stronger passwords?',
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'category': 'Technology',
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'answers': ['I’m sure there is more to it than this but 500,000 possible combinations seems like a lot for a human to figure out, but with today’s technology a program designed to try all different combinations (sometimes referred to as “brute force”) would crack a 4-letter password in no time at all.',
" > \tThat's a lot.\n\nFor you maybe. Typing that many passwords in manually would take a long time.\n\nBut not for a computer. It might be able to try hundreds per second, quickly breaking the password. It could even be much worse if some people are foolish enough to pick only real words of 4 letters in length.",
'Its important to remember that people don\'t pick passwords uniformly randomly - people normally pick words, and there are a little over 5000 4 letter english words, with some (like "open") far more likely to be picked as a password. Combine that with some basic tech that allows you to target more efficently (if I get 10 attempts per account then over a significant number of accounts I will probably score a hit) and you have a vunerability.',
"Imagine the database got hacked and leaked. Now, any company that takes security as anything less than a joke would've hashed the passwords, so you'd have to try all possible passwords to find one whose hash matches that of some account. A modern laptop processor can perform several BILLION operations per second (accounting for parallelism). So... that won't take very long. And also, now the hacker knows a password you might be using in other places, too.\nThis isn't uncommon, happens about once a month with some large company getting breached.\n\nAlternatively, let's say the website was NOT hacked. How long would it take a clickfarm with a few hundred workers randomly guessing passwords for random accounts to find one that works? On average, that's, let's say, 60 tries per hour, per employee. So 8x60x100=48000 tries per day for your clickfarm. You'll have breached into some accounts in no time.\n\nNot to mention, in some cases (e. g. Wi-Fi) your password can be used to encrypt communication. So let's say I listen to your wifi, and get the key establishment handshake. So now if I just knew your password, I'd be able to decrypt the packets. Soooo... I capture one packet, and start trying passwords until the resulting key decrypts the packet successfully. That won't take very long, either.",
'Human nature is to use sequences of numbers or dates for passwords, so there would be fewer combinations commonly used. With dates for example the first 2 digits might be months 01-12 and last 2 might be days 01-31.',
'It is not as simple as you think.\n\nYes they could implement brute force protection but there is an additional factor at play here.\n\n**Any service worth its salt will not store your password.**\n\nPassword authentication systems use something known as a cryptographic hash to not store your password. A hash is a piece of data a couple dozen bytes long that is produced by a hashing algorithm. A hashing algorithm takes in any data and spits out this hash. Cryptographic hashing algorithms are designed to not be reversible, that is given a hash, it should not be possible to figure out some kind of data that hashes to it.\n\nIt’s like a fingerprint (in fact hashes are commonly referred to as fingerprints). Given a random fingerprint, you wouldn’t know what person it belongs to. But if you know the person with the fingerprint, you can confirm it is theirs.\n\nSo how does logging in look like from the services point of view? You send the service your username and password, the service hashes your password, looks in its database for the entry under your username and checks that the hash there matches the hash of the password you provided. If so, it knows you put in the right password and you are let in.\n\nWhy not store the password? Protecting the business from itself.\n\nDatabase leaks are unfortunately fairly common. Computers are complicated, there will always be some bug or something that may let hackers into a master database. Check out _URL_0_ for some examples of these breaches in the news section.\n\nSo the hackers will get a list of usernames and password hashes. \n\nThey cannot use this to directly login to the account. They need to know the password, they only have the hash.\n\nNow this hash is a piece of data not a login prompt communicating with a server. The only limit on brute force speed at this point is how fast your computer is. \n\nAssuming some decent amount of complexity in your password, it will take decades to brute force it. We can try all combinations of 4 character passwords in less than a second if we have the hash. The longer and more complex the password is, the longer it takes to crack a hash.\n\nComplex password requirements are insurance against this, not against brute force logins. \n\nAdditionally this scheme means that any service that sends you the password you set during any password recovery means that the service is not using proper security practices.',
'You only think about a direct web-based bruteforce cracking attempt.\n\nWhat if you get access to the password hash files? You download them, run a bruteforce cracker, and have the password in less than one second.\n\nNow think about the same happening, but every password takes several months to years.',
'While ~457,000 sounds like just an absolutely unfathomably large number to a human, that\'s actually child\'s play when it comes to computers. [Kasperky Labs](_URL_2_) estimates that an average computer that\'s not even particularly specialized to password cracking can attempt roughly 7100 passwords every second. That means it could figure out a 4-letter single-case password in at most 65 seconds. I\'m sure you can see why that\'s not very desirable.\n\nEven just stepping up to a six-character password where lower case, upper case, and numbers (but no symbols) are allowed slows down an average computer\'s brute force attack to 3.5 days. This can be sped up by using known tables of common passwords that people use over and over again, or even just using a dictionary attack since most people use a password that\'s a word or some variant thereof (e.g. they might use "acc1d3nt" instead of "accident," but a good dictionary attack can account for these variants too).\n\nAnd that\'s all to say nothing of the fact that people who make their living by cracking people\'s passwords are going to have specialized hardware that can crack passwords even faster. In 2012, [ArsTechnica](_URL_0_) wrote an article about a then-new supercomputer that could guess up to 350 *billion* passwords every second (meaning the 6-character password from before could be cracked in a fraction of a second). And you can surely imagine that even more powerful hardware exists now, 8 years on.\n\n > Most websites also have a brute-force protection that disables password guessing after about 10 attempts.\n\nThis is true, but again people who make their living cracking passwords have ways of circumventing this. Explaining the exact specifics would probably make this explanation not ELI-5 anymore, but the basic gist is that they don\'t actually crack your password by going to the website and entering each potential password one at a time. Else, as you mentioned, they\'d get locked out and that would make the process take a long long time.\n\nRather, what they usually do is they get their hands on a master password list directly from the source. This can sometimes come from a leaker who works for a particular company, but most often it comes from hackers breaking into to the company\'s database and getting the master list file that way. Now thankfully, any company worth their salt encrypts said password list, but that turns out not to really be a problem for hackers.\n\nMost of the time hackers know what encryption algorithm a particular website uses to secure their passwords (e.g. the ArsTechnica article mentions that LinkedIn uses the SHA-1 algorithm. Obviously, this may no longer be the case today, but it was true as of 2012). Given this information, they can use their brute force password generator and run each one through the encryption algorithm until they find one that outputs the same string as one of the passwords in the list - they then know that user\'s password.\n\nIn addition to all of that, sometimes companies utterly fail at security and don\'t follow the industry best practices for securely storing passwords. In late 2013, a password list containing over 153 million Adobe Creative Cloud passwords was leaked. Subsequently, hackers discovered that Adobe did a very bad job securing this file. They used an encryption algorithm that is easily reversible and stored users\' hints in the same file as their password. Properly secured password files also use a process known as salting, whereby if two (or more) users have the same passwords, they end up being stored as completely different encrypted strings... but Adobe didn\'t make use of this, so if the list showed, say, five instances of the same string, hackers just got a 5-for-1 deal on that password.\n\nAs a final note, on rare occasions hackers will actually try logging in through the website and brute forcing it that way, if there\'s an exploit that circumvents the lock out routines. It\'s believed that such a vulnerability played a role in allowing the leaks of celebrities\' nudes from their iCloud accounts back in 2014. [The Next Web](_URL_1_) writes:\n\n > The vulnerability allegedly discovered in the Find My iPhone service appears to have let attackers use this method to guess passwords repeatedly without any sort of lockout or alert to the target.',
'The problem is that hackers can steal the hashes and brute force them locally instead of just typing a password into the normal interface. It’s the interface that prevent people from making multiple attempts. But if you get the password database you don’t have to go through the interface. You get unlimited tries. \n\nAnd as complex as 4 random characters are, it’s no match for even a normal desktop computer. Even if you use symbols too.',
"A single 1080ti graphics card can do about 50000 megahashes per second. So a 4 character lowercase alpha password would be cracked in no time. With the Advent of the cloud computing, even an 8 character lowercase alpha password is nothing. That's why its important to add as much entropy to your password as possible by using upper and lower case, numbers and special characters.",
" > a password of 4 letters would have 264 possible combinations\n\nBut the company/website doesn't trust its users to pick a *random* collection of 4 letters. \nThey want even their worst customers to be at least a little bit secure. \n\n\n\n > disables password guessing after about 10 attempts from a given IP\n\nIf the company is hacked and the password information leaked, then while this wont directly reveal passwords (or it shouldn't, the company shouldn't know your password), people can guess passwords as many times as they like against the password information, and the nature of this information will let them know if they were correct. \n\nTherefore, if there are more possible combinations, then this protects your passwords from people brute forcing a hacked list quickly/easily.",
'Your average desktop computer could crack that with a simple brute force very quickly. Computers are very fast. Login limits obviously prevent brute forcing of websites, but should your hashed password ever leaked as often happens (i suggest signing up to [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)) then it could be brute forced in minutes.',
'For 500,000 four-letter combinations, it doesn\'t take very long for a computer to go through all of them.\n\nSometimes a hacker is able to steal the secret encoded version of your password AND gather enough info to understand what the formula is to make secret encoded versions of passwords for that website.\n\nSo then the hacker just needs to plug all 500,000 combinations into the formula (again, this happens surprisingly fast when automated), and only one result will match with what the website had stored.\n\nAs someone else pointed out, there are lists of the most common passwords. People almost always make their passwords variations on, well, words. English language words, with just slight tweaks.\n\nA four letter password is way more likely to be "love" or "haha" than "qksv"... Just guessing variants of "love" or "haha" (and other popular choices) will get the correct answer most of the time.\n\nIf the hacker is targeting not just one person, but as many people in a million as they can crack, the chances go way up that they can crack 90% or more of the passwords.',
'The main problem here is a dictionary based attack not brute forcing. Attackers will use a “dictionary” or a set list of commonly used phrases or numbers (like the current year 2020 or easy phrase abcd, 1234..) and you have to remember you will most likely not be the only one personally attacked. These dictionaries are then sprayed to all accounts across the network and 10 shots at guessing every hour for all account has a high chance of working. \n\nUsing special characters will help prevent dictionary attacks/password spraying. Brute forcing is a largely a last ditch effort.',
"Many answers already have the correct explanation for this question. The short version is that trying passwords in webpage is slow, and would take a long time. This is not how it's done.\n\nInstead, hackers can obtain the list of hashed passwords for a website. A hash is a method of converting a password into another string of characters that is practically impossible to reverse. The only way to discover a working password is to run it through the hashing algorithm and see if it matches the string of characters in the stolen file.\n\nThis off-line method can happen very quickly for passwords under 12 or so characters, or for words in the dictionary, or for words with common replacements like p@ssw0rd for example.\n\n[Xkcd](_URL_1_) has a relevant comic, as usual. Edward Snowden explains it well in this [video](_URL_0_).",
'Wanted to add that they (experts in the field) have also found that the "standard" of 8 chrs with 1 upper, 1 number and a unique symbol isnt actually any safer and might be less secure then just a wacky/unique 4 or 5 letter password.',
"There are two types of account attackers (aka hackers)\n\nPeople who know you/have access to your information and those that do not.\n\nThe top comment by /u/RedditName6 and /u/Duckerton3 explain why 4 characters is not enough for the first type of attacker- people who know you. Chances are your 4 character passwords have some significance to you.\n\nLets discuss those that do not know you. Individuals attacking your data with no information about you either have to be INCREDIBLY lucky, or they have to put some creativity behind their attack.\n\nThe go to way to attack is to first get access to the database that tracks the passwords to user accounts. Now these databases are typically VERY difficult to get ahold of and often they are encrypted with some sort of key - but that is outside this explanation. Lets assume an attacker gets all the necessary information. So in essence they have cloned the website or service you are utilizing and have it as a digital copy that they can do what they want with.\n\nSo how do they attack the database? Well first they extract the user names, and then they simply start trying every combination of every letter. How would you start? Well we know humans are terrible at remembering long series of characters unless their is a pattern. We also know that socially 4-pins are common and due to limitations in earlier technology 8-16 character passwords were maximum length. So instead of starting with 100 character passwords, lets just hit it with all 36^4 (counting letters, lets exclude special characters, approximately 1.7million combinations) 4-character passwords. Since it is on a digital system we can put this on a really fast computer and essentially run that routine in minutes.\n\nNow the attacker won't have any account with > 4 characters, but this will likely get a large chunk of the passwords and accounts. (Maybe 20%?) with the minimal effort. They may at that time determine they got enough value to then sell the information or use the information. Or they may decide to start on 5-character passwords. 5-character passwords though will have 36^5 or approximately 60 million combinations. That single letter addition makes the password 1) potential skipped to minimize effort and 2) increase the time and difficulty it requires to detect the password is detected by a factor of 60 if the routine is run against 5 character password. In this example, 6 characters would put it into the realm of 2BILLION combinations, and you can see how just adding letters/numbers will help increase security.\n\nA bit more then ELI5; typically these databases also have safeguards in place. Safeguards such as increasing feedback for successful/failed log-in after x-failed attempts and lockdown/full rejection after y-attempts. In this case though the attacker has a digital copy... So they just take a picture of the database, erase the database that is now locking them out, and then restart the routine on the copied database where it left off at. This adds substantial time to the routine, but is just a hurdle - not a road block.\n\nKeep in mind, the attacker would run this on a local copy if possible. There is no delay to communicating with a server. Further the server protections of delaying the feedback can be removed or sped up so each password can be checked at an incredibly fast speed.\n\nAnd finally, the real reason you want to have a long password. Chances are you have the same password or similar password to all your accounts. So, no big deal if your Club Penguin account gets hacked right? Except if your username and password are similar and that attacker gets access to something more important - like your bank's database or your university database - then you may have allowed the open door into those databases. A long password (even on Club Penguin) increases security everywhere if you utilize shared/similar passwords.",
"Because nobody's brute forcing the login page. They're obtaining a copy of the user database and running a few rainbow tables over that then trying some dictionary attacks.\n\nYour 4 character password would be done instantly.",
"Other have answered pretty thoroughly but I'll try to do a more ELI5 answer:\n\nComputers run really fast. Like, REALLY fast. Computers can guess half a million passwords in just a few minutes. Making a password longer makes it take a lot longer to guess. The more different kinds of letters, or numbers you use, the longer it takes to guess. What you want to do is make a password take a really long time for a computer to guess.\n\nPeople are also really bad at creating passwords that a computer can't guess easily. So people who want to guess your password can take things they know about how people make passwords to help their computer guess better. That's why it's important to make long passwords that aren't easily guessed by a computer.",
"Because computers are fast. Insanely, godawfully fast. You thought they were fast back in the 1980s, but now they're about a million times faster. No, I didn't say 'million' just because it's an arbitrary large number. They're *literally* a million times faster now.\n\nMy PC is from 2014. Its CPU (AMD FX-6300) runs at 3.5GHz across six cores. In the time it takes a typical monitor to refresh *just one frame,* each core can process up to 58 million machine code instructions. If you wrote down one letter for each machine code instruction one core can process in one second, and it took you one second to write down a letter, you'd have to be writing letters since World War 1 ended in order to catch up by now. The PC sits about a meter away from my face while I'm using it; I literally can't watch the CPU run in real time, because even if I could see its inner workings operating at this distance, each core would have processed about 11 additional machine code instructions in the time it takes light to get from the CPU to my eyes.\n\nHow does this apply to password cracking? Well, just now I tried hashing 4-character strings, using my own homebrew hashing algorithm, in Javascript, running in Firefox 72. (If you don't know what 'hashing' is, just understand that it's something a hacker would want to do to text in order to guess a password.) For 1 million strings, the script took about 1.3 seconds to finish hashing them all. For your 456976 strings, it took 0.77 seconds. That's single-core performance in Javascript. A real hacker would at the very least have a multithreaded C program running on all cores, gaining probably more than ten times faster performance than what I was getting; so a reasonable estimate for the time taken to guess a 4-character password on the CPU would be something like 77 milliseconds, enough time for a typical monitor to display about five frames. Very likely the hacker could take advantage of his GPU to run hash checks even faster. And very likely the hashing algorithm for the passwords is faster than the one I designed for myself.\n\nThe math just doesn't work out. The 4-character password is *not even close* to long enough to resist bruteforcing attacks on a modern computer.\n\nWhat if you made the password longer? Well, if we assume that the 4-character case takes 77 milliseconds, here's how it breaks down for passwords of increasing length (all with just 26 alphabet letters):\n\n5 letters: 2.5 seconds\n\n6 letters: 1 minute 18 seconds\n\n7 letters: 39 minutes\n\n8 letters: 19 hours\n\n9 letters: 24 days\n\n10 letters: 1.9 years\n\n11 letters: 54 years\n\n12 letters: 1530 years\n\nBecause of the way the combinatoric arithmetic works (you're multiplying the variety of passwords by 26 with each additional character), a longer password takes *far* longer to crack. So you are definitely much more secure with, say, a random 12-letter password than with a random 4-letter password.",
'ELI5:\n\nComputers are fast. 26\\^4 is a small number to a computer. 26\\^10 is a much larger number. 62\\^10 is even larger (62 is upper/lower/numbers mixed).\n\nAlso, any passwords are cracked offline, where the entire password file is taken, and the attempts to break it are not against the 10-limit.\n\nless-ELI5:\n\nIf everyone salted and hashed passwords perfectly, and nobody ever re-used a password, 4-letter would be fine. \n\nYour 4-letter password would survive any attempt to hack it against the 10-try limit.\n\nWhen the site is hacked, they will tell everyone, and everyone immediately changes their password.\n\n In the real world, password reuse and places that still store passwords as encrypted (so a "crack" doesn\'t just get them into Ashley Madison, but gets the password and the email, so that they can have a proven working password and email combination to use against every bank, website, and service with an online login. One attempt each, no worries about a 10-time lockout) then we\'d be fine. \n\nBut in the real world, every password you use will be found out, eventually, and it will be used against all your other accounts. So to keep security, never reuse a password (I break that rule - forum sites, like Reddit all have a shared password, so one less to remember, and who cares if I lose this account?), and make it random, not Pap3r123 or some other combination that would be in a dictionary attack. \n\nAnd you have to change your password when someone gets the password file, even if perfect, the 4-char password will be broken quickly.',
"You're math is actually a bit off. If you include case and numbers the number of possible combinations is 14,776,336. \n\nHere's why that's a problem. You see that GHz number on your computer? That's an estimate of how many operations it can perform, per second. So my laptop with a 2.8GHz CPU can more or less execute 2,800,000,000 operations per second. On a single core, I have 8.\n\nSo your quaint 4 letter password is dead in less than one second. Adding more characters increases complexity pretty fast. Using only numbers and characters here's how fast the number of combinations increase by adding just 1 digit:\n\n1 62\n\n2 3,844\n\n3 238,328\n\n4 14,776,336\n\n5 916,132,832\n\n6 56,800,235,584\n\n7 3,521,614,606,208\n\n8 218,340,105,584,896\n\nAs you might have noticed adding additional characters went increased the combinations more than tenfold. Adding characters makes it more complicated to guess a password quickly.\n\nYour next question gets to an interesting point, why not rate limit password attempts? Well most websites do, but that's not the problem. What is?\n\nMost people use common passwords across many websites. So if one website is compromised along with its password database, more than 90% of those user/password combinations will work on elsewhere. So if say Ashley Madison or Adobe get hacked then they use that information on Amazon or Chase. In fact I'm betting you're reddit password is the same as your banking and other passwords.\n\nMost websites hide your password in such a way that it isn't easily or is impossible to recover, so they have to guess passwords one by one (as an aside, if you do business with someone that can give you your password instead of resetting it, don't do business with them, good security should make that impossible). A more complicated password means this is gonna take longer. There are tricks they can use to get around this but better passwords make this harder. So basically the idea is that they're going to assume the password file will be stolen (which is what you generally do), so they'll make it as hard to use as possible.\n\nNow the overkill part. Well it turns out we made a mistake with password policies. It turns out we've made passwords hard for people to remember and easy for computers to guess [Relevent XKCD](_URL_0_). So better sites have moved away from the random collection of characters thing. If you change your password at BestBuy, for example, they'll let you put in whatever you want. My password is a whole sentence. It turns out that this sort of approach, with common phrases is much harder for computers to guess and much easier for us to remember.",
"Alan Turing and a lot of others encountered this problem during WW2 against the Germans. The Germans would use a device called the Enigma that should've been impossible to crack due to the close to infinite possible combinations. \n\nAlan Turing made essentially a computer design to crack the German codes faster, more efficient, and no error. \n\nThe second point would be of the human factor. People tend to have a habit of subconsciously even when told to use random letters/numbers, choosing preferred letters/numbers thus forming a pattern. Another great example of this would be, Hitler made sure that the Enigma will not re-use the same combination when encrypting messages, so the people at Bletchley Park knew not to try the same combination and it sped up their computer significantly. \n\nOther factors include the limitation of languages. English for example must have a vowel shortly after a consonant, since there are only 5 vowels, you can see how a pattern can be easily formed, try playing hangman. Which is why most sites ask for numbers or special symbols, capital or what not, so as to stop these patterns. \n\nIn all honesty though, instead of hacking for your info, it would be more efficient to hack the corporations thus attaining everyone's passwords and other info instead of just one person. So it's highly recommended not to use the same password for all your sites, if a hacker got ur info from one site then all ur sites are compromised.",
'I read a few years ago that the guy who first recommended complex passwords 10-20 years ago in some government security report...apologized. He thinks it\'s stupid now too.\n\nAnd it is. As long as you have brute-force protection that you mentioned in place. That didn\'t used to be common either.\n\nWith brute-force protection in place, "8 is enough". But the problem with 8 is that people will use words. Knowing this, you drastically cut down the number of possibilites. So, we have to force people to use upper/lower, numbers, symbols, etc.\n\nIt\'s because people are stupid. ELI5.',
'Edward Snowden said small phrases are the hardest to crack that also have numbers, caps and symbols. His example was legendary: "MargaretThatcheris110%sexy"',
'Its not so much the length but that people use easy to guess passwords.\nRelevant XKCD.\n_URL_0_',
'My question is, if a password requires a number, does that not make it easier to crack, since its now guaranteed to have a number in it and thus theres less possible combinations?',
'Have anyone done any mathematics: is it better protection to use 8 or 10 characters with upper/lower case and special characters, or just lower case letters but super long password? The latter is definitely much easier to remember, for me.',
'Also: why do computers are allowed to try thousands of passwords a second? Why is it not mandatory a few seconds delay after a password try? (in websites, for example)',
"What bothers me most is that I cannot choose the level of difficulty of my password.\n\nThere are tons of webs I couldn't care less if I were to have my account stolen. Why I can't have some weak easy password. No, must be 8 letters long, have numbers, symbols, unicorn blood, a fulfilled paladin oath, the real ending of song of ice and fire and it is too similar to your last password.",
"Half a million combinations may sound like alot to you, but for a computer that's nothing. Take a look at [_URL_0_](_URL_0_) to give you an idea. \n\nExamples: \n\n*password: iplaygames*\n\n**It would take a computer about 59 MINUTES to crack your password**\n\n & #x200B;\n\n*password: IPlayGames*\n\n**It would take a computer about 1 MONTH to crack your password**\n\n & #x200B;\n\n*password: I\\_Pl4yG4me$*\n\n**It would take a computer about 4 HUNDRED YEARS to crack your password**\n\n & #x200B;\n\n*password: I\\_Pl4yG4Me$4FuN*\n\n**It would take a computer about 16 BILLION YEARS to crack your password**",
"A server should limit requests anyway, but a database can leak, then when you have the password (and the salt, hoping that there is one; look up hash and salt if you haven't heard of it) and then I don't have to ask the website if the password is correct.\n\nYou'd assume whoever can see the database is probably in deep enough to update it too and/or maybe other abilities, but not necessarily.",
'From Steve Gibson’s Haystack Passwords site: _URL_1_\n_URL_0_',
'Seems the question has been answered already, but for some context on how small 450k is, the rather small company my father works for has a password cracking machine that can make a few hundred million attempts per second',
"Hi, back-end developer here. You don't try to connect like a normal user, to guess a password: you already have the database that leaked, and (normally), the password are hashed. Hackers do a loop of characters then hash it to compare to the one in the database.\n\nI did an program to see how much time it takes to get a hashed password, and tested it on doing a loop of 4 uppercase letters doing all the alphabet, in PHP.\n\n**Result : 2.882 seconds**\n\nNow, add lowercase letters in your 4-letter password and you get 7,311,616 possibilities.\n\n**Result : 49.883 seconds**\n\nAnd if you add special characters, my localhost is having a hard time!\n\nAnd keep in mind I only use the cheap PC from my work. People who hack use PC for gamers.\n\nSo, minimum, use 8 characters. Because people who hack aren't just people like me and you, but organized band of people.\n\nIf it takes too much time guessing a password, they go on the next one."],
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'query': 'a small-case 4-letter password has 456,976 possible combinations. why is there a need for even stronger passwords?',
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'passage_text': 'All higher mammals (excluding monotremes) share two major adaptations for care of the young: live birth and lactation. These imply a group-wide choice of a degree of parental care. They may build nests and dig burrows to raise their young in, or feed and guard them often for a prolonged period of time. Many mammals are K-selected, and invest more time and energy into their young than do r-selected animals. When two animals mate, they both share an interest in the success of the offspring, though often to different extremes. Mammalian females exhibit some degree of maternal aggression, another example of parental care, which may be targeted against other females of the species or the young of other females; however, some mammals may "aunt" the infants of other females, and care for them. Mammalian males may play a role in child rearing, as with tenrecs, however this varies species to species, even within the same genus. For example, the males of the southern pig-tailed macaque ("Macaca nemestrina") do not participate in child care, whereas the males of the Japanese macaque ("M. fuscata") do.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'how do animals without parental training know how to be the animals they are?',
'selftext': 'Like snakes, bees, lizards, crocs. Everything that doesn\'t have a parent raise them. How do they "know" how to survive?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["First, if I were to cut your skull vertically and take a look at a cross-section of your brain, I'd be able to divide it into what you normally think of as the brain (the noodlely bits) and the brain-stem. \nMost of your instinctual functions, such as curling away from heat, your fight or flight instincts, reflex to swallow things put in your mouth, etc. are all handled by the brain-stem.\nAnimals that don't require parental nurture often have their behavior programmed into them. They're extremely complex chemical reactions at the end of the day.",
'They are literally programmed like a computer. The same way an application knows how to be an application. There is code in their genetic material that instructs them to do what a bee does, or what a lizard does. \n\nEverything that they do is an effort to survive, and procreate. Some animals are intelligent enough to innovate, and play/do recreational activities, but their main pull in life is survival, and procreation. \n\nWhen you hear the word "instinct" you can literally translate it to "code base".'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'bxun1r',
'query': 'how do animals without parental training know how to be the animals they are?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1613869',
'title': 'Plastic shopping bag',
'section': 'Section::::Manufacture and composition.:Biodegradable materials.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': 'Some modern bags are made of vegetable-based bioplastics, which can decay organically and prevent a build-up of toxic plastic bags in landfills and the natural environment. Bags can also be made from degradable polyethylene film or from polylactic acid (PLA), a biodegradable polymer derived from lactic acid. However, most degradable bags do not readily decompose in a sealed landfill, and represent a possible contaminant to plastic recycling operations. In general, biodegradable plastic bags need to be kept separate from conventional plastic recycling systems.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '620343',
'title': 'Whole Foods Market',
'section': 'Section::::Efforts.:Eliminating plastic.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 52,
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'end_character': 279,
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'passage_text': 'In January 2008, Whole Foods Market was the first U.S. supermarket to commit to completely eliminating disposable plastic grocery bags to help protect the environment and conserve resources, and many stores serve as a collection point for shoppers to recycle their plastic bags.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '620343',
'title': 'Whole Foods Market',
'section': 'Section::::Efforts.:Eliminating plastic.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 53,
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'passage_text': 'On Earth Day, April 22, 2008, Whole Foods Market eliminated the use of disposable plastic grocery bags company-wide in favor of reusable bags or paper bags made from recycled paper. The company also began offering "Better Bags", a large and colorful grocery bag made primarily from recycled bottles. The move from the traditional paper/plastic system to environmentally friendly and reusable bags has been packaged as an initiative the company calls "BYOB – Bring Your Own Bag". The campaign is aimed at reducing pollution by eliminating plastic bags and reducing waste by encouraging bag reuse with "bag refunds" of 5–10 cents, depending on the store.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1613879',
'title': 'Plastic bag',
'section': 'Section::::Plastic shopping bags.:Plastic bags and the environment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
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'passage_text': 'Even though the bags are plastic, you typically cannot recycle them in your curbside recycling bin. The material frequently causes the equipment used at recycling plants to jam, thus having to pause the recycle machinery and slow down daily operations. However, plastic bags are 100% recyclable. To recycle them. you need to drop them off at a location that accepts plastic film. Usually, this means taking them back to the grocery store or another major retail store.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1613879',
'title': 'Plastic bag',
'section': 'Section::::Plastic shopping bags.:Plastic bags and the environment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 364,
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'passage_text': 'Non-compostable plastic bags can take up to 1000 years to decompose. Plastic bags are not capable of biodegradation but rather they photodegrade, a process by which the plastic bags are broken down into smaller toxic parts. In the 2000s, many stores and companies began to use different types of biodegradable bags to comply with perceived environmental benefits.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36080727',
'title': 'Phase-out of lightweight plastic bags',
'section': 'Section::::Issues.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 436,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Lightweight plastic bags are also blown into trees and other plants and can be mistaken for food. Plastic bags break down by polymer degradation but not by biodegradation. As a result, any toxic additives they contain—including flame retardants, antimicrobials, and plasticizers—will be released into the environment. Many of those toxins directly affect the endocrine systems of organisms, which control almost every cell in the body.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37201518',
'title': 'Plastic pollution',
'section': 'Section::::Reduction efforts.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 72,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 72,
'end_character': 377,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Efforts to reduce the use of plastics and to promote plastic recycling have occurred. Some supermarkets charge their customers for plastic bags, and in some places more efficient reusable or biodegradable materials are being used in place of plastics. Some communities and businesses have put a ban on some commonly used plastic items, such as bottled water and plastic bags. \n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do plastic bags help preserve food?',
'selftext': "Assuming you don't vacuum seal it how does trapping the food with the same oxygen that's outside the bag help it stay fresh?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['I think it depends on the item. E.g. Cucumbers are usually wrapped in plastic to prevent moisture lose - _URL_0_',
"It limits the amount of bacteria that can find its way to the item.\n\nWhile it won't remove any that's already on the item, it will prevent new bacteria from happening to land on it.\n\nIn addition, it helps the item retain its moisture instead of drying out, or keep it dry instead of absorbing moisture from the air, depending on whether it started out moister or dryer than air.\n\nIt also prevents cross-contamination with other items. If your fridge was full of open jars and loose items, the smells from each would float around and sink into each other, and soon you would have pickle-flavoured cake and milk that tastes like boiled eggs.\n\nIt also helps prevent live organisms from interfering with the food, such as flies that would otherwise land on it and potentially lay eggs in it."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '70mzkn',
'query': 'how do plastic bags help preserve food?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '498709',
'title': 'Alay',
'section': 'Section::::Characteristics.:Writing style.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 533,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Alay text may have originated from the method of making strong passwords for internet accounts, which requires combinations of small and capital letters, numbers, as well as special characters. Normally, to keep the password meaningful and easy to remember, the password would consist of normal words, where some letters are capitalized or substituted with numbers (e.g. the letter a with 4, the letter o with 0). Soon this becomes a habit in writing text in general, and improved with mixing English and Indonesian in one sentence.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23968131',
'title': 'NoSQL',
'section': 'Section::::Handling relational data.:Caching, replication and non-normalized data.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 106,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 106,
'end_character': 447,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Instead of only storing foreign keys, it is common to store actual foreign values along with the model's data. For example, each blog comment might include the username in addition to a user id, thus providing easy access to the username without requiring another lookup. When a username changes however, this will now need to be changed in many places in the database. Thus this approach works better when reads are much more common than writes.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1308395',
'title': 'Index (publishing)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 372,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In a library catalog the words are authors, titles, subject headings, etc., and the pointers are call numbers. Internet search engines (such as Google) and full-text searching help provide access to information but are not as selective as an index, as they provide non-relevant links, and may miss relevant information if it is not phrased in exactly the way they expect.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24306',
'title': 'Portable Network Graphics',
'section': 'Section::::File format.:"Chunks" within the file.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
'end_character': 306,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The case of the fourth letter indicates whether the chunk is safe to copy by editors that do not recognize it. If lowercase, the chunk may be safely copied regardless of the extent of modifications to the file. If uppercase, it may only be copied if the modifications have not touched any critical chunks.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17673145',
'title': 'West Frisian alphabet',
'section': 'Section::::Alphabetical order.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 309,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In handwriting, IJ is written as a single letter (see IJ (digraph)), whereas in print the string IJ is used. In alphabetical listings IJ is most commonly considered to consist of the two letters I and J, although in dictionaries there is an entry IJ between X and Z telling the user to look browse back to I.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '477981',
'title': 'Password cracking',
'section': 'Section::::Easy to remember, hard to guess.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 604,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'However, asking users to remember a password consisting of a "mix of uppercase and lowercase characters" is similar to asking them to remember a sequence of bits: hard to remember, and only a little bit harder to crack (e.g. only 128 times harder to crack for 7-letter passwords, less if the user simply capitalizes one of the letters). Asking users to use "both letters and digits" will often lead to easy-to-guess substitutions such as \'E\' → \'3\' and \'I\' → \'1\', substitutions which are well known to attackers. Similarly typing the password one keyboard row higher is a common trick known to attackers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '49723',
'title': 'Reserved word',
'section': 'Section::::Definition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 35,
'end_character': 279,
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'passage_text': 'Typically, when a programmer attempts to use a keyword for a variable or function name, a compilation error will be triggered. In most modern editors, the keywords are automatically set to have a particular text colour to remind or inform the programmers that they are keywords.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do websites which ask for the X, Y and Zth letter of my password avoid storing it in plain text?',
'selftext': "Edit: This is better than I expected! I've learned things - such as the actual secure part of the process is the 'Memorable Word' that you also have to type in with the 1st, 3rd and 9th letter of your 'password'. Use anything you can remember for the password, as it will likely be stored plain-text - use a password for the memorable word, as that's actually encrypted. Also - the internet is a terrible place for poor passwords.",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['There’s no guarantee that they aren’t. They very well might be. It only takes one lazy programmer or someone on an “off” day to set to store in plain text.',
'Remember the site who told you whose password you typed when you tried to create one that was already in use?\n\nSecurity standards of websites differ greatly. Thats why you should use different passwords everywhere, some might store it openly in plaintext, some might even be more lax about your security.',
"The whole point of encrypting passwords *(that is, seeding and hashing them and others)* is that the then produced value cannot be converted back to the password. Okay theoretically it's possible but it'd take centuries or millennia to do that.\n\nSo yea, if they ask you for the 7^th letter of your password they have the 7^th letter saved in their databases.",
'Hi, programmer who recently implemented this here.\n If they ask you for characters from your password, they are storing the password insecurely. Current standard for password storage is hashed with a 64+ character randomly generated string this makes it so that there is no way to get back to the original password. (There is however it takes current technology many years and has will have false positives)\nWhat should happen is they will also store along side the password a security word. This is shouod strongly encrypted. (Not hashed) because it is encrypted the original value can be compared against. It is this that should be used for character checks. (If possible only decrypting the characters that are wanted.)'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'c6jguk',
'query': 'how do websites which ask for the x, y and zth letter of my password avoid storing it in plain text?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '366555',
'title': 'Biomolecule',
'section': 'Section::::Nucleosides and nucleotides.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 520,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Both DNA and RNA are polymers, consisting of long, linear molecules assembled by polymerase enzymes from repeating structural units, or monomers, of mononucleotides. DNA uses the deoxynucleotides C, G, A, and T, while RNA uses the ribonucleotides (which have an extra hydroxyl(OH) group on the pentose ring) C, G, A, and U. Modified bases are fairly common (such as with methyl groups on the base ring), as found in ribosomal RNA or transfer RNAs or for discriminating the new from old strands of DNA after replication.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27157933',
'title': 'Nucleic acid secondary structure',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 359,
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'passage_text': "The secondary structures of biological DNA's and RNA's tend to be different: biological DNA mostly exists as fully base paired double helices, while biological RNA is single stranded and often forms complex and intricate base-pairing interactions due to its increased ability to form hydrogen bonds stemming from the extra hydroxyl group in the ribose sugar.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25765',
'title': 'RNA world',
'section': 'Section::::Properties of RNA.:RNA in information storage.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 570,
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'passage_text': "RNA is a very similar molecule to DNA, with only two major chemical differences (the backbone of RNA uses ribose instead of deoxyribose and its nucleobases include uracil instead of thymine). The overall structure of RNA and DNA are immensely similar—one strand of DNA and one of RNA can bind to form a double helical structure. This makes the storage of information in RNA possible in a very similar way to the storage of information in DNA. However, RNA is less stable, being more prone to hydrolysis due to the presence of a hydroxyl group at the ribose 2' position.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '106231',
'title': 'Macromolecule',
'section': 'Section::::Linear biopolymers.:Structural features.:DNA is optimised for encoding information.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 340,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'DNA and RNA are both capable of encoding genetic information, because there are biochemical mechanisms which read the information coded within a DNA or RNA sequence and use it to generate a specified protein. On the other hand, the sequence information of a protein molecule is not used by cells to functionally encode genetic information.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39346603',
'title': 'Xeno nucleic acid',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 385,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Strands of DNA and RNA are formed by stringing together long chains of molecules called nucleotides. A nucleotide is made up of three chemical components: a phosphate, a five-carbon sugar group (this can be either a deoxyribose sugar — which gives us the "D" in DNA — or a ribose sugar — the "R" in RNA), and one of five standard bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine or uracil).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3190493',
'title': 'Silencer (genetics)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'end_character': 536,
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'passage_text': "RNA polymerase, a DNA-dependent enzyme, transcribes the DNA sequences, called nucleotides, in the 3' to 5' direction while the complementary RNA is synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction. RNA is similar to DNA, except that RNA contains uracil, instead of thymine, which forms a base pair with adenine. An important region for the activity of gene repression and expression found in RNA is the 3' untranslated region. This is a region on the 3' terminus of RNA that will not be translated to protein but includes many regulatory regions.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21496',
'title': 'Nucleic acid',
'section': 'Section::::Sequences.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 934,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'One DNA or RNA molecule differs from another primarily in the sequence of nucleotides. Nucleotide sequences are of great importance in biology since they carry the ultimate instructions that encode all biological molecules, molecular assemblies, subcellular and cellular structures, organs, and organisms, and directly enable cognition, memory, and behavior ("see Genetics"). Enormous efforts have gone into the development of experimental methods to determine the nucleotide sequence of biological DNA and RNA molecules, and today hundreds of millions of nucleotides are sequenced daily at genome centers and smaller laboratories worldwide. In addition to maintaining the GenBank nucleic acid sequence database, the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov) provides analysis and retrieval resources for the data in GenBank and other biological data made available through the NCBI web site.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is the difference between DNA and RNA, and how do the work in biology?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['DNA is like a book in the reserve section of the library. It’s the full complete section of your entire genetic information that can’t leave the nucleus. \n\nRNA are the photocopies/notes of the book. You can take those anywhere and use them to study, and they are only going to be the pages that you actually need at that moment. \n\nEdit: Thanks everybody for the gold and the karma. ',
'At a chemical level, DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) has one less hydroxyl group (an -OH group) than RNA (ribonucleic acid). The DNA code is A-T G-C, while RNA replaces the T with U (uracil).\n\n.The information flow of biology is DNA- > RNA - > protein. Functionally, DNA is the hard code of the cell, and the entirety of DNA exists in a stable, “permanent” manner within the cell. When a gene is expressed within the DNA, RNA is formed, carrying the information for that gene only. Because of this, a given RNA strand is much more transient and can be quite small. The RNA will then connect with ribosomes, building a protein, and once that’s done the RNA strand can be degraded into its nucleotides.\n\nTo make it even simpler, RNA transmits information from the DNA to build proteins.',
"DNA and RNA are very similar. They are words containing information on how to build an animal. DNA is like the instruction manual. It is made in this beautifully bound, tough book. It is really really important, so it sits in this protective case. (DNA is deoxyribose nucleic acid. It is made of four bases adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine. RNA contains a uracil instead of a thymine, because it costs less energy to make and if it is present in DNA, the body knows cytosine was broken down and there is an error. RNA is ribose nucleic acid. At the 2' carbon, DNA has no hydroxyl group, but RNA does). \n\nRNA is a messenging service. It is kinda like mail. The DNA is located in the secret HQ of our bodies. It is really important amd cannot be taken out of this HQ. But messages still need to be sent to the factory to produce our machines to make the body work. \n\nRNA differs from DNA by being written on post it notes instead of a book. The post it notes get sent outside of HQ, where the factory workers read it, and start putting pieces of a machine together. RNA post it notes should not last long, so it is very easy to discard these post it notes. Thats why HQ adds some stuff before the post it notes go out. There is a sticker saying it is from HQ and not fake, and a bunch of little post it notes on the end so the people of the cell know itnot to throw it out. Eventually this post it note will still be thrown out. Which makes sense, because we dont want the building people to make 1000 of a machine when we only need 4. And because there is a lot of gibberish in the post it note, the stupid stuff gets cut out, and the important imformation pasted together.\n\n(Gene expression, or transcription of a set of genes, needs to be transient. Continual expression of an uneeded gene wastes precious resources. Tightly controlled expression at the level of transcription is therefore important. RNA is a relatively inexpensive thing for the cell to make, and it will be degraded at some point. This is why we add the 5' methyl guanosine cap and the 3' poly a tail. It tells the cell that this RNA is not foreign and has a function to perform. The 2'hydroxyl on the ribose increases the chance of self attack, however, adding to the transient breakdown of RNA. We want this though, to regulate translation. Lastly, the mRNA has the introns cut out and the exons spliced together. Introns are important for transcription, but not translation. These uncoding regions are cut out for the exons to be spliced together. \n\n",
'DNA is double stranded and used for storing the genetic information, a part either strand can be transcribed (complimentary base pairs, A to T/U, C to G) to produce the RNA that fits with the DNA. The single stranded RNA is then directly used to make proteins using ribosomes',
'Feynman simply explained that they’re very similar, but RNA is shorter and has been sent to ribosomes for protein synthesis.',
'DNA is a boss that hates talking to his employees directly. \n\nRNA is the loyal secretary that transmits info to works and does a little extra work on the side that she doesn’t want to bother the boss with. \n\nProteins are the employees. ',
'DNA cannot leave the nucleus, RNA can. Both carry genetic information, but since RNA can leave, it copies the information found in DNA. It leaves to go find a ribosome to be able to make proteins.',
'This was posted on Reddit a while back. Some awesome guy made it for bonus marks iirc... _URL_0_\n\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8k4btu',
'query': 'what is the difference between dna and rna, and how do the work in biology?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '77178',
'title': 'Spaceflight',
'section': 'Section::::Challenges.:Environmental considerations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 90,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 90,
'end_character': 363,
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'passage_text': 'In addition to the atmospheric effects there are effects on the near-Earth space environment. There is the possibility that orbit could become inaccessible for generations due to exponentially increasing space debris caused by spalling of satellites and vehicles (Kessler syndrome). Many launched vehicles today are therefore designed to be re-entered after use.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16271686',
'title': 'Registration Convention',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
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'passage_text': ', more than 200 dead satellites littered the part of space near geostationary orbit. Within 10 years, that number could increase fivefold, warns a report by the UN. The resulting chaos could lead to serious damage or loss of a spacecraft.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '266344',
'title': 'Space debris',
'section': 'Section::::Dealing with debris.:External removal.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 96,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 96,
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'passage_text': 'A consensus of speakers at a meeting in Brussels on 30 October 2012 organized by the Secure World Foundation (a U.S. think tank) and the French International Relations Institute reported that removal of the largest debris would be required to prevent the risk to spacecraft becoming unacceptable in the foreseeable future (without any addition to the inventory of dead spacecraft in LEO). Removal costs and legal questions about ownership and the authority to remove defunct satellites have stymied national or international action. Current space law retains ownership of all satellites with their original operators, even debris or spacecraft which are defunct or threaten active missions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2380807',
'title': 'Militarisation of space',
'section': 'Section::::Space warfare.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 79,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 79,
'end_character': 447,
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'passage_text': "In 2007 the People's Republic of China used a missile system to destroy one of its obsolete satellites (see 2007 Chinese anti-satellite missile test), in 2008 the United States similarly destroyed its malfunctioning satellite USA 193, and in 2019, India followed same by destroying a live satellite. To date, there have been no human casualties resulting from conflict in space, nor has any ground target been successfully neutralised from orbit.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3099164',
'title': 'Kessler syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Debris generation and destruction.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Every satellite, space probe, and manned mission has the potential to produce space debris. A cascading Kessler syndrome becomes more likely as satellites in orbit increase in number. As of 2014, there were about 2,000 commercial and government satellites orbiting the earth. It is estimated that there are 600,000 pieces of space junk ranging from 1\xa0cm to 10\xa0cm, and on average one satellite is destroyed each year.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Space debris',
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'passage_text': ', the United States Strategic Command tracked a total of 17,852 artificial objects in orbit above the Earth, including 1,419 operational satellites. However, these are just objects large enough to be tracked. , more than 128 million bits of debris smaller than , about 900,000 pieces of debris 1–10\xa0cm, and around 34,000 of pieces larger than 10\xa0cm were estimated to be in orbit around the Earth. Collisions with debris have become a hazard to spacecraft; they cause damage akin to sandblasting, especially to solar panels and optics like telescopes or star trackers that cannot be covered with a ballistic Whipple shield (unless it is transparent).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42366',
'title': 'United States federal government continuity of operations',
'section': 'Section::::Hardware and facilities.:Communication.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Communications satellites - Basically immune to any ground catastrophe, it is expected that military communication satellites would provide the government with the ability to communicate in any situation other than one that includes a direct attack upon the satellites.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How can someone be lost at sea with all of the technology and satellites we have now?',
'selftext': "I saw the post earlier about a man and his daughter who have been lost at sea for about a month finally landed in Australia. Maybe it's because I watch too many sci fi movies, but I find it hard to believe that with all the technology we have now we could not pick them up on a satellite or something. Are we not as technologically advanced with satellites as I assume we are?",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Oceans are huge, that's basically the answer. A major aspect though is that acquiring temporary use of a satellite costs millions of dollars, something that's not viable for search and rescue. So, helicopters can be sent out to look, but again, the ocean is huge. \n \nIf the people lost at see bought an [expensive satellite phone](_URL_0_), they could call someone and give them their location (cell phones would still have a GPS signal). ",
' > ...pick them up on a satellite...\n\nSatellites don\'t have any special abilities to "sense" where people are.\n\nMost satellites aren\'t cameras, those that *are* cameras are in use by spying agencies and they cost a trillion dollars.\n\nIf those lost people were floating around the Indian Ocean spotting them with a spy satellite would be like spotting a tick on a dog from a mile away.\n\nCompounding that, the ocean is full of floating garbage. Miles and miles of it.\n\nIts not a matter of technology, but scale. ',
"Oceans are huge, and most GPS technology only *accepts* information from satellites; it doesn't talk back or relay any information back to the satellites, so no one sees or hears anything.\n\nAlso, did I mention that they oceans are huge?",
"I think the main answer is Oceans are huge, but also in the specific story you mentioned they were harder to find because they told people they were heading to the Bay of Islands and ended up heading to Australia instead... and they didn't have a radio or any means of communication on board their vessel.",
"Sci-fi TV/movies paint a pretty amazing picture, lol - they just dial up a satellite, cut to the shot of it spinning into position (cue low rumble), snap a couple pictures, enhance, and oh look! Facial recognition says that's our bad guy :)\n\nMost satellite imagery that you see on the news or Google Maps is captured from Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and therefore has a pretty narrow field of view, 8-12 miles wide in the case of the [WorldView](_URL_1_) satellites. The resolution is 1 pixel per 18inches at best, so detecting a face is out of the question, maybe a body, a boat is reasonable.\n\nImagine trying to find a single flea (and that's ridiculously large as compared to a human, heck even a boat, in a 100sq-miles of ocean) on a carpet square 45ft x 45ft, taking pictures 1-inch by 1-inch, and you can only take a 1-inch wide row of pictures every 90min (on average the time of one orbit around the earth at ~380miles up). It would take you over a month to photograph the whole thing. Let's hope the flea (or the boat) didn't move.\n\nNow somebody's going to nitpick my numbers, but I fudged a lot...point being, it's just not practical to visually scan an ocean from so close, and the ones that are sitting at Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO, 22000 miles up) don't have that kind of resolution - they're meant to look for hurricanes, etc.\n\nHowever, [NOAA](_URL_2_) has been operating the [Search and Rescue Satellite Aided Tracking (SARSAT) System](_URL_0_) and it has rescued almost 4000 people since 2001, but that only works if the vessel or person is carrying an emergency transponder.",
'Not nearly.\n\nThe sea can wipe out any ability to notify anyone of anything. Searching at random across the ocean would take all the lifetime a person would ever have in decades and more.'],
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '48539681',
'title': "Children's Cancer Institute",
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'passage_text': "Children's Cancer Institute is an Australian medical research institute wholly dedicated to the prevention and treatment of childhood cancer. Established in 1976, the Institute is affililiated with both the University of New South Wales and Sydney Children's Hospital and is located in , Sydney, New South Wales.\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '401463',
'title': 'Optimist International',
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'passage_text': 'Also in 2001, Optimist International introduced the Childhood Cancer Campaign to provide awareness and support of children battling cancer and the challenges their families face. In 2004, the organization made a $1 million commitment to Johns Hopkins to underwrite a research focus.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9777740',
'title': 'Learning problems in childhood cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Effect of cancer and its treatment on brain development.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Research shows that children with cancer are at risk for developing various cognitive or learning problems. These difficulties may be related to brain injury stemming from the cancer itself, such as a brain tumor or central nervous system metastasis or from side effects of cancer treatments such as chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Studies have shown that chemo and radiation therapies may damage brain white matter and disrupt brain activity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1325956',
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'passage_text': 'The charity also undertakes research into the impact of cancer on children and young people. It uses this evidence to raise awareness and to seek to influence government and policy-makers, and those who provide public services across the UK.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '254639',
'title': 'University of Salford',
'section': 'Section::::Organisation and administration.:Research and development centres.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 51,
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'passage_text': "The KidsCan Children's Cancer Research Centre is in the University's John Armstrong Welsh Laboratories at the Centre for Biochemistry, Drug Design and Cancer Research. It was established in 2002 to develop treatments with fewer side effects for children and young adults.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3968691',
'title': 'Camp Kesem',
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'passage_text': 'After assessing the needs of the community, the students found that children who have, or have had, a parent with cancer comprised an under-served population who could benefit from a summer camp experience with peers who faced similar challenges.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37938321',
'title': 'Childhood cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Learning problems.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Children with cancer are at risk for developing various cognitive or learning problems. These difficulties may be related to brain injury stemming from the cancer itself, such as a brain tumor or central nervous system metastasis or from side effects of cancer treatments such as chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Studies have shown that chemo and radiation therapies may damage brain white matter and disrupt brain activity.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How is supporting research for children's cancer different from supporting any other sort of cancer research?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
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'answers': ['There are many different types of cancer, and in some respects every single individual case of cancer is specific and unique, although there are likely to be some broad similarities. The types of cancers that are common in children are different from the types of cancers that are common in adults. Childhood cancers are also more rare than other types of cancer. There is selective pressure against mutations that cause childhood cancer because childhood cancer would prevent an individual from reproducing and passing on their genes, whereas genes that cause cancers that onset after reproductive age will not be selected against. '],
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'query_id': '72v3kb',
'query': "how is supporting research for children's cancer different from supporting any other sort of cancer research?",
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '10255072',
'title': 'Trash (computing)',
'section': 'Section::::Implementations.:Microsoft Windows.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The Recycle Bin has a setting to configure the amount of deleted files it can store. Free disk space allocated for this is not actually used until files are deleted from folders and stored in the Recycle Bin. In versions of Windows prior to Windows Vista, the default configuration of the Recycle Bin is a global setting for all drives to hold 10% of the total capacity of each host hard drive volume to store deleted files. For example, on a volume with a capacity of 20 gigabytes, the Recycle Bin will hold up to 2 gigabytes of deleted files. This can be changed anywhere from 0 to 100% of the drive space, but will not be allowed to exceed 3.99GB of space, even if the user-indicated % of the drive space is larger than 3.99GB. If the Recycle Bin fills up to maximum capacity, the oldest files will be deleted in order to accommodate the newly deleted files. If a file is too large for the Recycle Bin, the user will be prompted to immediately and permanently delete the file instead. This 3.99GB limit does not apply in Windows Vista and later Windows versions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10255072',
'title': 'Trash (computing)',
'section': 'Section::::Implementations.:Microsoft Windows.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Microsoft\'s "Recycle Bin" is implemented as a special folder with columns like "Date deleted" and "Original location". Typically only files deleted via File Explorer (but not necessarily other Windows graphical interfaces such as file selection dialogs) will be put into the Recycle Bin; files deleted via the Command Prompt are permanently deleted, as (by default) are files deleted via operating system APIs and applications other than Windows Explorer. Some operating system APIs do, however, allow applications to recycle files rather than delete them. In previous Windows operating systems and in MS-DOS, undeletion was the only way to recover accidentally or intentionally deleted files.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10255072',
'title': 'Trash (computing)',
'section': 'Section::::Implementations.:Microsoft Windows.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The actual location of the Recycle Bin depends on the type of operating system and file system. On older FAT file systems (typically Windows 98 and prior), it is located in "Drive:\\RECYCLED". In the NTFS filesystem (Windows 2000, XP, NT) it is "Drive:\\RECYCLER". On Windows Vista and Windows 7 it is "Drive:\\$Recycle.Bin" folder.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10255072',
'title': 'Trash (computing)',
'section': 'Section::::Implementations.:Microsoft Windows.\n',
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'passage_text': 'As standard, the Recycle Bin only stores files deleted from hard drives, not from removable media, such as memory cards, thumb drives, or floppy disks, nor does it store files deleted from network drives. There are methods to make it work on network paths, however.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10255072',
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'passage_text': 'In computing, the trash (also known as the Recycle Bin in Microsoft Windows and by other names in other operating systems) is temporary storage for files that have been deleted in a file manager by the user, but not yet permanently erased from the file system. Typically, a recycle bin is presented as a special file directory to the user (whether or not it is actually a single directory depends on the implementation), allowing the user to browse deleted (removed) files, undelete those that were deleted by mistake, or delete them permanently (either one by one, or by the "Empty Trash" function).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10255072',
'title': 'Trash (computing)',
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'passage_text': 'Prior to Windows Vista, a file in the Recycle Bin is stored in its physical location and renamed as "D<#>.". A hidden file called "info2" ("info" in Windows 95 without the Windows Desktop Update) stores the file\'s original path and original name in binary format. Since Windows Vista, the "meta" information of each file is saved as "$Inumber.original extension" and the original file is renamed to "$Rnumber.original extension".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1252517',
'title': 'File deletion',
'section': 'Section::::Problem with accidental removal.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Another technique often used is not to delete files instantly, but to move them to a temporary directory whose contents can then be deleted at will. This is how the "recycle bin" or "trash can" works. Microsoft Windows and Apple\'s macOS, as well as some Linux distributions, all employ this strategy.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How is putting files in the recycle bin any different from a regular folder?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Imagine your computer is a spaceship, you have a bunch of storage compartments. oh this old crap? don\'t need it anymore, probably, put it in the air lock. \n\nNow instead of having two doors between it and the nothingness of space, it only has one door, and at anytime, you can press the "open outer door" button, and eject all those recycle bin files into space. Just one little press of a button, maybe accidental, even\n\nimagine putting important files into that airlock instead of trash...dangerous.\n\n\nSure, even "deleted" files , tossed out of the metaphorical airlock can be retrieved when floating out in space, but by "undeleting" them, but odds are they\'ll be corrupted.',
'It isn\'t. The recycle bin is just another folder. The operating system is going to associate meta data to that folder through some mechanic that when you "empty the trash", it implies this folder has its contents deleted. That\'s it. Nothing special. And your user interface has shortcuts, like if you hit Shift + Del, typically the file is deleted without going to the recycle bin. No computer is going to automagically delete the contents of the recycle bin unless you explicitly configure it to do so. This might be done by a network admin on a company or school computer, but this is not the behavior of a personal PC. If you\'re running out of disk space, the UI may suggest you empty it.\n\nOn Unix type systems there is a /tmp directory that is temporary, and you can\'t be sure that anything you put there will stay there. Again, the filesystem doesn\'t give a shit, it\'s just another folder, there has to be some higher level program that looks to it specifically and a standard protocol that dictates convention.\n\nTypically on a Unix system, the tmp folder can be scheduled to be purged if the disk is running full, or the directory starts reaching a certain size, or it may get purged at shutdown or startup. The kind of data that goes here should typically be cached data where if it were gone, the data could be obtained another way, the /tmp data would just be an optimization. Other things that go in there are lock files, whose presence means some other file is in use, or some process is running. If the filesystem supports locking open files, then the program can open the file and forbid the drive from being unmounted or the file being read or written to by any other program. You can clear this folder and those open files would remain since they\'re still in use. Not all of this is a best practice anymore because some of what I mentioned has inherent flaws and new features of operating systems can make some of that old fashioned.'],
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'query_id': '83a6ji',
'query': 'how is putting files in the recycle bin any different from a regular folder?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '25109420',
'title': 'NCAA banned substances',
'section': 'Section::::Diuretics and masking agents.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Diuretics, sometimes known as ‘water pills’, are drugs which draw excess fluid from the tissues of the body and convert it into urine. They are used for the swelling and bloating of premenstrual syndrome, for treating high blood pressure and, in older people, for heart failure caused by weakening of the heart’s pumping mechanism. Diuretics are used to pass drug test because they increase the amount of urine produced by the body. By increasing the amount of urine, it dilutes any drugs in the urine, which makes it harder to identify drugs. Examples of diuretics and masking agents are: bumetanide, chlorothiazide, furosemide, hydrochlorothiazide, probenecid, spironolactone (canrenone), triameterene, and trichlormethiazide.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40496970',
'title': 'Diuretic',
'section': 'Section::::Medical uses.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In medicine, diuretics are used to treat heart failure, liver cirrhosis, hypertension, influenza, water poisoning, and certain kidney diseases. Some diuretics, such as acetazolamide, help to make the urine more alkaline and are helpful in increasing excretion of substances such as aspirin in cases of overdose or poisoning. Diuretics are sometimes abused by people with an eating disorder, especially people with bulimia nervosa, with the goal of losing weight.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '40496970',
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'passage_text': 'A diuretic is any substance that promotes diuresis, the increased production of urine. This includes forced diuresis. There are several categories of diuretics. All diuretics increase the excretion of water from bodies, although each class does so in a distinct way. Alternatively, an antidiuretic, such as vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone), is an agent or drug which reduces the excretion of water in urine.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Diuretic',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism of action.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Diuretics are tools of considerable therapeutic importance. First, they effectively reduce blood pressure. Loop and thiazide diuretics are secreted from the proximal tubule via the organic anion transporter-1 and exert their diuretic action by binding to the Na(+)-K(+)-2Cl(-) co-transporter type 2 in the thick ascending limb and the Na(+)-Cl(-) co-transporter in the distal convoluted tubule, respectively.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Diuretic',
'section': 'Section::::Abuse in sports.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A common application of diuretics is for the purposes of invalidating drug tests. Diuretics increase the urine volume and dilute doping agents and their metabolites. Another use is to rapidly lose weight to meet a weight category in sports like boxing and wrestling.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Diuretic',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism of action.\n',
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'passage_text': 'As a diuretic is any substance that promotes the production of urine, aquaretics that cause the excretion of free water are a sub-class. This includes all the hypotonic aqueous preparations, including pure water, black and green teas, and teas prepared from herbal medications. Any given herbal medication will include a vast range of plant-derived compounds, some of which will be active drugs that may also have independent diuretic action.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '249930',
'title': 'Heart failure',
'section': 'Section::::Management.:Chronic management.:Medication.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Diuretics have been a mainstay of treatment for treatment of fluid accumulation, and include diuretics classes such as loop diuretics, thiazide-like diuretics, and potassium-sparing diuretics. Although widely used, evidence on their efficacy and safety is limited, with the exception of mineralocorticoid antagonists such as spironolactone. Mineralocorticoid antagonists in those under 75 years old appear to decrease the risk of death. A recent Cochrane review found that in small studies, the use of diuretics appeared to have improved mortality in individuals with heart failure. However, the extent to which these results can be extrapolated to a general population is unclear due to the small number of participants in the cited studies.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'how do diuretics work?',
'selftext': 'ELI5: how is it that a liquid like coffee gives you the urge to pee much faster than water, for example?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Side question, why does coffee make you poop? Or is it just me?',
'There\'s a hormone in your body called ADH, or anti-diuretic hormone. As you know, diuresis means "to pee". So an anti-diuretic hormone causes your body to pee less - specifically by making your pee less watery, but leaving all the bad stuff in there.\n\nSome substances (like caffeine and alcohol) cause your body to produce less ADH. When there is less ADH in your blood, that\'s a signal telling your kidneys to leave more water in your pee, causing it to build up faster. This is why you may notice your pee being more clear after drinking these drinks. Your body isn\'t producing more urea (the main poison your urine is designed to get rid of), but it\'s just getting rid of more water in the process. (edit: see below, the urea isn\'t what colors your urine)\n\nThis is one reason why staying hydrated is important to prevent hangovers - even small imbalances in your body\'s water levels can cause your brain to shrink slightly and cause headaches.\n\nSource: studying to take the MCAT next week.'],
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'query_id': 'bxnkw8',
'query': 'how do diuretics work?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '30936382',
'title': 'Audio typist',
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'passage_text': 'An audio typist is someone who specialises in typing text from an audio source which they listen to. The source, or original document is usually recorded onto microcassettes created by someone dictating into a Dictaphone. The audio typist will have learnt to touch type at a high speed which means they can look at the monitor or keep an eye on a waiting area as they are typing because they do not need to look at the keyboard. A specialist player called a micro cassette transcriber (below) is used for playback of the cassettes to maximise the typing speed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Amazon Echo',
'section': 'Section::::Features.:Overview of operation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In the default mode, the device continuously listens to all speech, monitoring for the wake word to be spoken, which is primarily set up as "Alexa" (derived from Alexa Internet, the Amazon-owned Internet indexing company). Echo\'s microphones can be manually disabled by pressing a mute button to turn off the audio processing circuit.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'passage_text': 'Most devices with Alexa allow users to activate the device using a wake-word (such as "Alexa"); other devices (such as the Amazon mobile app on iOS or Android) require the user to push a button to activate Alexa\'s listening mode. Currently, interaction and communication with Alexa are available only in English, German, French, Italian, Spanish, Japanese, and Hindi . In Canada, Alexa is available in English and in French (with the Québec accent).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Amazon Alexa',
'section': 'Section::::Functions.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Alexa offers weather reports provided by AccuWeather and news provided by TuneIn from a variety of sources including local radio stations, NPR, and ESPN. Additionally, Alexa-supported devices stream music from the owner\'s Amazon Music accounts and have built-in support for Pandora and Spotify accounts. Alexa can play music from streaming services such as Apple Music and Google Play Music from a phone or tablet. Alexa can manage voice-controlled alarms, timers, and shopping and to-do lists, and can access Wikipedia articles. Alexa devices respond to questions about items in the user\'s Google Calendar. Alexa\'s question answering ability is partly powered by the Wolfram Language. When questions are asked, Alexa converts sound waves into text which allows it to gather information from various sources. Behind the scenes, the data gathered is then parsed by Wolfram\'s technology to generate suitable and accurate answers. Similarly to generating accurate answers to questions, it is possible to design Alexa functions by what the anticipated main line of conversation, the "happy path," of most common interactions., the Alexa Appstore had over 5,000 functions ("skills") available for users to download, up from 1,000 functions in June 2016. As of a partnership with fellow technology company, Microsoft\'s AI Cortana became available to use on Alexa enabled devices , Amazon rolled out a new "Brief Mode," wherein Alexa would begin responding with a beep sound rather than saying, "Okay," to confirm receipt of a command. On December 20, 2018, Amazon announced a new integration with the Wolfram Alpha answer engine, which provides enhanced accuracy for users asking questions of Alexa related to math, science, astronomy, engineering, geography, history, and more.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '54003058',
'title': 'Amazon Echo Show',
'section': 'Section::::Features.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'The screen on Echo Show can be used to display visual output for Alexa assistant responses. The devices contain motion sensors to automatically wake its screen when someone enters a room; in this state, it can also display prompts regarding news headlines, suggested Alexa commands, and other information. Alexa can also be used to request the playback of videos on its screen, such as Amazon Video content.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '264303',
'title': 'Alexa Internet',
'section': 'Section::::Tracking.:Toolbar.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': "Alexa ranks sites based primarily on tracking a sample set of Internet traffic—users of its toolbar for the Internet Explorer, Firefox and Google Chrome web browsers. The Alexa Toolbar includes a popup blocker (which stops unwanted ads), a search box, links to Amazon.com and the Alexa homepage, and the Alexa ranking of the website that the user is visiting. It also allows the user to rate the website and view links to external, relevant websites. In early 2005, Alexa stated that there had been 10 million downloads of the toolbar, though the company did not provide statistics about active usage. Originally, web pages were only ranked amongst users who had the Alexa Toolbar installed, and could be biased if a specific audience subgroup was reluctant to take part in the rankings. This caused some controversies over how representative Alexa's user base was of typical Internet behavior, especially for less-visited sites. In 2007, Michael Arrington provided examples of Alexa rankings known to contradict data from the comScore web analytics service, including ranking YouTube ahead of Google.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '51060375',
'title': 'Amazon Alexa',
'section': 'Section::::Privacy concerns.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 69,
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'passage_text': 'During the Chris Watts interrogation/interview video at timestamp 16:15:15, Watts was told by the interrogator, "We know that there\'s an Alexa in your house, and you know those are trained to record distress," indicating Alexa may send recordings to Amazon if certain frequencies and decibels (that can only be heard during intense arguments or screams) are detected.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How does Alexa work so quickly and accurately when it supposedly isn't listening-in at all times?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Computers have a response time of just a few *milliseconds* at their slowest.\n\nThey can perform thousands of calculations every second.\n\nStarting recording as soon as you say "Alexa" is easy.\n\nJust like how making a "?" appear as soon as you hit the "?" key on your keyboard when you type up a question.',
'Funny you should ask this. My kid turned off Alexa’s mic(so now she can’t hear us) I asked her too do 3 things in a row with no response... she said, just so you know my mic is off.\n\n\n\n\n\nShe is always listening ',
'Because it is always listening to everything you say, it just doesn\'t save or send any of it to it\'s servers. It forgets everything shortly after you say it until it hears you say "Alexa", then it starts recording and transferring data.',
'It is always listening, I think I read somewhere it analyzes the last 4-5 words said for "Alexa" to start doing something.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'arshi7',
'query': "how does alexa work so quickly and accurately when it supposedly isn't listening-in at all times?",
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2443027',
'title': 'Supernova nucleosynthesis',
'section': 'Section::::The "r"-process.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
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'passage_text': 'During supernova nucleosynthesis, the "r"-process creates very neutron-rich heavy isotopes, which decay after the event to the first stable isotope, thereby creating the neutron-rich stable isotopes of all heavy elements. This neutron capture process occurs in high neutron density with high temperature conditions. In the "r"-process, any heavy nuclei are bombarded with a large neutron flux to form highly unstable neutron rich nuclei which very rapidly undergo beta decay to form more stable nuclei with higher atomic number and the same atomic mass. The neutron density is extremely high, about 10 neutrons per cubic centimeter. First calculation of an evolving "r"-process, showing the evolution of calculated results with time, also suggested that the "r"-process abundances are a superposition of differing neutron fluences. Small fluence produces the first "r"-process abundance peak near atomic weight but no actinides, whereas large fluence produces the actinides uranium and thorium but no longer contains the abundance peak. These processes occur in a fraction of a second to a few seconds, depending on details. Hundreds of subsequent papers published have utilized this time-dependent approach. The only modern nearby supernova, 1987A, has not revealed "r"-process enrichments. Modern thinking is that the "r"-process yield may be ejected from some supernovae but swallowed up in others as part of the residual neutron star or black hole.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2443027',
'title': 'Supernova nucleosynthesis',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'In 1946, Fred Hoyle proposed that elements heavier than hydrogen and helium would be produced by nucleosynthesis in the cores of massive stars. It had previously been thought that the elements we see in the modern universe had been largely produced during its formation. At this time, the nature of supernovae was unclear and Hoyle suggested that these heavy elements were distirbuted into space by rotational instability. In 1954, the theory of nucleosynthesis of heavy elements in massive stars was refined and combined with more understanding of supernovae to calculate the abundances of the elements from carbon to nickel. Key elements of the theory included: the prediction of the excited state in the C nucleus that enables the triple-alpha process to burn resonantly to carbon and oxygen; the thermonuclear sequels of carbon-burning synthesizing Ne, Mg and Na; and oxygen-burning synthesizing Si, Al and S. It was predicted that silicon burning would happen as the final stage of core fusion in massive stars although nuclear science could not yet calculate exactly how. He also predicted that the collapse of the evolved cores of massive stars was "inevitable" owing to their increasing rate of energy loss by neutrinos and that the resulting explosions would produce further nucleosynthesis of heavy elements and eject them into space.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '392828',
'title': 'Abundance of the chemical elements',
'section': 'Section::::Universe.:Solar system.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'The abundance of elements is in keeping with their origin from the Big Bang and nucleosynthesis in a number of progenitor supernova stars. Very abundant hydrogen and helium are products of the Big Bang, while the next three elements are rare since they had little time to form in the Big Bang and are not made in stars (they are, however, produced in small quantities by breakup of heavier elements in interstellar dust, as a result of impact by cosmic rays).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1870708',
'title': 'Near-Earth supernova',
'section': 'Section::::Past events.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': 'Past supernovae might be detectable on Earth in the form of metal isotope signatures in rock strata. Subsequently, iron-60 enrichment has been reported in deep-sea rock of the Pacific Ocean by researchers from the Technical University of Munich. Twenty-three atoms of this iron isotope were found in the top 2\xa0cm of crust (this layer corresponds to times from 13.4 million years ago to the present). It is estimated that the supernova must have occurred in the last 5 million years or else it would have had to happen very close to the solar system to account for so much iron-60 still being here. A supernova occurring so close would have probably caused a mass extinction, which did not happen in that time frame. The quantity of iron seems to indicate that the supernova was less than 30 parsecs away. On the other hand, the authors estimate the frequency of supernovae at a distance less than "D" (for reasonably small "D") as around ("D"/10 pc) per billion years, which gives a probability of only around 5% for a supernova within 30 pc in the last 5 million years. They point out that the probability may be higher because the Solar System is entering the Orion Arm of the Milky Way.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '77474',
'title': 'Nihonium',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Early indications.\n',
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'passage_text': "The syntheses of elements 107 to 112 were conducted at the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in Darmstadt, Germany, from 1981 to 1996. These elements were made by cold fusion reactions, in which targets made of thallium, lead, and bismuth, which are around the stable configuration of 82 protons, are bombarded with heavy ions of period 4 elements. This creates fused nuclei with low excitation energies due to the stability of the targets' nuclei, significantly increasing the yield of superheavy elements. Cold fusion was pioneered by Yuri Oganessian and his team in 1974 at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna, Soviet Union. Yields from cold fusion reactions were found to decrease significantly with increasing atomic number; the resulting nuclei were severely neutron-deficient and short-lived. The GSI team attempted to synthesise element 113 via cold fusion in 1998 and 2003, bombarding bismuth-209 with zinc-70, but were unsuccessful both times.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19167840',
'title': 'Chronology of the universe',
'section': 'Section::::Early universe.:Nucleosynthesis of light elements.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 67,
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'end_paragraph_id': 67,
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'passage_text': 'Between about 2 and 20 minutes after the Big Bang, the temperature and pressure of the universe allow nuclear fusion to occur, giving rise to nuclei of a few light elements beyond hydrogen ("Big Bang nucleosynthesis"). About 25% of the protons, and all the neutrons fuse to form deuterium, a hydrogen isotope, and most of the deuterium quickly fuses to form helium-4.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48903',
'title': 'Nucleosynthesis',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Supernova nucleosynthesis within exploding stars is largely responsible for the elements between oxygen and rubidium: from the ejection of elements produced during stellar nucleosynthesis; through explosive nucleosynthesis during the supernova explosion; and from the r-process (absorption of multiple neutrons) during the explosion.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'The amounts of elements formed during supernovaes',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['After the Big Bang there was only hydrogen and helium in the universe.\n\nThat coalesced into stars which fuse the hydrogen and helium into heavier elements. Once the star gets to iron it can no longer fuse heavier elements (fusing iron takes more energy than it releases). At this point the star dies. If it is big enough the star collapses and as it collapses it can fuse much heavier elements in moments before it explodes.\n\nSome elements, like Americium, have a very short half life (like ~430 years) so some heavy elements decay away long before humans ever came around.\n\nGiven the size of stars they can produce vast quantities of heavy elements.',
'You are many order of magnitude off with the amounts of element formed in a supernovae.\n\n20 tonnes of uranium is nothing. Just the crust of earth have 40 trillion tonnes of uranium and the crust of earth is 1% of the mass of earth. Humans mine around 60 000 tonnes of uranium per year.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nIn a type II supernovae the star had a initial mass of between 8 and 50 times the mass of the sun and the white dwarf that is left behind have a max mass of 1.4 solar masses. So the mass ejected is 5-48 solar masses.\n\nThe sun have a mass of 2\\*10\\^27 tonnes that is 2 octillion tonnes or 2 billion billion billion tonne.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nIf you look at [_URL_1_](_URL_0_) wit abundance of elements in the solar system most is hydrogen with 10\\^10 compared to 10\\^-2 of uranium.\n\nSo the the solar system is approximate 1/10\\^12 uranium\n\nIf what is ejected from a super nova is similar to the composition of the solar system you would have \n\n2\\*10\\^27\\* 1/10\\^12=2\\*10\\^15 tonnes ejected per solar mass of eject matter. That is 2 quadrillion tonnes or 2 million billion tonnes.\n\nSo a Type II supernova eject somewhere around 10 million billion of tonnes of uranium. So the numbers in the original post is 15 orders of magnitude off.\n\nThe answer might be a couple of magnitudes because I do not know if the abundance table is by number of atoms or by mass. If it is buy mass the amount is 200x more.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'bvygoj',
'query': 'the amounts of elements formed during supernovaes',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '854400',
'title': 'Para-Methoxyamphetamine',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': '"para"-Methoxyamphetamine (PMA; "Death", "Dr. Death"), also known as 4-methoxyamphetamine (4-MA), is a designer drug of the amphetamine class with serotonergic effects. Unlike other similar drugs of this family, PMA does not produce stimulant, euphoriant, or entactogen effects, and behaves more like an antidepressant in comparison, though it does have some psychedelic properties.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16913189',
'title': 'Atipamezole',
'section': 'Section::::Side effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'There have been some cases where IV administration of atipamezole lead to death via cardiovascular collapse. This is thought to be combination of sudden hypotension added onto the low heart rate caused by sedatives.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '825748',
'title': 'Propene',
'section': 'Section::::Storage and handling.:Pharmacology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
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'passage_text': 'Propene acts as a central nervous system depressant via allosteric agonism of the GABA receptor. Excessive exposure may result in sedation and amnesia, progressing to coma and death in a mechanism equivalent to benzodiazepine overdose. Intentional inhalation may also result in death via asphyxiation (sudden inhalant death).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4325410',
'title': 'Disopyramide',
'section': 'Section::::Obstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 318,
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'passage_text': 'Another concern about disopyramide has been the hypothetical potential for inducing sudden death from its type 1 anti-arrhythmic effects. However, a multicenter registry and two recent cohort registries have largely reduced this concern, by showing sudden death rates lower than that observed from the disease itself.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28779509',
'title': 'Raymond L. Woosley',
'section': 'Section::::Medical research.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': "In 2002, Dr. Woosley's research discovered the primary mechanism of methadone-induced sudden death. His subsequent research on methadone resulted in the addition of warnings to the official label. He is an authority on drugs, like methadone, that prolong the QT interval on the electrocardiogram and cause a particular potentially lethal cardiac arrhythmia, torsade de pointes. As President of AZCERT, he leads a team of scientists that maintains web-based lists of the drugs that have this potential toxicity; this website, with over 1,100 visits daily and over 66,000 registered users, is an internationally recognized resource cited in textbooks and used by researchers to evaluate the impact of drug safety programs.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '240832',
'title': 'Restless legs syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Medications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 77,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 77,
'end_character': 575,
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'passage_text': 'There are, however, issues with the use of dopamine agonists including augmentation. This is a medical condition where the drug itself causes symptoms to increase in severity and/or occur earlier in the day. Dopamine agonists may also cause rebound when symptoms increase as the drug wears off. In many cases, the longer dopamine agonists have been used the higher the risk of augmentation and rebound as well as the severity of the symptoms. Also, a recent study indicated that dopamine agonists used in restless leg syndrome can lead to an increase in compulsive gambling.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10809046',
'title': 'Para-Methoxy-N-ethylamphetamine',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'end_character': 550,
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'passage_text': '"para"-Methoxyethylamphetamine (PMEA), is a stimulant drug related to PMA. PMEA reputedly produces similar effects to PMA, but is considerably less potent and seems to have slightly less tendency to produce severe hyperthermia, at least at low doses. At higher doses however the side effects and danger of death approach those of PMA itself, and PMEA should still be considered a potentially dangerous drug. Investigation of a drug-related death in Japan in 2005 showed PMEA to be present in the body and was thought to be responsible for the death.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why can you die from using methamphetamine and having anthesisa performed on you?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Meth increases blood pressure and heart rate, and this increases the ability of anesthetics to change the rhythm of the heart, which will lead to a heart attack.',
"I'm an Anaesthetist.\n\nYou can summarise this into:\n\n* **Effects of the methamphetamine itself.** The sympathetic effects of meth (esp increased Heart Rate and Blood Pressure) can lead to heart attacks and strokes. Also, sometimes people are anaesthetised for their own safety when going nuts on meth, and this means giving an anaesthetic in a less than ideal environment from a safety perspective.\n* **Interactions between the amphetamine and anaesthetic agents.** A clear but outdated example would be Halothane (an inhaled anaesthetic) which sensitises the heart to catecholamines (meth increases catecholamine levels), causing abnormal heart rhythms. Meth increases synaptic (or active) catecholamines like noradrenaline, which causes interactions with other drugs which also act to increase synaptic catecholamines (including some blood pressure drugs used in anaesthesia, some analgesics like Tramadol, and antidepressants).\n* **Difficulties with dosing anaesthetic agents in the context of meth use.** If you are acutely high on meth you need MORE anaesthesia to go to sleep. If you are a chronic meth user, but not currently high, you need LESS anaesthesia to go to sleep. This can be challenging for us to get our doses right.\n\nEdit: simplified a few terms",
"Thank you everybody for your time in responding to this question. I'm currently 3 years sober from meth and while working with clients in the substance abuse population I just learned this the other day.... So this information is great to add to my repertoire.",
'Are there options for intensive surgery that doesnt require being asleep. Like localized?'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'd7jdm6',
'query': 'why can you die from using methamphetamine and having anthesisa performed on you?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1689405',
'title': 'Alloimmunity',
'section': 'Section::::Graft tolerance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Transplanted tissue is accepted by immunocompetent recipient if it is functional in the absence of immunosuppressive drugs and without histologic signs of rejection. Host can accept another graft from the same donor but reject graft from different donor. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '49509356',
'title': 'Medical (Therapy, Education and Research) Act',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'end_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'The implementations of organ harvesting and organ transplant may vary from each approved institution. As an example, the Singapore General Hospital Skin Bank may harvest skin from the dead donor within 15 hours of death. 0.025\xa0cm to 0.046\xa0cm of the outer layer of the skin – mostly from the hidden areas of the body, such as the back and thighs – is harvested using a special instrument called the dermatome, so that the donor may still have an open casket funeral.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2518882',
'title': 'Bone grafting',
'section': 'Section::::Method.:Autograft.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
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'passage_text': 'All bone requires a blood supply in the transplanted site. Depending on where the transplant site is and the size of the graft, an additional blood supply may be required. For these types of grafts, extraction of the part of the periosteum and accompanying blood vessels along with donor bone is required. This kind of graft is known as a vital bone graft.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14074965',
'title': 'Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine',
'section': 'Section::::Issues addressed by the Convention.:Organs and Transplantation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The Convention provides the general rule that living donors for organ transplants are only to be utilised if there is no availability of organs from a deceased person. Any removed parts of the body must be disposed of respectfully in accordance with the wishes of the individual. In addition, there is to be no financial gain arising from the human body or its parts, however adequate compensation for expenses incurred for a medical procedure is not prohibited. The rules relating to consent laid out in "Chapter II" of the Convention also apply in the context of organ transplantation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17384301',
'title': 'Liver',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical significance.:Liver transplantation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 101,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 101,
'end_character': 476,
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'passage_text': "Liver allografts for transplant usually come from donors who have died from fatal brain injury. Living donor liver transplantation is a technique in which a portion of a living person's liver is removed (hepatectomy) and used to replace the entire liver of the recipient. This was first performed in 1989 for pediatric liver transplantation. Only 20 percent of an adult's liver (Couinaud segments 2 and 3) is needed to serve as a liver allograft for an infant or small child.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1439268',
'title': 'Microsurgery',
'section': 'Section::::Free tissue transfer.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 954,
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'passage_text': 'Free tissue transfer is a surgical reconstructive procedure using microsurgery. A region of "donor" tissue is selected that can be isolated on a feeding artery and vein; this tissue is usually a composite of several tissue types (e.g., skin, muscle, fat, bone). Common donor regions include the rectus abdominis muscle, latissimus dorsi muscle, fibula, radial forearm bone and skin, and lateral arm skin. The composite tissue is transferred (moved as a free flap of tissue) to the region on the patient requiring reconstruction (e.g., mandible after oral cancer resection, breast after cancer resection, traumatic tissue loss, congenital tissue absence). The vessels that supply the free flap are anastomosed with microsurgery to matching vessels (artery and vein) in the reconstructive site. The procedure was first done in the early 1970s and has become a popular "one-stage" (single operation) procedure for many surgical reconstructive applications.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1118041',
'title': 'Dental implant',
'section': 'Section::::Technique.:Additional surgical procedures.:Soft tissue (gingiva) reconstruction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 62,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 62,
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'passage_text': 'When an adequate band of attached tissue is absent, it can be recreated with a soft tissue graft. There are four methods that can be used to transplant soft tissue. A roll of tissue adjacent to an implant (referred to as a palatal roll) can be moved towards the lip (buccal), gingiva from the palate can be transplanted, deeper connective tissue from the palate can be transplanted or, when a larger piece of tissue is needed, a finger of tissue based on a blood vessel in the palate (called a vascularized interpositional periosteal-connective tissue (VIP-CT) flap) can be repositioned to the area.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How are non-organ, donated body parts prepared to be transplanted such as skin?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Skin *is* an organ. \n\nSkin harvested from body donations is used for transplants, and in that case it is called a *cadaver skin transplant* or *allograft* to differentiate it from a transplant of one's own skin.\n\nA device known as a *dermatome* is used to skin skin from the donor, the common one is basically a fancy wood planer but they also have electric ones.\n\nMost skin grafts use thin layers of skin, with only a small amount of dermis, which leaves stuff liker fair follicles and sweat glands behind.\n\nFull-thickness skin grafts take the whole skin, especially useful for reconstructing a face, and the recipient will need antirejection drugs just like any internal organ transplant."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'a7os23',
'query': 'how are non-organ, donated body parts prepared to be transplanted such as skin?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '39200136',
'title': 'Hans Wallach',
'section': 'Section::::Psychological research.:Sound localization.\n',
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'passage_text': "In a series of papers Wallach explored the ability of humans to locate sounds in the median plane – that is, to determine whether a sound comes from a source at the same elevation as the ears or from a source that is higher or lower, or even in back of the head. Binaural sound cues, including the phasing or time of the sound's arrival at each ear and the sound's relative intensity at the two ears (known respectively as ITD and ILD) enable a listener to determine a sound's lateral location (whether it is on the left, right, or straight ahead). But two sounds at different elevations can present identical ITD and ILD information to the ears, and so binaural cues to a stationary ear do not suffice to identify a sound's location in the median plane. Monaural cues that depend on the shape of the head and the structure of the external ear help with vertical localization, but binaural cues also play a part if the head is not stationary.\n",
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'title': 'Sensory cue',
'section': 'Section::::Auditory Cues.:Auditory system.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The auditory system of humans and animals allows individuals to assimilate information from the surroundings, represented as sound waves. Sound waves first pass through the pinnae and the auditory canal, the parts of the ear that comprise the outer ear. Sound then reaches the tympanic membrane in the middle ear (also known as the eardrum). The tympanic membrane sets the malleus, incus, and stapes into vibration. The stapes transmits these vibrations to the inner ear by pushing on the membrane covering the oval window, which separates the middle and inner ear. The inner ear contains the cochlea, the liquid-filled structure containing the hair cells. These cells serve to transform the incoming vibration to electrical signals, which can then be transmitted to the brain.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '25663206',
'title': 'Psychoacoustics',
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'passage_text': 'Hearing is not a purely mechanical phenomenon of wave propagation, but is also a sensory and perceptual event; in other words, when a person hears something, that something arrives at the ear as a mechanical sound wave traveling through the air, but within the ear it is transformed into neural action potentials. The outer hair cells (OHC) of a mammalian cochlea give rise to an enhanced sensitivity and better frequency resolution of the mechanical response of the cochlear partition. These nerve pulses then travel to the brain where they are perceived. Hence, in many problems in acoustics, such as for audio processing, it is advantageous to take into account not just the mechanics of the environment, but also the fact that both the ear and the brain are involved in a person’s listening experience.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '35196799',
'title': 'SoundBite Hearing System',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Sound vibrations travel through a medium, and sound is heard when sound waves travel through the medium of air or bones/teeth to arrive at the inner ears. The SoundBite Hearing System uses sound waves travelling through bone, known as bone conduction to transmit subtle vibrations through bones to the inner ears.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '161005',
'title': 'Head-related transfer function',
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'passage_text': 'Humans have just two ears, but can locate sounds in three dimensions – in range (distance), in direction above and below, in front and to the rear, as well as to either side. This is possible because the brain, inner ear and the external ears (pinna) work together to make inferences about location. This ability to localize sound sources may have developed in humans and ancestors as an evolutionary necessity, since the eyes can only see a fraction of the world around a viewer, and vision is hampered in darkness, while the ability to localize a sound source works in all directions, to varying accuracy, \n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '14910292',
'title': 'Seashell resonance',
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'passage_text': "The human ear picks up sounds made by the human body as well, including the sounds of blood flowing and muscles acting. These sounds are normally discarded by the brain; however, they become more obvious when louder external sounds are filtered out. This occlusion effect occurs with seashells, cups, or hands held over one's ears, and also with circumaural headphones, whose cups form a seal around the ear, raising the acoustic impedance to external sounds.\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '5442380',
'title': 'Sensory cue',
'section': 'Section::::Auditory Cues.:Cues for sound locating.:Interaural time and level difference.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Unless a sound is directly in front of or behind the individual, the sound stimuli will have a slightly different distance to travel to reach each ear. This difference in distance causes a slight delay in the time the signal is perceived by each ear. The magnitude of the interaural time difference is greater the more the signal comes from the side of the head. Thus, this time delay allows humans to accurately predict the location of incoming sound cues. Interaural level difference is caused by the difference in sound pressure level reaching the two ears. This is because the head blocks the sound waves for the further ear, causing less intense sound to reach it. This level difference between the two ears allows humans to accurately predict azimuth of an auditory signal. This effect only occurs at sounds that are high frequency.\n',
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'title': 'How does the human ear discern between a quiet noise and a distant noise?',
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'answers': ['A distant noise sounds more echoey because it is accompanied by a lot of reflected sounds on its path to you, whereas a quite sound close to you is more direct.\n\nFor very close sounds, another cue is that the sound has different angles to you ear. Whereas an infinitely distant sound arrives at your ear at the same angle, closer sounds become more different, and your ear can pick up that difference. Additionally, the sound is louder to the closer ear, more than expected of distant sounds.',
'A quiet noise from a nearby source will have more high frequency content than the same noise made much louder from far away. This is because air absorbs high frequency sound energy over distance but not low frequency to the same extent (think about how a plane sounds low and rumbly from far away, but when you are close, it sounds like all of the frequencies).\n\nAdditionally, nearby sounds will create stronger reflections off of surfaces close to you, creating a more full sound compared to distant sounds which will most likely consist of just one apparent location, or the reflections will be recognized as an echo, another indication that the sound is a large distance away.\n\nIf you are not near any other objects, the first effect will be the predominant way your ear/brain make the distinction.',
"Just to add to what's already been said. I think we can agree that the outer ear (penna) is weird looking. These bumps and ridges are important though because they bounce sound around the ear. We are able to detect if a noise is above or below us this way.",
"Interaural arrival times (sound arriving in on ear slightly before the other), interaural spectral differences (the fact that your head casts an acoustic shadow and blocks high frequencies will help you determine which direction it's coming from and how far away it is, less of an acoustic shadow means the sound is closer) and interaural intensity differences (sound from farther away will be louder in the ear facing it, whereas this difference will be less pronounced in a sound that's close).",
'In the study of audio engineering the terminology that we use is interaural time difference and interaural level difference. It refers to the sound hitting the ears at different times and at different amplitudes.\n\nThe first order reflections of a sound source bouncing off of surfaces between the listener and the source will collect carry and transmit information to the listeners brain about the location of the source. \n\nIf you listen to a loved one who is in your childhood home over the phone you might be able to tell which room your family member is standing in simply by the pattern of first order reflections.',
"How much reverb is on the sound. If it is 'wet' (lots of reverb) it is far away and if it is 'dry' (less reverb) then we know its close. This is because a close sound has less time to interact with its surroundings and is therefore less muddy. Whereas a faraway sound can interact with the space around it and add reverb.",
"I'd like to add to the top answers that your ear doesn't; your brain does. Your ear is just a microphone that translates vibrations into a signal (nerve pulses in this case, electrical current in the case of an actual microphone) that your brain (or computer) can work with. Your brain (or computer) then processes it and judges what is the case and not.",
'Audio expert here. Didn\'t read any other comments, so this may have been answered already.\n\nIn terms of decibels (also referred to as volume, or the intensity of sound), a distant noise could measure the same as a quiet, nearby noise. The difference is that through evolution, we\'ve learned to pick up on the fine nuances between the two.\n\nNearby sounds will tighter reflections (echos) off the walls and surfaces around us. Far away sounds, that were loud when produced but have gotten quieter as they reach us, are filled with reflections that are greater spaced. A sharp "bang" 1/2 mile away will trail with echos a lot longer than a nearby snap, though both may have the same decibel rating.\n\nAlso note that over distances, low frequencies travel further than high frequencies. That\'s why when you hear a helicopter close up, you can detect the high-pitched whine of the turbine very easily, but seeing a helicopter in the distance, you only hear the low pounding of the blades. Knowing this, our brains automatically can decipher how far away something is, especially when we know what it sounds like nearby.',
'It’s not so much the ear that has this ability but the brain. The ear serves to transmit the auditory information into a language the brain understands (sound propagation through air into electrical and chemical transmission in the brain). The Brain is then able to interpret the information the ear has picked up. In this scenario, key information would be the change to sound waves that a far noise would undergo vs a noise that was nearby (distant noises undergo more reverberation) and the differences between what the left and right ear pick up. (Is greater for sounds further away). The brain has evolved to be very good at extracting this information, as I imagine it’s a large survival advantage to locate the whereabouts of prey and predator.',
'I don’t know it has been said like that but we use three different things to tell an audio source\n\n- Inter-aural time difference (ITD): since a sound is travelling around our head it takes it slightly longer to reach the ear that’s further away to the sound source\n\n- Inter-aural intensity difference (IID): for the same reason, the sound arrives to the ear that’s further away from the sound source with a lower amplitude\n\n- Inter-aural spectral difference (ISD): the shape of our outer ear, the pinna, does the rest.\n\nAdditionally, it’s important to know that a sound from closer distance will have more high frequency content.\n\nEverything together is helping us locating a sound source.\n\nEDIT: Spelling.',
"Not an expert, but there's a wonderful audio clip called 'virtual barbershop' that will demonstrate to you very well how exactly the brain identifies where a sound is coming from.\n\nIf you hear it, you'll realise that the way your brain determines how far and where a sound is coming from has nothing to do with how loud it is\n\nIn short, your brain can detect the tiny differences in the sound as it reaches each of your ears. And it uses that to determine the location.\n",
"It's actually easier than that. Sound is pressure waves carried by the air. In your ear these pressure waves vibrate tiny hairs which your brain interprets as sound. Intensity (volume) is based on how strongly the hairs vibrate. Location (direction) and distance are based on the difference in time it takes the sound to hit one ear over the other (yes milliseconds, but your brain perceives it) as well as the different intensity of the same sound in each ear.\n\nBasically your brain does trigonometry with sound automatically. \n\nIts actually the same basic principle that allows animal's with forward facing eyes to detect distance and movement with high accuracy (the same light hits each eye slightly different and your brain maths the rest)",
"The better question is, why do emergency sirens (cops/EMTs/firetrucks/etc) sound like they're coming from all directions."],
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'passage_text': 'Unlike air purifiers, which filter or otherwise trap particles within an air circulator, air sanitizers have the ability to act on airborne microorganisms in open interior air space. A sneeze- or cough-generated pathogenic aerosol will take significant time to be treated by a circulating air purifier simply because air circulators are unable to treat all air of the room simultaneously. Air circulators treat a fractional room volume per unit time and exhaust the treated air back into the room resulting in fractional air dilution. In contrast, air sanitizers that are maintained at a sufficient and homogeneous concentration (see homogeneous (chemistry)) within the interior air space provide simultaneous treatment of the entire interior air space volume, but are not able to remove particles including allergens. Air purifiers and air sanitizers are therefore complementary air treatment solutions. An air sanitizer is not an air freshener which add fragrance to the air and do not claim to act on microbiological organisms. \n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '2543416',
'title': 'Infusion pump',
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'passage_text': "An air filter is an essential safety device in a pressure infusor, to keep air out of the patients' veins. Small bubbles could cause harm in arteries, but in the veins they pass through the heart and leave in the patients' lungs. The air filter is just a membrane that passes gas but not fluid or pathogens. When a large air bubble reaches it, it bleeds off.\n",
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'passage_text': 'In medicine, airway secretions can be cleared with manual and mechanical exsufflation. Mechanical insufflation-exsufflation devices (also known as In-Exsufflator, Cofflator, and cough machine) alternate positive and negative airway pressure to stimulate cough. It is typically used in patients with neuromuscular disorders and sleep apnea. After certain surgical procedures, the gases (such as carbon dioxide) used to expand body cavities are mechanically or manually exsufflated.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Air trapping, also called gas trapping, is an abnormal retention of air in the lungs where it is difficult to exhale completely. It is observed in obstructive lung diseases such as asthma, bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome and chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases such as emphysema and chronic bronchitis.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '59945956',
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'passage_text': 'Richard A. DeWall (1926-2016), was an American cardiothoracic surgeon who in 1955 created the first workable, portable bubble oxygenator that removed bubbles, thus avoiding gas embolism during cardiopulmonary bypass. Later, he wrote the original plans for what became the Wright State University School of Medicine.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6051822',
'title': '2006 Southeast Asian haze',
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'passage_text': 'Air purifier sales shot up during the hazy period. Best Denki, an electronic store, sold S$350,000 worth of air purifiers and related items in 4 days, a 300 percent increase. However, experts from the Institute of Environmental Science & Engineering at the Nanyang Technological University said that only some of these products, like High Efficiency Particulate air filters, would effectively remove small particles from air. Other kinds of air purifiers like ionizing purifiers gave off ozone which could cause symptoms similar to those caused by the haze. The experts recommended regularly cleaning the filter media and opening windows to get some fresh air at night.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '37863580',
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'passage_text': 'The name of the appliance stems from the fact that the emergency respirator is not designed to provide clean air for extended periods of time. Instead, it is a breathing device allowing people working in dangerous conditions escape in case of an emergency, such as a leak of methane, hydrogen sulfide or other dangerous gasses. Usually the escape respirators provide protection for under one hour.\n',
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'title': "What would happen if we didn't remove the air bubble from syringes?",
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'answers': ['The main risk with leaving an air bubble in a syringe is inaccurate dosing. With the syringe partly full of air, the amount of liquid won\'t be accurate to the markings on the syringe.\n\nGetting air into a vein isn\'t a significant hazard unless it\'s a huge amount - like a whole drip tube full or someone squeezes a drip bag in, including the large air bubble. \n\nThe air will circulate in the veins and reach the lungs where it will lodge and get removed in a few minutes. The lungs will filter out the air so it can\'t travel to the brain except where there is also a "hole in the heart". ',
'A small amount of air in an IV will not hurt you. We were taught in school it would take at least 10mL of air injected at once to possibly kill someone. \n\nThey have a test called a “bubble study”, it can”identify potential blood flow issues inside your heart. For the bubble study, you will get an intravenous (IV) line in a vein in your arm. A saltwater solution called saline is mixed with a small amount of air to create tiny bubbles and then injected into your vein”, Harvard University. ',
"The heart is fundamentally a pump, if you were pumping water out of a ditch and air got mix into the pump with water, the sudden changes in fluid medium (type) would cause various pressure and flow changes that could potentially damage the pump. I guess that's a layman's way of looking at it haha. ",
'It feels incredibly weird going into your vein then dissolves into your blood. You could shoot an entire 100 unit syringe of air into a vein and be fine. ',
'One thing not mentioned yet is that at least 1 in 10 people have a hole in their heart (patent foramen ovale). If air goes into the right side of the of the heart in people who have this or any other hole in the heart the air can travel to two important organs with life threatening consequences, the brain or coronary artery. ',
"It's unpleasant and causes hydraulic issues with the heart and arteries. It can also lead to clotting just like blood exposed to air. \n\nEver hear about a mechanic complain of air in the brake line? Same concept, air compresses and most liquids do not, it affects hydraulic flow and can cause foaming. \n\nImagine a bottle of liquid hand soap that has no air in it, like a brand new bottle. Shake it up and what happens? Nothing. Now do the same with an air bubble in it, and you end up with foam that takes a long time to dissipate. The heart doesn't like foam and neither do the VERY narrow capillaries all over the body. ",
'Nothing would happen. It takes around 50 mL of gas to be injected into a vein very rapidly for it to cause serious problems like an air embolism. \n\nAs a nurse, I\'ve routinely pumped around 1mL of bubbles into a patient\'s vein very quickly during a "bubble study." \n\nAnd unless you\'re using a 1mL insulin syringe, a small bubble in the barrel of a syringe isn\'t going to mess up your doses all that much. Even a small bubble in a 3mL syringe isn\'t going to make that much of a difference.\n\nSo for the most part, nurses who thump syringes to get rid of bubbles are doing it because they\'ve seen it done on TV or on the floor and are just imitating what they\'ve seen.'],
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'passage_text': 'In December 2016, an interview done by "Rogue One" director Gareth Edwards revealed that Lucasfilm had recently completed a 4K restoration of the film, but did not elaborate on whether the restored version was based on the 1977 original or a subsequent re-release.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In May 2018, it was announced that the Yahoo! Japan had picked up the rights to stream a new digitally remastered 1080p HD version of the ESPer Mami series on their "GYAO!" online video streaming service. As it is a remaster, this version does not have the faded colors and mis-coloring that had been present on the DVD versions. GYAO! began streaming the remastered series for free on May 22, 2018, with one new episode being added to the service each day, and each episode being available for viewing for 14 days after it first appeared on the website, after which it was removed.\n',
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'passage_text': "It was announced in the summer of 2016 that the film was in the process of being digitally remastered to 4K quality for its 40th anniversary (which was reported to have begun before Bowie's death). This remastered version premiered at BFI Southbank before being released in cinemas across the UK on 9 September of that year.\n",
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'title': 'The Tales of Hoffmann (film)',
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'passage_text': "In March 2015, the 4K restoration of the film, produced by Martin Scorsese's The Film Foundation, the British Film Institute, and Studiocanal, was released in the U.S. by Rialto Pictures. The restored version runs 136 minutes, including a final credits sequence of all the performers and singers, not seen in any previous releases.\n",
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'passage_text': 'As of 2019, digitally remastered on seasons 1-2 only, and for the first time ever in stunning 1080p High Definition, all 3 seasons of the show itself will be released on Blu-ray and Digital HD, but also new on 4K UHD in the USA from PBS Distribution.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '8844',
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'passage_text': 'Three manufacturers have licensed the DLP Cinema technology developed by Texas Instruments (TI): Christie Digital Systems, Barco, and NEC. While NEC is a relative newcomer to Digital Cinema, Christie is the main player in the U.S. and Barco takes the lead in Europe and Asia. Initially DCI-compliant DLP projectors were available in 2K only, but from early 2012, when TI\'s 4K DLP chip went into full production, DLP projectors have been available in both 2K and 4K versions. Manufacturers of DLP-based cinema projectors can now also offer 4K upgrades to some of the more recent 2K models. Early DLP Cinema projectors, which were deployed primarily in the United States, used limited 1280×1024 resolution or the equivalent of 1.3 MP (megapixels). Digital Projection Incorporated (DPI) designed and sold a few DLP Cinema units (is8-2K) when TI\'s 2K technology debuted but then abandoned the D-Cinema market while continuing to offer DLP-based projectors for non-cinema purposes. Although based on the same 2K TI "light engine" as those of the major players they are so rare as to be virtually unknown in the industry. They are still widely used for pre-show advertising but not usually for feature presentations.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The 4K restoration made its debut at the 2017 Sundance Film Festival on January 24, 2017 (followed by a Q&A with director Donna Deitch, cinematographer Robert Elswitt, and production designer Jeannine Oppewall). It was thereafter screened in Los Angeles by the UCLA Film & Television Archive on February 4, 2017; and in San Francisco at the Frameline Film Festival on June 18, 2017. The new digital version was released in theaters by Janus Films in July 2017.\n',
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'selftext': 'How difficult is the conversion?',
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'answers': ["Actual 35mm has a expected resolution of approximately 4K so it's just a matter of doing a new transfer from the film to digital media. So there's really not a whole lot involved it's just a matter of scanning the film in at the higher resolution."],
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'query': 'how did studios able to upgrade old mv to 4k on youtube (especially last christmas by wham)?',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '240561',
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'passage_text': 'The gas pressure in a siphon drives soda water up through a tube inside the siphon when a valve lever at the top is depressed. Commercial soda siphons came pre-charged with water and gas, and were returned to the retailer for exchange when empty. A deposit scheme ensured they were not otherwise thrown away.\n',
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'title': 'Diet Coke and Mentos eruption',
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'passage_text': 'The conversion of dissolved carbon dioxide to gaseous carbon dioxide forms rapidly expanding gas bubbles in the soda, which pushes the beverage contents out of the container. Gases, in general, are more soluble in liquids at elevated pressures. Carbonated sodas contain elevated levels of carbon dioxide under pressure. The solution becomes supersaturated with carbon dioxide when the bottle is opened, and the pressure is released. Under these conditions, carbon dioxide begins to precipitate from solution, forming gas bubbles. \n',
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'passage_text': 'Carbonated drinks are beverages that contain dissolved carbon dioxide. The dissolution of CO in a liquid, gives rise to "fizz" or "effervescence". The process usually involves carbon dioxide under high pressure. When the pressure is removed, the carbon dioxide is released from the solution as small bubbles, which causes the solution to become effervescent, or fizzy. A common example is the dissolving of carbon dioxide in water, resulting in carbonated water. Carbon dioxide is only weakly soluble in water, therefore it separates into a gas when the pressure is released.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4153354',
'title': 'SodaStream',
'section': 'Section::::Syrups and concentrates.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
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'passage_text': 'SodaStream can only carbonate water, one litre at a time, in the supplied bottle; the concentrates are added after carbonated water is removed from the machine. This poses a limitation if one wishes to carbonate wine or fresh fruit juices.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '217116',
'title': 'Dynamic equilibrium',
'section': 'Section::::Examples.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': "In a new bottle of soda the concentration of carbon dioxide in the liquid phase has a particular value. If half of the liquid is poured out and the bottle is sealed, carbon dioxide will leave the liquid phase at an ever-decreasing rate and the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the gas phase will increase until equilibrium is reached. At that point, due to thermal motion, a molecule of CO may leave the liquid phase, but within a very short time another molecule of CO will pass from the gas to the liquid, and vice versa. At equilibrium the rate of transfer of CO from the gas to the liquid phase is equal to the rate from liquid to gas. In this case, the equilibrium concentration of CO in the liquid is given by Henry's law, which states that the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas above the liquid. This relationship is written as\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '240561',
'title': 'Carbonated water',
'section': 'Section::::Products for carbonating water.:Home.:Soda siphons.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
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'passage_text': 'Home soda siphons can carbonate flat water through the use of a small disposable steel bulb containing carbon dioxide. The bulb is pressed into the valve assembly at the top of the siphon, the gas injected, then the bulb withdrawn. Soda water made in this way tends not to be as carbonated as commercial soda water because water from the refrigerator is not chilled as much as possible, and the pressure of carbon dioxide is limited to that available from the cartridge rather than the high-pressure pumps in a commercial carbonation plant.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6254672',
'title': 'Diet Coke and Mentos eruption',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'Normally, this process is relatively slow, because the activation energy for this process is high. The activation energy for a process like bubble nucleation depends on where the bubble forms. It is highest for bubbles that form in the liquid itself (homogeneous nucleation), and lower if the bubble forms on some other surface (heterogeneous nucleation). When the pressure is released from a soda bottle, the bubbles tend to form on the sides of the bottle. But because they are smooth and clean, the activation energy is still relatively high, and the process is slow. The addition of other nucleation sites provides an alternative pathway for the reaction to occur with lower activation energy, much like a catalyst. For instance dropping grains of salt or sand into the solution lowers the activation energy, and increases the rate of carbon dioxide precipitation. \n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do soda contents not drop/settle to the bottom and need to be mixed up or stirred but other drinks like juice do?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Juice has solids in suspension. They\'re not actually chemically dissolved, just "stuck" in the water molecules like a microscopic ball pit. Over time they\'ll settle to the bottom.\n\nSoft drinks don\'t have that many ingredients, and the few they do have are water soluble. Unlike the suspended solids in juice, these chemicals interact with the water molecules and will stay in liquid form indefinitely.'],
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'query_id': '6npkz1',
'query': 'why do soda contents not drop/settle to the bottom and need to be mixed up or stirred but other drinks like juice do?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '21479285',
'title': 'Urine test strip',
'section': 'Section::::Diseases Identified with a Urine Test Strip.:Liver diseases and haemolytic disorders.:Urobilinogen test.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 74,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Intestinal bacteria convert the conjugated bilirubin that is excreted by the bile duct into the intestine into urobilinogen and stercobilinogen. Part of the urobilinogen is reabsorbed in the intestine then circulated in the blood to the liver where it is excreted. A small part of this recirculated urobilinogen is filtered out by the kidneys and appears in urine (less than 1\xa0mg/dl urine). The stercobilinogen can not be reabsorbed and remains in the intestine.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3135637',
'title': 'Human gastrointestinal microbiota',
'section': 'Section::::Composition.:Anatomy.:Stomach.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
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'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 415,
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'passage_text': 'Due to the high acidity of the stomach, most microorganisms cannot survive there. The main bacterial inhabitants of the stomach include: "Streptococcus", "Staphylococcus", "Lactobacillus", "Peptostreptococcus", and types of yeast. "Helicobacter pylori" is a gram-negative spiral bacterium that establishes on gastric mucosa causing chronic gastritis and peptic ulcer disease and is a carcinogen for gastric cancer.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7591',
'title': 'Cholera',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'When consumed, most bacteria do not survive the acidic conditions of the human stomach. The few surviving bacteria conserve their energy and stored nutrients during the passage through the stomach by shutting down protein production. When the surviving bacteria exit the stomach and reach the small intestine, they must propel themselves through the thick mucus that lines the small intestine to reach the intestinal walls where they can attach and thrive.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '168506',
'title': 'Esophagus',
'section': 'Section::::Function.:Reducing gastric reflux.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The stomach produces gastric acid, a strongly acidic mixture consisting of hydrochloric acid (HCl) and potassium and sodium salts to enable food digestion. Constriction of the upper and lower esophageal sphincters help to prevent reflux (backflow) of gastric contents and acid into the esophagus, protecting the esophageal mucosa. In addition, the acute angle of His and the lower crura of the diaphragm helps this sphincteric action.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '638449',
'title': 'Gastric acid',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': "The highly acidic environment in the stomach lumen causes proteins from food to lose their characteristic folded structure (or denature). This exposes the protein's peptide bonds. The gastric chief cells of the stomach secrete enzymes for protein breakdown (inactive pepsinogen, and in infancy rennin). Hydrochloric acid activates pepsinogen into the enzyme pepsin, which then helps digestion by breaking the bonds linking amino acids, a process known as proteolysis. In addition, many microorganisms have their growth inhibited by such an acidic environment, which is helpful to prevent infection.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '69720',
'title': 'Gastrointestinal tract',
'section': 'Section::::Human gastrointestinal tract.:Function.:Intestinal microbiota.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 68,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 68,
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'passage_text': 'The large intestine hosts several kinds of bacteria that can deal with molecules that the human body cannot otherwise break down. This is an example of symbiosis. These bacteria also account for the production of gases at host-pathogen interface, inside our intestine(this gas is released as "flatulence" when eliminated through the anus). However the large intestine is mainly concerned with the absorption of water from digested material (which is regulated by the hypothalamus) and the re absorption of sodium, as well as any nutrients that may have escaped primary digestion in the ileum. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '534701',
'title': 'Pylorus',
'section': 'Section::::Function.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The pylorus is one component of the gastrointestinal system. Food from the stomach, as chyme, passes through the pylorus to the duodenum. The pylorus, through the pyloric sphincter, regulates entry of food from the stomach into the duodenum.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do gut bacteria actually make it to your intestines with the hydrochloric acid produced by the stomach in the way?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["First, the stomach doesn't constantly produce acid. That only happens when you're digesting food.\n\nSecond, the bacteria in your intestines don't have to pass through the stomach. They live and grow in the intestines, and it would actually be pretty bad if they get anywhere else in the body. The *E. coli* outbreaks you might have heard about in the news are caused by a germ that normally lives in the intestines, but if they're ingested and digested you're gonna have a bad time.",
'The hydrochloric acid in your stomach is usually heavily diluted in the first place, and only long-term exposure can erode their membrane away. Most, however, reside in your gut lining, which has a nice, thick layer of mucus to protect then from your stomach fluids. Some of the mucus gets washed down when the contents of your stomach move from your stomach to the small intestine, where bile acts as a general transmitter for bacteria to your large intestine. Basically, your gut bacteria spreads throughout your GIT due to pure luck. Pretty good luck for the both of you, too, because you have a mutual symbiotic relationship.',
'A lot of bacteria die in the stomach, but a few make it through. Some are partially resistant to the acid. A=Others can produce spores that are resistant to the acid. Some are just so abundant in food that a few make it through by shear luck.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'bxm8pc',
'query': 'how do gut bacteria actually make it to your intestines with the hydrochloric acid produced by the stomach in the way?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '60933',
'title': 'Triboelectric effect',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.:Sparks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': 'Because the surface of the material is now electrically charged, either negatively or positively, any contact with an uncharged conductive object or with an object having substantially different charge may cause an electrical discharge of the built-up static electricity: a spark. A person simply walking across a carpet, removing a nylon shirt or rubbing against a car seat can also create a potential difference of many thousands of volts, which is enough to cause a spark one millimeter long or more.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '368328',
'title': 'Electrostatics',
'section': "Section::::'Static' electricity.\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 58,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 58,
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'passage_text': 'Static electricity is usually caused when certain materials are rubbed against each other, like wool on plastic or the soles of shoes on carpet. The process causes electrons to be pulled from the surface of one material and relocated on the surface of the other material.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2542454',
'title': 'Electrical equipment in hazardous areas',
'section': 'Section::::Electrical ignition hazard.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'end_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'A household light switch may emit a small, harmless visible spark when switching. In an ordinary atmosphere this arc is of no concern, but if a flammable vapor is present, the arc might start an explosion. Electrical equipment intended for use in a chemical factory or refinery either is designed to contain any explosion within the device or is designed not to produce sparks with sufficient energy to trigger an explosion.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '144209',
'title': 'Spark plug',
'section': 'Section::::Operation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'The plug is connected to the high voltage generated by an ignition coil or magneto. As current flows from the coil, a voltage develops between the central and side electrodes. Initially no current can flow because the fuel and air in the gap is an insulator, but as the voltage rises further it begins to change the structure of the gases between the electrodes. Once the voltage exceeds the dielectric strength of the gases, the gases become ionized. The ionized gas becomes a conductor and allows current to flow across the gap. Spark plugs usually require voltage of 12,000–25,000\xa0volts or more to "fire" properly, although it can go up to 45,000\xa0volts. They supply higher current during the discharge process, resulting in a hotter and longer-duration spark.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1537097',
'title': 'Voltage-regulator tube',
'section': 'Section::::Design considerations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
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'passage_text': 'Because the glow discharge is a "statistical" process, a certain amount of electrical noise is introduced into the regulated voltage as the level of ionization varies. In most cases, this could be easily filtered out by placing a small capacitor in parallel with the VR tube or using an RC decoupling network downstream of the VR tube. Too large a capacitance (0.1μF for an 0D3, for instance), however, and the circuit will form a relaxation oscillator, definitely ruining the voltage regulation and possibly causing the tube to fail catastrophically.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '457968',
'title': 'Power strip',
'section': 'Section::::Safety.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
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'passage_text': 'When plugging a device into a power strip, a buildup of carbon or dust can cause sparking to occur. This generally doesn’t pose much of a risk in a non-explosive atmosphere, but explosive atmospheres (for example, near a gasoline refueling station or a solvent cleaning facility) require specialized explosion-proof sealed electrical equipment.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '75049',
'title': 'Electrostatic discharge',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Electrostatic discharge (ESD) is the sudden flow of electricity between two electrically charged objects caused by contact, an electrical short, or dielectric breakdown. A buildup of static electricity can be caused by tribocharging or by electrostatic induction. The ESD occurs when differently-charged objects are brought close together or when the dielectric between them breaks down, often creating a visible spark.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What causes the occasionally visible electricity when you plug things in?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["If the thing you're plugging in draws a lot of current, then there will be a brief spark where there's enough connection to transfer electricity but there's not enough metal-metal contact to make it a efficient, low resistance connection. The metal right at the connection point gets hot and you get a little bit of a spark.\n\nThis is common in things like laptop power supplies that have big filter capacitors in them that draw a lot of current when first plugged in. You'd see the same if you plugged in a big resistive heater while it the power switch was on. That's why i'ts recommended to make sure things like that are off before you plug them in to help eliminate sparking and arcing and power surges.",
"It's called arcing. I'm not good with electricity, but I'm pretty sure it's caused by voltage being high enough (or the gap being small enough) for the electricity to jump the distance between the outlet and the plug. \n\nIt might also be caused by, like, damaged or faulty outlets."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'e06i7i',
'query': 'what causes the occasionally visible electricity when you plug things in?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '21887637',
'title': 'Malwarebytes',
'section': 'Section::::Services and products.:Products.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
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'passage_text': 'In January 2016, Malwarebytes unveiled Malwarebytes Endpoint Security, advanced anti-ransomware technology which is described as the "first solution to offer multiple layers of protection against unknown ransomware". The company sponsored a survey with Osterman Research into 540 firms in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and Germany and found that nearly 40% of companies had experienced ransomeware incidents, of which 34 percent had accounted for loss of revenue. "The Guardian" reported that one-fifth of British companies had been charged over $10,000 to unlock their files and that there was an increasing demand for anti-ransomeware technology. After Endpoint\'s inception, the beta was reportedly downloaded by some 200,000 businesses and consumers in the first six months of the year.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1906321',
'title': 'Ransomware',
'section': 'Section::::The growing threat of malware.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 79,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 79,
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'passage_text': 'According to Symantec 2019 ISTR report, for the first time since 2013, in 2018 there was an observed decrease in ransomware activity with a drop of 20 percent. Before 2017, consumers were the preferred victims, but in 2017 this changed dramatically, it moved to the enterprises. In 2018 this path accelerated with 81 percent infections which represented a 12 percent increase. The common distribution method today is based on email campaigns.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '964356',
'title': 'Cash and cash equivalents',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 523,
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'passage_text': 'However, companies with a big value of cash and cash equivalents are targets for takeovers (by other companies), since their excess cash helps buyers to finance their acquisition. High cash reserves can also indicate that the company is not effective at deploying its CCE resources, whereas for big companies it might be a sign of preparation for substantial purchases. The opportunity cost of saving up CCE is the return on equity that company could earn by investing in a new product or service or expansion of business.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1906321',
'title': 'Ransomware',
'section': 'Section::::The growing threat of malware.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 78,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 78,
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'passage_text': 'Ransomware is growing rapidly across the internet users but also for the IoT environment which creates a challenging problem to the INFOSEC while increasing the attack surface area. They are evolving into more sophisticated attacks and, they are becoming more resistant; at the same time, they are also more accessible than ever. Today, for a cheap price, the attackers have access to ransomware as a service. The big problem is that millions of dollars are lost by some organizations and industries that have decided to pay, such as the Hollywood Presbyterian Medical Center and the MedStar Health. At the end, the pressure to offer services to the patients and keep their lives is so critical that they are forced to pay, and the attacker knows that. The problem here is that by paying the ransom, they are funding the cybercrime.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40732141',
'title': 'CryptoLocker',
'section': 'Section::::Money paid.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 662,
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'passage_text': 'In a survey by researchers at the University of Kent, 41% of those who claimed to be victims said that they had decided to pay the ransom, a proportion much larger than expected; Symantec had estimated that 3% of victims had paid and Dell SecureWorks had estimated that 0.4% of victims had paid. Following the shutdown of the botnet that had been used to distribute CryptoLocker, it was calculated that about 1.3% of those infected had paid the ransom; many had been able to recover files which had been backed up, and others are believed to have lost huge amounts of data. Nonetheless, the operators were believed to have extorted a total of around $3 million.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '428364',
'title': 'Phishing',
'section': 'Section::::History.:2010s.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 79,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- By December 2013, Cryptolocker ransomware infected 250,000 personal computers by first targeting businesses using a Zip archive attachment that claimed to be a customer complaint, and later targeting general public using a link in an email regarding a problem clearing a check. The ransomware scrambles and locks files on the computer and requests the owner make a payment in exchange for the key to unlock and decrypt the files. According to Dell SecureWorks, 0.4% or more of those infected likely agreed to the ransom demand.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3852459',
'title': 'Cryptovirology',
'section': 'Section::::Examples of viruses with cryptography and ransom capabilities.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
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'end_paragraph_id': 19,
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'passage_text': 'An example of a virus that informs the owner of the infected machine to pay a ransom is the virus nicknamed Tro_Ransom.A. This virus asks the owner of the infected machine to send $10.99 to a given account through Western Union.br\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How large corporations recover once they have been infected by ransom ware.',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Any corporation with a competent IT department does regular system-wide backups on a daily basis. They also have a disaster recovery plan that allows them to stand up new instances of their critical systems on short notice.\n\nAnd sometimes, they just pay the ransom. They routinely put thousands of dollars worth of software on every desktop, paying $500 a pop to free them up is painful, but not undoable.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6lewna',
'query': 'how large corporations recover once they have been infected by ransom ware.',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '632331',
'title': 'Transit of Venus',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Transits of Venus are among the rarest of predictable astronomical phenomena. They occur in a pattern that generally repeats every 243 years, with pairs of transits eight years apart separated by long gaps of 121.5 years and 105.5 years. The periodicity is a reflection of the fact that the orbital periods of Earth and Venus are close to 8:13 and 243:395 commensurabilities.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '632331',
'title': 'Transit of Venus',
'section': 'Section::::Past and future transits.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 39,
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'passage_text': "NASA maintains a catalog of Venus transits covering the period 2000 BCE to 4000 CE. Currently, transits occur only in June or December (see table) and the occurrence of these events slowly drifts, becoming later in the year by about two days every 243-year cycle. Transits usually occur in pairs, on nearly the same date eight years apart. This is because the length of eight Earth years is almost the same as 13 years on Venus, so every eight years the planets are in roughly the same relative positions. This approximate conjunction usually results in a pair of transits, but it is not precise enough to produce a triplet, since Venus arrives 22 hours earlier each time. The last transit not to be part of a pair was in 1396. The next will be in 3089; in 2854 (the second of the 2846/2854 pair), although Venus will just miss the Sun as seen from the Earth's equator, a partial transit will be visible from some parts of the southern hemisphere.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '632394',
'title': 'Transit of Mercury',
'section': 'Section::::Occurrence of transits.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 464,
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'passage_text': 'Transits of Mercury can only occur when the Earth is aligned with a node of Mercury\'s orbit. Currently that alignment occurs within a few days of May 8 (descending node) and November 10 (ascending node), with the angular diameter of Mercury being about 12" for May transits, and 10" for November transits. The average date for a transit increases over centuries as a result of the longitude of the nodes of Mercury\'s orbit increasing by about 1.1 deg per century.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '711997',
'title': '2012 transit of Venus',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'The 2012 transit of Venus, when the planet Venus appeared as a small, dark spot passing across the face of the Sun, began at 22:09 UTC on 5\xa0June 2012, and finished at 04:49 UTC on 6\xa0June. Depending on the position of the observer, the exact times varied by up to ±7 minutes. Transits of Venus are among the rarest of predictable celestial phenomena and occur in pairs. Consecutive transits per pair are spaced 8 years apart, and consecutive pairs occur more than a century apart: The previous transit of Venus took place on 8\xa0June 2004 (preceded by transits on 9\xa0December 1874 and 6\xa0December 1882); the next pair of transits will occur on 10–11\xa0December 2117 and in December 2125.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '632331',
'title': 'Transit of Venus',
'section': 'Section::::Past and future transits.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
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'passage_text': 'From −125,000 till +125,000 there are only about ten 243-year series at both nodes regarding all the transits of Venus in this very long time-span, because both nodes of the orbit of Venus move back and forward in time as seen from the Earth.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '632331',
'title': 'Transit of Venus',
'section': 'Section::::Conjunctions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': "Sequences of transits usually repeat every 243 years. After this period of time Venus and Earth have returned to very nearly the same point in their respective orbits. During the Earth's 243 sidereal orbital periods, which total 88,757.3 days, Venus completes 395 sidereal orbital periods of 224.701 days each, equal to 88,756.9 Earth days. This period of time corresponds to 152 synodic periods of Venus.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5595163',
'title': 'Ceres (dwarf planet)',
'section': 'Section::::Orbit.:Transits of planets from Ceres.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
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'passage_text': 'Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars can all appear to cross the Sun, or transit it, from a vantage point on Ceres. The most common transits are those of Mercury, which usually happen every few years, most recently in 2006 and 2010. The most recent transit of Venus was in 1953, and the next will be in 2051; the corresponding dates are 1814 and 2081 for transits of Earth, and 767 and 2684 for transits of Mars.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do two transits of Venus occur every hundred or so years, but the transits of Mercury occur more frequently than Venus?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Mercury orbits the sun much quicker than Venus. And Venus and Earth\'s orbit time are closer. That means Mercury is going to "lap" the earth far more often which gives opportunity for a transit.\n\n(Imagine a track race where you\'re on the outer track and the person next track in is running only slightly faster. They\'d lap you every 10 laps or so. That\'s Venus. Mercury is on the inner most track on a motorbike and laps you both far more frequently)'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'dufwn4',
'query': 'why do two transits of venus occur every hundred or so years, but the transits of mercury occur more frequently than venus?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '234656',
'title': 'Gangster',
'section': 'Section::::Regional variants.:Latin America.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
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'passage_text': 'Cocaine traffickers from Colombia, and recently Mexico, have also established a labyrinth of smuggling routes throughout the Caribbean, the Bahama Island chain, and South Florida. They often hire traffickers from Mexico or the Dominican Republic to transport the drug. The traffickers use a variety of smuggling techniques to transfer their drug to U.S. markets. These include airdrops of 500–700\xa0kg in the Bahama Islands or off the coast of Puerto Rico, mid-ocean boat-to-boat transfers of 500–2,000\xa0kg, and the commercial shipment of tonnes of cocaine through the port of Miami.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7701',
'title': 'Cocaine',
'section': 'Section::::Society and culture.:Economics.:Trafficking and distribution.:Techniques.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 169,
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'passage_text': 'Cocaine is also carried in small, concealed, kilogram quantities across the border by couriers known as "mules" (or "mulas"), who cross a border either legally, for example, through a port or airport, or illegally elsewhere. The drugs may be strapped to the waist or legs or hidden in bags, or hidden in the body. If the mule gets through without being caught, the gangs will reap most of the profits. If he or she is caught, however, gangs will sever all links and the mule will usually stand trial for trafficking alone.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7701',
'title': 'Cocaine',
'section': 'Section::::Society and culture.:Economics.:Trafficking and distribution.:Techniques.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 171,
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'passage_text': 'Sophisticated drug subs are the latest tool drug runners are using to bring cocaine north from Colombia, it was reported on 20 March 2008. Although the vessels were once viewed as a quirky sideshow in the drug war, they are becoming faster, more seaworthy, and capable of carrying bigger loads of drugs than earlier models, according to those charged with catching them.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7701',
'title': 'Cocaine',
'section': 'Section::::Society and culture.:Economics.:Trafficking and distribution.:Caribbean and Mexican routes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 165,
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'passage_text': 'Cocaine traffickers from Colombia and Mexico have established a labyrinth of smuggling routes throughout the Caribbean, the Bahama Island chain, and South Florida. They often hire traffickers from Mexico or the Dominican Republic to transport the drug using a variety of smuggling techniques to U.S. markets. These include airdrops of in the Bahama Islands or off the coast of Puerto Rico, mid-ocean boat-to-boat transfers of , and the commercial shipment of tonnes of cocaine through the port of Miami.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3584797',
'title': 'The Lineup (film)',
'section': 'Section::::Plot.\n',
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'passage_text': 'An international drug-smuggling racket plants heroin on unsuspecting American tourists traveling in Asia, so that the dope can pass through customs undetected. Two psychopathic killers, Dancer (Eli Wallach) and Julian (Robert Keith), and their driver McLain (Richard Jaeckel) then collect the contraband, murdering several people along the way. Lt. Ben Guthrie (Warner Anderson) leads the police hunt for the criminals.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46716831',
'title': 'Darknet market',
'section': 'Section::::Commentary.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 73,
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'passage_text': 'James Martin\'s 2014 book "Drugs on the Dark Net: How Cryptomarkets are Transforming the Global Trade in Illicit Drugs" discusses some vendors who are even branding their opium or cocaine as "fair trade", "organic" or sourced from conflict-free zones. In June 2015 journalist Jamie Bartlett gave a TED talk about the state of the darknet market ecosystem as it stands today.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43951082',
'title': 'L.A. Slasher',
'section': 'Section::::Plot.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The Drug Dealers come to the desert looking for the location of an underground drug lab. One of the Drug Dealers reveals himself to be an Undercover Cop after calling in the discovery of The Stripper’s body lying in the sand. The other Drug Dealer shoots the Undercover Cop, but The Slasher then kills the Drug Dealer with a machete.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do darknet dealers get drugs like cocaine and heroin in the first place?',
'selftext': "Like where does the drug come from in the first place? How'd they make it and stuff?",
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['You just find a supplier and buy it with bitcoin, its actually real easy, took maybe half an hour to set up and make a purchase. I ordered over 20 times in large quantities and never got caught or lost a package',
'From drug suppliers, who get it from drug cartels.\n\nIllegal enterprise creates an entire underground economy.',
'The same way traditional drug dealers do. From producers, or importers (who get them from producers). The drug supply chain does not change, what changes is how the product gets to the end user.\n\nThink of it like Amazon vs a general store. They both buy products from suppliers and wholesalers but they retail the products very differently. ',
'My question is how do people actually get this stuff delivered? How is it not caught every time..',
'I recall checking out Silk Road when I first heard about it. Some of the sellers that had cocaine seemed to be buying large amounts of cocoa paste? I have no idea where it was getting refined or what the path/connection was. It was not industrial amounts though... my first thought was that someone was getting paste and producing it on a smaller local level. I could be wrong.\n\nAnyways.. it would get cooked up into large glass pans, probably lasagna or casserole pans and make these nice sweet bricks of pure coke. You could see the shiny/flake crystalline pattern that good cocaine will have on the close up shots of broken chunks. \n\nAnecdotal, but I thought it was pretty interesting how they showed their production process for authenticity purposes I suppose. Also interesting was the reviews section where buyers would rate the product and delivery experience etc. \n\nIf I recall correctly, the money transfer was held in escrow until both parties were satisfied. A sellers account needed to make so many confirmed sales before money would be moved out of escrow or too win a dispute. A buyers account also needed to have made several confirmed purchases before being able to win a dispute. All in all seemed like a pretty fair system and I think the favor usually went to the buyer if something was seized in the mail. \n\nI must have spent half a day just browsing silk road and all it had to offer. Never went back again.. it was simply window shopping.',
"Not a dark net thing persay, but... when I moved from NC to CA, I could only take so much with me on the plane. I stuffed all my other belongings in a single box. \n\nThat included various blankets, trinkets, movies, but 5 open bottles of alcohol, my glass pipe which I didn't realize had a freshly packed bowl in it. Sent it off via UPD with a fragile sticker all over.\n\nNothing actually happened though. It just showed up, no problem. ",
'Cocaine is made from coca leaves. Opiates (such as heroin) are made from opium resin, from the sap of poppy flowers.\n\nCoca is a bushy plant that is native to South America, and grown mostly there. (Coca is not to be confused with cacao, which is the plant that chocolate comes from.) Poppies are a flower that is native to the Mediterranean region, but is today most heavily grown in central and southern Asia.\n\nPoppy flowers that you can buy at garden shops are actually the same species as "opium poppies", and they do contain opiates. It\'s legal to grow them for decorative purposes, but not to extract opium from them. (The bright orange "California poppy" does not contain opium.) Similarly, poppy seeds that are used in pastries do contain a tiny amount of opiates. It\'s a myth that eating one poppyseed bagel will make you test positive for opiates on a drug test. However, some European pastries are stuffed with poppyseed-based filling and will certainly register on a urine test. A blood test can tell the difference between heroin (or fentanyl) and poppyseeds, though.\n\n(Historically, poppy seeds were a byproduct of opium production. Opium has been used as a medicine for pain since the dawn of recorded history in Europe. There are sculptures from Minoan Crete depicting the poppy as a goddess of healing. By the way, cannabis is from the Caucasus, and the Greek historian Herodotus was kind of weirded out by how the people there — the Scythians — used it: they would burn it in bonfires to get high on the smoke.)\n\nAnyway, these plants are grown secretly, or with the cooperation (bribery) of local governments. Extracting cocaine from coca leaves, or crude opium from poppies, doesn\'t have to be much more complicated than extracting caffeine from coffee beans or tea leaves. But for the drug trade, it\'s done with chemicals to make it faster and more efficient. Turning opium into heroin is a bunch more complicated and involves secret chemical labs. Opium is ancient, but heroin was only invented in the 20th century.\n\nExtracting opium from poppies involves letting the flower go to seed, and then scratching or cutting the seed-pod to make it ooze sap. The sap contains a mixture of many different chemicals, some of which are already drugs (primarily morphine) and others that can be chemically changed to make drugs. Extracting cocaine from coca leaves involves soaking them in water and chemicals to get the cocaine to dissolve out of the leaves.\n\nIt\'s worth noting that coca leaves and poppy extracts can be used as drugs without any further preparation. Native people in Colombia, Bolivia, and Peru have chewed coca leaves as a mild stimulant for thousands of years. The ancient Greeks and Persians used opium extracted from poppies with alcohol from wine. However, coca leaves and poppy pods are very bulky; refined cocaine and heroin are much more compact and therefore easier to smuggle.\n\nThere is a general rule that when drugs are made illegal, people find ways to make the drugs stronger, because stronger drugs are easier to smuggle. In the 1920s, when the U.S. prohibited alcohol, the production of beer and wine basically shut down, but gin and whiskey became more popular. Cocaine is stronger than coca leaves, and crack is stronger again than cocaine. Modern cannabis is much stronger than the "Indian hemp" that has been grown for thousands of years. Some of the opiates used today, such as carfentanil, are so much stronger than plain opium that they were originally invented not even as painkillers, but to be used in tranquilizer darts on elephants!'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '62kt68',
'query': 'how do darknet dealers get drugs like cocaine and heroin in the first place?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '60523913',
'title': 'Artificial intelligence in heavy industry',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Artificial intelligence in modern terms generally refers to computer systems that mimic human cognitive functions, that encompasses, independent learning or problem solving in particular. While this type of general artificial intelligence has not yet been achieved, most contemporary Artificial Intelligence projects are currently better understood as types of machine learning—algorithms that can be trained with existing data to understand, categorize, and adapt sets of data without the need of explicit programming.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2958015',
'title': 'Philosophy of artificial intelligence',
'section': 'Section::::Is thinking a kind of computation?\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 84,
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'passage_text': 'In other words, our intelligence derives from a form of "calculation", similar to arithmetic. This is the physical symbol system hypothesis discussed above, and it implies that artificial intelligence is possible. In terms of the philosophical question of AI ("Can a machine have mind, mental states and consciousness?"), most versions of computationalism claim that (as Stevan Harnad characterizes it):\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5626',
'title': 'Cognitive science',
'section': 'Section::::Scope.:Artificial intelligence.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
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'passage_text': 'Artificial intelligence (AI) involves the study of cognitive phenomena in machines. One of the practical goals of AI is to implement aspects of human intelligence in computers. Computers are also widely used as a tool with which to study cognitive phenomena. Computational modeling uses simulations to study how human intelligence may be structured. (See .)\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23951451',
'title': 'SmartAction',
'section': 'Section::::What is AI?\n',
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'passage_text': 'Artificial intelligence (AI, also machine intelligence, MI) is intelligence demonstrated by machines, in contrast to the natural intelligence (NI) displayed by humans and other animals. In computer science AI research is defined as the study of "intelligent agents": any device that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chance of successfully achieving its goals. Colloquially, the term "artificial intelligence" is applied when a machine mimics "cognitive" functions that humans associate with other human minds, such as "learning" and "problem-solving".(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence) SmartAction will use AI in the future to excel chat support, advance intelligent voice automation and improve the IVR interaction experience for the consumer through omni-bot technology. https://www.smartaction.ai/research-and-insights/omni-bot/.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6585513',
'title': 'Outline of artificial intelligence',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Artificial intelligence (AI) – intelligence exhibited by machines or software. It is also the name of the scientific field which studies how to create computers and computer software that are capable of intelligent behaviour.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1164',
'title': 'Artificial intelligence',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'In computer science, artificial intelligence (AI), sometimes called machine intelligence, is intelligence demonstrated by machines, in contrast to the natural intelligence displayed by humans. Colloquially, the term "artificial intelligence" is often used to describe machines (or computers) that mimic "cognitive" functions that humans associate with the human mind, such as "learning" and "problem solving".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43029552',
'title': 'Technology in Star Wars',
'section': 'Section::::Computers and other artificial intelligence.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 94,
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'passage_text': 'Aside from droids/robots, the use of artificial intelligence is found very commonly in the "Star Wars" universe. Computers exist in many different forms in both the "Star Wars" movies and the Star Wars expanded universe, including both canonical and non-canonical stories from personal computers. These range from computerized notebooks to bigger, more sophisticated computers. Such computers are used to perform very complex tasks, such as the "navcomputer" on many spaceships. This computer autopilots spaceships from one part of the galaxy to another.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What computer language is artificial intelligence written in and is it enough?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["One computer language is equivalent to another in terms of what they *can* do, but AI has historically been associated with Lisp, Prolog, Java, C, and Python. There's no reason you can't do it in whatever language you want, of course. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '633gj6',
'query': 'what computer language is artificial intelligence written in and is it enough?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3234680',
'title': 'Buy–sell agreement',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'A buy–sell agreement, also known as a buyout agreement, is a legally binding agreement between co-owners of a business that governs the situation if a co-owner dies or is otherwise forced to leave the business, or chooses to leave the business.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6569590',
'title': 'Closing (sales)',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Closing is a sales term which refers to the process of making a sale. The sales sense springs from real estate, where closing is the final step of a transaction. In sales, it is used more generally to mean achievement of the desired outcome, which may be an exchange of money or acquiring a signature. Salespeople are often taught to think of targets not as strangers, but rather as prospective customers who already want or need what is being sold. Such prospects need only be "closed."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13306545',
'title': 'Trade sale',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'A trade sale is a common means of exit to a trade buyer. This allows the management to withdraw from the business and may open up the prospect of collaboration on larger projects. The term trade sale is mostly used in the context of venture capital funded businesses and refers to the sale of a company in its early stages. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25037329',
'title': 'The 3/50 Project',
'section': "Section::::What's an Independent?:Refined terminology.\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
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'passage_text': 'As a catch phrase, “Buy Local” has become generic to the point of being easily manipulated. In some circles, “buy local” refers to the producer or manufacturer of goods. In others, however, the term is used interchangeably with “shop local,” which refers to point-of-purchase but excludes business models that are service-oriented. In 2009, numerous national chains (also known as “big-box stores”) began advertising themselves as “buy local” options if they sold even a small amount of produce grown nearby.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1543426',
'title': 'Double closing',
'section': 'Section::::The mechanics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'To keep the purchaser and seller separate,the closing may be conducted in two different rooms or at two different times or locations. Success is more likely if the closing agent is friendly and accommodating.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1543426',
'title': 'Double closing',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Typically, a real estate investor first enters into a contract to purchase a property and then subsequently (before closing the purchase) enters into a contract to sell the property (hopefully for a higher price). The investor then utilizes a double closing to close both transactions at approximately the same time.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '438098',
'title': 'First-sale doctrine',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'The first-sale doctrine is a legal concept playing an important role in U.S. copyright and trademark law by limiting certain rights of a copyright or trademark owner. The doctrine enables the distribution chain of copyrighted products, library lending, giving, video rentals and secondary markets for copyrighted works (for example, enabling individuals to sell their legally purchased books or CDs to others). In trademark law, this same doctrine enables reselling of trademarked products after the trademark holder put the products on the market. The doctrine is also referred to as the "right of first sale," "first sale rule," or "exhaustion rule."\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Options and "buy to open," "buy to close," "sell to open," "sell to close."',
'selftext': "I've watched several videos and had several people explain this to me and for some reason it is still really hard for me to grasp. Can someone explain to me what options are, what these four terms means, and how they all relate to each other?",
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Options are a deal between two people, where one person pays the other for the opportunity to take an action later. Because they're a deal, we could create a brand new option from nothing (our agreement creates it) or we can trade our position in an already existing option. The exchange tracks all the options so that the final owners can follow through when the time comes for the agreement to end. \n\nBuying and selling to open means you want to create a new option. Buying to open means you'll pay money now to have the option to do something later. Selling to open means you'll get money now but be on the hook to fulfill the option's rules if the buyer wishes to do so in the future. \n\nBuying and selling to close means you're trading your portion of an already existing option to someone else. Buying to close means you were paid money to create an option, and now you're paying someone else to take your place for the remaining time. Selling to close means you were the payer previously and now you'll receive money from someone who want's to take your place as the person who can take the action for the remaining time. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8jf0gq',
'query': 'options and "buy to open," "buy to close," "sell to open," "sell to close."',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '57218370',
'title': 'USB hardware',
'section': 'Section::::Power.:Non-standard devices.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 117,
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'passage_text': 'Some non-standard USB devices use the 5\xa0V power supply without participating in a proper USB network, which negotiates power draw with the host interface. These are usually called "USB decorations". Examples include USB-powered keyboard lights, fans, mug coolers and heaters, battery chargers, miniature vacuum cleaners, and even miniature lava lamps. In most cases, these items contain no digital circuitry, and thus are not standard-compliant USB devices. This may cause problems with some computers, such as drawing too much current and damaging circuitry. Prior to the USB Battery Charging Specification, the USB specification required that devices connect in a low-power mode (100\xa0mA maximum) and communicate their current requirements to the host, which then permits the device to switch into high-power mode.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '198584',
'title': 'Laptop',
'section': 'Section::::Hardware.:Input/output (I/O) ports.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 58,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "On a typical laptop there are several USB ports, an external monitor port (VGA, DVI, HDMI or Mini DisplayPort), an audio in/out port (often in form of a single socket) is common. It is possible to connect up to three external displays to a 2014-era laptop via a single Mini DisplayPort, utilizing multi-stream transport technology. Apple, in a 2015 version of its MacBook, transitioned from a number of different I/O ports to a single USB-C port. This port can be used both for charging and connecting a variety of devices through the use of aftermarket adapters. Google, with its updated version of Chromebook Pixel, shows a similar transition trend towards USB-C, although keeping older USB Type-A ports for a better compatibility with older devices. Although being common until the end of the 2000s decade, Ethernet network port are rarely found on modern laptops, due to widespread use of wireless networking, such as Wi-Fi. Legacy ports such as a PS/2 keyboard/mouse port, serial port, parallel port, or Firewire are provided on some models, but they are increasingly rare. On Apple's systems, and on a handful of other laptops, there are also Thunderbolt ports, but Thunderbolt 3 uses USB-C. Laptops typically have a headphone jack, so that the user can connect external headphones or amplified speaker systems for listening to music or other audio.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6821624',
'title': 'PlayStation 3 accessories',
'section': 'Section::::Other accessories.:USB 2.0 Cable Pack.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 90,
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'passage_text': 'The USB 2.0 Cable Pack contains two USB cables (Type A – Mini-B) allowing controllers and other USB-powered devices to be recharged while playing a game by plugging them into the console or powered USB hub (hub must be connected to a host device, such as a console, to charge Sixaxis or DualShock 3 controllers). The included cables feature 24-karat gold connectors.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2316308',
'title': 'USB hub',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'Laptop/Notebook computers may be equipped with USB ports, but an external USB hub can consolidate several everyday devices (like a mouse and a printer) into a single hub to enable one-step attachment and removal of all the devices.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '57218370',
'title': 'USB hardware',
'section': 'Section::::Power.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 70,
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'passage_text': 'Where devices (for example, high-speed disk drives) require more power than a high-power device can draw, they function erratically, if at all, from bus power of a single port. USB provides for these devices as being self-powered. However, such devices may come with a Y-shaped cable that has two USB plugs (one for power and data, the other for only power), so as to draw power as two devices. Such a cable is non-standard, with the USB compliance specification stating that "use of a \'Y\' cable (a cable with two A-plugs) is prohibited on any USB peripheral", meaning that "if a USB peripheral requires more power than allowed by the USB specification to which it is designed, then it must be self-powered."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50645678',
'title': 'List of USB-C Power Delivery chargable laptops',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Some USB-PD charging laptops and USB-PD chargers may not be fully compliant, resulting in undesirable behavior such as: slow charging, refusal to charge, or damage to the laptop or charger in very rare cases\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30862892',
'title': 'Y-cable',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Power.:USB.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'Traditional USB Y-cables exist to enable one USB peripheral device to receive power from two USB host sockets at once, while only transceiving data with one of those sockets. As long as the host has two available USB sockets, this enables a peripheral that requires more power than one USB port can supply (but not more than two ports can supply) to be used without requiring a mains adaptor. Portable hard disk drives and optical disc drives are sometimes supplied with such Y-cables, for this reason.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why dont they make a USB connected laptop charger?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['In the USB 1.0 and 2.0 specs, a standard downstream port is capable of delivering up to 500mA (0.5A); with USB 3.0, it moves up to 900mA (0.9A). The charging downstream and dedicated charging ports provide up to 1,500mA (1.5A).\n\nBasically, it would take a long time to charge.',
"They did, and they have. The primary reason usb wasn't used is because people are prone to killing their usb cables by constantly putting it in the wrong way, that's just the last thing you want from a cable. But, with the advent of USB-C quite a few laptops and monitors have been popping up that have a usb-c port which is just stellar because i can use my charger for my Nexus 6p\n\nThe laptop I'm currently using that has it is a chromebook acer 14 for work. ",
"The USB standard doesn't carry enough power to charge a laptop in a reasonable period of time. If you were OK with it taking three days to charge and not being able to run indefinitely even when plugged in you could, but most people prefer other solutions.",
"What do you mean? Like a laptop charger that charges the laptop through the USB port?\n\nBecause they make those now, but only for USB C\n\nPrior to USB C/3.1 you couldn't get enough power down a USB port to charge anything large, but USB Power Delivery supports large amounts of power, all the way up to 100 W with certain cables so you'll be seeing more USB C laptop chargers in the future. Many laptops are now just coming with one or two USB C ports which serve as both the data and charging ports"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '75e2mr',
'query': 'why dont they make a usb connected laptop charger?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '258893',
'title': 'Disfigurement',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
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'passage_text': 'Plastic surgery or reconstructive surgery is available in many cases to disfigured people. Some health insurance companies and government health care systems cover plastic surgery for these problems when they do not generally cover plastic surgery for what is labeled as "cosmetic purposes".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14315840',
'title': 'Laminotomy',
'section': 'Section::::Reasons for performing a laminotomy.:Risks and potential complications.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Since this procedure is a surgical technique there are many complications that can occur either during or after the surgery. Some major complications that can occur are cerebrospinal fluid leaks, dural tears, infection, or epidural hematomas. Death is also a risk, however it only occurs one per thousand surgeries. Other complications that can occur during surgery are nerve root damage, which can lead to nerve injury or paraplegia, and a significant amount of blood loss that will lead to blood transfusions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42048',
'title': 'Plastic surgery',
'section': 'Section::::Reconstructive surgery.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
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'passage_text': 'Plastic surgeons use microsurgery to transfer tissue for coverage of a defect when no local tissue is available. Free flaps of skin, muscle, bone, fat, or a combination may be removed from the body, moved to another site on the body, and reconnected to a blood supply by suturing arteries and veins as small as 1 to 2 millimeters in diameter.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41266019',
'title': "Children's Surgical Centre",
'section': 'Section::::Services.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'Plastic Surgery: Treatment of unhealed burn wounds with skin grafts and flaps, release of burn contractures, congenital deformities such as syndactyly, and a wide variety of other procedures to decrease disability and improve appearance and function.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1443213',
'title': 'Rhytidectomy',
'section': 'Section::::Complications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 49,
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'passage_text': 'The most common complication is bleeding which usually requires a return to the operating room. Less common, but potentially serious, complications may include damage to the facial nerves and necrosis of the skin flaps or infection. Although the facial plastic surgeon attempts to prevent and minimise the risk of complications, a rhytidectomy can have complications. As a risk to every operation, complications can be derived as a reaction to the anesthetics.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '581931',
'title': 'Cholecystectomy',
'section': 'Section::::Risks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'end_character': 337,
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'passage_text': 'All surgery carries risk of serious complications including damage to nearby structures, bleeding, infection, or even death. The operative death rate in cholecystectomy is about 0.1% in people under age 50 and about 0.5% in people over age 50. The greatest risk of death comes from co-existing illness like cardiac or pulmonary disease.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42048',
'title': 'Plastic surgery',
'section': 'Section::::Reconstructive surgery.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
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'passage_text': 'Reconstructive plastic surgery is performed to correct functional impairments caused by burns; traumatic injuries, such as facial bone fractures and breaks; congenital abnormalities, such as cleft palates or cleft lips; developmental abnormalities; infection and disease; and cancer or tumors. Reconstructive plastic surgery is usually performed to improve function, but it may be done to approximate a normal appearance.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do people die from too much plastic surgery?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["There's risks involved with any surgery, especially when anesthesia is involved. Things can go wrong - the person's heart stops, doctor makes a mistake, person gets an infection, etc. The odds of this for cosmetic surgery are low but if you keep going under the knife you're taking that chance each time and one day may get unlucky.",
"Surgery carries inherent risks of infection and anesthesia mistakes. These are greater for longer and more invasive procedures, but also present for seemingly minor operations.\n\nThose risks are magnified when you're getting budget surgery done in a van in Guatemala because no reputable surgeon would agree to mutilate you for $500.\n\nAnd of course, people who undergo dozens of superfluous operations because they hate themselves tend to have other substance abuse issues."],
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'query_id': '9bt0rm',
'query': 'how do people die from too much plastic surgery?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1413965',
'title': 'Energy transformation',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Energy transformation, also known as energy conversion, is the process of changing energy from one form to another. In physics, energy is a quantity that provides the capacity to perform work (e.g. lifting an object) or provides heat. In addition to being convertible, according to the law of conservation of energy, energy is transferable to a different location or object, but it cannot be created or destroyed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '244629',
'title': 'Scientific law',
'section': 'Section::::Laws of chemistry.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 116,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Transforming one structure to another requires the input of energy to cross an energy barrier; this can come from the intrinsic energy of the molecules themselves, or from an external source which will generally accelerate transformations. The higher the energy barrier, the slower the transformation occurs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3680464',
'title': 'Chemical law',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Transforming one structure to another requires the input of energy to cross an energy barrier; this can come from the intrinsic energy of the molecules themselves, or from an external source which will generally accelerate transformations. The higher the energy barrier, the slower the transformation occurs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17632964',
'title': 'UltraBattery',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Grid Services.:Smoothing & Shifting.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 55,
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'passage_text': "Shifting energy refers to UltraBattery's ability to store the excess energy produced by renewable resources in off-peak times, and to then release it when needed during periods of peak demand. This allows electricity utilities to improve their overall system performance at peak times.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12363573',
'title': 'Diffusionless transformation',
'section': 'Section::::Classification and definitions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'Phase transformations normally result in the creation of an interface between the transformed and parent material. The energy required to generate this new interface will depend on its nature - essentially how well the two structures fit together. An additional energy term occurs if the transformation includes a shape change since, if the new phase is constrained by the surrounding material, this may give rise to elastic or plastic deformation and hence a strain energy term. The ratio of these interfacial and strain energy terms has a notable effect on the kinetics of the transformation and the morphology of the new phase. Thus, shuffle transformations, where distortions are small, are dominated by interfacial energies and can be usefully separated from lattice-distortive transformations where the strain energy tends to have a greater effect.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13480124',
'title': 'Spinodal decomposition',
'section': 'Section::::Dynamics in k-space.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 115,
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'passage_text': 'In the spinodal region of the phase diagram, the free-energy can be lowered by allowing the components to separate, thus increasing the relative concentration of a component material in a particular region of the material. The concentration will continue to increase until the material reaches the stable part of the phase diagram. Very large regions of material will change their concentration slowly due to the amount of material which must be moved. Very small regions will shrink away due to the energy cost in maintaining an interface between two dissimilar component materials.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30934088',
'title': 'Permeable reactive barrier',
'section': 'Section::::Reactive processes.:Transformation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'Transformation involves taking the contaminant and transforming it to a less harmful or non-toxic form. One of the chief benefits of transformation is that it does not necessarily require removal of the reactive medium (unless the reactive medium must be replaced due to decreased effectiveness or clogging occurs). Transformation most commonly takes the form of an irreversible redox reaction. The medium may directly supply electrons for reduction or stimulate microorganisms to facilitate electron transfer.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Energy changes and transforms, but doesn't disappear.",
'selftext': 'I understand what that means, but I\'ve been thinking about it. Imagine I\'m sawing a log. The energy I got through food transfers to the hand saw, which in turn saws the log. I\'m OK thus far, but what happens with that energy after that? Theoretically there\'s a finite amount of energy in the universe, so where does that energy goes after sawing the log? How does it go back the the "energy pool"?',
'category': 'Physics',
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'answers': ['The saw and the log both heat up, so the chemically energy from your body is turned into thermal energy in the log and saw. Also, the sawing makes a sound, so some energy is lost to sound. \n\nEdit:\nI also want to talk about the “energy pool” idea. Certain energy transformations are basically non-recoverable. A good example (for the most part) is the heating of the saw and log. It’s very difficult to recover that energy in a usable form. There will always be some amount of energy that is no longer usable. This is embedded in the idea of entropy always increasing. \n\nEntropy in this case (this is my preferred method of talking about entropy) is basically the ratio between total energy and usable energy. Since there’s always energy that is made unusable in a system, this ratio has a tendency to increase (usable energy goes down and total energy is constant, so that fraction gets larger). This is the 2nd law of thermodynamics. ',
'Almost always if you\'re asking "where did the energy go" the answer is "heat".\n\nYour body converts chemical energy into kinetic (plus heat) which transfers from your body to the saw. Most of that energy gets turned into heat through friction between the saw and the wood.\n\nIf you think about the effort it takes to use a saw, most of that effort is the saw *rubbing* against the wood. What happens when you rub something? It generates heat! And you can feel this if you touch the blade of a saw after using it - it\'ll be hot.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '8pecp2',
'query': "energy changes and transforms, but doesn't disappear.",
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '422481',
'title': 'Mass–energy equivalence',
'section': 'Section::::Efficiency.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 78,
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'passage_text': 'Although mass cannot be converted to energy, in some reactions matter particles (which contain a form of rest energy) can be destroyed and the energy released can be converted to other types of energy that are more usable and obvious as forms of energy—such as light and energy of motion (heat, etc.). However, the total amount of energy and mass does not change in such a transformation. Even when particles are not destroyed, a certain fraction of the ill-defined "matter" in ordinary objects can be destroyed, and its associated energy liberated and made available as the more dramatic energies of light and heat, even though no identifiable real particles are destroyed, and even though (again) the total energy is unchanged (as also the total mass). Such conversions between types of energy (resting to active energy) happen in nuclear weapons, in which the protons and neutrons in atomic nuclei lose a small fraction of their average mass, but this mass loss is not due to the destruction of any protons or neutrons (or even, in general, lighter particles like electrons). Also the mass is not destroyed, but simply removed from the system in the form of heat and light from the reaction.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '491022',
'title': 'Mass in special relativity',
'section': 'Section::::Conservation versus invariance of mass in special relativity.:The system invariant mass vs. the individual rest masses of parts of the system.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 53,
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'passage_text': 'In special relativity, mass is not "converted" to energy, for all types of energy still retain their associated mass. Neither energy nor invariant mass can be destroyed in special relativity, and each is separately conserved over time in closed systems. Thus, a system\'s invariant mass may change "only" because invariant mass is allowed to escape, perhaps as light or heat. Thus, when reactions (whether chemical or nuclear) release energy in the form of heat and light, if the heat and light is "not" allowed to escape (the system is closed and isolated), the energy will continue to contribute to the system rest mass, and the system mass will not change. Only if the energy is released to the environment will the mass be lost; this is because the associated mass has been allowed out of the system, where it contributes to the mass of the surroundings.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '145040',
'title': 'Conservation of mass',
'section': 'Section::::Generalization.:Special relativity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
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'passage_text': 'In special relativity, the conservation of mass does not apply if the system is open and energy escapes. However, it does continue to apply to totally closed (isolated) systems. If energy cannot escape a system, its mass cannot decrease. In relativity theory, so long as any type of energy is retained within a system, this energy exhibits mass.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '422481',
'title': 'Mass–energy equivalence',
'section': 'Section::::Meanings of the strict formula.:Binding energy and the "mass defect".\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
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'passage_text': 'Whenever any type of energy is removed from a system, the mass associated with the energy is also removed, and the system therefore loses mass. This mass defect in the system may be simply calculated as , and this was the form of the equation historically first presented by Einstein in 1905. However, use of this formula in such circumstances has led to the false idea that mass has been "converted" to energy. This may be particularly the case when the energy (and mass) removed from the system is associated with the "binding energy" of the system. In such cases, the binding energy is observed as a "mass defect" or deficit in the new system.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28758',
'title': 'Spacetime',
'section': 'Section::::Basic mathematics of spacetime.:Conservation laws.:Total momentum.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 194,
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'passage_text': 'Looking at the events of this scenario in reverse sequence, we see that non-conservation of mass is a common occurrence: when an unstable elementary particle spontaneously decays into two lighter particles, total energy is conserved, but the mass is not. Part of the mass is converted into kinetic energy.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9649',
'title': 'Energy',
'section': 'Section::::Transformation.:Conservation of energy and mass in transformation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 59,
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'passage_text': 'Part of the rest energy (equivalent to rest mass) of matter may be converted to other forms of energy (still exhibiting mass), but neither energy nor mass can be destroyed; rather, both remain constant during any process. However, since formula_13 is extremely large relative to ordinary human scales, the conversion of an everyday amount of rest mass (for example, 1\xa0kg) from rest energy to other forms of energy (such as kinetic energy, thermal energy, or the radiant energy carried by light and other radiation) can liberate tremendous amounts of energy (~formula_14 joules = 21 megatons of TNT), as can be seen in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. Conversely, the mass equivalent of an everyday amount energy is minuscule, which is why a loss of energy (loss of mass) from most systems is difficult to measure on a weighing scale, unless the energy loss is very large. Examples of large transformations between rest energy (of matter) and other forms of energy (e.g., kinetic energy into particles with rest mass) are found in nuclear physics and particle physics.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '422481',
'title': 'Mass–energy equivalence',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Einstein: mass–energy equivalence.:Alternative version.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 144,
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'passage_text': "So the change in the object's mass is equal to the total energy lost divided by . Since any emission of energy can be carried out by a two step process, where first the energy is emitted as light and then the light is converted to some other form of energy, any emission of energy is accompanied by a loss of mass. Similarly, by considering absorption, a gain in energy is accompanied by a gain in mass.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What exactly gets lost when mass gets converted into energy?',
'selftext': 'For example, if hydrogen is fused into helium, the end mass is less than the starting mass. Is something in the protons and neutrons converted into energy while still conserving the characteristics of protons and neutrons? And can you split the helium back to hydrogen and perform the same fusion again?',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Nothing gets lost; the law of conservation of energy tells us that. Mass and energy are really just two forms of the same thing. Nothing gets lost from the fusion of hydrogen into helium, the difference in mass is just converted to Energy. And yes you *can* fission helium back into hydrogen but it requires a large input of energy. Lighter elements from hydrogen up to iron create energy from fusion but need energy to fission. For elements after iron, this is reversed.',
"Nothing gets 'lost' per se, that mass represents the energy (and some other stuff) that was originally bound up in the Hydrogen atoms. Helium atoms use less energy to keep everything together than two Hydrogen atoms, so some of that energy gets ejected from the newly minted helium atom. And that's how our sun shines. That little bit of mass that gets transferred into energy, times a very large number, per second.\n\nBonus: [Why does the Sun Shine](_URL_0_)",
'In short: there is energy stored in the interaction between protons and neutrons. When you split them you are changing the state they are in through quantum processes, and the end product is usually the proton, neutron and some radiation. The energy comes from the force that keeps them together (the color force), which you can think of like a spring that stores more energy as you stretch it. Nothing is really lost, but it just changes into other things.',
'Others have already very well answered where the energy comes from, but I see you also asked about splitting it. In theory, one could, but that reaction would require the same amount of energy that the fusion produced, so there would be no gain. In fact, as our energy efficiency is less than 100%, there would be a net loss.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '7ns0mf',
'query': 'what exactly gets lost when mass gets converted into energy?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '10006',
'title': 'Electronic musical instrument',
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'passage_text': 'An electronic musical instrument is a musical instrument that produces sound using electronic circuitry. Such an instrument sounds by outputting an electrical, electronic or digital audio signal that ultimately is plugged into a power amplifier which drives a loudspeaker, creating the sound heard by the performer and listener.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1188021',
'title': 'Electric instrument',
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'passage_text': 'An electric musical instrument is one in which the use of electric devices determines or affects the sound produced by an instrument. Electric musical instruments are an example of electric music technology. It is also known as an amplified musical instrument due to the common utilization of an electronic instrument amplifier to project the intended sound as determined by electric signals from the instrument. Two common types of instrument amplifiers are the guitar amplifier and the bass amplifier. This is not the same as an electronic musical instrument, like a synthesizer, which uses entirely electronic means to both create and control sound. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10657439',
'title': 'Transformer types',
'section': 'Section::::Instrument transformer.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Instrument transformers are typically used to operate instruments from high voltage lines or high current circuits, safely isolating measurement and control circuitry from the high voltages or currents. The primary winding of the transformer is connected to the high voltage or high current circuit, and the meter or relay is connected to the secondary circuit. Instrument transformers may also be used as an isolation transformer so that secondary quantities may be used without affecting the primary circuitry.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37071359',
'title': 'Instrument transformer',
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'passage_text': 'Instrument transformers are high accuracy class electrical devices used to isolate or transform voltage or current levels. The most common usage of instrument transformers is to operate instruments or metering from high voltage or high current circuits, safely isolating secondary control circuitry from the high voltages or currents. The primary winding of the transformer is connected to the high voltage or high current circuit, and the meter or relay is connected to the secondary circuit.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32549',
'title': 'Voltage',
'section': 'Section::::Measuring instruments.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 39,
'end_character': 583,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Instruments for measuring voltages include the voltmeter, the potentiometer, and the oscilloscope. Analog voltmeters, such as moving-coil instruments, work by measuring the current through a fixed resistor, which, according to Ohm's Law, is proportional to the voltage across the resistor. The potentiometer works by balancing the unknown voltage against a known voltage in a bridge circuit. The cathode-ray oscilloscope works by amplifying the voltage and using it to deflect an electron beam from a straight path, so that the deflection of the beam is proportional to the voltage.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10791746',
'title': 'Synthesizer',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Early electric instruments.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 803,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'One of the earliest electric musical instruments, the "Musical Telegraph", was invented in 1876 by American electrical engineer Elisha Gray. He accidentally discovered the sound generation from a self-vibrating electromechanical circuit, and invented a basic single-note oscillator. This instrument used steel reeds with oscillations created by electromagnets transmitted over a telegraph line. Gray also built a simple loudspeaker device into later models, consisting of a vibrating diaphragm in a magnetic field, to make the oscillator audible. This instrument was a remote electromechanical musical instrument that used telegraphy and electric buzzers that generated fixed timbre sound. Though it lacked an arbitrary sound-synthesis function, some have erroneously called it "the first synthesizer".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22994507',
'title': 'Direct electric action',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 435,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Direct electric action is one of various systems used in pipe organs to control the flow of air (wind) into the organ's pipes when the corresponding keys or pedals are depressed. In direct electric action, the valves beneath the pipes are opened directly by electro-magnet solenoids, while with electro-pneumatic action, the electro-magnet's action admits air into a pneumatic or small bellows which in turn operates the pipe's valve.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do electrical instruments work?',
'selftext': "Tempted to give my character an electrical voilin for a D & D campaign but i don't really know enough about how they work. how does it change sound, and would running a current through a voilin be enough?",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['No. Electrical musical instruments work by having magnetic pickups which output a signal based on the frequency of the vibrating metal string. This output current is then amplified and converted into sound by the amplifier.',
"When you take a string, stretch it taut, and pluck it, the string vibrates and makes noise.\n\nIn a normal stringed instrument like a guitar or piano, the same thing is happening. The shape of the surrounding instrument is then used to amplify the volume of the vibrating strings.\n\nWith an electric instrument like an electric guitar, the vibrations in metal strings are too quiet to amplify in that way. Instead, a device called a pickup is used to convert the strings' vibrations into electrical signals. These electrical signals are sent to an amplifier, which converts the signals back into a sound loud enough to be heard.\n\n",
'So, electrical instruments rely on a few principles of physics:\n\n1) sound is vibrations traveling through a medium at a certain frequency.\n\n2) higher frequency wavelengths are higher pitched sounds.\n\n3) movement of ferrous materials in a magnetic field produces an electrical current at the same frequency of the movement\n\n4) a moving electrical current produces a magnetic field that changes polarity at the same frequency of the electrical current.\n\nSo you pluck a steel string to create a sound (1) at a certain wavelength (2), which vibrates above a pickup: a coil of wire wrapped around a magnet which creates a magnetic field for the steel string to vibrate in (3); the wire then travels down the length of the pickup wires, out through an output jack, into an amplifier, where the signal gets, well, amplified, and then the electrical current goes into the speaker; the speaker is made of a coil of wire (4) and a static magnet, such that when the magnetic field oscilates, the membrane of the speaker moves and pushes air.\n\nHowever, for a D & D campaign, there is a much simpler explanation for why your violin + electricity = electric violin sounds: "A wizard did it." I had a bard with an electric guitar that had the same explanation.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8enpem',
'query': 'how do electrical instruments work?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '6410946',
'title': 'Atmosphere of Venus',
'section': 'Section::::Structure and composition.:Troposphere.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 840,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The large amount of CO in the atmosphere together with water vapour and sulfur dioxide create a strong greenhouse effect, trapping solar energy and raising the surface temperature to around 740\xa0K (467\xa0°C), hotter than any other planet in the Solar System, even that of Mercury despite being located farther out from the Sun and receiving only 25% of the solar energy (per unit area) Mercury does. The average temperature on the surface is above the melting points of lead (600\xa0K, 327\xa0°C), tin (505\xa0K, 232\xa0°C), and zinc (693\xa0K, 420\xa0°C). The thick troposphere also makes the difference in temperature between the day and night side small, even though the slow retrograde rotation of the planet causes a single solar day to last 116.5 Earth days. The surface of Venus spends 58.3 days in darkness before the sun rises again behind the clouds.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11346753',
'title': 'Extraterrestrial atmosphere',
'section': 'Section::::Planets.:Inner planets.:Venus.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 260,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "The air pressure at Venus' surface is about 92 times that of the Earth. The enormous amount of CO in the atmosphere creates a strong greenhouse effect, raising the surface temperature to around 470\xa0°C, hotter than that of any other planet in the Solar System.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4462942',
'title': 'Worlds in Collision',
'section': 'Section::::Critical reaction.:Carl Sagan.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 1093,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In his 1979 science book "", astronomer Carl Sagan wrote that the high surface temperature of Venus was known prior to Velikovsky, and that Velikovsky misunderstood the mechanism for this heat. Velikovsky believed that Venus was heated by its close encounter with the Earth and Mars. He also did not understand the greenhouse effect caused by Venus\' atmosphere, which had earlier been elucidated by astronomer Rupert Wildt. Ultimately, Venus is hot due to its proximity to the Sun; it does not emit more heat than it receives from the Sun, and any heat produced by its celestial movements would have long since dissipated. Sagan concludes: "(1) the temperature in question was never specified [by Velikovsky]; (2) the mechanism proposed for providing this temperature is grossly inadequate; (3) the surface of the planet does not cool off with time as advertised; and (4) the idea of a high surface temperature on Venus was published in the dominant astronomical journal of its time and with an essentially correct argument ten years before the publication of "Worlds in Collision"" (p.\xa0118).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '890916',
'title': 'James Hansen',
'section': 'Section::::Research and publications.:Studies of Venus.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 687,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "In the late 1960s and early 1970s, following his Ph.D. dissertation, Hansen published several papers on the planet Venus. Venus has a high brightness temperature in the radio frequencies compared to the infrared. He proposed that the hot surface was the result of aerosols trapping the internal energy of the planet. More recent studies have suggested that several billion years ago, Venus's atmosphere was much more like Earth's than it is now and that there were probably substantial quantities of liquid water on the surface, but a runaway greenhouse effect was caused by the evaporation of that original water, which generated a critical level of greenhouse gases in its atmosphere.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9125179',
'title': 'Exploration of Mercury',
'section': 'Section::::Interest in Mercury.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 544,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Mercury has not been a primary focus of many space programs. Because the planet is so close to the Sun and spins on its own axis very slowly, its surface temperature varies from to . The current interest in Mercury is derived from the unexpected observations of "Mariner 10". Before "Mariner 10", astronomers thought that the planet simply revolved around the Sun in a highly elliptical orbit. The planet had been observed through ground-based telescopes, and "Mariner 10" provided data that clarified or contradicted many of their inferences.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19694',
'title': 'Mercury (planet)',
'section': 'Section::::Physical characteristics.:Surface conditions and exosphere.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 41,
'end_character': 1337,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Mercury is too small and hot for its gravity to retain any significant atmosphere over long periods of time; it does have a tenuous surface-bounded exosphere containing hydrogen, helium, oxygen, sodium, calcium, potassium and others at a surface pressure of less than approximately 0.5\xa0nPa (0.005 picobars). This exosphere is not stable—atoms are continuously lost and replenished from a variety of sources. Hydrogen atoms and helium atoms probably come from the solar wind, diffusing into Mercury\'s magnetosphere before later escaping back into space. Radioactive decay of elements within Mercury\'s crust is another source of helium, as well as sodium and potassium. "MESSENGER" found high proportions of calcium, helium, hydroxide, magnesium, oxygen, potassium, silicon and sodium. Water vapor is present, released by a combination of processes such as: comets striking its surface, sputtering creating water out of hydrogen from the solar wind and oxygen from rock, and sublimation from reservoirs of water ice in the permanently shadowed polar craters. The detection of high amounts of water-related ions like O, OH, and HO was a surprise. Because of the quantities of these ions that were detected in Mercury\'s space environment, scientists surmise that these molecules were blasted from the surface or exosphere by the solar wind.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4709501',
'title': 'Space weathering',
'section': 'Section::::Space weathering on Mercury.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 825,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The environment at Mercury also differs substantially from the Moon. For one thing, it is significantly hotter in the day (diurnal surface temperature ~100\xa0°C for the Moon, ~425\xa0°C on Mercury) and colder at night, which may alter the products of space weathering. In addition, because of its location in the Solar System, Mercury is also subjected to a slightly larger flux of micrometeorites that impact at much higher velocities than the Moon. These factors combine to make Mercury much more efficient than the Moon at creating both melt and vapor. Per unit area, impacts on Mercury are expected to produce 13.5x the melt and 19.5x the vapor than is produced on the Moon. Agglutinitic glass-like deposits and vapor-deposited coatings should be created significantly faster and more efficiently on Mercury than on the Moon.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'On some websites it says that Venus is hotter than Mercury because it has an atmosphere, however where does that heat energy transfer to if space is a vacuum?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Planets can also emit excess heat through *radiation,* typically by emitting infrared light.',
"There are two sources for heat on Venus. The first is the planet's interior. When the rocky inner planets formed, they were giant spheres of molten rock, and have been cooling ever since. The second is the sun. Photons from the sun carry energy. These photons penetrate the vesuvian atmosphere, and as they strike things on the planet's surface, they're converted to heat. This heat is radiated back up into the atmosphere, but because it is filled with carbon dioxide, the heat is absorbed before it can make its way out of the atmosphere. This trapped heat stays within the atmosphere, building up and raising temperature on the planet. This is the greenhouse effect. Mercury lacks an atmosphere, or at least anything with any substantial amount of greenhouse gases, so heat energy is radiated away quickly."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'c3dli0',
'query': 'on some websites it says that venus is hotter than mercury because it has an atmosphere, however where does that heat energy transfer to if space is a vacuum?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '18938226',
'title': 'Digital rights management',
'section': 'Section::::Opposition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 89,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 89,
'end_character': 791,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'At the 2012 Game Developers Conference, the CEO of CD Projekt Red, Marcin Iwinski, announced that the company will not use DRM in any of its future releases. Iwinski stated of DRM, "it\'s just over-complicating things. We release the game. It\'s cracked in two hours, it was no time for "". What really surprised me is that the pirates didn\'t use the GOG version, which was not protected. They took the SecuROM retail version, cracked it and said \'we cracked it\' – meanwhile there\'s a non-secure version with a simultaneous release. You\'d think the GOG version would be the one floating around." Iwinski added after the presentation, "DRM does not protect your game. If there are examples that it does, then people maybe should consider it, but then there are complications with legit users."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18248185',
'title': 'Spore (2008 video game)',
'section': 'Section::::Reception.:DRM controversy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 64,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 64,
'end_character': 240,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The DRM was also one of the major reasons why Spore is still one of the most pirated games to date, where within the first week of the game, over 500,000 people started downloading or downloaded it illegally from sites like The Pirate Bay.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18938226',
'title': 'Digital rights management',
'section': 'Section::::Shortcomings.:Economic implication.:Lost benefits from massive market share.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 136,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 136,
'end_character': 525,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Jeff Raikes, ex-president of the Microsoft Business Division, stated: "If they\'re going to pirate somebody, we want it to be us rather than somebody else". An analogous argument was made in an early paper by Kathleen Conner and Richard Rummelt. A subsequent study of digital rights management for e-books by Gal Oestreicher-Singer and Arun Sundararajan showed that relaxing some forms of DRM can be beneficial to digital rights holders because the losses from piracy are outweighed by the increases in value to legal buyers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38721817',
'title': 'Always-on DRM',
'section': 'Section::::Usage and criticism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 447,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A major disadvantage of always-on DRM is that whenever the DRM authentication server goes down or a region experiences an Internet outage, it effectively locks out people from playing the game, hence the criticism. Another major disadvantage is that when the servers for the game are shut down, the game is rendered completely unplayable without illegal DRM circumvention, such as in the case of Darkspore and the Mac edition of "The Settlers 7".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27311422',
'title': 'Humble Bundle',
'section': 'Section::::Analysis.:Piracy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 41,
'end_character': 1307,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Despite the ability to get the games at nearly zero cost, Wolfire Games estimate that 25% of the traceable downloads for the first Bundle have come from software piracy by links provided in some forums that bypass the payment screen to access the games; Wolfire further surmises additional piracy occurred through BitTorrent-type peer-to-peer sharing services. Rosen noted they purposely removed much of the DRM associated with games to appeal to those who would otherwise engage in software piracy, through both having the games ship without DRM and by having only limited copy protection on their website. Rosen also stated that for about ten users that emailed Wolfire about being unable to pay for the software, he personally donated on their behalf. Rosen comments that there may be legitimate reasons for those who appear to be pirating the game, including the inability to use the payment methods provided or that they had made a single large donation for multiple copies. Rosen also considered that there are players that would simply forward the download links to "take pleasure in spreading the pirated links to their friends or anonymous buddies for fun". Wolfire Games did take action to stop predatory sites, such as the closely named "wollfire.com", from selling illegal copies of the bundle.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18938226',
'title': 'Digital rights management',
'section': 'Section::::Shortcomings.:Economic implication.:Push away legitimate customer.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 141,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 141,
'end_character': 896,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The mathematical models are strictly applied to the music industry (music CDs, downloadable music). These models could be extended to the other industries such as the gaming industry which show similarities to the music industry model. There are real instances when DRM restrain consumers in the gaming industry. Some DRM games are required to connect to the Internet in order to play them. Good Old Games\' head of public relations and marketing, Trevor Longino, in agreement with this, believes that using DRM is less effective than improving a game\'s value in reducing video game infringement. However, TorrentFreak published a "Top 10 pirated games of 2008" list which shows that intrusive DRM is not the main reason why some games are copied more heavily than others. Popular games such as BioShock, Crysis Warhead, and Mass Effect which use intrusive DRM are strangely absent from the list.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12788829',
'title': 'YoYo Games',
'section': 'Section::::Digital rights management.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 569,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In late 2012/early 2013, YoYo Games released a version of their Studio IDE for cross-platform development that would import games and destroy all of the image type resources for some legitimate purchasers of the software by superimposing a pirate symbol on top of the image. This was due to a fault in their Digital Rights Management software implementation which they use as a method of combating infringing copies of the software. YoYoGames publicly stated they would remove the DRM at a later point in time, but that other less-invasive DRM techniques would remain.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'DRM and how it actually stops pirates instead of just making it more difficult for me to play my movies on my many devices, etc...',
'selftext': "DRM has been around the block, and eventually removed from music in pretty much every market place, but only increased in invasiveness with movies. Despite this, pirates can circumvent enough DRM schemes that pirated movies are common. Are there quantifiable ways in which it's deceased movie piracy, or is the inconvenience just on me as a purchaser?",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["DRM on movies *is* dumb.\n\nWorst case, people can just record their screen while watching a movie legally.\n\nBest case, people just remove it.\n\nIt's only an inconvenience for the legal buyer. Same goes for games (aside from Denuvo, which hasn't been cracked yet and actually has stopped piracy, but it'll be cracked at some point, which even the Denuvo devs admit).\n\nEDIT: I'd like to add there was no big increase in legal sales for Denuvo games.",
'Usually, DRM is not added with the expectation that it will never be broken. It is more commonly used as deterrent to make people less likely to bother getting around it. It increases the level of effort required to get it illegally, and the idea is that it\'ll increase the effort enough for a significant percentage of potential customers to just buy it instead.\n\nIt is also intended to increase the time between the release of a work, and when it\'s available illegally. This is often the case for games. The developers know the protection will eventually be broken, but games are the most valuable when they\'re new, so the longer it takes until the DRM is broken, the more people will just give up waiting for a "crack" and buy it instead. Eventually, the price of the game decreases by a lot, and a significant portion of those who are willing to pay for games have already bought the game. At this point, it doesn\'t matter too much for the developer that the DRM has been broken, as the people pirating it at this point are often people who would never have bought the game anyway.\n\nSome developers have said that having a game that\'s not possible to pirate for just the first two weeks after release makes a very big difference. The DRM doesn\'t have to be very long lived for it to be worth the cost of licensing it. Game developers have a business to run, after all. If the cost of DRM leads to a net loss of money compared to not using it, I don\'t think they would bother.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5qoepv',
'query': 'drm and how it actually stops pirates instead of just making it more difficult for me to play my movies on my many devices, etc...',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2600559',
'title': 'Hurricane Katrina disaster relief',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 463,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Governments of many countries have offered help to the U.S. for disaster relief, including the governments of Canada, France, United Kingdom, Germany and Mexico, with Canada even offering to accept Katrina evacuees. In addition to asking for federal funds, President Bush has enlisted the help of former presidents Bill Clinton and George H.W. Bush to raise additional voluntary contributions, much as they did after the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55075194',
'title': 'Human response to disasters',
'section': 'Section::::Assistance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 445,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'People believe the population impacted by a disaster are unable to do anything about their situation so are standing by just waiting for the saviors from afar to swoop in with the solution to all of their suffering. Not only that, relief organizations often think the aid must be provided immediately. This myth is especially pervasive when the disaster strikes a third-world country and it is a “superior” western country coming to the rescue.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '51312557',
'title': '2016 Louisiana floods',
'section': 'Section::::Aftermath.:Economic impact.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 30,
'end_character': 278,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Because of the large number of homeowners without flood insurance that were affected, the federal government is providing disaster aid through the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). The flood has been called the worst US natural disaster since Hurricane Sandy in 2012.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20566070',
'title': 'Gulf Coast Civic Works Act',
'section': 'Section::::Public Supporters.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
'end_character': 579,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': '"The areas ravaged by Hurricane Katrina must be a priority for all Americans—in Congress and throughout the United States. It is our moral obligation to acknowledge that there have always been two America’s here in the United States; and Hurricanes Katrina and Rita lifted the curtain on the connection of race and poverty... I am personally vested in eradicating the poverty across this country-particularly in the Gulf Coast and support increasing funding and job opportunities for our brothers and sisters trying to rebuild their lives."—Congresswoman Barbara Lee, California\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55075194',
'title': 'Human response to disasters',
'section': 'Section::::Assistance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 1007,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Because of this myth, more supplies are often sent than the disaster area typically needs. In addition to excess quantity, much of the supplies end up being of little to no use. Relief organizations often do not wait for an assessment of the disaster area and an identification of needs which can be provided by local officials or performed by themselves. As a consequence, money is often wasted on sending unneeded teams of experts or supplies when local authorities and victims would benefit more if that same money was allocated towards providing resources that filled gaps and complemented their efforts. Donors compound the issue by donating used clothing, household items, and the like. With too many supplies on-hand or in possession of supplies they cannot use, local officials are forced to waste manpower and resources on disposing of them. Instead of providing unwanted and unrequested goods, organizations and donors should send money which can be more easily applied to fulfilling local needs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55075194',
'title': 'Human response to disasters',
'section': 'Section::::Perpetuation of myths.:By organizations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 43,
'end_character': 586,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Although the inability to cope by a disaster-site's community and people is a myth, it continues to be believed. One reason is the justification relief agencies give while promoting the assistance they provide. They feel they are needed because they believe facilities such as hospitals, police and fire departments, and other local first responders do not have the capacity to meet the sheer demand from a disaster. And if their efforts do not go as planned, they often point to survivors’ irrationality rather than reassess the assumptions on which they developed their relief plans.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41220841',
'title': 'BAPS Charities',
'section': 'Section::::Activities.:Disaster relief.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 1324,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In North America, it helped in the relief efforts in the aftermath of the 1992 Los Angeles riots and the 1994 Los Angeles earthquake. After the September 11 attacks in New York City, it conducted blood donation drives, provided counseling to affected individuals, and provided financial assistance for victims’ families, and organized prayer assemblies across the world. Following the 2001 El Salvador earthquakes, it sent $3.3 million worth of medicines and supplies to assist in the relief efforts. After Hurricane Katrina struck the Gulf Coast of the United States, its volunteer teams supplied hot food, water, emergency supplies, and relocation aid for victims. The organization carried out similar relief activities in the aftermath of Hurricane Ike in 2008. Recently, the organization partnered with UNICEF to provide medicine, clean water, and temporary housing for children affected by the 2010 Haiti earthquake. Following the 2011 outbreak of tornadoes in the Southeastern US, they took action to provide hot meals, drinking water and shelter to the over 2,500 affected people at four relief centers and the organization responded similarly after the 2013 tornadoes in Oklahoma. After the 2011 Japan earthquake and tsunami, they provided supplies and transportation to aid in the relief efforts in affected areas.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why are Americans needing to crowdfund disaster relief efforts whenever they occur (Katrina, Sandy, Harvey)? Does the US really not have money aside for such things?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It is there, it's just not quite as large as it needs to be, and many times the fund is kind of a, here is food and water and shelter you're Good, they ask for money to rebuild their home and lives not just survive in a tent",
'America does have disaster relief funds. They cover life saving basics. But yeah, the US has a venomous hatred of social safety nets and lack a ton of services other countries have. \n\nIf you are hurt during a disaster you will get free treatment to stop you from bleeding and get you safe, but after that you pay your own. If you lose a house there is usually some disaster relief but the cost of it is mostly private insurance, if you lived in an apartment you are largely just on your own. etc. ',
"Yeah, it is ridiculous.\n\nIt also becomes a lot less efficient since the tasks are distributed across so many entities. We have oversupply of some aid, massive undersupply on other things, and huge gaps that aren't being addressed by anyone.\n\nAlso note that if you go to many charities, f.ex the Red Cross Harvey site, there is one heck of a lot of information about how you can donate or volunteer, but exceedingly little information (if any) about how you can get help. \n\nI don't know how much of the donated aid will actually come to those affected. The general consensus here in Houston seems to be:\n\n- Harris County / Mayor Turner have done an amazing job\n- Gov Abbott has done a super job of being clear and specific about what Texas needs\n- The biggest heroes are ordinary citizens who are mostly rolling up their sleeves, pushing out the boats, responding to requests for help in oh so many ways.\n- The schools, small churches, mosques have gone out of their way to help people (the mega-churches less so).\n- The small and local charities have really been amazing.",
"I have a feeling that much of that relief effort is based on reducing the feelings of impotence that those of us witnessing the events associated with Harvey from afar feel. I know that I sleep better knowing that the $50 I donated is helping those affected by the storm...even though it's clearly only a drop in the bucket. Additionally, while taxpayers usually end up paying for the majority this stuff via appropriation bills in the long run, there's little immediate response set up beyond the very basics to ensure survival - so the things that maintain the cultural standard of living that the victims are used to are often not immediately forthcoming short of crowdfunding sources."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6xdyo1',
'query': 'why are americans needing to crowdfund disaster relief efforts whenever they occur (katrina, sandy, harvey)? does the us really not have money aside for such things?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '21091725',
'title': 'Insulin (medication)',
'section': 'Section::::Principles.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Since January 2006, all insulins distributed in the U.S. and some other countries are synthetic "human" insulins or their analogues. A special FDA importation process is required to obtain bovine or porcine derived insulin for use in the U.S., although there may be some remaining stocks of porcine insulin made by Lilly in 2005 or earlier, and porcine insulin is also sold and marketed under the brand name Vetsulin(SM) in the U.S. for veterinary usage in the treatment of companion animals with diabetes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11154449',
'title': 'Insulin detemir',
'section': 'Section::::Society and culture.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 406,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'On June 13, 2009, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued a public health advisory for insulin determir after learning that 129,000 stolen vials reappeared and were being sold in the U.S. market. The FDA warned that the stolen vials "may not have been stored and handled properly and may be dangerous for patients to use." The stolen vials were identified as lots XZF0036, XZF0037, and XZF0038.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2966520',
'title': 'Diabetes management',
'section': 'Section::::Lifestyle modification.:Insulin.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 72,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 72,
'end_character': 350,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Several companies are currently working to develop a non-invasive version of insulin, so that injections can be avoided. Mannkind has developed an inhalable version, while companies like Novo Nordisk, Oramed and BioLingus have efforts undergoing for an oral product. Also oral combination products of insulin and a GLP-1 agonist are being developed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21091725',
'title': 'Insulin (medication)',
'section': 'Section::::Principles.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'Initially, the only way to obtain insulin for clinical use was to extract it from the pancreas of another creature. Animal glands were obtainable as a waste product of the meatpacking industry. Insulin was derived primarily from cows (Eli Lilly and Company) and pigs (Nordisk Insulinlaboratorium). The making of eight ounces of purified insulin could require as much as two tons of pig parts.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21091725',
'title': 'Insulin (medication)',
'section': 'Section::::Principles.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'According to a survey that the International Diabetes Federation conducted in 2002 on the access to and availability of insulin in its member countries, approximately 70% of the insulin that is currently sold in the world is recombinant, biosynthetic \'human\' insulin. A majority of insulin used clinically today is produced this way, although clinical experience has provided conflicting evidence on whether these insulins are any less likely to produce an allergic reaction. Adverse reactions have been reported; these include loss of warning signs that sufferers may slip into a coma through hypoglycemia, convulsions, memory lapse and loss of concentration. However, the International Diabetes Federation\'s position statement is very clear in stating that "there is NO overwhelming evidence to prefer one species of insulin over another" and "[modern, highly purified] animal insulins remain a perfectly acceptable alternative."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '51562646',
'title': 'Scott Gottlieb',
'section': 'Section::::Career.:FDA commissioner (2017–2019).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 354,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Gottlieb advanced initiatives on addressing drug pricing "in ways that the agency hasn\'t done before." In December 2018 Gottlieb announced a plan to transition the biologicals currently regulated as drugs, including insulin, to be regulated under the Public Health Services Act as a way to open up these drugs to competition from lower cost biosimilars.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21091725',
'title': 'Insulin (medication)',
'section': 'Section::::Research.:Inhalation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 150,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 150,
'end_character': 203,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In 2006 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved the use of Exubera, the first inhalable insulin. It was withdrawn from the market by its maker as of third quarter 2007, due to lack of acceptance.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why aren’t there drug dealers for insulin?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Insulin is harder to produce. If I remember right it is made with engineered yeast or bacteria.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'e6c8eg',
'query': 'why aren’t there drug dealers for insulin?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '14163295',
'title': 'Environmental impact of nuclear power',
'section': 'Section::::Environmental effects of accidents and attacks.:Chernobyl disaster.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 103,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 103,
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'passage_text': 'As radioactive materials decay, they release particles that can damage the body and lead to cancer, particularly [[cesium-137]] and [[iodine-131]]. In the Chernobyl disaster, releases of cesium-137 contaminated land. Some communities, including the entire city of Pripyat, were abandoned permanently. One news source reported that thousands of people who drank milk contaminated with radioactive iodine developed thyroid cancer. The exclusion zone (approx. 30\xa0km radius around Chernobyl) may have significantly elevated levels of radiation, which is now predominantly due to the decay of [[cesium-137]], for around 10 half-lives of that isotope, which is approximately for 300 years.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '51145061',
'title': 'Workplace respirator testing',
'section': 'Section::::Published research on the effectiveness of respirators, carried out in the workplaces.:The use of filtering facepieces model "Lepestok" during the Chernobyl accident.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 113,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 113,
'end_character': 284,
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'passage_text': 'Liquidation of consequences of the Chernobyl accident required the reliable protection of people from radioactive aerosols. Even a small amount of radioactive substances can seriously harm human health if it enters into their bodies (because of the small distance from the tissues). \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35993194',
'title': 'Radiation-induced cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Accidental.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 680,
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'passage_text': 'The most severe nuclear accident is probably the Chernobyl disaster. In addition to conventional fatalities and acute radiation syndrome fatalities, nine children died of thyroid cancer, and it is estimated that there may be up to 4,000 excess cancer deaths among the approximately 600,000 most highly exposed people. Of the 100 million curies (4 exabecquerels) of radioactive material, the short lived radioactive isotopes such as I Chernobyl released were initially the most dangerous. Due to their short half-lives of 5 and 8 days they have now decayed, leaving the more long-lived Cs (with a half-life of 30.07 years) and Sr (with a half-life of 28.78 years) as main dangers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4155456',
'title': 'Effects of the Chernobyl disaster',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 292,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The 1986 Chernobyl disaster triggered the release of substantial amounts of radioactive contamination into the atmosphere in the form of both particulate and gaseous radioisotopes. It is one of the most significant unintentional releases of radioactivity into the environment to present day.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3192041',
'title': 'Radiophobia',
'section': 'Section::::Radiophobia and Chernobyl.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 356,
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'passage_text': 'In the former Soviet Union many patients with negligible radioactive exposure after the Chernobyl disaster displayed extreme anxiety about low level radiation exposure, and therefore developed many psychosomatic problems, with an increase in fatalistic alcoholism also being observed. As Japanese health and radiation specialist Shunichi Yamashita noted: \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10838742',
'title': 'Economics of nuclear power plants',
'section': 'Section::::Operating costs.:Safety, security and accidents.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 58,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 58,
'end_character': 746,
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'passage_text': 'According to the Paul Scherrer Institute, the Chernobyl incident is the only incident ever to have caused any fatalities. The report that UNSCEAR presented to the UN General Assembly in 2011 states that 29 plant workers and emergency responders died from effects of radiation exposure, two died from causes related to the incident but unrelated to radiation, and one died from coronary thrombosis. It attributed fifteen cases of fatal thyroid cancer to the incident. It said there is no evidence the incident caused an ongoing increase in incidence of solid tumors or blood cancers in Eastern Europe. With 46 deaths in its entire six-decade worldwide history, nuclear power remains the safest-ever way to make electricity, by a very wide margin.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4155456',
'title': 'Effects of the Chernobyl disaster',
'section': 'Section::::Controversy over human health effects.:2008 UNSCEAR report.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 118,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 118,
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'passage_text': 'The United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) produced a detailed report on the effects of Chernobyl for the General Assembly of the UN in 2011. This report concluded that 134 staff and emergency workers suffered acute radiation syndrome and of those 28 died of radiation exposure within three months. Many of the survivors suffered skin conditions and radiation induced cataracts, and 19 had since died, but from conditions not necessarily associated with radiation exposure. Of the several hundred thousand liquidators, apart from some emerging indications of increased leukaemia, there was no other evidence of health effects.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why were the the bodies of those who died of a fatal dose of radiation at the Chernobyl disaster still considered toxic and buried in Zinc lined coffins?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Radioactive fallout \n\nWhen Chernobyl exploded it not only sent out massive amounts of radiation but also massive amounts of radioactive material (fallout) which landed in the surrounding area rendering everything it touched (including human bodies) radioactive. ',
"Two things.\n\nFirst, they probably got radioactive material from the accident site all over themselves. It's not just radiation that's escaping, it's also actual physical radioactive material that can contaminate body and clothes. This what they mean by nuclear fallout. So it's not like a bullet-riddled body, but more like a gun-riddled body, and those guns still shoot occasionally.\n\nSecond, one specific kind of radiation, neutron radiation, can actually make materials it hits radioactive. Neutron radiation is produced in nuclear reactors, and although it's hard to say whether it'd be still produced after the meltdown, it depends, it's possible that they were exposed to it. Then it'd be more like bullet fragments inside a body growing into loaded guns.\n\nThose analogies were unexpectedly gross. ",
'1. Their skin was contaminated by fallout\n\n2. They may have inhaled radioactive material which will continue to decay\n\n3. Neutron bombardment can cause materials that were not previously radioactive to become radioactive.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5ywv4z',
'query': 'why were the the bodies of those who died of a fatal dose of radiation at the chernobyl disaster still considered toxic and buried in zinc lined coffins?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '40935962',
'title': 'Kepler-90',
'section': 'Section::::Stellar characteristics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 206,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "The star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 14. It is too dim to be seen with the naked eye, which typically can only see objects with a magnitude around 6 or less.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41516508',
'title': 'Kepler-90h',
'section': 'Section::::Host star.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 206,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "The star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 14. It is too dim to be seen with the naked eye, which typically can only see objects with a magnitude around 6 or less.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42518279',
'title': 'Kepler-186f',
'section': 'Section::::Characteristics.:Host star.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 210,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "The star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 14.62. This is too dim to be seen with the naked eye, which can only see objects with a magnitude up to at least 6 or lower.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '695215',
'title': 'Horizon problem',
'section': 'Section::::Background.:Astronomical distances and particle horizons.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 797,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "When one looks out into the night sky, distances also correspond to time into the past. A galaxy measured at ten billion light years in distance appears to us as it was ten billion years ago, because the light has taken that long to travel to the observer. If one were to look at a galaxy ten billion light years away in one direction and another in the opposite direction, the total distance between them is twenty billion light years. This means that the light from the first has not yet reached the second, because the approximately 13.8\xa0billion years that the universe has existed is not a long enough time to allow it to occur. In a more general sense, there are portions of the universe that are visible to us, but invisible to each other, outside each other's respective particle horizons.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '51891608',
'title': 'The Midnight Star',
'section': 'Section::::Plot.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 283,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'If you are very quiet and do not look away, you may see the brightest star in the constellation glow steadily brighter. It brightens until it overwhelms every other star in the sky, brightens until it seems to touch the ground, and then the glow is gone, and in its place is a girl.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15422624',
'title': 'Shadow bands',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 329,
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'passage_text': "Stars twinkle for the same reason. They are so far from Earth that they appear as point sources of light easily disturbed by Earth's atmospheric turbulence which acts like lenses and prisms diverting the light's path. Viewed toward the collimated light of a star, the shadows bands from atmospheric refraction pass over the eye.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2727390',
'title': 'P Cygni',
'section': 'Section::::Visibility.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 1062,
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'passage_text': "The star is located about 5,000 to 6,000 light-years (1,500–1,800 parsecs) from Earth. Despite this vast distance, it is visible to the naked eye in suitable dark sky locations. It was unknown until the end of the 16th century, when it suddenly brightened to 3rd magnitude. It was first observed on 18 August (Gregorian) 1600 by Willem Janszoon Blaeu, a Dutch astronomer, mathematician and globe-maker. Bayer's atlas of 1603 assigned it the miscellaneous label P and the name has stuck ever since. After six years the star faded slowly, dropping below naked-eye visibility in 1626. It brightened again in 1655, but had faded by 1662. Another outburst took place in 1665; this was followed by numerous fluctuations. Since 1715 P Cygni has been a fifth magnitude star, with only minor fluctuations in brightness. Today it has a magnitude of 4.8, irregularly variable by a few hundredths of a magnitude on a scale of days. The visual brightness is increasing by about 0.15 magnitude per century, attributed to a slow decrease in temperature at constant luminosity.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'When we look at stars in the sky that are light years away, are the stars there at the moment we look, or are we looking at a years-old after image?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Simply, yes - we're seeing stars after the light has travelled all the way to us. Ten light years isn't that far (space-wise) so some of the stars we see have already died. And there's lots of stars that exist that we can't see yet, because the light hasn't reached us.",
'You can think of it like smell. If someone wearing perfume walks by you, you\'ll smell it a few steps later, because that "information" takes time to reach you',
'Yes, the light you see from a star that’s 10 light years away has been traveling for 10 years. Most stars are way farther than that, so you’re correct in thinking that most of the stars we see are no longer there, if they even exist anymore lol',
'Actually the sun you see is about 8 minutes old, so if it were to magically disappear we would t know for 8 minutes... and then go careening off into the dark abyss of interstellar space',
"Yes, when you look at something, you are seeing the light that left it in the past. If that something is a distant star, then the light left years ago. If it's the Sun, it's about 8 minutes ago. \n \nAnd think about this. It's *always* true. If you are looking at an object a meter away, you are looking about 3 billionths of a second into the past (if I remember correctly). \n \nThat doesn't even count the time it takes your brain to process the input. Interestingly, sound travels much much slower than light, but it takes our brains longer to process visual input. So the images we see and the sounds we hear tend to synch up, even though we are hearing further into the past than we are seeing into the past.",
"We are looking into the past. If it is 10 light years away, then we are seeing 10 years ago. That goes for everything. Our sun is 8 minutes ago. Even the moon is 1.3 seconds ago.\n\nAnd, yes, everything in the universe is moving, so all stars are moving. So seeing that star 10 light years away, it has moved since then, though nothing we could notice without incredibly powerful telescopes.\n\n\nBut it's not just light. Everything in the universe is bound by the speed limit of casuality. Light, gravity, everything. Because of that, even though the light from a star 10 light years away is 10 years old, for us where we are viewing it, it is happening now."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'eveqy1',
'query': 'when we look at stars in the sky that are light years away, are the stars there at the moment we look, or are we looking at a years-old after image?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '13521586',
'title': 'Preserved lemon',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'end_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'Historically, pickling was an affordable and practical method of preserving lemons for use long after their season and far away from where they are grown. Early 19th-century English, American, and (in translation) Indian cookbooks give recipes for lemon pickle and mention its use in sauces for salmon, veal, etc.; dishes where today fresh lemon zest and/or juice would be used.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '292032',
'title': 'Food storage',
'section': 'Section::::Domestic food storage.:Dry storage of foods.:Vegetables.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 35,
'end_character': 231,
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'passage_text': 'Many cultures have developed innovative ways of preserving vegetables so that they can be stored for several months between harvest seasons. Techniques include pickling, home canning, food dehydration, or storage in a root cellar.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2259607',
'title': 'Pickling',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The exact origins of pickling are unknown, but it may have begun in the area of Mohenjo Daro, in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent, about 2400 B.C. Pickling was used as a way to preserve food for out-of-season use and for long journeys, especially by sea. Salt pork and salt beef were common staples for sailors before the days of steam engines. Although the process was invented to preserve foods, pickles are also made and eaten because people enjoy the resulting flavors. Pickling may also improve the nutritional value of food by introducing B vitamins produced by bacteria.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '189371',
'title': 'Lactobacillus',
'section': 'Section::::Food production.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 340,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In many traditional pickling processes, vegetables are submerged in brine, and salt-tolerant "Lactobacillus" species feed on natural sugars found in the vegetables. The resulting mix of salt and lactic acid is a hostile environment for other microbes, such as fungi, and the vegetables are thus preserved—remaining edible for long periods.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5348809',
'title': 'Cividade de Terroso',
'section': 'Section::::Culture.:Cuisine.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 59,
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'end_paragraph_id': 59,
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'passage_text': 'Pickings wild plants, fruits, seeds and roots complemented the dietary staple; they also ate and picked wild blackberries, dandelion, clovers and even kelps. Some of these vegetables are still used by the local population today. The Romans introduced the consumption of wine and olive oil.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2259607',
'title': 'Pickling',
'section': 'Section::::Popularity of pickles around the world.:Asia.:Southeast Asia.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'In the Philippines, "pickling" was traditionally done in earthen jars and is widely known as "buro" or "binuro". Pickling was a common method of preserving food throughout the archipelago before the advent of refrigeration, but its popularity is now confined to vegetables and fruits. "Achara" remains popular as the Philippine localization of the Malay "acar", and is primarily made out of green papaya, carrots, and shallots, seasoned with cloves of garlic and vinegar; but could include ginger, bell peppers, white radishes, cucumbers or bamboo shoots. Pickled unripe mangoes or "burong mangga", unripe tomatoes, guavas, jicama, bitter gourd and other fruit and vegetables still retain their appeal. Siling labuyo, sometimes with garlic and red onions, is also pickled in bottled vinegar and is a staple condiment in Filipino cuisine. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52865',
'title': 'Brining',
'section': 'Section::::Vegetables.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 656,
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'passage_text': 'Pickled vegetables are immersed in brine, vinegar or vinaigrette for extended periods of time, where they undergo anaerobic fermentation which affects their texture and flavor. Pickling can preserve perishable foods for months. Antimicrobial herbs and spices, such as mustard seed, garlic, cinnamon or cloves, are often added. Unlike the canning process, pickling (which includes fermentation) does not require that the food be completely sterile before it is sealed. The acidity or salinity of the solution, the temperature of fermentation, and the exclusion of oxygen determine which microorganisms dominate, and determine the flavor of the end product.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why did people use to pickle vegetables to preserve them?',
'selftext': 'Why did we do it? What are the processes that turn pickling a viable way of food preservation?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Because that was the only way they had to preserve vegetables. When growing your own vegetables, you have to pick the vegetables when they're ready, and vegetables go bad very quickly. If you have more vegetables than you can eat in a short time, you would want to preserve the rest until you could eat them later.\nPickling is a relatively simple process, so it's something that could be done in an afternoon. This means that after harvesting vegetables, a member of the family could pickle most or all of the vegetables in the same day. The equipment required for it is not particularly expensive either.",
'Pickling creates a low pH, low oxygen environment, which is hostile to lots of microbial life, the little jerks ruining our fruit and veggies. For the why, well it helps you extend the useful lifespan of harvested foods, and the availability of seasonal foods. Oh and they taste awesome.',
'Many kinds of bacteria and other pathogens have difficulty surviving in the acidic, oxygenless environment of the pickling process. In addition, some kinds of bacteria that *do* thrive in such conditions are harmless and in fact improve the taste via fermentation, while also shooing away other bacteria that could potentially survive in such conditions that could potentially be harmful.',
'Well back before refrigeration, you needed a way to keep food edible for long periods of time (winter). By taking perishable food and putting it in an air-tight container filled with vinegar and salt, bacteria and things that will turn the food inedible have a much harder time of forming, so the food can be eaten months later when it would spoil in days if left to the elements. ',
"Because if you remove the oxygen from something and drop the pH below 4 or so nothing dangerous can grow. Pickling is the process of growing specific bacteria that consume oxygen and lower the pH. Yes these bacteria can survive, but they are safe to consume. Other bacteria that are dangerous can survive, but they can't grow, and thus can't become dangerous if not already so.\n\nSo the benefit of pickling is you can take food, put it in a jar that you rinsed the dirt out of and put a top on it to keep the bugs out. You only need to do a moderate job at sealing it, and you have no requirements to sterilize it. The food will keep for years in this condition. Not even a fire is needed to prepare the food. No fancy canning equipment is required either."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '67x0n1',
'query': 'why did people use to pickle vegetables to preserve them?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '767894',
'title': 'Pocket watch',
'section': 'Section::::Jeweled movements.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
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'passage_text': 'Watches of any quality will be jeweled. A jewel in a mechanical watch is a small, shaped piece of a hard mineral. Ruby and sapphire are most common. Diamond, garnet, and glass are also seen. Starting in the early 20th century, synthetic jewels were almost universally used. Before that time, low grade natural jewels which were unsuitable as gemstones were used. In either case, the jewels have virtually no monetary value.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10221371',
'title': 'Mechanical watch',
'section': 'Section::::Watch jewels.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
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'passage_text': 'Jewel bearings were invented and introduced in watches by Nicolas Fatio (or Facio) de Duillier and Pierre and Jacob Debaufre around 1702 to reduce friction. They did not become widely used until the mid 19th century. Until the 20th century they were ground from tiny pieces of natural gems. Watches often had garnet, quartz, or even glass jewels; only top quality watches used sapphire, ruby, or diamond. In 1902, a process to grow artificial sapphire crystals was invented, making jewels much cheaper. Jewels in modern watches are all synthetic sapphire or (usually) ruby, made of corundum (AlO), one of the hardest substances known. The only difference between sapphire and ruby is that different impurities have been added to change the color; there is no difference in their properties as a bearing. The advantage of using jewels is that their ultrahard slick surface has a lower coefficient of friction with metal. The static coefficient of friction of steel-on-steel is 0.58, while that of sapphire-on-steel is 0.10-0.15.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '627411',
'title': 'Jewel bearing',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'The predominant use of jewel bearings is in mechanical watches, where their low and predictable friction improves watch accuracy as well as improving bearing life. Manufacturers traditionally listed the number of jewels prominently on the watch face or back, as an advertising point. A typical "fully jeweled" time-only watch has 17 jewels: two cap jewels, two pivot jewels, an impulse jewel for the balance wheel, two pivot jewels, two pallet jewels for the pallet fork, and two pivot jewels each for the escape, fourth, third, and center wheels. In modern quartz watches, the timekeeper is a quartz crystal in an electronic circuit, so accuracy of timekeeping is not dependent on low friction of the mechanical parts and jewels are not often used.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10221371',
'title': 'Mechanical watch',
'section': "Section::::Watch jewels.:'Jewel inflation'.\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 51,
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'passage_text': 'It is doubtful whether adding jewels in addition to the ones listed above is really useful in a watch. It does not increase accuracy, since the only wheels which have an effect on the balance wheel, those in the going train, are already jeweled. Marine chronometers, the most accurate portable timepieces, often have only 7 jewels. Nor does jeweling additional wheel bearings increase the useful life of the movement; as mentioned above most of the other wheels do not get enough wear to need them.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60883',
'title': 'Watch',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Wristwatch.:Quartz.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 435,
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'passage_text': 'The commercial introduction of the quartz watch in 1969 in the form of the Omega Beta 21 and the Seiko Astron was a revolutionary improvement in watch technology. In place of a balance wheel which oscillated at perhaps 5 or 6 beats per second, they used a quartz crystal resonator which vibrated at 8,192\xa0Hz, driven by a battery-powered oscillator circuit. Since the 1980s, more quartz watches than mechanical ones have been marketed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31620642',
'title': 'Rolf W. Schnyder',
'section': 'Section::::Biography.:Taking the path less traveled.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': '“In China and India, quartz watches were not successful,” relates Schnyder. “That is because watch repairmen would open the case backs and, for them, it was like looking into the back of a radio. In these cultures, the mechanical watch had residual value. Any competent repairman could open a watch up and service or fix it. They could see where the energy came from, they could identify with the mechanical movement. When I saw that these cultures adamantly refused at that time to embrace quartz watches, I knew that one day mechanical watches would come back.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '767894',
'title': 'Pocket watch',
'section': 'Section::::Jeweled movements.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'More highly jeweled watches add jewels to other pivots, starting with the pallet fork, then the escape wheel, fourth wheel, third wheel, then finally the center wheel. Jeweling like this to the third wheel adds eight jewels, giving 15 jewels in total. Jeweling to the center wheel adds two more giving 17 jewels in total. Thus, a 17 jewel watch is considered to be fully jeweled.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do some analog watches contain quartz/rubies/other gems?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Those jewels are used whenever you need a moving piece; as jewels are really hard, they present little or no wear over time.',
"Synthetic rubies are used to mate moving parts to prevent metal-on-metal contact and wear. The reduced friction created by the rubies' hardness increases the lifespan of the tiny metal parts.\n\nQuartz is used in most modern electronic movements as a way of keeping time because it vibrates at a very precise frequency when exposed to current.",
'The "rubies" are Jewel bearings. These are tiny sleeves and thimbles which support the rotating shafts of various parts. Note that they\'re more often clear synthetic sapphire, ruby is simply a red colored variety of sapphire.\n\nRuby is traditional in the clock industry, and may also be used for cosmetic reasons in watches with clear cases with the inner parts exposed. In terms of performance it\'s the same as clear sapphire.\n\nThe high hardness and rigidity of sapphire/ruby means it has low friction and reduces metal-on-metal sliding wear of parts. Rolling type bearings like balls wouldn\'t be practical for tiny watch parts. However it\'s not as hard as diamond, so diamond abrasives can be used to grind, drill and hone the parts into shape.\n\nQuartz is used for electronic watches, likely your smart phone has one too for various reasons.\n\nQuartz has the unusual property that if a voltage is applied to it, it resonates at a very regular frequency. This can be accurately tuned by carefully grinding the crystal in length. Smaller crystals oscillate faster. This doesn\'t vary based on temperature, a problem with mechanical clocks.\n\nAn electronic counter can then used to count the number of of vibrations, and this can be used to measure the length of one second very reliably. \n\nQuartz and sapphire front panels have also been used on expensive watches instead of glass, due to increased scratch resistance. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '9w1fm5',
'query': 'why do some analog watches contain quartz/rubies/other gems?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '514458',
'title': 'Wound healing',
'section': 'Section::::Factors affecting wound healing.:Systemic factors.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 100,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 100,
'end_character': 345,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Smoking – Smoking causes a delay in the speed of wound repair notably in the proliferative and inflammatory phases. It also increases the likelihood of certain complications such as wound rupture, wound and flap necrosis, decrease in wound tensile strength and infection. Passive smoking also impairs a proper wound healing process.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3585815',
'title': 'Health effects of tobacco',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism.:Chemical carcinogens.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 91,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 91,
'end_character': 506,
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'passage_text': 'Sidestream tobacco smoke, or exhaled mainstream smoke, is particularly harmful. Because exhaled smoke exists at lower temperatures than inhaled smoke, chemical compounds undergo changes which can cause them to become more dangerous. As well, smoke undergoes changes as it ages, which causes the transformation of the compound NO into the more toxic NO. Further, volatilization causes smoke particles to become smaller, and thus more easily embedded deep into the lung of anyone who later breathes the air.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27002',
'title': 'Tobacco pipe',
'section': 'Section::::Use.:Smoking.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 137,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 137,
'end_character': 540,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Pipe smoke, like cigar smoke, is usually not inhaled. It is merely brought into the mouth, pumped around oral and nasal cavities to permit absorption of nicotine toward the brain through the mucous membranes, and released. It is normal to have to relight a pipe periodically. If it is smoked too slowly, this will happen more often. If it is smoked too quickly, it can produce excess moisture causing a gurgling sound in the pipe and an uncomfortable sensation on the tongue (referred to as "pipe tongue", or more commonly, "tongue bite").\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3585815',
'title': 'Health effects of tobacco',
'section': 'Section::::Health effects of smoking.:Cardiovascular disease.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 330,
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'passage_text': "Inhalation of tobacco smoke causes several immediate responses within the heart and blood vessels. Within one minute the heart rate begins to rise, increasing by as much as 30 percent during the first 10 minutes of smoking. Carbon monoxide in tobacco smoke exerts negative effects by reducing the blood's ability to carry oxygen.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8455435',
'title': 'M18 smoke grenade',
'section': 'Section::::Potential hazard.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 218,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The smoke is harmful if it is inhaled for prolonged periods; new smoke mixtures are under development that are less toxic. In enclosed spaces the smoke displaces oxygen and can cause respiratory or oxygen deprivation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3322201',
'title': 'Comprehensive Smoking Education Act',
'section': 'Section::::Health.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 33,
'end_character': 480,
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'passage_text': "Smoking also causes major damages to the heart, causing coronary heart disease, which is the number-1 killer in the United States. Cigarette smoke causes shrinkage in the arteries, which heightens their chance of developing peripheral vascular disease. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, also known as the CDC, smoking can increase a person's risk of developing heart disease and getting a stroke as much as 2 to 4 times more than an average non-smoker.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3585815',
'title': 'Health effects of tobacco',
'section': 'Section::::Health effects of smoking.:Other harm.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 76,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 76,
'end_character': 228,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Smoking causes about 10% of the global burden of fire deaths, and smokers are placed at an increased risk of injury-related deaths in general, partly due to also experiencing an increased risk of dying in a motor vehicle crash.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why does smoking kill slower than smoke inhalation?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["You're not totally absent of oxygen when smoking. If you're inside a burning room, the oxygen is helping to keep the fire going and is being replaced by smoke.\n\nEdit: I should add that firefighters are increasingly looking to test their gear to see if they've been exposed to anything harmful. I kinda sorta helped on a project for just that. So that's a potential death closer to regular smoking than smoke inhalation.",
'Smoke inhalation means that the air you are breathing lacks oxygen (and might have other dangers). Smoking cigarettes and the like will slowly destroy your lungs ability to take in oxygen at all and have other effects (cancer).'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'dg4lf8',
'query': 'why does smoking kill slower than smoke inhalation?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '46459998',
'title': 'Adaptive voltage scaling',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 1227,
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'passage_text': 'Technological advances have enabled very powerful and versatile computing systems to be implemented on smaller chips. As this allows a larger number of functions to take place in the same area, both current density and the associated power dissipation become more concentrated compared to larger chips. The power consumption and thermal performance of integrated circuits has become a limiting factor for high-performance systems. Mobile devices are also limited by the total amount of power available. Minimizing power consumption in digital CMOS circuits requires significant design effort at all levels. Supply voltage reduction is one way to achieve this, but static supply voltage reduction can reduce performance. Dynamic voltage scaling systems are used to adjust the supply voltage to the specific operations the chip is performing. However, conventional DVS systems do not directly monitor the performance of the chip and must therefore accommodate operation under worst-case performance scenarios. AVS aims to supply each individual domain of the system on the chip with just enough voltage to perform its task under the conditions actually experienced by the chip, minimizing power consumption per processor domain.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '233631',
'title': 'Cryoelectronics',
'section': 'Section::::Marketable Uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 501,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A key factor in production of new technologies is whether it is cost effective and useful. Devices that make use of cryoelectronics and the applications of superconductivity such as computers, information transmission lines, and magnetocardiography have potential for commercial value outside of a few specific devices for singular purposes. At the same time, the presence of other devices made with highly specialized functions can be competitively marketed without having to rely on a large market.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46491638',
'title': 'Data organization for low power',
'section': 'Section::::Motivation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 538,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Power optimization in high memory density electronic systems has become one of the major challenges for devices such as mobile phones, embedded systems, and wireless devices. As the number of cores on a single chip is growing the power consumption by the devices also increases. Studies on power consumption distribution in smartphones and data-centers have shown that the memory sub-system consumes around 40% of the total power. In server systems, the study reveals that the memory consumes around 1.5 times the core power consumption.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '156428',
'title': 'Microtechnology',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 489,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'More recently, scientists have learned that not only electrical devices, but also mechanical devices, may be miniaturized and batch-fabricated, promising the same benefits to the mechanical world as integrated circuit technology has given to the electrical world. While electronics now provide the ‘brains’ for today’s advanced systems and products, micro-mechanical devices can provide the sensors and actuators — the eyes and ears, hands and feet — which interface to the outside world.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28471233',
'title': 'B. Jayant Baliga',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Mr. B. Jayant Baliga wrote: "Power semiconductor devices are recognized as a key component of all power electronic systems. It is estimated that at least 50 percent of the electricity used in the world is controlled by power devices. With the wide spread use of electronics in the consumer, industrial, medical, and transportation sectors, power devices have a major impact on the economy because they determine the cost and efficiency of systems. After the initial replacement of vacuum tubes by solid state devices in the 1950s, semiconductor power devices have taken a dominant role with silicon serving as the base material. These developments have been referred to as the Second Electronic Revolution".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3457628',
'title': 'Device independence',
'section': 'Section::::Virtualization and emulation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 442,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'As computing power has continued to increase, there is sufficient processing capacity available for entire hardware devices to be simulated in software. This has brought about the development of the hypervisor and device virtualization and emulation, allowing software written for one specific type of hardware to be reused on completely different hardware, or for seemingly independent operating systems to be made to share a single device.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15033749',
'title': 'Icarus paradox',
'section': 'Section::::The Paradox of Information Systems.:Recommendations for practice.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 100,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 100,
'end_character': 508,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Computers become counter-productive where more nuanced work is involved. It is thus most important to establish the limits to which information systems should control a firm. Making optimal use of Information Technology does not mean using computers for everything. Until more intelligent technology is invented that can handle complexity, the most effective organisations are not the ones with the most advanced and comprehensive information systems but the ones that recognise the limits of their systems.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What are the main technologic advancements that make it possible to store so much more data in increasingly smaller circuits?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Our ability to make tiny transistors which is largely driven by the machines that build them. I wouldn't say there is on specific thing that allows it, chip companies put a lot of effort into developing the machines that make the chips, and it's many advancements that come together to make what it ultimately a smaller process that can pack more stuff into a smaller space.",
'Optics. We make chips by etching patterns onto little silicon (glass-like material) plates. The smaller we can make the patterns, the more chips we can pack in for cheaper. Data *storage* is a special type of chip make of specific elements but made the same way. \n\nThe way we make the patterns is by coating the plates with a waxy substance called *photoresist*. Then we take an oversized template called a *mask*, and hold it above the plate. The template is a black sheet with holes cut in it to represent where the patterns go. We use the shadow it creates on the plate to make a pattern. \n\nWe shine light through the mask and it cures the photoresist — hardening the wax in certain places. \n\nThen you pour off the uncured resist and wash it so only the cited pattern remains. Finally, you use an acid to etch away all the non-covered parts of the plate and wash off the resist. Now you have a patterned plate ready to make microcircuits. \n\nSo the part that makes chips smaller, is our ability to use lenses to project the shadow from the mask and shrink it down to a smaller pattern on the plate. The better the lenses we can make with less distortion, the smaller the patterns can be. \n\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'b3pscp',
'query': 'what are the main technologic advancements that make it possible to store so much more data in increasingly smaller circuits?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3135',
'title': 'Arteriovenous malformation',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
'end_character': 497,
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'passage_text': 'Arteries and veins are part of the human cardiovascular system. Arteries carry blood away from the heart to the lungs or the rest of the body, where the blood passes through capillaries, and veins return the blood to the heart. An AVM interferes with this process by forming a direct connection of the arteries and veins. AVMs can cause intense pain and lead to serious medical problems. Although AVMs are often associated with the brain and spinal cord, they can develop in any part of the body.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26587958',
'title': 'Blood squirt',
'section': 'Section::::Anatomy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 370,
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'passage_text': 'In cut carotid arteries with 100 mL of blood through the heart at each beat (at 65 beats a minute), a completely severed artery will spurt blood for about 30 seconds and the blood will not spurt much higher than the human head. If the artery is just nicked, on the other hand, the blood will spurt longer but will be coming out under pressure and spraying much further.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41600',
'title': 'Pulse',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'In medicine, a pulse represents the tactile arterial palpation of the heartbeat by trained fingertips. The pulse may be palpated in any place that allows an artery to be compressed near the surface of the body, such as at the neck (carotid artery), wrist (radial artery), at the groin (femoral artery), behind the knee (popliteal artery), near the ankle joint (posterior tibial artery), and on foot (dorsalis pedis artery). Pulse (or the count of arterial pulse per minute) is equivalent to measuring the heart rate. The heart rate can also be measured by listening to the heart beat by auscultation, traditionally using a stethoscope and counting it for a minute. The radial pulse is commonly measured using three fingers. This has a reason: the finger closest to the heart is used to occlude the pulse pressure, the middle finger is used get a crude estimate of the blood pressure, and the finger most distal to the heart (usually the ring finger) is used to nullify the effect of the ulnar pulse as the two arteries are connected via the palmar arches (superficial and deep). The study of the pulse is known as sphygmology.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '178769',
'title': 'Intravenous therapy',
'section': 'Section::::Adverse effects.:Embolism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 93,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 93,
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'passage_text': 'One reason veins are preferred over arteries for intravascular administration is because the flow will pass through the lungs before passing through the body. Air bubbles can leave the blood through the lungs. A patient with a right-to-left shunt is vulnerable to embolism from smaller amounts of air. Fatality by air embolism is rare, although this may be in part because it is so difficult to determine when this is the cause of death.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '623034',
'title': 'Atrial flutter',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Complications.:Clot formation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': "Because there is little if any effective contraction of the atria there is stasis (pooling) of blood in the atria. Stasis of blood in susceptible individuals can lead to the formation of a thrombus (blood clot) within the heart. A thrombus is most likely to form in the atrial appendages. A blood clot in the left atrial appendage is particularly important as the left side of the heart supplies blood to the entire body through the arteries. Thus, any thrombus material that dislodges from this side of the heart can embolize (break off and travel) to the brain's arteries, with the potentially devastating consequence of a stroke. Thrombus material can, of course, embolize to any other portion of the body, though usually with a less severe outcome.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '529916',
'title': 'Coronary arteries',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical significance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'Either or both arteriosclerosis and atherosclerosis, can cause one or more of the coronary arteries or their branches to become seriously blocked, leading to angina, heart attack, or both. Percutaneous coronary interventions (such as balloon angioplasty) or coronary artery bypass surgery can be performed to decrease or bypass the blockages (respectively).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3220889',
'title': 'Vascular bypass',
'section': 'Section::::Medical uses.:Cardiac bypass.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Cardiac bypass is performed when the arteries that bring blood to the heart muscle (coronary arteries) become clogged by plaque. Such a condition may cause chest pain from angina pectoris or a heart attack.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How is it that we can take our pulse and not completely block out veins/arteries when we do so?',
'selftext': "Like whenever runners check their pulse on their neck, they'll press two or three fingers against the underside of the jaw, sometimes pretty firmly, and it appears not to have any effect. Does it have an effect on blood flow, and if so, why is it so negligible?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["You may temporarily reduce blood flow when you do this, but the body isn't *so* delicate that this would hurt you.",
"Nurse here. It does reduce blood flow but the blood pressure does push it to stretch on the side of the artery without pressure. But you can fully stop flow with enough pressure. There are arteries and veins on both sides of the neck. That's why you only see a runner check one side at a time. You could make someone pass out if you depressed both firmly enough to cut off major blood vessels. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6zi0ph',
'query': 'how is it that we can take our pulse and not completely block out veins/arteries when we do so?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '14418007',
'title': 'Chemoprotective agent',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "A Chemo-protective agent is a medical term that describes a drug that helps to reduce the side effects on the body while undergoing chemotherapy. These agents protect specific body parts from the harmful anti-cancer treatments that could potentially cause permanent damage to important bodily tissues. Chemo-protective agents have only recently been introduced as a factor involved with chemotherapy with the intent to assist those cancer patients that require treatment, which as an end result, improves the patients quality of life. There have been few studies on these agents though most of them come to the same conclusion, so what is known about them isn't very broad. Information including examples, risks, and more are the most researched aspects of Chemo protective agents. \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14426643',
'title': 'CCR4',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'Chemokines are a group of small structurally related proteins that regulate cell trafficking of various types of leukocytes. The chemokines also play fundamental roles in the development, homeostasis, and function of the immune system, and they have effects on cells of the central nervous system as well as on endothelial cells involved in angiogenesis or angiostasis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1031816',
'title': 'Chemokine',
'section': 'Section::::Function.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'The major role of chemokines is to act as a chemoattractant to guide the migration of cells. Cells that are attracted by chemokines follow a signal of increasing chemokine concentration towards the source of the chemokine. Some chemokines control cells of the immune system during processes of immune surveillance, such as directing lymphocytes to the lymph nodes so they can screen for invasion of pathogens by interacting with antigen-presenting cells residing in these tissues. These are known as homeostatic chemokines and are produced and secreted without any need to stimulate their source cell(s). Some chemokines have roles in development; they promote angiogenesis (the growth of new blood vessels), or guide cells to tissues that provide specific signals critical for cellular maturation. Other chemokines are inflammatory and are released from a wide variety of cells in response to bacterial infection, viruses and agents that cause physical damage such as silica or the urate crystals that occur in gout. Their release is often stimulated by pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin 1. Inflammatory chemokines function mainly as chemoattractants for leukocytes, recruiting monocytes, neutrophils and other effector cells from the blood to sites of infection or tissue damage. Certain inflammatory chemokines activate cells to initiate an immune response or promote wound healing. They are released by many different cell types and serve to guide cells of both innate immune system and adaptive immune system.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14418007',
'title': 'Chemoprotective agent',
'section': 'Section::::Risks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'Chemo-protective agents are common drugs and like many other drugs, may have side effects of their own. Each agent has different side effects though the most common consist of dizziness, sleepiness, nausea, fever, etc. It is important to discuss the side effects of these drugs with a doctor before using them to combat any type of chemotherapy to insure the drug will benefit each\xa0and every\xa0patient. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48723042',
'title': 'RNAi nanoparticles to target cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Current research.:Ovarian Clear Cell Carcinoma.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'Chemokines are used in the communication between cells. In the case of ovarian clear cell carcinoma, gro-α and its receptor have been found to be overexpressed. This pro-inflammatory cytokine, when found in excess, is involved in tumor cell migration, invasion, and eventually metastasis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14410700',
'title': 'CCR10',
'section': 'Section::::Function.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Chemokines are a group of small (approximately 8 to 14 kD), mostly basic, structurally related molecules that regulate cell trafficking of various types of leukocytes through interactions with a subset of 7-transmembrane, G protein-coupled receptors. Chemokines also play fundamental roles in the development, homeostasis, and function of the immune system, and they have effects on cells of the central nervous system as well as on endothelial cells involved in angiogenesis or angiostasis. Chemokines are divided into 2 major subfamilies, CXC and CC, based on the arrangement of the first 2 of the 4 conserved cysteine residues; the 2 cysteines are separated by a single amino acid in CXC chemokines and are adjacent in CC chemokines.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '53975654',
'title': 'Pre-metastatic niche',
'section': 'Section::::Role of the Immune System.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'Chemokines, a class of signaling molecules, also play a significant role in the creation of pre-metastatic niches and metastases. The primary tumor, in an attempt to evade detection by the immune system, uses chemokines in order to increase recruitment of bone marrow-derived myeloid cells to secondary organs. In addition, cancer cells from the primary tumor can be used to induce inflammation in the future site of the pre-metastatic niche in the secondary organ, which is similar to the immune response created by an infection.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What does chemo do to your body?',
'selftext': 'Someone I know recently finished his first round of chemo. From what I understand it was extremely rough on his body. What exactly does it do to you? What are all the possible side effects from chemo?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Chemo basically kills all fast growing cells. It normally causes some kind of DNA damage that will kill cells. This is more harmful to cells that are quickly dividing because they don't have time to repair the damage. The cancer cells are growing fast so it can hopefully kill all the cancer cells, but there are a lot of fast growing normal cells in the body which is why it is very rough to go through.",
'There are many different categories of chemotherapeutic anti-cancer drugs, all of which have varied effects, but most of them are involved in disrupting the cell division and DNA / RNA synthesis of cells in the body. \n\nA cancer tumor is really just a large mass of cells that have stopped responding to the rest of the body. Normally your body regulates how many times a cell can divide, and can induce a cell to kill itself. Cancer cells have stopped responding to this, and are just reproducing uncontrollably \n\nCancer tumors require a certain threshold size to be "cancer", and to withstand the body\'s immune system. A general rule of thumb is that the larger a cancerous mass is, the more powerful it is. That is why a large part of treating cancer is reducing its size.\n\nEnter chemotherapy drugs - drugs that hurt the ability for cells to divide. Now, it is important for *many* cells in your body to divide, but because your body regulates the process, most cells divide much slower than cancer cells. So chemotherapy harms cancer tumors *more* than most other cells in your body. \n\nIt is an extremely delicate balance, and that is why oncologists have a very difficult job. They need to ensure that the drugs are strong enough to hinder the tumors ability to replicate, but *not* so powerful that they make it impossible for your own immune system to fight the tumor. \n\nChemotherapy is often used with spot-radiation therapy, which is where doctors bombard cancer tumors with powerful radiation, which shreds the cells DNA and kills them. This is an extra attack on the tumor to ensure that your immune system is stronger than the tumor. \n\nIn the end, it is the body\'s immune system that ultimately needs to destroy the cancer. Chemotherapy is a double-edged sword, but doctors try to make the side that\'s stabbing the cancer cells *longer and sharper* than the one stabbing your immune system. Since cancer cells divide more rapidly, they\'re more vulnerable to chemotherapy, so the goal is to give your body the edge. \n\n\n\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5pfld0',
'query': 'what does chemo do to your body?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '24979028',
'title': 'Concrete degradation',
'section': 'Section::::Thermal damage.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'If concrete is exposed to very high temperatures very rapidly, explosive spalling of the concrete can result. In a very hot, very quick fire the water inside the concrete will boil before it evaporates. The steam inside the concrete exerts expansive pressure and can initiate and forcibly expel a spall.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24979028',
'title': 'Concrete degradation',
'section': 'Section::::Chemical damage.:Sea water.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
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'passage_text': 'Concrete exposed to seawater is susceptible to its corrosive effects. The effects are more pronounced above the tidal zone than where the concrete is permanently submerged. In the submerged zone, magnesium and hydrogen carbonate ions precipitate a layer of brucite, about 30 micrometers thick, on which a slower deposition of calcium carbonate as aragonite occurs. These layers somewhat protect the concrete from other processes, which include attack by magnesium, chloride and sulfate ions and carbonatation. Above the water surface, mechanical damage may occur by erosion by waves themselves or sand and gravel they carry, and by crystallization of salts from water soaking into the concrete pores and then drying up. Pozzolanic cements and cements using more than 60% of slag as aggregate are more resistant to sea water than pure Portland cement. Sea water corrosion contains elements of both chloride and sulfate corrosion.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '149261',
'title': 'Coastal erosion',
'section': 'Section::::Coastal processes.:Hydraulic action.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 336,
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'passage_text': 'Hydraulic Action occurs when waves striking a cliff face compress air in cracks on the cliff face. This exerts pressure on the surrounding rock, and can progressively splinter and remove pieces. Over time, the cracks can grow, sometimes forming a cave. The splinters fall to the sea bed where they are subjected to further wave action.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5371',
'title': 'Concrete',
'section': 'Section::::Composition.:Admixtures.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 54,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 54,
'end_character': 480,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Air entraining agents add and entrain tiny air bubbles in the concrete, which reduces damage during freeze-thaw cycles, increasing durability. However, entrained air entails a trade off with strength, as each 1% of air may decrease compressive strength by 5%. If too much air becomes trapped in the concrete as a result of the mixing process, Defoamers can be used to encourage the air bubble to agglomerate, rise to the surface of the wet concrete and then disperse.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41502288',
'title': 'Osmotic blistering',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Water will flow from one solution to another, trying to create equilibrium between both solutions. Usually, the two solutions are concrete and the coating application on top of the concrete. Concrete is very porous, so water beneath the concrete, will force itself through the concrete, typically through vapor transmission. The water will then try to break through the semi-permeable membrane (either the surface of the concrete or the primer). Most epoxies or urethanes or polymer applications are not permeable so the water will stop at the polymer coating. However, the pressure from the water does not stop, forcing the water to collect directly in between the concrete and the layer of epoxy/urethane. This collection creates the notorious “osmotic blister” that is commonly feared by coating specialists.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1309860',
'title': 'Carbonatation',
'section': 'Section::::Concrete.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'The carbon dioxide in the air reacts with the alkali in the cement and makes the pore water more acidic, thus lowering the pH. Carbon dioxide will start to carbonatate the cement in the concrete from the moment the object is made. This carbonatation process will start at the surface, then slowly move deeper and deeper into the concrete. The rate of carbonatation is dependent on the relative humidity of the concrete - a 50% relative humidity being optimal. If the object is cracked, the carbon dioxide in the air will be better able to penetrate into the concrete.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '69442',
'title': 'Waterfall',
'section': 'Section::::Types.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 254,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Plunge: Fast-moving water descends vertically, losing complete contact with the bedrock surface. The contact is typically lost due to horizontal velocity of the water before it falls. It always starts from a narrow stream. (e.g. Angel Falls)\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why does it feel like hitting concrete when you jump into a body of water from 50 feet or higher?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Liquids have viscosity that differ. The thicker a viscosity the more it can mimic (for lack of a better word) the properties of a solid. Water has a relatively low viscosity compared to oil, but when you get to a certain velocity, that viscosity is enough to injure.',
'if you think about being squirted by a hose or gun full of water then think about this when your going like 30+ mph and it is all your weight in your body hitting something , it doesnt matter if it is water it still hurts . imagine pressure washing your self , it would hurt even though its water',
'Just as an added note to the other good explanations here. Water "feeling" like concrete when hit from a great height is just a saying, it does not have any scientific truth.\n\nWater results in far less G-forces (what actually kills a person) as compared to concrete if you were to fall on both from the same height. Mythbusters did a very good episode on this.\n\nIn short, water can absolutely kill you if you fall from high enough. But concrete will kill you from a much lower fall because concrete is significantly harder than water.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'cw5huq',
'query': 'why does it feel like hitting concrete when you jump into a body of water from 50 feet or higher?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '18940',
'title': 'Meat',
'section': 'Section::::Production.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 62,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 62,
'end_character': 220,
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'passage_text': 'Meat is produced by killing an animal and cutting flesh out of it. These procedures are called slaughter and butchery, respectively. There is ongoing research into producing meat "in vitro", that is, outside of animals.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2413296',
'title': 'Organic fertilizer',
'section': 'Section::::Examples and sources.:Animal sources.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 591,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Animal sourced materials include both animal manures and residues from the slaughter of animals. Manures are derived from milk-producing dairy animals, egg-producing poultry, and animals raised for meat and hide production. When any animal is butchered, only about 40% to 60% of the live animal is converted to market product, with the remaining 40% to 60% classed as by-products. These by-products of animal slaughter, mostly inedible -- blood, bone, feathers, hides, hoofs, horns, -- can be refined into agricultural fertilizers including bloodmeal, bone meal fish meal, and feather meal.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3889704',
'title': 'Emerging technologies',
'section': 'Section::::Examples.:"In vitro" meat.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
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'passage_text': '"In vitro meat", also called "cultured meat", "clean meat", "cruelty-free meat", "shmeat", and "test-tube meat", is an animal-flesh product that has never been part of a living animal with exception of the fetal calf serum taken from a slaughtered cow. In the 21st century, several research projects have worked on "in vitro" meat in the laboratory. The first in vitro beefburger, created by a Dutch team, was eaten at a demonstration for the press in London in August 2013. There remain difficulties to be overcome before "in vitro" meat becomes commercially available. Cultured meat is prohibitively expensive, but it is expected that the cost could be reduced to compete with that of conventionally obtained meat as technology improves. "In vitro" meat is also an ethical issue. Some argue that it is less objectionable than traditionally obtained meat because it doesn\'t involve killing and reduces the risk of animal cruelty, while others disagree with eating meat that has not developed naturally.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30081454',
'title': 'Indiegogo',
'section': 'Section::::Products.:Crowd funding.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 228,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- SuperMeat, an Israeli company designing a method to produce a meat-equivalent product without animal slaughter by cultivating tissue samples taken from a chicken and developing them into a market-ready meat product.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '238209',
'title': 'Biltong',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Biltong is a form of dried, cured meat that originated in Southern African countries (South Africa, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Botswana and Zambia). Various types of meat are used to produce it, ranging from beef and game meats to fillets of meat cut into strips following the grain of the muscle, or flat pieces sliced across the grain. It is related to beef jerky in that they are both spiced, dried meats; however, the typical ingredients, taste and production processes may differ. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '435799',
'title': 'Mechanically separated meat',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Mechanically separated meat (MSM), mechanically recovered/reclaimed meat (MRM), or mechanically deboned meat (MDM) is a paste-like meat product produced by forcing pureed or ground beef, pork, mutton, turkey or chicken, under high pressure through a sieve or similar device to separate the bone from the edible meat tissue. It is sometimes called "white slime" as an analog to meat-additive pink slime and to meat extracted by advanced meat recovery systems, both of which are different processes. The process entails pureeing or grinding the carcass left after the manual removal of meat from the bones and then forcing the slurry through a sieve under pressure. This puree includes bone, bone marrow, skin, nerves, blood vessels, and the scraps of meat remaining on the bones. The resulting product is a blend primarily consisting of tissues not generally considered meat along with a much smaller amount of actual meat (muscle tissue). In some countries such as the United States, these non-meat materials are processed separately for human and non-human uses and consumption. The process is controversial; "Forbes", for example, called it a "not-so-appetizing meat production process".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5106169',
'title': 'Manure-derived synthetic crude oil',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Manure-derived synthetic crude oil is a synthetic bio-oil chemically engineered (converted) from animal or human manure. Research into the production of manure-derived synthetic fuel began with pig manure in 1996 at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign by the research team led by professors Yuanhui Zhang and Lance Schideman. They developed a method for converting raw pig manure into bio-oil through thermal depolymerization (thermochemical conversion). This process uses a thermochemical conversion reactor to apply heat and pressure for breaking down carbohydrate materials. As a result, bio-oil, methane and carbon dioxide are produced.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Synthetic meat',
'selftext': "Does anyone know what has happened to the synthetic meat we were all promised many years ago that would be just as good as the real thing (One step closer to Blade Runner ). It's now 2018 I haven't seen one synthetic burger. and is it really that good for you... or not ?",
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["No one has figured out how to make it cheap enough yet. Consider the price of ground beef, if you have a multimillion dollar lab making lab-grown beef then you're going to need to make millions of pounds to have it pay for itself.\n\nThere are a bunch of companies work on it, but none of their products are commercially viable yet.",
"They've started selling them in some supermarket chains in Denmark already! It's a bit more expensive and has a bit higher calorie count than normal beef, but it's there! Haven't tried it yet, but will soon. ",
'ELI5 for synthetic meat. First you want to start by clearing up the terminology a bit which might be leading to some confusion. The meat itself is being called \'synthetic\' because it\'s not coming directly from the standard source IE. a living creature. \nEssentially at its most basic level how synthetic meat is produced is as follows. Proprietor cells are taken from the type of organism whose meat you wish to replicate. In my example I\'ll use some beef. So some cow muscle cells are extracted from an animal and then they are placed on a template in a specific arrangement so that as they grow and replicate they will form muscle spindles and fibres. For the sake of a simple explanation think of this template as a 3D printed petri dish with special shelves for the cells. Once the scaffolding has been completed and the cow muscle cells are ready to start growing the template is bathed in a lab developed solution which contains all the vitamins, minerals and other nutrients required for the muscle cells to develop into full articulated structures. In normal meat production this is done by feeding the cow as it grows and allowing the cows body to replicate the cells and form all the structures. The muscle cells absorb the nutrients from the "lab broth" and grow into a product which has similar nutritional properties to actual meat. \nAfter the meat has fully developed into its final cellular structures it is then harvested and undergoes a variety of chemical and mechanical processing treatments to make it food ready. Think of this stage as being similar to grinding up regular meat to make ground beef for patties. \nAnd voila! You\'ve got your synthetic meat. \n\nTLDR; Synthetic meat is real meat but it\'s called synthetic because its grown in a dish instead of on a cow. The original cells taken to grown the meat are taken from the animal and the meat is "fed" through a nutrient broth allowing it to grow in much the same way the animal would being fed its normal diet. ',
"Two questions - doing my best to ELI5 them both.\n\n1st Question:\n\nImagine you have decided to sell jelly beans - but you have a friend who sells them too. He is your competition. Jimmy grows his jellybeans on plants, but when he picks the jelly beans the plants die. It takes a long time for Jimmy's jelly bean plant to grow and it requires a lot of water and fertilizer to keep them growing.\n\nYou found a way to grow your jelly beans inside of a metal container. However, you're still trying to make sure that the jelly beans taste as good as Jimmy's. You're close but you need a bit more time. Once you have this figured out you can scale up your efforts and quite possible outsell and outproduce Jimmy. \n\n2nd Question: \n\nYou and Jimmy both grow jelly beans. They are made of the exact same material whether they are grown on the plant or grown in your metal vat. One will be as healthy as the other. \n\nNon-ELI5: Companies working on this have almost gotten the taste correct and are working on bringing down the price and improving the flavor. Once they do this they can ramp up production and potentially shave off the costs competing directly with beef farming practices. \n\nSince at the cellular level synthetic or lab grown beef is the same biological material as actual dead cow, the cells are as beneficial/harmful as the ones you eat today.\n",
"The best overview I've found is at:\n_URL_1_\n\nRight now, it looks like the biggest hurdle is not macro-nutrients, vitamins or minerals. It's hormones and other serum proteins that can't be easily synthesized. Basically, it's the things in serum that make it different than, say, a protein-enhanced sports drink.\n\nSome of these animal proteins can be obtained via genetic engineering, but that is expensive as well - consider that recombinant human albumin (from GM rice) runs about $60 dollars a gram (_URL_0_). I couldn't find a price for recombinant (non-animal) bovine serum albumin.\n\nAn egg has about 2 grams of ovalbumin.\n\nETA: Only about 60% of cow is sold as beef; the rest has various uses. One is as a source for bovine serum albumin. You can buy this in bulk, at purity suitable for cell culture, for roughly 11$ per gram (_URL_2_). \n\nThe current price point for cultured meat might include this relatively cheap animal-based albumin source. The price may well go up using recombinant sources.",
'I have only really been following the progress of one company, Memphis Meats, because I believe they are the front runner for "synthetic" meats since they have had some big name investors in their company like Bill Gates, Richard Branson, Kimbal Musk, and more; thus some of my information might not be accurate for the progress of "synthetic" meat as a whole.\n\nAs many other users have pointed out the technology to create "synthetic" meat is there and has been for awhile now. This technology allows for creation of meat that is better tasting and healthier since you can manipulate the parts of the meat that effect the healthiness/taste to become optimal. I put "synthetic" in quotes because it misleads people into thinking that it is unhealthy but in reality on a structural level it is the same other than the optimizations done as regular meat the real difference is the source is a lab rather than an animal.\n\nMemphis Meats from understanding has pushed back their commercial release of their products, it is now set to 2021; this is due to the cost of production. They have been making progress in lowering the cost it has just been slower than many have expected. They are also not making the product on industrial scale yet or receiving subsidies from the government like regular meat production so that adds to the price. \n\nAnother major challenge for Memphis Meats has been avoiding Bovine serum which is usually acquired from the blood of unborn baby cows. The meat they have produced so far has used this so it has technically not been Vegan/Vegetarian according to some people\'s definitions.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7yg3ar',
'query': 'synthetic meat',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '33501',
'title': 'White dwarf',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'A white dwarf, also called a degenerate dwarf, is a stellar core remnant composed mostly of electron-degenerate matter. A white dwarf is very dense: its mass is comparable to that of the Sun, while its volume is comparable to that of Earth. A white dwarf\'s faint luminosity comes from the emission of stored thermal energy; no fusion takes place in a white dwarf. The nearest known white dwarf is Sirius B, at 8.6 light years, the smaller component of the Sirius binary star. There are currently thought to be eight white dwarfs among the hundred star systems nearest the Sun. The unusual faintness of white dwarfs was first recognized in 1910. The name "white dwarf" was coined by Willem Luyten in 1922.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '11965603',
'title': 'Stellar rotation',
'section': 'Section::::Degenerate stars.:White dwarf.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A white dwarf is a star that consists of material that is the by-product of thermonuclear fusion during the earlier part of its life, but lacks the mass to burn those more massive elements. It is a compact body that is supported by a quantum mechanical effect known as electron degeneracy pressure that will not allow the star to collapse any further. Generally most white dwarfs have a low rate of rotation, most likely as the result of rotational braking or by shedding angular momentum when the progenitor star lost its outer envelope. (See planetary nebula.)\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '83124',
'title': 'Black dwarf',
'section': 'Section::::Formation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A white dwarf is what remains of a main-sequence star of low or medium mass (below approximately 9 to 10 solar masses ()) after it has either expelled or fused all the elements for which it has sufficient temperature to fuse. What is left is then a dense sphere of electron-degenerate matter that cools slowly by thermal radiation, eventually becoming a black dwarf. If black dwarfs were to exist, they would be extremely difficult to detect, because, by definition, they would emit very little radiation. They would, however, be detectable through their gravitational influence.\n',
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'title': 'WD 1145+017',
'section': 'Section::::Stellar characteristics.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The white dwarf has a mass of 0.6 , radius of 0.02 (1.4 ) and a temperature of 15,900 K, typical for white dwarf stars. It has been a white dwarf for 175 million years. The star included strong absorption lines due to magnesium, aluminium, silicon, calcium, iron and nickel. These elements commonly found in rocky planets are polluting the surface of the star, and would normally be expected to mix through the star and disappear from view after a million years.\n',
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'title': 'Dwarf star',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- A "white dwarf" is a star composed of electron-degenerate matter, thought to be the final stage in the evolution of stars not massive enough to collapse into a neutron star or black hole—stars less massive than roughly 9 solar masses.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33501',
'title': 'White dwarf',
'section': 'Section::::Composition and structure.:Atmosphere and spectra.:Metal-rich white dwarfs.\n',
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'passage_text': "Around 25–33% of white dwarfs have metal lines in their spectra, which is notable because any heavy elements in a white dwarf should sink into the star's interior in just a small fraction of the star's lifetime. The prevailing explanation for metal-rich white dwarfs is that they have recently accreted rocky planetesimals. The bulk composition of the accreted object can be measured from the strengths of the metal lines. For example, a 2015 study of the white dwarf Ton 345 concluded that its metal abundances were consistent with those of a differentiated, rocky planet whose mantle had been eroded by the host star's wind during its asymptotic giant branch phase.\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '7195427',
'title': 'Carbon detonation',
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'passage_text': 'A white dwarf is the remnant of a small to medium size star (our sun is an example of these). At the end of its life, the star has burned its hydrogen and helium fuel, and thermonuclear fusion processes cease. The star does not have enough mass to either burn much heavier elements, or to implode into a neutron star or type II supernova as a larger star can, from the force of its own gravity, so it gradually shrinks and becomes very dense as it cools, glowing white and then red, for a period many times longer than the present age of the Universe.\n',
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'title': 'what is a white dwarf star made out of?',
'selftext': "I get the process more or less, star contracts and gets super dense after all the energy gets used up. What's it actually made of though, molecular structure/atomic structure/particle wise, that makes it so much denser than say Earth while possibly being the same size? By what composition and structure does a white dwarf have such a great mass and density while confined to such a relatively small space?",
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'answers': ["To an extent it depends on the star that died. A White dwarf is essentially the exposed inerds of a sunlike star once the outer atmosphere has been cast off and nuclear fusion has ceased. What it's made of depends on it's mass and what it was last fusing before the reaction ceased.\n\nStars begin and spend most of their life fusing hydrogen into helium, then either stop or move on to Fusing Helium into elements like Carbon and Oxygen and Silicon (plus a few others)\n\nReally heavy stars can go on to start fusing them into other things, but I think your average white dwarf is probably going to be a ball of mostly carbon, oxygen and silicon "],
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '8481634',
'title': 'Digital versus film photography',
'section': 'Section::::Image quality.:Spatial resolution.\n',
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'passage_text': "The resolution of film images depends upon the area of film used to record the image (35 mm, medium format or large format) and the film speed. Estimates of a photograph's resolution taken with a 35mm film camera vary. More information may be recorded if a fine-grain film is used, while the use of poor-quality optics or coarse-grained film may yield lower image resolution. A 36mm × 24mm frame of ISO 100-speed film was initially estimated to contain the equivalent of 20 million pixels, or approximately 23,000 pixels per square mm.\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '601399',
'title': 'Display resolution',
'section': 'Section::::Current standards.:Computer monitors.:Common display resolutions.\n',
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'passage_text': 'As far as digital cinematography is concerned, video resolution standards depend first on the frames\' aspect ratio in the film stock (which is usually scanned for digital intermediate post-production) and then on the actual points\' count. Although there is not a unique set of standardized sizes, it is commonplace within the motion picture industry to refer to ""n"K" image "quality", where "n" is a (small, usually even) integer number which translates into a set of actual resolutions, depending on the film format. As a reference consider that, for a 4:3 (around 1.33:1) aspect ratio which a film frame (no matter what is its format) is expected to "horizontally fit in", "n" is the multiplier of 1024 such that the horizontal resolution is exactly "1024•n" points. For example, 2K reference resolution is 2048 × 1536 pixels, whereas 4K reference resolution is 4096 × 3072 pixels. Nevertheless, 2K may also refer to resolutions like 2048 × 1556 (full-aperture), 2048 × 1152 (HDTV, 16:9 aspect ratio) or 2048 × 872 pixels (Cinemascope, 2.35:1 aspect ratio). It is also worth noting that while a frame resolution may be, for example, 3:2 (720 × 480 NTSC), that is not what you will see on-screen (i.e. 4:3 or 16:9 depending on the orientation of the rectangular pixels).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46286567',
'title': '5K resolution',
'section': 'Section::::History.:First camera with 5K video capture.\n',
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'passage_text': 'On April 14, 2008, Red Digital Cinema Camera Company launched one of the first cameras capable of video capture at 5K resolutions. Red Epic uses the Mysterium X sensor which has a resolution of 51202700 and can capture at a framerate of up to 100\xa0fps. Cameras with 5K resolution are used occasionally for recording films in digital cinematography.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '27168879',
'title': '4K resolution',
'section': 'Section::::Resolutions.:40962160.\n',
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'passage_text': 'This resolution is used mainly in digital cinema production, and has a total of 8,847,360 pixels with an aspect ratio 256135 (≈1910). It was standardized as the resolution of the 4K container format defined by Digital Cinema Initiatives in the Digital Cinema System Specification, and is the native resolution of all DCI-compliant 4K digital projectors and monitors. The DCI specification allows several different resolutions for the content inside the container, depending on the desired aspect ratio. The allowed resolutions are defined in SMPTE 428-1: \n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '176351',
'title': 'Normal lens',
'section': 'Section::::Typical normal focal lengths for different formats.:Cinema.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In cinematography, a focal length roughly equivalent to twice the diagonal of the image projected within the camera is considered normal, since movies are typically viewed from a distance of about twice the screen diagonal.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '42361',
'title': 'On the Waterfront',
'section': 'Section::::Home media.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The 2013 Criterion Collection release presents the film in three aspect ratios: 1.66:1, 1.85:1, and 1.33:1. The accompanying booklet explains the reasoning behind this choice: "In 1953, Columbia Pictures was transitioning to the new widescreen format and declared that all its upcoming films, including "On The Waterfront", would be suitable for projection in any aspect ratio from the full frame of 1.33:1 to the then widest standard of 1.85:1. The customary frame of European cinematographer Boris Kaufman ("Twelve Angry Men", "Baby Doll") split the difference at 1.66:1, so that all that was required was for him to leave extra room at the top and bottom of the frame and make sure that nothing essential would be lost in the widescreen presentation. At its premiere in 1954, "On The Waterfront" was projected at 1.85:1. Over subsequent decades, millions of television viewers became accustomed to seeing the film with the open-matte 1.33:1 framing, a presentation that has carried over into the home video era. Here, for the first time, Criterion is presenting the film in all three aspect ratios so that viewers can compare and choose the version they prefer."\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '20926377',
'title': 'Hancock (film)',
'section': 'Section::::Release.:Theatrical run.\n',
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'passage_text': 'For the film, Sony created a digital camera package (DCP) having 4K resolution, containing four times more information than the typical DCP that possessed 2K resolution. Projectors for the higher-resolution package have been installed in 200 theaters in the United States with two dozen in evaluation.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What\'s the"resolution" of film photography?',
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'answers': ['There isn’t a specific “resolution.” It depends on two main physical characteristics of the film itself - the size of the film and the speed of the film - as well as the way that film is exposed.\n\nThe first physical aspect is what format of film you’re using - there’s small, like a standard 35mm film that your average point-and-shoot camera would take; medium, which takes a range of film sizes (popularly 120mm); and large, which takes film sheets with dimensions of several inches.\n\nThe second physical aspect is the speed of the film, or how long it takes for light to affect the film; the higher the speed, the lower the quality of the image. This speed references the density of the film’s grain- a higher speed has a larger grain, and thus the image is a lower quality, because a finer grain has the ability to capture more detail. This is probably the most direct similarity to digital photography and resolution, because the grains are essentially like pixels; more pixels = more details.\n\nThe combination of film size and film speed essentially boils down to how many grains of film the image is being captured on - a large format film with a low speed will capture the most detail, because it has the most crystal to capture the details with.\n\nThese physical factors are then combined with the way the film is shot - specifically, the length of exposure - because again, the longer the film is exposed to light, the more time that light has to affect the film in greater detail.',
"Film can have a higher 'resolution' or sharpness than you can effectively use.\n\nNow this isn't exactly for five-year-olds but [this](_URL_0_) document has everything you need to know, and this part sort of answers your question:\n\n > Film Resolution defines the potential resolving power of a film; Kodak calls this sharpness. Resolution is determined using the MTF Curve, which is found in the film data sheets supplied by manufacturers. However, the MFT curve is measured using a sine wave bar chart printed directly on the film. The actual resolution of film is made on the film through a lens in a camera. \n\n > Based on the Resolving Power Equation(s) used by both Kodak and Fuji, the actual resolution of a “film-and-camera system” must be decreased by 30-80%, from native resolution. The greater the resolution of the film in a system, the greater the loss of the system resolution, for a specific lens with a given resolving power. This loss of system resolution is due to degradation of the image (1) exposed through a lens and (2) due to variables in film transport and film processing. \n\n > The MTF Curve of Kodachrome 200 (PKL) transparency film shows a native resolution of 50-lp/mm, (2540 ppi digital equivalent). Using the Fuji Resolving Power Equation, PKL shot through an excellent 35mm format lens (100 lp/mm lens) will have a final resolution of 33-lp/mm, with a digital equivalent resolution of 1962 ppi. This is a loss of 34% from the native MTF data, due to lens and film related issues.",
"It seems infinite at first, since film looks seamlessly smooth and lacks a familiar grid of pixels, but there are in fact tiny individual particles of chemicals. Exact numbers vary, but there should be *at least* 100,000 x 100,000 individual particles on 35mm film.\n\nHowever, the particles are so small that they can't really count as a pixel of resolution. They only work reliably in groups or clumps, because the waves of light often occupy a space larger than the individual particles, and other physical limitations depending on the film.\n\nSo what is the effective resolution? Just depends who you ask, what film they used, and how they measured it. Most people would agree it's very high, at least that of a 4k tv."],
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '242294',
'title': 'Air traffic controller',
'section': 'Section::::Features of the job.:Core skills of a controller.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Communication is a vital part of the job: controllers are trained to focus on the exact words that pilots and other controllers speak, because a single misunderstanding about altitude levels or runway numbers can have tragic consequences. Controllers communicate with the pilots of aircraft using a push-to-talk radiotelephony system which has many attendant issues, such as the fact that only one transmission can be made on a frequency at a time and can either merge or block each other and become unintelligible.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '17401970',
'title': 'Airplane mode',
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'passage_text': 'Airplane mode, Aeroplane mode, Flight mode, Offline mode, or Standalone mode is a setting available on smartphones and other portable computers that, when activated, suspends radio-frequency signal transmission by the device, thereby disabling Bluetooth, telephony, and Wi-Fi. GPS may or may not be disabled, because it does not involve transmitting radio waves.\n',
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'title': 'Aviation communication',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Aviation communication is the means by which aircraft crews connect with other aircraft and people on the ground to relay information. Aviation communication is a crucial component pertaining to the successful functionality of aircraft movement both on the ground and in the air. Increased communication reduces the risk of an accident.\n',
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'title': 'Next Generation Air Transportation System',
'section': 'Section::::Elements.:Communication.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Unlike voice messages, Data Comm messages sent by controllers are delivered only to the intended aircraft, which eliminates the chance of another pilot acting on instructions for another aircraft with a similar call sign. It avoids the chance of misunderstood messages because of busy radio chatter or variations in the way people speak, and it can be a backup if a microphone malfunctions. It also preserves radio bandwidth when voice communication is necessary or preferred.\n',
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'passage_text': 'When the "Aeroplane mode" is activated, it disables all voice, text, telephone, and other signal-transmitting technologies such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth. Wi-Fi and Bluetooth can be enabled separately even while the device is in airplane mode; this is acceptable on some aircraft. Receiving radio-frequency signals, as by radio receivers and satellite navigation services, is not inhibited. However, even receiving telephone calls and messages without responding would require the phone to transmit.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11522',
'title': 'Fly-by-wire',
'section': 'Section::::Basic operation.:Closed-loop feedback control.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A pilot commands the flight control computer to make the aircraft perform a certain action, such as pitch the aircraft up, or roll to one side, by moving the control column or sidestick. The flight control computer then calculates what control surface movements will cause the plane to perform that action and issues those commands to the electronic controllers for each surface. The controllers at each surface receive these commands and then move actuators attached to the control surface until it has moved to where the flight control computer commanded it to. The controllers measure the position of the flight control surface with sensors such as LVDTs.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '39137026',
'title': 'Silent mode',
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'passage_text': 'Silent mode is a setting available on mobile phones and pagers that, when activated, disables the ringtones and, in some cases, also the vibrating alerts or alarm. Unlike the airplane mode, the silent mode still allows the device to receive and send calls and messages.\n',
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'title': 'What exactly does "Airplane mode" do and how does it keep my phone from disrupting airplane functions?',
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'answers': ["It disables the cellular transceiver in your phone. It just turns off the part of your phone that sends and receives data from cell towers. The idea is that you will not be creating electromagnetic interference that could potentially interact with the aircraft's instrumentation. The reality is that everything is so well shielded now, it probably wouldn't matter.",
'"Airplane Mode" turns off all the radios in your phone, for example your cellular and wifi radios. This is why your connection goes dead whenever you use Airplane Mode.\n\nIn theory airlines make you do this (or shut off your phone entirely) because they don\'t want transmissions from your device interfering with the plane\'s instruments. It\'s a very very old regulation and its applicability to modern aircraft is dubious at best but the airlines still take a "better safe than sorry" approach.',
"Wasn't it proven that phones don't disrupt aircraft functions at all?\n\nAnyways, airplane mode just turns off Wifi/Mobile Data/Cellular Service/possibly radio",
'Airplane mode disables the radios on your phone that talk to Cell Towers. Phones periodically ping phone towers basically saying "Hey, are you there? How many of you are there?" the further away a phone gets from a Cell Tower, the louder it yells "HEY!!!!". That\'s why older phones, when they are out of service range, drain battery really fast. Its because they are pumping as much power as they can into that little antenna trying to yell "HEY! Is anyone there?". Modern phones give up after a while and check a lot less frequently after enough attempts have failed. Which is why if you are in an area with low reception and your modern phone loses bars, it helps to flip it into airplane mode and flip it back so the phone can try checking for cell towers one more time! \n\n\nCellphones don\'t really disrupt aircraft systems as much as they cause an annoyance in the captains ears. When 100 devices are going off yelling "HEY" at 50,000 feet, each "HEY" sounds like a high pitched chirp in the ear of the radio the captain, who is listening to Air Traffic Controller instructions. If the chirps are really loud (on unshielded equipment) it can prevent the captain from hearing important information, or delay how long it takes for information to be conveyed! (that\'s how turning Airplane mode on helps!)',
"As others have said, Airplane mode mostly just turns off the radios on your phone.\n\nThese features by themselves will not disrupt airplane functions. You can think of it this way incidentally, if having dozens of devices with radios would cause problems with the avionics, why would they equip planes with wifi for you to use?\n\nIt was a theorized fear years ago but not a practical one.\n\nThe big reason they make you put your phones and such away during takeoff and landing is that those are the points most likely for something to go wrong during the flight. They want you focused on the plane and what's going on outside both for safeties sake (you may have a bit of information that makes you slightly faster at responding in the emergency) and so that after the incident, you might be able to provide some critical piece of information (I saw a duck hit the wing!) that would help the accident investigation."],
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1437871',
'title': 'Cori cycle',
'section': 'Section::::Cycle.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Overall, the glycolysis part of the cycle produces 2 ATP molecules at a cost of 6 ATP molecules consumed in the gluconeogenesis part. Each iteration of the cycle must be maintained by a net consumption of 4 ATP molecules. As a result, the cycle cannot be sustained indefinitely. The intensive consumption of ATP molecules indicates that the Cori cycle shifts the metabolic burden from the muscles to the liver.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '44514645',
'title': 'ASHRAE 55',
'section': 'Section::::Appendix D: Use the metabolic rate data.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Metabolic rate is the rate of transformation of chemical energy into heat and mechanical work by metabolic activities of an individual. It is defined as per unit of skin surface area which equals to 58.2 W/m² (18.4 Btu/h·ft²). This is the energy produced from a unit skin surface area of an average person seated at rest.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Metabolism comprises the processes that the body needs to function. Basal metabolic rate is the amount of energy per unit time that a person needs to keep the body functioning at rest. Some of those processes are breathing, blood circulation, controlling body temperature, cell growth, brain and nerve function, and contraction of muscles. Basal metabolic rate (BMR) affects the rate that a person burns calories and ultimately whether that individual maintains, gains, or loses weight. The basal metabolic rate accounts for about 60 to 75% of the daily calorie expenditure by individuals. It is influenced by several factors. BMR typically declines by 1–2% per decade after age\xa020, mostly due to loss of fat-free mass, although the variability between individuals is high.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Metabolic rate is the rate of transformation of chemical energy into heat and mechanical work by metabolic activities of an individual, per unit of skin surface are (expressed in units of met) equal to 58.2 W/m² (18.4 Btu/h·ft²), which is the energy produced per unit skin surface area of an average person seated at rest.\n',
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'title': 'Exercise intensity',
'section': 'Section::::Fuel Used.\n',
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'passage_text': 'These estimates are valid only when glycogen reserves are able to cover the energy needs. If a person depletes glycogen reserves after a long workout (a phenomenon known as "hitting the wall") or during a low carbohydrate diet, the body will shift into ketosis and use mostly fat and muscle for energy. Intermittent fasting can be used to train the body to shift easily into ketosis.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '8460',
'title': 'Dieting',
'section': 'Section::::How the body eliminates fat.\n',
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'passage_text': "When the body is expending more energy than it is consuming (e.g. when exercising), the body's cells rely on internally stored energy sources, such as complex carbohydrates and fats, for energy. The first source to which the body turns is glycogen (by glycogenolysis). Glycogen is a complex carbohydrate, 65% of which is stored in skeletal muscles and the remainder in the liver (totaling about 2,000 kcal in the whole body). It is created from the excess of ingested macronutrients, mainly carbohydrates. When glycogen is nearly depleted, the body begins lipolysis, the mobilization and catabolism of fat stores for energy. In this process fats, obtained from adipose tissue, or fat cells, are broken down into glycerol and fatty acids, which can be used to generate energy. The primary by-products of metabolism are carbon dioxide and water; carbon dioxide is expelled through the respiratory system.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '562788',
'title': 'Basal metabolic rate',
'section': 'Section::::Biochemistry.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
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'passage_text': 'About 70% of a human\'s total energy expenditure is due to the basal life processes taking place in the organs of the body (see table). About 20% of one\'s energy expenditure comes from physical activity and another 10% from thermogenesis, or digestion of food ("postprandial thermogenesis"). All of these processes require an intake of oxygen along with coenzymes to provide energy for survival (usually from macronutrients like carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) and expel carbon dioxide, due to processing by the Krebs cycle.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'When someone’s metabolism speeds up where does the extra energy go?',
'selftext': 'So if two people eat 2000 cals a day. If the person with the slow metabolism puts the energy on as fat. What happens to the person with the quick metabolism? Where does it go?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The extra energy is used, primarily for movement. People with a fast metabolism tend to be a lot more active.',
'Your body is in a constant state of two processes: \n[Gluconeogenesis](_URL_0_)- the building up of sugar chains in order to store and transfer energy \n[Glycolysis](_URL_1_)- the breaking down of sugar chains to use energy to do work\n\nWhat is important to know about these two processes is: \n1) They are almost exactly the same, just reversed \n2) Some energy is lost in each reaction as heat\n\nFor your example where the metabolism is higher in one person over another (but no additional work has been done); essentially the person with higher metabolism is performing the buildup and breakdown reactions more. As the reactions are performed more and more, more energy is lost as heat.\n\nTL;DR- The body is artificially generating heat.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9t1sh9',
'query': 'when someone’s metabolism speeds up where does the extra energy go?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '562788',
'title': 'Basal metabolic rate',
'section': 'Section::::Biochemistry.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
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'passage_text': 'About 70% of a human\'s total energy expenditure is due to the basal life processes taking place in the organs of the body (see table). About 20% of one\'s energy expenditure comes from physical activity and another 10% from thermogenesis, or digestion of food ("postprandial thermogenesis"). All of these processes require an intake of oxygen along with coenzymes to provide energy for survival (usually from macronutrients like carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) and expel carbon dioxide, due to processing by the Krebs cycle.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8460',
'title': 'Dieting',
'section': 'Section::::How the body eliminates fat.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 30,
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'passage_text': "When the body is expending more energy than it is consuming (e.g. when exercising), the body's cells rely on internally stored energy sources, such as complex carbohydrates and fats, for energy. The first source to which the body turns is glycogen (by glycogenolysis). Glycogen is a complex carbohydrate, 65% of which is stored in skeletal muscles and the remainder in the liver (totaling about 2,000 kcal in the whole body). It is created from the excess of ingested macronutrients, mainly carbohydrates. When glycogen is nearly depleted, the body begins lipolysis, the mobilization and catabolism of fat stores for energy. In this process fats, obtained from adipose tissue, or fat cells, are broken down into glycerol and fatty acids, which can be used to generate energy. The primary by-products of metabolism are carbon dioxide and water; carbon dioxide is expelled through the respiratory system.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17454631',
'title': 'Selfish brain theory',
'section': 'Section::::The explanatory power of the Selfish Brain theory.:Energy procurement by the brain.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Energy procurement by the brain is complicated by three factors. Firstly, the brain always requests energy whenever it is needed. It can only store energy in a very restricted form. Peters therefore refers to this as an "energy on demand" system. Secondly, the brain is almost exclusively dependent on glucose as an ATP-substrate. Lactate and betahydroxybutyric acid can also be considered as substrates, but only under certain conditions, e.g. with considerable stress levels or malnutrition. Thirdly, the brain is separated from the rest of the body’s circulation by the blood-brain-barrier. The blood glucose has to be brought there via a special, insulin-independent transporter.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '340757',
'title': 'Internal energy',
'section': 'Section::::Description and definition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
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'passage_text': 'Internal energy does not include the energy due to motion or location of a system as a whole. That is to say, it excludes any kinetic or potential energy the body may have because of its motion or location in external gravitational, electrostatic, or electromagnetic fields. It does, however, include the contribution of such a field to the energy due to the coupling of the internal degrees of freedom of the object with the field. In such a case, the field is included in the thermodynamic description of the object in the form of an additional external parameter.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9649',
'title': 'Energy',
'section': 'Section::::Scientific use.:Biology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'In biology, energy is an attribute of all biological systems from the biosphere to the smallest living organism. Within an organism it is responsible for growth and development of a biological cell or an organelle of a biological organism. Energy is thus often said to be stored by cells in the structures of molecules of substances such as carbohydrates (including sugars), lipids, and proteins, which release energy when reacted with oxygen in respiration. In human terms, the human equivalent (H-e) (Human energy conversion) indicates, for a given amount of energy expenditure, the relative quantity of energy needed for human metabolism, assuming an average human energy expenditure of 12,500\xa0kJ per day and a basal metabolic rate of 80 watts. For example, if our bodies run (on average) at 80 watts, then a light bulb running at 100 watts is running at 1.25 human equivalents (100 ÷ 80) i.e. 1.25 H-e. For a difficult task of only a few seconds\' duration, a person can put out thousands of watts, many times the 746 watts in one official horsepower. For tasks lasting a few minutes, a fit human can generate perhaps 1,000 watts. For an activity that must be sustained for an hour, output drops to around 300; for an activity kept up all day, 150 watts is about the maximum. The human equivalent assists understanding of energy flows in physical and biological systems by expressing energy units in human terms: it provides a "feel" for the use of a given amount of energy.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '92222',
'title': 'Kundalini yoga',
'section': 'Section::::Principles and methodology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
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'passage_text': 'This energy is said to travel along the ida (left), pingala (right) and central, or sushumna nadi - the main channels of pranic energy in the body. A recent article has suggested that the process may be mediated by vagus nerve.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39221',
'title': 'Thermodynamic free energy',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.:Meaning of "free".\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 1691,
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'passage_text': 'The basic definition of "energy" is a measure of a body\'s (in thermodynamics, the system\'s) ability to cause change. For example, when a person pushes a heavy box a few meters forward, that person exerts mechanical energy, also known as work, on the box over a distance of a few meters forward. The mathematical definition of this form of energy is the product of the force exerted on the object and the distance by which the box moved (Work=Force x Distance). Because the person changed the stationary position of the box, that person exerted energy on that box. The work exerted can also be called "useful energy". Because energy was converted from one form into the intended purpose, i.e. mechanical utilisation. For the case of the person pushing the box, the energy in the form of internal (or potential) energy obtained through metabolism was converted into work in order to push the box. This energy conversion, however, was not straight-forward. In other words, while some internal energy went into pushing the box, some was diverted away (lost) in the form of heat (transferred thermal energy). For a reversible process, heat is the product of the absolute temperature "T" and the change in entropy "S" of a body (entropy is a measure of disorder in a system). The difference between the change in internal energy, which is ΔU, and the energy lost in the form of heat is what is called the "useful energy" of the body, or the work of the body performed on an object. In thermodynamics, this is what is known as "free energy". In other words, free energy is a measure of work (useful energy) a system can perform at constant temperature. Mathematically, free energy is expressed as:\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Where does our bodily energy go when we don't use it?",
'selftext': "For example if you get really riled up to the point where you look berserk or you're high on some kind of crazy drug that's making you feel like exploding out of your skin then you just stop and sit there or go to sleep, was there ever more potential energy inside your body before you calmed down? If not how does that work? And if so, where does the energy go? Or is the energy simply used to power the involuntary functions of the body? If energy can't be created or destroyed, where does the energy from someone on cocaine come from?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["You're conflating the physical concept of energy with the abstract human feeling of being energetic. They are not the same at all. Being riled up doesn't mean your body contains more energy, it's just how you feel. Your body isn't a vessel that stores energy until it reaches some peak and explodes. That's not what potential energy is, that's a completely unrelated concept. Drugs don't contain calories so they don't give you any energy, only food does. In fact, stimulant drugs tend to speed up your metabolism which makes you burn energy even faster. You're always using energy from metabolizing food, and if you're consuming more energy from calories than you use, your body turns it into fat."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'ez8dab',
'query': "where does our bodily energy go when we don't use it?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '11780303',
'title': 'Van Mahotsav',
'section': 'Section::::Aims.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'Planting of trees also serves other purposes like providing alternative fuel options, food for cattle, helps in soil conservation and more than anything offers a natural aesthetic beauty. Planting of trees also helps to avoid soil erosion which may cause floods. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50966598',
'title': 'Nothaphoebe umbelliflora',
'section': 'Section::::Uses and economic considerations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'end_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'The project has helped farmers achieve better security through permanent land certificates and diversifying crops, so that they have a crop to sell as well as permanent homes, and are not dependent on subsistence farming alone. Cultivated bong trees, when farmers are properly harvesting the bark, can yield for up to 50 years.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29062822',
'title': "Plant A Tree In '73",
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "Plant A Tree In '73 was a Government-sponsored national campaign in the United Kingdom, aimed at encouraging the population to participate by planting trees during the 1973 'National Tree Planting Year'. At the time a new, virulent strain of Dutch Elm Disease was sweeping the country, killing millions of trees.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3480522',
'title': 'Silvopasture',
'section': 'Section::::Methods.:Establishment.:Integrating trees into pasture.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'end_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'Planting trees into existing pasture presents several challenges: young trees must be protected from livestock, trees may take years to become productive (depending on the species), and planting trees in a pasture can limit the ability to use that land for other purposes in the future.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12084557',
'title': 'Sustainable planting',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Sustainable planting is an approach to planting design and landscaping-gardening that balances the need for resource conservation with the needs of farmers pursuing their livelihood. The demand on resources, specifically land/crops, is constantly increasing due to the long human lifespan. It is a form of sustainable agriculture and, “it considers long-term as well as short-term economics because sustainability is readily defined as forever, that is, agricultural environments that are designed to promote endless regeneration”.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13105009',
'title': 'Christmas tree cultivation',
'section': 'Section::::Environmental effect.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 1120,
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'passage_text': "A 1998 report from the Michigan State University Agricultural Experiment Station predicted increasing environmental concerns about tree production and use as one possible reason people may favor artificial trees in the future. The report cited the use of fertilizers and pesticides and increasing concerns regarding tree disposal as the chief elements in its prediction. Critics of tree farming have raised the concerns highlighted in the 1998\xa0report, as well as other issues, such as the effect that large-scale tree farming operations have on biodiversity. Pesticide use on Christmas tree farms is one of the main concerns of environmentalists; fir trees are vulnerable to a wide array of pests and diseases which requires the use of pesticides and other chemicals including the widely used herbicide glyphosate. Glyphosate is commonly used in Christmas tree production in the U.S. state of North Carolina, where studies have found traces of agricultural chemicals in homes and tree industry workers' urine samples. The average Christmas tree receives roughly a half of an\xa0ounce (14\xa0g) of pesticide over its lifetime.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17748822',
'title': 'Three lookouts',
'section': 'Section::::Research and experiments conducted.:Forestry.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
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'passage_text': 'Trees were planted in the lookouts in order to shield the agricultural land from storms and moving sand. It was hoped that some of these would also turn a profit. In the years 1943–1948, about 500,000 seedlings were planted, with species including tamarix, eucalyptus, cypress and others.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is planting trees so important when farmers plant millions of plants every year?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Many reasons.\n\nTrees are much larger than what a farmer plants. When they grow they provide homes for many animals and one tree is better for the environment than an acre of a crop.\n\nTrees provide shade, they can live for many years, cleaning the air..\n\nTrees have deep roots which are good for the soil. They reach deep and pull up nutrients and when established the trees don't need watering. To compare most crops have very shallow roots which means the farmer needs to add nutrients to the soil and they may need watering (irrigation).\n\nFarmers crops are mono-culture (one type of plant). Mono-culture environments are sterile and don't support much other life, a tree will soon have a forest around it, including trees of other types, shrubs, moss, and so forth, all creating a nicer environment.\n\nAlso remember farmers crops are short lived - harvested after a few months and often the field is left bare after that and some top soil will even blow away (or get washed off in the rain). So you only have the benefit of the plants for a few months and the plants are pretty small in comparison to a tree and don't do much for reducing carbon from the air like a tree does. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6p11v8',
'query': 'why is planting trees so important when farmers plant millions of plants every year?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '6476284',
'title': 'Insertional mutagenesis',
'section': 'Section::::Virus insertional mutagenesis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'Because many viruses integrate their own genomes into the genomes of their host cells in order to replicate, mutagenesis caused by viral infections is a fairly common occurrence. Not all integrating viruses cause insertional mutagenesis, however.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3783315',
'title': 'Virus latency',
'section': 'Section::::Ramifications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'While viral latency exhibits no active viral shedding nor causes any pathologies or symptoms, the virus is still able to reactivate via external activators (i.e. sunlight, stress) to cause an acute infection. In the case of herpes simplex virus, which generally infects an individual for life, a serotype of the virus reactivates occasionally to cause cold sores. Although the sores are quickly resolved by the immune system, they may be a minor annoyance from time to time. In the case of varicella zoster virus, after an initial acute infection (chickenpox) the virus lies dormant until reactivated as herpes zoster.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14579421',
'title': 'Introduction to viruses',
'section': 'Section::::Effects on the host cell.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 39,
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'passage_text': 'Some viruses cause no apparent changes to the infected cell. Cells in which the virus is latent and inactive show few signs of infection and often function normally. This causes persistent infections and the virus is often dormant for many months or years. This is often the case with herpes viruses.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19167679',
'title': 'Virus',
'section': 'Section::::Microbiology.:Dormant and latent infections.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 68,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 68,
'end_character': 301,
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'passage_text': 'Some viruses cause no apparent changes to the infected cell. Cells in which the virus is latent and inactive show few signs of infection and often function normally. This causes persistent infections and the virus is often dormant for many months or years. This is often the case with herpes viruses.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '416954',
'title': 'Viral evolution',
'section': 'Section::::Evolution.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 375,
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'passage_text': 'Many viruses (for example, influenza A virus) can "shuffle" their genes with other viruses when two similar strains infect the same cell. This phenomenon is called genetic shift, and is often the cause of new and more virulent strains appearing. Other viruses change more slowly as mutations in their genes gradually accumulate over time, a process known as antigenic drift.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34217148',
'title': 'Vectors in gene therapy',
'section': 'Section::::Viruses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'There are two main types of virus infection: lytic and lysogenic. Shortly after inserting its DNA, viruses of the lytic cycle quickly produce more viruses, burst from the cell and infect more cells. Lysogenic viruses integrate their DNA into the DNA of the host cell and may live in the body for many years before responding to a trigger. The virus reproduces as the cell does and does not inflict bodily harm until it is triggered. The trigger releases the DNA from that of the host and employs it to create new viruses.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19167679',
'title': 'Virus',
'section': 'Section::::Role in human disease.:Prevention and treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 107,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 107,
'end_character': 358,
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'passage_text': 'Because viruses use vital metabolic pathways within host cells to replicate, they are difficult to eliminate without using drugs that cause toxic effects to host cells in general. The most effective medical approaches to viral diseases are vaccinations to provide immunity to infection, and antiviral drugs that selectively interfere with viral replication.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why are viruses so difficult to get rid of? If they mutate too quickly, how do they retain their orignal side effect? (Common Cold, HIV, Herpes)',
'selftext': "As per title, (resubmitted due to lack of flair), how come it's nigh impossible to get rid of viruses? If they mutate so fast, how do they retain their original effect on the human body? If they keep on mutating, there should be a chance that some viruses will mutate into something our immune system is good at killing, right?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Two different questions, two different responses:\n\nDifficulty of removal could fall into two camps, eradication of a given virus, or clearing of all viruses from a given area. Both are difficult due to different reasons.\n\nViruses aren\'t alive per se, they need a cell to reproduce (of which they don\'t have). So with cleansers and what not that are meant to degrade or kill living organisms, viruses persist. You need to degrade the very structures of viruses to remove them.\n\nEradication of a virus is the crux of your second question, regarding mutation.\n\nMutations are *not* "decided" by a virus. Evolution works by random mutations showing up. The advantageous mutations (hardiness, virulence, transmission rate and method) are kept, as it allows the virus to flourish. Negative mutations simply die off due to the inability to compete. So over time, the virus gets more capable as its less-capable brethren are weeded out due to competition.\n\nThis applies to all evolution, from viruses to animals, plants and fungi. Humans are constantly evolving their immune systems (innately and in a reactive way, the term "evolving" here is literal and metaphorical) to defend from bacteria, viruses and everything else.\n\nThe real reason viruses are dangerous, is that they can "reproduce" very quickly and are prone to mutation (for various reasons). This means they can outpace humans in the great arms race of life (immune system features vs. infiltration features of invaders) and always seem a step ahead.\n\nFinally, most viruses that mutate will gain a negative trait (to their fitness and replication) and immediately die off, or the mutation will change absolutely nothing in how they function.\n\n',
"First of all, you have to distinguish between RNA and DNA viruses. Mutations rarely occurs in DNA viruses but are frequent in RNA viruses (just think about the common flu virus). The problem with viruses is that they use the transcriptional/traslational apparatus of the cell for their replication so their life circle would be linked to the one of the cell too. Due to that, any kind of treatment will inevitably affect also the cell. That's why bacteria infections are commonly more eradicable than viruses' and for the latter we prefer prevention (for example vaccines -- exception: some viruses don't have any antigen linked to the disease, like HCV). \n[The most frequent drugs used for viruses have such targets: virus genome, virus proteases or virus polymerases.]",
"So 2 things with your question:\n\nfirst you need to know our immune system fights viruses by having white blood cells that have many different 'hooks' and those hooks catch the surface of those viruses. If a white blood cell catches a virus it hooks get reproduced. Viruses like the Common Cold change their surface fast. So our immune system is not really good against those.\n\nSecond mutation and viruses and evolution. If a virus mutates so we can kill it, that virus doesn't reproduce anymore. And all the other viruses without that mutation (basically the siblings) are still around and reproduce. So evolution screws us over here. But it also makes diseases less deadly for its host species over time, since a dead host doesn't spread the disease around.\n\nTo the original side effects: some symptoms of the common cold are reactions of your body to help fight the virus. Others are effects from the virus (like HIV attacks your immune system) that are caused by parts that don't change as fast as the surface of the virus. \n\nAlso I would guess if the symptoms change too much, we give the disease a different name."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8qjbqp',
'query': 'why are viruses so difficult to get rid of? if they mutate too quickly, how do they retain their orignal side effect? (common cold, hiv, herpes)',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '40944296',
'title': 'Social mirror theory',
'section': 'Section::::Basic concepts of mimicry.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 425,
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'passage_text': "Facial Mimicry defined is the resemblance shown by one animal species to another which protects it from predators, perceived or otherwise. Dimberg's research revealed that mothers tend to open their mouths in response to their infants opening and closing the mouth to feed. There is substantial and compelling evidence that supports mimicry of facial expressions occurs automatically. (Dimberg, Thumber, and Elmeched, 2000).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '464447',
'title': 'Animal communication',
'section': 'Section::::Other aspects.:Human behaviour.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 68,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 68,
'end_character': 797,
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'passage_text': 'Another controversial issue is the extent to which human behaviours resemble animal communication, or whether all such communication has disappeared as a result of our linguistic capacity. Some of our bodily features—eyebrows, beards and moustaches, deep adult male voices, perhaps female breasts—strongly resemble adaptations to producing signals. Ethologists such as Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt have argued that facial gestures such as smiling, grimacing, and the "eyebrow flash" on greeting are universal human communicative signals that can be related to corresponding signals in other primates. Given how recently spoken language has emerged, it is very likely that human body language does include some more or less involuntary responses that have a similar origin to the communication we have.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '464447',
'title': 'Animal communication',
'section': 'Section::::Modes.:Visual.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Facial expression: Facial gestures play an important role in animal communication. Often a facial gesture is a signal of emotion. Dogs, for example, express anger through snarling and showing their teeth. In alarm their ears perk up, in fear the ears flatten while the dogs expose their teeth slightly and squint their eyes. Jeffrey Mogil studied the facial expressions of mice during increments of increasing pain; there were five recognizable facial expressions; orbital tightening, nose and cheek bulge, and changes in ear and whisker carriage.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '49083018',
'title': 'Grimace scale (animals)',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Facial expressions have long been considered as indicators of emotion in both human and non-human animals. The biologist, Charles Darwin, considered that non-human animals exhibit similar facial expressions to emotional states as do humans. The assessment of changes in human anatomy during facial expressions were successfully translated from humans to non-human primates, such as the chimpanzee (ChimpFACS ) and rhesus macaque (MaqFACS ), but were not originally applied to assess pain in these species. In 2010, a team of researchers successfully developed the first method to assess pain using changes in facial expression in any non-human animal species. Broadly speaking, GS quantify spontaneous pain according to objective and blinded scoring of facial expressions, as is done routinely for the measurement of pain in non-verbal humans. Observers score the presence and extent of "facial action units" (FAU), e.g. Orbital Tightening, Nose Bulge, Ear Position and Whisker Change. These are scored in real-time by observing the animal directly, or, post hoc from photographs or screen-grabs from videos.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9703',
'title': 'Evolutionary psychology',
'section': 'Section::::In psychology sub-fields.:Social psychology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 136,
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'passage_text': 'When endeavouring to solve a problem humans at an early age show determination while chimpanzees have no comparable facial expression. Researchers suspect the human determined expression evolved because when a human is determinedly working on a problem other people will frequently help.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '968202',
'title': 'Dog intelligence',
'section': 'Section::::Emotional intelligence.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
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'passage_text': "There is evidence that dogs can discriminate the emotional expressions of human faces. In addition, they seem to respond to faces in somewhat the same way as humans. For example, humans tend to gaze at the right side of a person's face, which may be related to the use of right brain hemisphere for facial recognition. Research indicates that dogs also fixate the right side of a human face, but not that of other dogs or other animals. Dogs are the only non-primate species known to do so.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20903754',
'title': 'Robotics',
'section': 'Section::::Components.:Human-robot interaction.:Facial expression.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 130,
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'passage_text': 'Facial expressions can provide rapid feedback on the progress of a dialog between two humans, and soon may be able to do the same for humans and robots. Robotic faces have been constructed by Hanson Robotics using their elastic polymer called Frubber, allowing a large number of facial expressions due to the elasticity of the rubber facial coating and embedded subsurface motors (servos). The coating and servos are built on a metal skull. A robot should know how to approach a human, judging by their facial expression and body language. Whether the person is happy, frightened, or crazy-looking affects the type of interaction expected of the robot. Likewise, robots like Kismet and the more recent addition, Nexi can produce a range of facial expressions, allowing it to have meaningful social exchanges with humans.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Do other animals actually have “human” facial expressions (Smiles, Frowns, Furrowed brows) or is it just our minds WANTING to see facial expressions in animals?',
'selftext': 'I have seen pictures of frowning bunnies, smiling elephants, sad giraffes, laughing monkeys. It seems like facial expressions are not just human traits but I want to know if there’s any sort of scientific studies to prove/disprove this theory',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['I believe it somewhat has to do with a cognitive phenomena called Pareidolia - in which our brains responds to certain visual stimuli that evokes the recognition of some pattern (like a anthropomorphic expression) where none exists. Please take a look at this article in Wikipedia. \n\n_URL_0_',
'Other apes use facial expressions to communicate emotions and messages. But im not sure if its specific to primates.',
'Sure. A dog will squint different way with either pain or pleasure. We humans pick up on it. ',
'Ok so let me give it a go again. You know how sometimes you look at some objects and you think "oh, that kinda looks like a smiling face" or something like that? That is your brain creating an image of something familiar out of some clues you are looking at. This is an ability that our brains have that makes us understand when someone is happy, sad and so on by looking at their faces. \n\n\nWhen you look at an object or an animal, your brain looks for the same clues. So if you see the corners of a mouth (or something that is where the mouth is supposed to be) curled up, your brain says "smile". If it is curled down, it says. "sad".\n\n We try to give the same meaning specially to animals that have the same face characteristics - mouth, nose, eyes - because it is part of our instinct as well. You don\'t mess with a dog that is showing its teeth in a certain way because the it clearly says "pissed off". And you don\'t have to be an adult to know that. \n\nHope this one is better?'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8ny8aj',
'query': 'do other animals actually have “human” facial expressions (smiles, frowns, furrowed brows) or is it just our minds wanting to see facial expressions in animals?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3098197',
'title': 'Air door',
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'passage_text': 'An air door or air curtain is a device used to prevent air or contaminants from moving from one open space to another. The most common use is a downward-facing blower fan mounted over an entrance to a building, or an opening between two spaces conditioned at different temperatures.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13804732',
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'passage_text': 'In architecture, an airshaft is a small, vertical space within a tall building which permits ventilation of the building\'s interior spaces to the outside. The floorplan of a building with an airshaft is often described as a "square donut" shape. Alternatively, an airshaft may be formed between two adjacent buildings. Windows on the interior side of the donut allow air from the building to be exhausted into the shaft, and, depending on the height and width of the shaft, may also allow extra sunlight inside.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3098197',
'title': 'Air door',
'section': 'Section::::Effectiveness.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'Airflow through a door depends on wind forces, temperature differences (convection), and pressure differences. Air doors work best when the pressure differential between the inside and outside of the building is as close to neutral as possible. Negative pressures, extreme temperature differences, elevators in close proximity, or extreme humidity can reduce the effectiveness of air doors.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '379303',
'title': 'Gas exchange',
'section': 'Section::::Mammals.:Alveolar air.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
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'passage_text': 'Air is brought to the alveoli in small doses (called the tidal volume), by breathing in (inhalation) and out (exhalation) through the respiratory airways, a set of relatively narrow and moderately long tubes which start at the nose or mouth and end in the alveoli of the lungs in the chest. Air moves in and out through the same set of tubes, in which the flow is in one direction during inhalation, and in the opposite direction during exhalation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42069804',
'title': 'Airflow window',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The movement of air through the cavity can be forced (by means of mechanical devices such as fans), or occur freely, by means of convection. Whether the air flow is free or forced can affect energy efficiency of the window.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7942279',
'title': 'Room air distribution',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Characterizing how air is introduced to, flows through, and is removed from spaces is called room air distribution. HVAC airflow in spaces generally can be classified by two different types: "mixing" (or dilution) and "displacement". \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '393813',
'title': 'Boussinesq approximation (buoyancy)',
'section': 'Section::::Inversions.\n',
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'passage_text': 'For example, consider an open window in a warm room. The warm air inside is less dense than the cold air outside, which flows into the room and down towards the floor. Now imagine the opposite: a cold room exposed to warm outside air. Here the air flowing in moves up toward the ceiling. If the flow is Boussinesq (and the room is otherwise symmetrical), then viewing the cold room upside down is exactly the same as viewing the warm room right-way-round. This is because the only way density enters the problem is via the reduced gravity which undergoes only a sign change when changing from the warm room flow to the cold room flow.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does air move across a room?',
'selftext': "I'm sitting in my house and just closed a window - 3 metres away on the other side of the room, the door rattled and then opened as a result of me closing the window. Can someone explain how shutting the window shook and opened the door on the other side? Thanks",
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': [" > just closed a window (...) the door rattled\n\nThat shouldn't happen, unless you're leaving something out or missed the sequence of events.\n\nUsually, shutting a door can rattle a window, but not the other way around, because doors swing and windows merely close.\n\nIt's air pressure. When a door swings closed, it's pushing air in front of it, which can increase or decrease pressure in a room. That, in turn, affects the ratio of internal and external air pressure on a window, causing it to rattle.",
"Air pressure. My house has really weird pressure. I can close a door on one end of the house, and if the garage door isn't latched right, it'll open and then SLAM shut."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'butafk',
'query': 'how does air move across a room?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '226597',
'title': 'Mutual fund',
'section': 'Section::::Definitions of key terms.:Market capitalization.\n',
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'passage_text': "Market capitalization equals the number of a company's shares outstanding multiplied by the market price of the stock. Market capitalization is an indication of the size of a company. Typical ranges of market capitalizations are:\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '987604',
'title': "Tobin's q",
'section': 'Section::::Effect on capital investment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': "If a company's stock price (which is a measure of the company's capital market value) is $2 and the price of the capital in the current market is $1, so that q 1, the company can issue shares and with the proceeds invest in capital, thus obtaining economic profit.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58829',
'title': 'Market capitalization',
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'passage_text': "Market capitalization is equal to the share price multiplied by the number of shares outstanding. As outstanding stock is bought and sold in public markets, capitalization could be used as an indicator of public opinion of a company's net worth and is a determining factor in some forms of stock valuation.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14094649',
'title': 'List of public corporations by market capitalization',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Market capitalization is calculated from the share price (as recorded on selected day) multiplied by the number of outstanding shares. Figures are converted into USD millions (using rate from selected day) to allow for comparison. Only companies with free float at least 15% are included, value of unlisted stock classes is excluded. Investment companies are not included in the list.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58829',
'title': 'Market capitalization',
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'passage_text': 'Market capitalization is used by the investment community in ranking the size of companies, as opposed to sales or total asset figures. It is also used in ranking the relative size of stock exchanges, being a measure of the sum of the market capitalizations of all companies listed on each stock exchange. In performing such rankings, the market capitalizations are calculated at some significant date, such as June 30 or December 31.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1483633',
'title': 'Securities market',
'section': 'Section::::Levels of securities market.:Primary market.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The primary market is that part of the capital markets that deals with the issue of new securities. Companies, governments or public sector institutions can obtain funding through the sale of a new stock or bond issue. This is typically done through a syndicate of securities dealers. The process of selling new issues to investors is called underwriting. In the case of a new stock issue, this sale is a public offering. Dealers earn a commission that is built into the price of the security offering, though it can be found in the prospectus. Primary markets create long term instruments through which corporate entities borrow from capital market...\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '347107',
'title': 'Valuation (finance)',
'section': 'Section::::Specialised cases.:Valuation of intangible assets.\n',
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'passage_text': "Stock markets give indirectly an estimate of a corporation's intangible asset value. It can be reckoned as the difference between its market capitalisation and its book value (by including only hard assets in it).\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Market capitalization when it comes to purchasing a company.',
'selftext': "Here is my understanding of market capitalization: outstanding shares x stock price = market cap. The market cap is in essence the value of the company. Recently Humana announced they would be buying Kindred Healthcare for $4.1B. Kindred's market cap is $822M at the time of this writing. Wouldn't that mean that Humana is paying more than 4x what Kindred is actually worth? I'm so confused. Please ELI5. Thank you in advance!",
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Often the buying company must pay a premium to the traded price, to acquire the company, but usually this premium is 20-50% of the pre-offer share price. \n\nOne thing that isn't in the market cap but is usually part of the purchase price is the assumption of debt. If Kindred owed roughly $3.3 billion to its creditors, the purchase price could be $4.1 billion with only $800 million going to shareholders. The idea being the purchase of two otherwise identical businesses, one financed by mostly equity while another financed by mostly debt should probably have the same purchase price. \n\nI didn't see the deal press release, but did find an article with this:\n\n > Kindred, which had $7 billion in revenues last year, has been weighed down with *$3.2 billion in long-term debt.*\n\nSo Humana is paying $800ish million for the equity in Kindred Healthcare, but also will have to repay Kindred's creditors $3.2 billion. It's fairly common to include both of these when reporting the amount spent on a merger. \n\nWhoa, thanks for the gold!",
"There are many different ways to value an asset, be that a house, a single square of toilet paper, or a company. At any given moment, the different ways to value an asset can be equal or vastly different. However, the actual price of something at any given time is the intersection of supply and demand.\n\nIn terms of valuation there are many ways to value something.\n\n* There's **replacement cost**: how much money would I need to spend to replace this exact asset at this particular moment in time with another of the same quality. Car insurance companies use this when valuing your car in case it gets 'totaled'. A car is totaled when the cost to repair it is greater than the cost to buy a similar car (before the damage) on the open market. This is why a 15 year old car with 250k miles on it can be totaled after a fender-bender. A insurance company would prefer to pay the $900 to buy a comparable copy of your car versus what it would cost to repair it.\n\nLet's look at a bottle of water as an example. I can buy a bottle of water at a gas station for $1.19. If I walk out of a gas station after purchasing a bottle of water and it gets stolen, the replacement cost of that bottle will be another $1.19 plus the effort it takes to go back inside and retrieve another one.\n\n* **Market Capitalization** is exactly what you described. The number of outstanding shares times the price per share. For public companies, this price is the aggregate of all publicly available knowledge about a company's value. In layman's terms, this means that across however millions of shareholders a company has, their collective average valuation of that company at any given picosecond is the market capitalization at that moment.\n\nSince a Market Cap is the crowdsourced valuation of a company, it will include things that don't affect other types of valuations. Wall Street's perception about who's running a corporation, where the company is incorporated, how many (and how serious) pending lawsuits it may be exposed to all affect how people perceive a company's current value (or, more importantly, how they think it will be valued in the future). \n\nThis is why companies like Tesla have a huge market capitalization relative to the value of their physical assets. People *think* Tesla will be more valuable in the future than it is today, so its market capitalization is nearly equal to a physically much larger car manufacturer like General Motors. \n\nUsing our water bottle example, Market Capitalization would be like getting a million people into a room and asking everyone how much each would pay for one water bottle ($1.19). Then taking their average price to determine the value of 100,000 water bottles ($119,000).\n\n* There's also **intrinsic value** which takes into account how a company generates cash. Value investors calculate a company's intrinsic value and compare it to the market cap to see if a company is over or undervalued at any given time.\n\nIf I own a 100 water bottles, using the market capitalization method I have $119 worth of assets. But, if in real life I am selling those bottles for $2 each, my assets are worth much more than what my market cap is suggesting. My intrinsic value, in this example would be much higher than $119 because the cash I generate from my assets is higher than what the market gives me credit for.\n\nFinally, we come to price in the real world. Buyers of public companies almost always need to pay more than the market cap for a number of reasons.\n\nOne, you need to convince the target's shareholders to actually sell their stock. Remember, a company's current price is the aggregate of the collective knowledge of its shareholders. This means that a company's shareholder are, at any given time, happy with their expectation of prices. No one would continue to own a share of a company if they *think* the price was going to get worse, they all continue to own shares because they think the price will increase. So, to purchase all of the shares of another company, you have to buy them for more than what the average shareholder thinks they're going to be worth.\n\nSecond, a market cap is the valuation of a company given all publicly available information. Publicly available is a key distinction. All companies have trade secrets, secret product development pipelines, and their own secret sauce that only they know about and control. The secret sides of a company are sometimes called 'goodwill' on a balance sheet because its made up of things that aren't able to be easily valued. \n\nIn pharmaceuticals, the difference between physical value and goodwill can be extreme and nearly impossible to valuate. The cure to the common cold could make a small lab of five researchers worth billions of dollars. But, if they fail to get their promising drug past FDA regulations, they're literally worthless.\n\nFinally, there are a host of other reasons to pay more for a company. Maybe you're paying gobs of money for a company because you don't want your competitor to purchase them. Maybe they have a key patent to a widget that you want to include in your next gadget and without the rights to that widget, your gadget is worthless. Or maybe you're under intense pressure from your own shareholders to grow your company and Company Z is up for sale.\n\nThis gets us to supply and demand and real price. Humana is spending $4.1 billion on Kindred because Kindred is worth $4.1 billion to Humana. All of Humana's internal valuations of Kindred's product line, services, people, patents, and more sum up to $4.1 billion (or more). Kindred's selling to Humana because their internal valuation of all of those things is $4.1 billion (or less).\n\n\n\n\n"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '7mfn3y',
'query': 'market capitalization when it comes to purchasing a company.',
'query_type': 'Economics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2707448',
'title': 'Code bloat',
'section': 'Section::::Code density of different languages.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The difference in code density between various computer languages is so great that often less memory is needed to hold both a program written in a "compact" language (such as a domain-specific programming language, Microsoft P-Code, or threaded code), plus an interpreter for that compact language (written in native code), than to hold that program written directly in native code.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5739',
'title': 'Compiler',
'section': 'Section::::Compiled versus interpreted languages.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Higher-level programming languages usually appear with a type of translation in mind: either designed as compiled language or interpreted language. However, in practice there is rarely anything about a language that "requires" it to be exclusively compiled or exclusively interpreted, although it is possible to design languages that rely on re-interpretation at run time. The categorization usually reflects the most popular or widespread implementations of a language — for instance, BASIC is sometimes called an interpreted language, and C a compiled one, despite the existence of BASIC compilers and C interpreters.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '314905',
'title': 'Reflection (computer programming)',
'section': 'Section::::Implementation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Compiled languages rely on their runtime system to provide information about the source code. A compiled Objective-C executable, for example, records the names of all methods in a block of the executable, providing a table to correspond these with the underlying methods (or selectors for these methods) compiled into the program. In a compiled language that supports runtime creation of functions, such as Common Lisp, the runtime environment must include a compiler or an interpreter.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2106840',
'title': 'Runtime system',
'section': 'Section::::Advanced features.\n',
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'passage_text': "Some compiled or interpreted languages provide an interface that allows application code to interact directly with the runtime system. An example is the codice_1 class in the Java language. The class allows code (that is animated by one thread) to do things such as start and stop other threads. Normally, core aspects of a language's behavior such as task scheduling and resource management are not accessible in this fashion.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3206060',
'title': 'Syntax (programming languages)',
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'passage_text': 'In computer science, the syntax of a computer language is the set of rules that defines the combinations of symbols that are considered to be a correctly structured document or fragment in that language. This applies both to programming languages, where the document represents source code, and markup languages, where the document represents data. The syntax of a language defines its surface form. Text-based computer languages are based on sequences of characters, while visual programming languages are based on the spatial layout and connections between symbols (which may be textual or graphical). Documents that are syntactically invalid are said to have a syntax error.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18968719',
'title': 'Measuring programming language popularity',
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'passage_text': 'It is difficult to determine which programming languages are "most widely used" because what usage means varies by context. One language may occupy the greater number of programmer hours, a different one have more lines of code, a third may utilize the most CPU time, and so on. Some languages are very popular for particular kinds of applications. For example, COBOL is still strong in the corporate data center, often on large mainframes; Fortran in computational science and engineering; C in embedded applications and operating systems; and other languages are regularly used to write many different kinds of applications.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15089',
'title': 'Interpreted language',
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'passage_text': 'The terms "interpreted language" and "compiled language" are not well defined because, in theory, any programming language can be either interpreted or compiled. In modern programming language implementation, it is increasingly popular for a platform to provide both options.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'the difference between interpreted and compiled computer languages?',
'selftext': "I'm teaching myself code right now and this subject has come up here and there. I feel like I understand general qualities of the two languages but don't have a fundamental understanding of what they truly are.",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Compiled languages are translated directly into the machine code that the processor can execute. It would be like taking a cookbook written in Greek, and getting it translated to a cookbook written in English. Once you have the translated cookbook, you can then follow the recipes (as can everyone else that reads English).\n\nInterpreted languages are translated on the fly. It would be like having a professional Greek interpreter sitting next to you, and you\'d go "ok, what next?" and the Greek guy would be "Add half a cup of broth" and so on. The upside is that you didn\'t have to wait for him to translate the whole damn book, and if the original author makes changes to the book in Greek, you don\'t have to go retranslate it. The downside is that now whoever wants to use the recipe book has to have the Greek guy sitting next to them.\n\nCompiled languages are usually faster to run, but they require a "build" step which can be time consuming, and is effectively when the translation to machine code is done.\n\nInterpreted languages don\'t usually require a \'build\' step, but they usually don\'t run quite as fast, because they need to have the interpreter there, translating everything as the program runs.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6ivo3l',
'query': 'the difference between interpreted and compiled computer languages?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '102858',
'title': 'Cell theory',
'section': 'Section::::Microscopes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'Optical microscopes can focus on objects the size of a wavelength or larger, giving restrictions still to advancement in discoveries with objects smaller than the wavelengths of visible light. Later in the 1920s, the electron microscope was developed, making it possible to view objects that are smaller than optical wavelengths, once again, changing the possibilities in science.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '376885',
'title': 'Diffraction-limited system',
'section': 'Section::::The Abbe diffraction limit for a microscope.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'The observation of sub-wavelength structures with microscopes is difficult because of the Abbe diffraction limit. Ernst Abbe found in 1873 that light with wavelength "λ", traveling in a medium with refractive index "n" and converging to a spot with half-angle formula_1 will have a minimum resolvable distance of\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4753195',
'title': 'RESOLFT',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'With conventional microscopy techniques, it is not possible to distinguish features that are located at distances less than about half the wavelength used (i.e. about 200\xa0nm for visible light). This diffraction limit is based on the wave nature of light. In conventional microscopes the limit is determined by the used wavelength and the numerical aperture of the optical system. The RESOLFT concept surmounts this limit by temporarily switching the molecules to a state in which they cannot send a (fluorescence-) signal upon illumination. This concept is different from for example electron microscopy where instead the used wavelength is much smaller.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8603',
'title': 'Diffraction',
'section': 'Section::::Diffraction of light.:Diffraction-limited imaging.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 74,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 74,
'end_character': 254,
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'passage_text': 'Thus, the larger the aperture of the lens, and the smaller the wavelength, the finer the resolution of an imaging system. This is why telescopes have very large lenses or mirrors, and why optical microscopes are limited in the detail which they can see.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34197',
'title': 'X-ray',
'section': 'Section::::Properties.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 51,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 51,
'end_character': 318,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'X-rays have much shorter wavelengths than visible light, which makes it possible to probe structures much smaller than can be seen using a normal microscope. This property is used in X-ray microscopy to acquire high resolution images, and also in X-ray crystallography to determine the positions of atoms in crystals.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9248684',
'title': 'Near-field optics',
'section': 'Section::::Size constraints.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 709,
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'passage_text': 'The limit of optical resolution in a conventional microscope, the so-called diffraction limit, is in the order of half the wavelength of the light used to image. Thus, when imaging at visible wavelengths, the smallest resolvable features are several hundred nanometers in size (although point-like sources, such as quantum dots, can be resolved quite readily). Using near-field optical techniques, researchers currently resolve features in the order of tens of nanometers in size. While other imaging techniques (e.g. atomic force microscopy and electron microscopy) can resolve features of much smaller size, the many advantages of optical microscopy make near-field optics a field of considerable interest.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '584887',
'title': 'Optical coating',
'section': 'Section::::Types of coating.:High-reflection coatings.:Extreme ultraviolet coatings.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 913,
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'passage_text': 'In the EUV portion of the spectrum (wavelengths shorter than about 30\xa0nm) nearly all materials absorb strongly, making it difficult to focus or otherwise manipulate light in this wavelength range. Telescopes such as TRACE or EIT that form images with EUV light use multilayer mirrors that are constructed of hundreds of alternating layers of a high-mass metal such as molybdenum or tungsten, and a low-mass spacer such as silicon, vacuum deposited onto a substrate such as glass. Each layer pair is designed to have a thickness equal to half the wavelength of light to be reflected. Constructive interference between scattered light from each layer causes the mirror to reflect EUV light of the desired wavelength as would a normal metal mirror in visible light. Using multilayer optics it is possible to reflect up to 70% of incident EUV light (at a particular wavelength chosen when the mirror is constructed).\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why objects smaller than the wavelength of visible light can't be seen by a regular microscope",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Imagine that you are tasked with building a realistic statue of a man. The only materials allowed are Legos. Done well, the statue will look fairly realistic. Now, build the same statue with concrete blocks. Can it even resemble a man? No, the pieces are too big. It's the same with light. If you are trying to resolve an image of something, what you are using must be smaller than the object being imaged. The closer the imaging medium's size approaches the size of the object, the resolution diminishes and disappears entirely when the sizes match. Electrons have a smaller wavelength than visible light, and therefore electron microscopes can resolve smaller objects."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'b2qiec',
'query': "why objects smaller than the wavelength of visible light can't be seen by a regular microscope",
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '164491',
'title': 'Cucumber',
'section': 'Section::::Varieties.:Aroma and taste.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 249,
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'passage_text': 'Depending on variety, cucumbers may have a mild melon aroma and flavor, in part resulting from unsaturated aldehydes, such as , and the "cis"- and "trans"- isomers of 2-nonenal. The slightly bitter taste of cucumber rind results from cucurbitacins.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '164491',
'title': 'Cucumber',
'section': 'Section::::Varieties.:Burpless.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 507,
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'passage_text': 'Burpless cucumbers are sweeter and have a thinner skin than other varieties of cucumber. They are reputed to be easy to digest and to have a pleasant taste. They can grow as long as , are nearly seedless, and have a delicate skin. Most commonly grown in greenhouses, these parthenocarpic cucumbers are often found in grocery markets, shrink-wrapped in plastic. They are sometimes marketed as seedless or burpless, because the seeds and skin of other varieties of cucumbers are said to give some people gas.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '443767',
'title': 'Cheese curd',
'section': 'Section::::Characteristics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 568,
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'passage_text': 'Their flavor is mild, but can differ in taste depending on the process by which they were made. It has about the same firmness and density as cheese, but with a springy or rubbery texture. Fresh curds squeak against the teeth when bitten into. This "squeak" has been described by "The New York Times" as sounding like "balloons trying to neck". After 12 hours, even under refrigeration, cheese curds lose much of their "fresh" characteristic, particularly the "squeak", due to moisture entering the curd. Keeping them at room temperature can preserve the squeakiness.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32243046',
'title': 'Wet burp',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 830,
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'passage_text': "A wet burp is a slang term for a burp where small amounts of liquid are regurgitated. It is different from vomiting—one who experiences a wet burp often has an acidic/burning sensation in the mouth, which can be displeasurable. In addition to the cause of this typically being related to acid reflux disease, it also occurs if an individual consumes too much food for the stomach to handle. This results in the partially digested contents of the stomach to back up into the esophageal canal, which may cause small amounts of the bile and food to come up during the burp. This may also be accompanied by excessive, deep burping. Wet burping can also take place if someone consumes food too quickly, resulting in air being trapped throughout the stomach's chyme. When the air is released, it carries small amounts of chyme with it.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42474803',
'title': 'Arctoscopus japonicus',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Roe.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 50,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 50,
'end_character': 246,
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'passage_text': 'Fresh roe that is cooked will burst and make light popping sounds when eaten, but roe from the fish preserved in salt or miso turn rubbery and hard to chew, resulting in a more blunt sound that sounds like "buri buri" which resulted in its name.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '74167',
'title': 'Poutine',
'section': 'Section::::Recipe.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 944,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Freshness and juiciness of the curds is essential. Air and moisture seep out of the curds over time, altering their acidity level. This causes proteins to lose their elasticity, and the curds to lose their complex texture and characteristic squeaky sound when chewed. The curds should be less than a day old, which requires proximity to a dairy. While Montreal is from a cheese plant in Mirabel, restaurants and specialty cheese shops outside of dairy regions may be unable to sell enough curds to justify the expense of daily deliveries. Furthermore, Canadian food safety practices require curds to be refrigerated within 24\xa0hours, which suppresses the properties of their texture. This has resulted in "poutineries" which specialize in the dish; busy poutineries may use of curds per day. Poutineries which are too distant from dairies may make their own cheese curds on site, in batches every few hours, to ensure a fresh and steady supply.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21282070',
'title': 'Taste',
'section': 'Section::::Further sensations and transmission.:Astringency.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 72,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 72,
'end_character': 268,
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'passage_text': 'Some foods, such as unripe fruits, contain tannins or calcium oxalate that cause an astringent or puckering sensation of the mucous membrane of the mouth. Examples include tea, red wine, rhubarb, some fruits of the genus "Syzygium", and unripe persimmons and bananas.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why do cucumbers taste so mild while you're eating them, but taste so strongly when you burp afterward?",
'selftext': "It's all I can taste when I burp for hours after eating a cucumber!",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It\'s the cucurbitacin in them. It\'s a chemical that they have to help prevent certain animals from eating them (too much and there wouldn\'t be any to make more-hey nature!)\n\nIt\'s mostly in the stem end so if you don\'t eat that part it will cut down on it too. Also can deseed them and they will help prevent excess gas from coming up. Also the "American" slicing cucumbers have more in it and the Asian/English types have less.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'cfsisu',
'query': "why do cucumbers taste so mild while you're eating them, but taste so strongly when you burp afterward?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '37774663',
'title': 'Autonomous sensory meridian response',
'section': 'Section::::Comparisons and associations with other phenomena.:Comparison with misophonia.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 80,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 80,
'end_character': 319,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'For example, those who suffer from misophonia often report that specific human sounds, including those made by eating, breathing, whispering, or repetitive tapping noises, can precipitate feelings of anger and disgust, in the absence of any previously learned associations that might otherwise explain those reactions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33898394',
'title': 'Saccular acoustic sensitivity',
'section': 'Section::::Effects.:Mental/Emotional Effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 505,
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'passage_text': "Certain sounds, such as fingernails drawn down a blackboard, cause strong feelings of aversion or even fear in most humans. A 2004 study claimed that the blackboard sound was very similar to the warning cry of Siamang gibbons and hypothesized that a vestigial reflex is what causes the fight or flight reaction in humans. Other sounds, such as a person coughing or vomiting, provoke responses of disgust. These emotional reactions are thought to be caused by the body's natural tendency to avoid disease.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19414028',
'title': 'Misophonia',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 313,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Particularly severe cases of misophonia may result in violent impulses toward the source of the sound. One such case described in the journal "Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology" detailed \'involuntary violence\' exhibited by a sufferer in response to a trigger in the form of another person eating loudly.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19414028',
'title': 'Misophonia',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 606,
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'passage_text': ' the literature on misophonia was limited. Some small studies show that people with misophonia generally have strong negative feelings, thoughts, and physical reactions to specific sounds, which the literature calls "trigger sounds". These sounds are apparently usually soft, but can be loud. One study found that around 80% of the sounds were related to the mouth (eating, slurping, chewing or popping gum, whispering, etc.), and around 60% were repetitive. A visual trigger may develop related to the trigger sound. It also appears that a misophonic reaction can occur in the absence of an actual sound.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13021454',
'title': 'Acoustic shock',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 212,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Acoustic shock is the symptoms a person may experience after hearing an unexpected, loud sound. The loud sound, called an acoustic incident, can be caused by feedback oscillation, fax tones, or signalling tones.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36507313',
'title': 'Daniel T. Blumstein',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 333,
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'passage_text': 'Inspired by the screams of a baby marmot, he conducted a study, published in Biology Letters, investigating nonlinearities in sound and their effect on response. The report found that the addition of non-linear elements produced stronger responses and valence, which implies that nonlinearities in sounds make them more frightening.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7043632',
'title': 'Vestigial response',
'section': 'Section::::In humans.:Ear perking.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 550,
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'passage_text': 'The focus on this part of the human anatomy has finally been followed by a much later observation testifying to our evolutionary past. The subsequent observation concerns an automatic ear-perking response seen, for example, in dogs when startled by a sudden noise. This response, though faint, fleeting and hardly discernible in humans nonetheless clearly manifests itself. This phenomenon is an automatic-response mechanism that activates even before a human becomes consciously aware that a startling, unexpected or unknown sound has been "heard".\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do some noises produce a physical reaction in people?',
'selftext': 'When I hear scratching on a blackboard or polystyrene it gives me chills. Why does this happen?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Well, your body reacts to sounds by using your brain to resurface earlier instincts. For example, sudden high pitched sounds (such as writing on a chalkboard) will make you feel stressful and "wriggly" because your primal brain tells you to run from the nonexistent predator or natural danger that is suddenly screeching near or at you. Interesting fact- us humans are so horrible, that clanging, metallic sounds resemble war, and can cause legitimate, unexplainable (by them) fear in some people.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'fkvcg5',
'query': 'why do some noises produce a physical reaction in people?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1210803',
'title': 'Turkey fryer',
'section': 'Section::::Nutrition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 352,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'If performed properly, deep-frying does not make food excessively greasy, because the moisture in the food repels the oil. The hot oil heats the water within the food, steaming it from the inside out; oil cannot go against the direction of this powerful flow because (due to its high temperature) the water vapor pushes the bubbles toward the surface.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52982',
'title': 'Deep frying',
'section': 'Section::::Technique.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': 'When performed properly, deep frying does not make food excessively greasy, because the moisture in the food repels the oil. The hot oil heats the water within the food, steaming it; oil cannot go against the direction of this powerful flow because (due to its high temperature) the water vapor pushes the bubbles toward the surface. As long as the oil is hot enough and the food is not immersed in the oil for too long, oil penetration will be confined to the outer surface. Foods deep-fried at proper temperatures typically absorb "no more than a couple of tablespoons per cups of oil" used. This oil absorption rate is around the same as occurs with shallow frying, such as in a pan.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52982',
'title': 'Deep frying',
'section': 'Section::::Oil deterioration and chemical changes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 43,
'end_character': 820,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Deep fat frying involves heating oil to temperatures in excess of 180\xa0°C in the presence of moisture and air. These conditions can induce a series of complex chemical reactions which may impact the quality of both the food and the oil it is cooked in. Examples of different chemical reactions include the production of free radicals, oxidation, hydrolysis, isomerization and polymerization. The exact reactions that occur will be dependent upon factors such as the oil, frying conditions and the food being cooked. When frying water can attack the ester linkage of triacylglycerols resulting in di and monoglycerols, glycerol as well as free fatty acids (a type of hydrolysis reaction). The aforementioned hydrolysis reaction is enhanced by the produced fatty acids as well as other low molecular weight acid compounds.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50904235',
'title': 'Saggubiyyam punugulu',
'section': 'Section::::Recipe.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'Then cooking oil (whatever is used in the kitchen for regular cooking like sunflower oil, vegetable oil or groundnut oil) is poured in a pan and heated up. Once the oil is hot, small dumplings of the batter is put in the oil and deep fried.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36065243',
'title': 'Surface chemistry of cooking',
'section': 'Section::::Interaction of cooking techniques.:Deep fry.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
'end_character': 606,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'For proper deep frying the oil temperature should exceed 163\xa0°C. When the batter, which is typically water based, comes into contact with the high temperature oil, the water in it is instantly vaporized. This vaporization dehydrates the batter and causes the crispiness associated with deep fried foods. Similar to pan frying, the water vapor leaving the batter creates a boundary layer between the oil and the food. Because of the large surface area of the food that is in contact with the oil and the limited water stored in the batter, this boundary layer does not last nearly as long as in pan frying.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36065243',
'title': 'Surface chemistry of cooking',
'section': 'Section::::Interaction of cooking techniques.:Water-based cooking techniques.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 39,
'end_character': 610,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'There are many cooking techniques that do not use oil as part of the process such as steaming or boiling. Water based techniques are typically used to cook vegetables or other plants which can be consumed as food. When no oil is present the method of heat transfer to the food is typically water vapor. Water vapor molecules do not have any significant surface interactions with the food surface. Since food, including vegetables, is cooked by the vaporization of water within the food, the use of water vapor as the mode of heat transfer has no effect on the chemical interactions on the surface of the food.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52982',
'title': 'Deep frying',
'section': 'Section::::Technique.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 730,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Deep frying food is defined as a process where food is completely submerged in hot oil at temperatures typically between and . One common method for preparing food for deep frying involves adding multiple layers of batter around the food, such as cornmeal, flour, or tempura; breadcrumbs may also be used. After the food is submerged in oil, the surface of it begins to dehydrate and it undergoes Maillard reactions which break down sugars and proteins, creating the golden brown exterior of the food. Once the surface is dehydrated, it forms a crust which prevents further oil absorption. The heat conducts throughout the food causing proteins to denature, starches to undergo starch gelatinization, and dietary fiber to soften.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does putting food in hot oil fry it (like, how does the actual frying process happen)? Also, what are those bubbles, is it water that leaves the food due to the high temperature or something else?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Oil is active as a heat stabilizer and heat transfer fluid. As the oil heats various components begin to break down or evaporate (boiling does this rapidly). This takes energy and holds the temperature relatively even as the oil evaporates or smokes. This means that your food is cooked at a relatively stable high temperature evenly across the entire surface, which is what gives it the "fried" consistency (coupled with the residual oil).\n\nThe bubbles are steam. Usually.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'abiy0x',
'query': 'how does putting food in hot oil fry it (like, how does the actual frying process happen)? also, what are those bubbles, is it water that leaves the food due to the high temperature or something else?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '22334780',
'title': 'Corporate venture capital',
'section': 'Section::::Investing and Financing.:Stages of financing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 1109,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Due to the current economic climate, IPOs have become a rarer occurrence recently, causing venture capital firms to look towards mergers and acquisitions. This is a more realistic scenario, especially when startup companies do not look to function independently. Acquisition financing uses investment funds to acquire or buy another company. This may be completed by venture capital firms to align their startup with a complimentary product or business line where the combined companies look to assimilate smoothly, creating advantages. Acquisitions could also work in the opposite direction where an invested startup is acquired by another firm. In this case, the CVC would be cashing in by selling its investment. Using the capital gains, it can look to reinvest with a new venture. Mergers are similar to acquisitions; however, in this case one company is not buying another. Rather the two companies are combining to share resources, processes, and technology, which it hopes to leverage for several advantages such as cost savings, liquidity, market positioning and sharing burdens such as fund raising.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9621656',
'title': 'Financial sponsor',
'section': 'Section::::Sponsors and other investors.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 519,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Additionally, many companies owned by financial sponsors will raise equity in the public markets through an initial public offering or (IPO) as a means of exiting an investment. Public investors will seek to align their own interests as much as possible with those of the financial sponsor by limiting the financial sponsor's ability to sell shares and managing the use of proceeds from the offering. Various studies have been conducted to evaluate the impact of financial sponsor ownership on the performance of IPOs.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45538011',
'title': 'Unicorn (finance)',
'section': 'Section::::Reasons behind the rapid growth of unicorns.:Prevent IPO.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': "Through many funding rounds, companies do not need to go through an initial public offering IPO to obtain a capital or a higher valuation; they can just go back to their investors for more capital. IPOs also run the risk of devaluation of a company if the public market thinks a company is worth less than its investors. A few recent examples of this situation were Square, best known for its mobile payments and financial services business, and Trivago, a popular German hotel search engine, both of which were priced below their initial offer prices by the market. This was because of the severe over-valuation of both companies in the private market by investors and venture capital firms. The market did not agree with both companies' valuations, and therefore, dropped the price of each stock from their initial IPO range.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1377372',
'title': 'Equity issuance',
'section': 'Section::::Role of investment banks.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Investment banks, such as Goldman Sachs or Morgan Stanley are frequently intermediaries in the equity issue process, and for some of these firms the fees associated with IPOs are a substantial part of their income. The role of these banks is to study the characteristics and business plans of the firm which is issuing equity and then recommend a minimum purchase price to investors. On the other hand, they are in charge of convincing investors that the purchase is a good opportunity and therefore the success of IPO placement partly hinges on the reputation of the investment bank that is doing it.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10518546',
'title': 'Technology life cycle',
'section': 'Section::::Licensing options.:Licensing in the R&D phase.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
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'passage_text': 'In the case of smaller firms, venture capitalists help clients enter the stock market for obtaining substantially larger funds for development, maturation of technology, product promotion and to meet marketing costs. A major route is through initial public offering (IPO) which invites risk funding by the public for potential high gain. At the same time, the IPOs enable venture capitalists to attempt to recover expenditures already incurred by them through part sale of the stock pre-allotted to them (subsequent to the listing of the stock on the stock exchange). When the IPO is fully subscribed, the assisted enterprise becomes a corporation and can more easily obtain bank loans, etc. if needed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35930482',
'title': 'Initial public offering of Facebook',
'section': 'Section::::Aftermath.:Financial.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
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'passage_text': 'The IPO had immediate impacts on the stock market. Other technology companies took hits, while the exchanges as a whole saw dampened prices. Investment firms faced considerable losses due to technical glitches. Bloomberg estimated that retail investors may have lost approximately $630 million on Facebook stock since its debut. UBS alone may have lost as much as $350 million. The Nasdaq stock exchange offered $40 million to investment firms plagued by offering-day computer glitches. While considerably higher than the usual $3 million limit on reimbursements, it was unlikely to make up for large investor losses. Additionally, the rival New York Stock Exchange lampooned the move as a "harmful precedent" and an unnecessary subsidy in the wake of Nasdaq\'s missteps. Nasdaq claimed to fix the problems that beset the offering, and hired IBM for a technical review.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17843376',
'title': 'History of private equity and venture capital',
'section': 'Section::::The third private equity boom and the Golden Age of Private Equity (2003–2007).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 119,
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'passage_text': 'increased compliance costs would make it nearly impossible for venture capitalists to bring young companies to the public markets and dramatically reduced the opportunities for exits via IPO. Instead, venture capitalists have been forced increasingly to rely on sales to strategic buyers for an exit of their investment.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do companies doing an IPO need to "secure $X billion from Y investors" and need Z investment companies to "sponsor" them?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["They are sponsors in that they have committed to pay at least some amount of money to buy shares of the company. If there was no secured funding, the private owners of the company might have no bidders at all. The secured funding also sets a floor on the price so that they don't get unlucky and sell the whole company for peanuts. \n\n In addition, there are many rules in place for IPOs so that ordinary investors don't get defrauded by the current owners of the company or other bidders. If they weren't in place, the first bidders might pay 1 cent per share while everyone else paid much more.",
'It has to do with the logic of investing.\n\nWhen you invest in a company, you are gambling that they are gonna turn a profit and pay you back more then you invested.\n\nKeyword: Gambling.\n\nThere is ZERO guarentee that you are not throwing your money away. Have you been following MoviePass? Some people paid $20/share for stock. You can pick it up for about 2 cents a share today. Legally those people have very, very little ground to stand on. They are simply out that money. When MP declares bankruptcy it becomes even more difficult.\n\nWhen a company goes public typically that is the last tier of people given the opportunity to invest. So, as a joe schmoe investing seems like a smarter idea if there are already a bunch of people firmly committed with the company.',
'Finding the "price" of a stock before that company goes public can be very difficult. There often is limited historical information available and while the company needs to provide LOTS of disclosure for an IPO it\'s obviously not everything. So there\'s always uncertainty.\n\nYou are correct when you say that stock buyers give the company money for a share when the company is going public. The stock buyers can then resell that share to other buyers on the open market without the company being involved. \n\nOnly most people want a bit more security when they make that first buy from the company. And this is a service that investment banks provide under the role of "sponsor". The sponsor sets the initial price of the IPO and in so doing they agree to purchase a certain number of shares at that price.\n\nSo effectively, 1 second before the actual IPO happens, Goldman, Merrill and Morgan Stanley all buy a certain number of shares at the IPO price. It\'s their way of signalling to other buyers that the price is fair, they basically put their money where their mouth is. Those investment banks hold those shares for a short period of time then they resell them on the open market. Now, this can happen with all or a part of the total shares the company is selling on day 1. So sometimes the investment bank and the company are both out there at the same time selling their shares to the general public.\n\nThis leads to one of the main criticisms of the IPO process. It\'s all guided by an investment bank who\'s incentive is actually to underprice the shares. That way they won\'t wind up stuck with the shares that they purchase ahead of the IPO. When that happens the investment bank who advises the company has an incentive to provide advice that is counter to the companies actual interest. So the investment bank and the company negotiate to set the IPO price and the market takes over after that. When a companies stock goes up immediately after an IPO it\'s the investment bank who\'s the big winner, not the company itself.\n\nNow onto your first question. Often times larger shareholders can provide benefits that the general public cannot, particularly confidence in the company. So other investors can look at people who have agreed to buy large blocks of shares as a way to gauge the companies health without doing a detailed deep dive into the companies financials. In this case, Tencent is known in the gaming industry and them putting money into Meituan is a vote of confidence. It\'s like a celebrity endorsement. \n\nIt\'s also worth pointing out that the large investment banks also play a role in bringing these large share purchasers in. Often it\'s the investment bank that brings the 2 parties together. As such it\'s often the investment bank\'s own shares that are sold to the large investor to reduce the investment bank\'s own risk on the deal.',
' > Why do they need to secure billions from 5 investors? \n\nThey don\'t "need" to. They "plan" to. Those are different things.\n\n > Shouldn\'t the money be coming from the stock buyers? And why are Merrill Lynch "sponsors" of the IPO?\n\nThere are no stock buyers (not "public" ones, anyway) until after the IPO. Somehow, you have to get from "no publicly traded stock" to "yes publicly traded stock". The sponsors are how you usually bridge that gap. They buy the stock before the IPO, then sell to the public upon the IPO.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '9ctn48',
'query': 'why do companies doing an ipo need to "secure $x billion from y investors" and need z investment companies to "sponsor" them?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1496984',
'title': 'Flue-gas desulfurization',
'section': 'Section::::FGD chemistry.:Scrubbing with an alkali solid or solution.:Scrubbing reagent.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
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'passage_text': 'Caustic soda is limited to smaller combustion units because it is more expensive than lime, but it has the advantage that it forms a solution rather than a slurry. This makes it easier to operate. It produces a "spent caustic" solution of sodium sulfite/bisulfite (depending on the pH), or sodium sulfate that must be disposed of. This is not a problem in a kraft pulp mill for example, where this can be a source of makeup chemicals to the recovery cycle.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '240561',
'title': 'Carbonated water',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Etymology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
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'passage_text': 'In the United States, carbonated water was known as "soda water" until World War II, due to the sodium salts it contained. These were added as flavoring and acidity regulators with the intent of mimicking the taste of natural mineral water. During the Great Depression, it was sometimes called "two cents plain", a reference to its being the cheapest drink at soda fountains (i.e. without the addition of three cents\' worth of flavored syrup).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '711996',
'title': 'Concentrate',
'section': 'Section::::Soft drink concentrates.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'Most sodas and soft drinks are produced as highly concentrated syrups and later diluted with carbonated water directly before consumption or bottling. Such concentrated syrups are sometimes retailed to the end-consumer because of their relatively low price and considerable weight savings. Condensed milk is also produced for transport weight savings and resistance to spoilage.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '240561',
'title': 'Carbonated water',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Club soda, sparkling mineral water, seltzer and many other sparkling waters contain added or dissolved minerals such as potassium bicarbonate, sodium bicarbonate, sodium citrate, or potassium sulfate. These occur naturally in some mineral waters but are also commonly added artificially to manufactured waters to mimic a natural flavor profile. Various carbonated waters are sold in bottles and cans, with some also produced on demand by commercial carbonation systems in bars and restaurants, or made at home using a carbon dioxide cartridge.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47233416',
'title': 'Carbonated soda treatment of phytobezoars',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Carbonated soda has been proposed for the treatment of gastric phytobezoars. In about 50% of cases studied, carbonated soda alone was found to be effective in gastric phytobezoar dissolution. Unfortunately, this treatment can result in the potential of developing small bowel obstruction in a minority of cases, necessitating surgical intervention. It is one of many other stomach disorders that can have similar symptoms.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47233416',
'title': 'Carbonated soda treatment of phytobezoars',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'end_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'Carbonated soda may help to dissolve phytobezoars. It can be given by a naso-gastric tube in children. Carbonated soda can also be given by mouth and during endoscopy. It is effective in about half of the cases.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50819040',
'title': 'Hard soda',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.:United States.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': "Hard soda is a relatively new category in the craft beer segment of the alcoholic beverage industry that gained prominence in the United States after the prosperity of the Not Your Father's Root Beer brand manufactured by Small Town Brewery based in Wauconda, Illinois. A partnership between Small Town Brewery and Pabst Brewing Company led to a significant increase in sales, whereby distribution of the product in the U.S. was expanded and then later expanded to be nationwide in June 2015. Small Town Brewery first began brewing the product in 2012, and it has a 5.9% alcohol by volume content. The company released a Hard Ginger Ale in September 2015, and has plans to market a Vanilla Cream Ale hard soda. The company also plans on marketing a separate version of the Not Your Father's Root Beer brand with a higher alcohol content. In January 2016, the Not Your Father's Root Beer brand was the market leader in the hard soda category.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why are sodas made with such strong acids?',
'selftext': "I've read before that the reason that, for example, a can of Coke has ~46 grams of sugar is because if it had less, you wouldn't be able to taste the sweetness over the sour/bitter taste of phosphoric acid. So why are they made with such high concentrations of phosphoric and citric acid? What does that do for the soda? If they used less, surely they'd need far less sugar?",
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['As far as I understand it, the do it to equalize the sweet taste of sugar. Now, you asked why they even add as much sugar in the first place.. sugar sells. Your body reacts to sugar well comparable to how it reacts to heroin, although significantly less drastic. You have the feeling of happiness and being energized. If they didnt add that sugar, coke would sell a lot less. If your body notices a lack of sugar or wants more of the energy/happiness, it usually forces you to drink coke or eat something sweet. \n\nCompare it to salt/umami tastes in chips. The umami is really beneficial for your body, it would normally carry lots of nutritients and minerals. The bad thing is, that umami in chips is usually just the pure taste without the extracts that you would have in natural umami taste.\n\nWell I drifted off-topic here, but in general, sugar makes you lets you more likely grab a coke than water/another soda, acid is used to equalize the sweetness.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '5oy5bb',
'query': 'why are sodas made with such strong acids?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '425779',
'title': 'Compression (physics)',
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'passage_text': 'In mechanics, compression is the application of balanced inward ("pushing") forces to different points on a material or structure, that is, forces with no net sum or torque directed so as to reduce its size in one or more directions. It is contrasted with tension or traction, the application of balanced outward ("pulling") forces; and with shearing forces, directed so as to displace layers of the material parallel to each other. The compressive strength of materials and structures is an important engineering consideration.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50775420',
'title': 'Glossary of aerospace engineering',
'section': 'Section::::C.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Compression — In mechanics, compression is the application of balanced inward ("pushing") forces to different points on a material or structure, that is, forces with no net sum or torque directed so as to reduce its size in one or more directions. It is contrasted with tension or traction, the application of balanced outward ("pulling") forces; and with shearing forces, directed so as to displace layers of the material parallel to each other. The compressive strength of materials and structures is an important engineering consideration.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6863',
'title': 'Compression ratio',
'section': 'Section::::Relationship with the pressure ratio.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Based on the assumptions that adiabatic compression is carried out (i.e. that no heat energy is supplied to the gas being compressed, and that any temperature rise is solely due to the compression) and that air is a perfect gas, the relationship between the compression ratio and overall pressure ratio is as follows:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34132621',
'title': 'Dewatering screw press',
'section': 'Section::::Design.:Compressive Mechanisms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'Compression is created within the screw press by increasing the inner shaft diameter of the screw. For example, if a 16" screw press has a 6" shaft at the start, the flights on the screw will be 5" tall. If this 6" shaft diameter is then increased to 12" at the discharge, the fights will be only 2" tall at this point. Thus compression is applied as the material is being pressed from a 5" opening through a 2" space. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '508504',
'title': 'Compressor',
'section': 'Section::::Temperature.\n',
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'passage_text': 'with "T" and "T" in degrees Rankine or kelvins, "p" and "p" being absolute pressures and formula_43 ratio of specific heats (approximately 1.4 for air). The rise in air and temperature ratio means compression does not follow a simple pressure to volume ratio. This is less efficient, but quick. Adiabatic compression or expansion more closely model real life when a compressor has good insulation, a large gas volume, or a short time scale (i.e., a high power level). In practice there will always be a certain amount of heat flow out of the compressed gas. Thus, making a perfect adiabatic compressor would require perfect heat insulation of all parts of the machine. For example, even a bicycle tire pump\'s metal tube becomes hot as you compress the air to fill a tire.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7495406',
'title': 'Overall pressure ratio',
'section': 'Section::::Compression ratio versus overall pressure ratio.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In calculating the pressure ratio, we assume that an adiabatic compression is carried out (i.e. that no heat energy is supplied to the gas being compressed, and that any temperature rise is solely due to the compression). We also assume that air is a perfect gas. With these two assumptions, we can define the relationship between change of volume and change of pressure as follows:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1419',
'title': 'Adiabatic process',
'section': 'Section::::Ideal gas (reversible process).:Example of adiabatic compression.\n',
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'passage_text': 'or 25.1\xa0bar. Note that this pressure increase is more than a simple 10:1 compression ratio would indicate; this is because the gas is not only compressed, but the work done to compress the gas also increases its internal energy, which manifests itself by a rise in the gas temperature and an additional rise in pressure above what would result from a simplistic calculation of 10 times the original pressure.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'The difference between pressure and compression?',
'selftext': "As I understand it fluid can't be compressed, but they can be pressurized. How is this possible? What's the difference? I get how a fluid can be pressuring a tank containing air. But what about, as an example, in a pump where there is no air?",
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': [" > \tAs I understand it fluid can't be compressed\n\nAnd that is where you went wrong, any fluid can be compressed. Any material at all can be compressed of course.\n\nFluids are often said to be incompressible because they take a lot of force to compress even a little bit, but it is a simplification which isn't strictly accurate. Many engineers new and old take such simplifications to heart and don't understand which are approximations to make calculations easier under normal conditions.",
"pressure is force per area and compression is a change in volume. Air which is a fluid can absolutely be compressed and pressurised. But water which is a fluid can be pressurised and can also be compressed but at very miniscule amounts so it's just taken as not compressed at all. Liquid is pressurised by fitting as much of it as possible into a tank and seeing how hard it is pressing against the walls.\n\nIn a pump, it is pushing liquid as hard as it can. So if you were to stand in front of that jet of liquid, it is how painful it will be. So the pressure is determined by how much force is used to push out the water to cause that pain.",
'Pressure is a force over an area, whereas compression is squeezing of something. Compression is a byproduct of pressure.\n\nHowever when it comes to a tank, how the pressure is applied will determine if you get compression or expansion.\n\nPositive pressure inside of the a tank will cause it to expand. Negative pressure inside of a tank (otherwise known as a vacuum) will cause it to compress/collapse.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'faqhp6',
'query': 'the difference between pressure and compression?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '7878457',
'title': 'Computer',
'section': 'Section::::Software.:Programs.:Bugs.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Errors in computer programs are called "bugs". They may be benign and not affect the usefulness of the program, or have only subtle effects. But in some cases, they may cause the program or the entire system to "hang", becoming unresponsive to input such as mouse clicks or keystrokes, to completely fail, or to crash. Otherwise benign bugs may sometimes be harnessed for malicious intent by an unscrupulous user writing an exploit, code designed to take advantage of a bug and disrupt a computer\'s proper execution. Bugs are usually not the fault of the computer. Since computers merely execute the instructions they are given, bugs are nearly always the result of programmer error or an oversight made in the program\'s design.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37085',
'title': 'Software bug',
'section': 'Section::::Prevention.:Typographical errors.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
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'passage_text': 'Bugs usually appear when the programmer makes a logic error. Various innovations in programming style and defensive programming are designed to make these bugs less likely, or easier to spot. Some typos, especially of symbols or logical/mathematical operators, allow the program to operate incorrectly, while others such as a missing symbol or misspelled name may prevent the program from operating. Compiled languages can reveal some typos when the source code is compiled.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37085',
'title': 'Software bug',
'section': 'Section::::Debugging.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
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'passage_text': 'However, even with the aid of a debugger, locating bugs is something of an art. It is not uncommon for a bug in one section of a program to cause failures in a completely different section, thus making it especially difficult to track (for example, an error in a graphics rendering routine causing a file I/O routine to fail), in an apparently unrelated part of the system.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37085',
'title': 'Software bug',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Most bugs arise from mistakes and errors made in either a program\'s source code or its design, or in components and operating systems used by such programs. A few are caused by compilers producing incorrect code. A program that contains a large number of bugs, and/or bugs that seriously interfere with its functionality, is said to be "buggy" (defective). Bugs can trigger errors that may have ripple effects. Bugs may have subtle effects or cause the program to crash or freeze the computer. Other bugs qualify as security bugs and might, for example, enable a malicious user to bypass access controls in order to obtain unauthorized privileges.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45273',
'title': 'Infinite loop',
'section': 'Section::::Intended vs unintended looping.:Unintentional looping.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'end_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'Most often, the term is used for those situations when this is not the intended result; that is, when this is a [[software bug|bug]]. Such errors are most common among novice programmers, but can be made by experienced programmers as well, because their causes can be quite subtle.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37085',
'title': 'Software bug',
'section': 'Section::::Debugging.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 45,
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'passage_text': 'Sometimes, a bug is not an isolated flaw, but represents an error of thinking or planning on the part of the programmer. Such "logic errors" require a section of the program to be overhauled or rewritten. As a part of code review, stepping through the code and imagining or transcribing the execution process may often find errors without ever reproducing the bug as such.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4573',
'title': 'Bugzilla',
'section': 'Section::::Zarro Boogs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
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'passage_text': 'By design, Bugzilla is programmed to return the string "zarro boogs found" instead of "0 bugs found" when a search for bugs returns no results. "Zarro Boogs" is a meta-statement about the nature of software debugging. Bug tracking systems like Bugzilla readily describe how many "known" bugs are outstanding. The response "zarro boogs", is intended as a buggy statement itself (a misspelling of "zero bugs"), implying that even when no bugs have been identified, software is still likely to contain bugs that have not yet been identified.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do certain bugs and glitches appear on seemingly random occations in some programs?',
'selftext': 'What I mean is that there should be a trigger for such events. And if faults in the codes can appear at complete random, why?',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The dont appear at random, but after a series of events / when the game is brought inr a certain state that triggers the bug.\n\nGames and programs are made so complex these days, that its nearly impossible to test each and every permutation / state the game can be in',
'not necessarly\n\nmore often than not a bug is merely an unforseen execution path that the programmer hasnt accounted for\n\nthey seem random, especially on larger program because more complex programs deal with so many variations of state and data that an unforseen result in somethnig seemgly innocuous can cascade into a full program crash if it happens in just the right spot.Them ost common sort of bug is what\'s called " imporper validation" aka checking if the input is what the program expect ot receive.\n\nat the end of it aany bug is merely a mistake by the programmer that wasnt accounted for, o such thnig as a " random" bug'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'acuypg',
'query': 'why do certain bugs and glitches appear on seemingly random occations in some programs?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '563271',
'title': 'Sugar-apple',
'section': 'Section::::Nutrition and uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 60,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 60,
'end_character': 214,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Sugar-apple is high in energy, an excellent source of vitamin C and manganese, a good source of thiamine and vitamin B, and provides vitamin B, B B, B, iron, magnesium, phosphorus and potassium in fair quantities.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58880',
'title': 'Sugar substitute',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 604,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A sugar substitute is a food additive that provides a sweet taste like that of sugar while containing significantly less food energy than sugar-based sweeteners, making it a zero-calorie or low-calorie sweetener. Artificial sweeteners may be derived through manufacturing of plant extracts or processed by chemical synthesis. Sugar alcohols such as erythritol, xylitol, and sorbitol are derived from sugars. In 2017, sucralose was the most common sugar substitute used in the manufacture of foods and beverages; it had 30% of the global market, which was projected to be valued at $2.8 billion by 2021. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '285362',
'title': 'Squash (drink)',
'section': 'Section::::Low-sugar squashes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 744,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Squashes labelled "no added sugar" are artificially sweetened, usually with aspartame, acesulfame K, saccharin or sucralose, which is much cheaper for the manufacturers than both HFCS and natural sugar. They are very low in calories, sometimes having as few as 4 per 100ml diluted, and they are marketed towards families seeking low calorie alternatives. They tend to be very low in fruit juice, as fruit juice contains natural sugars, so they usually also contain natural or artificial flavourings (isoamyl acetate for pear or banana, or mixed with malic acid to make an apple-like flavour, ethyl methylphenylglycidate for strawberry, octyl acetate for orange, allyl hexanoate for pineapple etc.) to make up for the lack of fruit juice taste.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '581712',
'title': 'Diet drink',
'section': 'Section::::Sweetening.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 517,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Multiple artificial sweeteners can be used to give diet soft drinks a sweet taste without sugar. Sometimes two sweeteners are used in the same beverage. Opinion is mixed as to the taste of these beverages: some think they lack the taste of their sugar-sweetened counterparts, while others think the taste is similar. Some also note an unusual non-sugary aftertaste. Some feel the opposite—that diet drinks have no aftertaste and that drinks sweetened by high fructose corn syrup have a gritty, over-sweet aftertaste.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3240723',
'title': 'Diet food',
'section': 'Section::::Controversy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 633,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In diet foods which replace the sugar with lower-food-energy substitutes, there is some controversy based around the possibility that the sugar substitutes used to replace sugar are themselves harmful. Artificial sweeteners have been the subject of intense scrutiny for decades, but according to the National Cancer Institute and other health agencies, there is no sound scientific evidence that any of the artificial sweeteners approved for use in the U.S. cause cancer or other serious health problems. Numerous research studies confirm that artificial sweeteners are generally safe in limited quantities, even for pregnant women.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '53010729',
'title': 'Mirror life',
'section': 'Section::::Direct applications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 375,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- L-Glucose, enantiomer of standard glucose, for which tests showed that it tastes likes standard sugar, but not being metabolized the same way. However, it was never marketed due to excessive manufacturing costs. More recent research allows cheap production with high yields, however the authors state that it is not usable as a sweetener due to laxative effects.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60492138',
'title': 'Soul food health trends',
'section': 'Section::::Modifying soul food to fit within health trends.:Soul food with low sugar.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 583,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Desserts with high sugar are commonly consumed for hedonistic rewards, especially among women. However, high sugar intake tends to increase risk of obesity, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, cardio-metabolic diseases and compromised oral health. Instead, research showed that honey is beneficial to health with its "gastroprotective, hepatoprotective, reproductive, hypoglycemic, antioxidant, antihypertensive, antibacterial, anti-fungal and anti-inflammatory. Under that circumstance, honey can be replaced to add sweet flavor, such as dressing on smoothies, spreading on bread, etc. \n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'what is the difference nutritionally between artificial and natural sugars, like why are the sugars from my apple any better for me than the sugars from my apple lollipop if it’s all still sugar?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["There is no difference between 'artificial' and 'natural' sugars, they are the same. \n\nThe important difference is that when you eat a lollipop it might contain more sugar than the apple does and you certainly wouldn't eat ten apples but you could easily eat ten lollipops (in a relatively short period).\n\n & #x200B;\n\nSidenote: Sugar and sugars don't mean the same. When we say sugar we usually mean that type of household sugar you use for baking which is sucrose. Sugars usually refers to carbohydrates in general which is a class of different compounds including sucrose, glucose, fructose (an apple contains some amount of all three) , lactose, etc.",
"Well there's not a chemical difference between the fructose in the apple and the fructose in the lollipop. There are two reasons the apple is better for you. 1. The apple has some vitamin C and probably others 2. The apple has dietary fiber and other complex carbs, which will lead to a smoother blood sugar curve than if you ate the same number of calories in lollipop form."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'btfh0t',
'query': 'what is the difference nutritionally between artificial and natural sugars, like why are the sugars from my apple any better for me than the sugars from my apple lollipop if it’s all still sugar?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '313384',
'title': 'Long division',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'In arithmetic, long division is a standard division algorithm suitable for dividing multi-digit numbers that is simple enough to perform by hand. It breaks down a division problem into a series of easier steps.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14692219',
'title': 'Short division',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 255,
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'passage_text': 'In arithmetic, short division is a division algorithm which breaks down a division problem into a series of easy steps. It is an abbreviated form of long division — whereby the products are omitted and the partial remainders are notated as superscripts. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3336479',
'title': 'Division algorithm',
'section': 'Section::::Long division.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 390,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Long division is the standard algorithm used for pen-and-paper division of multi-digit numbers expressed in decimal notation. It shifts gradually from the left to the right end of the dividend, subtracting the largest possible multiple of the divisor (at the digit level) at each stage; the multiples then become the digits of the quotient, and the final difference is then the remainder. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '287188',
'title': 'Number line',
'section': 'Section::::Comparing numbers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 581,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Division can be performed as in the following example: To divide 6 by 2—that is, to find out how many times 2 goes into 6—note that the length from 0 to 2 lies at the beginning of the length from 0 to 6; pick up the former length and put it down again to the right of its original position, with the end formerly at 0 now placed at 2, and then move the length to the right of its latest position again. This puts the right end of the length 2 at the right end of the length from 0 to 6. Since three lengths of 2 filled the length 6, 2 goes into 6 three times (that is, 6 ÷ 2 = 3).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12152110',
'title': 'Open syllable lengthening',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 323,
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'passage_text': 'The lengthening often also applied in reverse at some point by shortening long vowels in closed syllables. As a consequence of the combination of the two changes, vowel length and consonant length came to be in complementary distribution: one of the two features is no longer distinctive but is predictable from the other.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '313384',
'title': 'Long division',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'As in all division problems, one number, called the dividend, is divided by another, called the divisor, producing a result called the quotient. It enables computations involving arbitrarily large numbers to be performed by following a series of simple steps. The abbreviated form of long division is called short division, which is almost always used instead of long division when the divisor has only one digit. Chunking (also known as the partial quotients method or the hangman method) is a less mechanical form of long division prominent in the UK which contributes to a more holistic understanding about the division process.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '314205',
'title': 'Polynomial long division',
'section': '',
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'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'In algebra, polynomial long division is an algorithm for dividing a polynomial by another polynomial of the same or lower degree, a generalised version of the familiar arithmetic technique called long division. It can be done easily by hand, because it separates an otherwise complex division problem into smaller ones. Sometimes using a shorthand version called synthetic division is faster, with less writing and fewer calculations.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does long division work?',
'selftext': 'I understand how to do long division but just can’t see why it should work. Who invented it and how?',
'category': 'Mathematics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Think of it a bit like you first learned division, sharing something out, but what you are sharing has a number if different size parts. You put aside the small stuff and share out as many of the big ones as you can. You take the left over big bits and break them into smaller pieces and add in the parts you set aside that are the same size, share out as many as you can. Repeat as necessary.\n\nThe big bits are the numbers on the left of the dividend, breaking into smaller parts is moving one place to the right and bringing down the next digit, effectively multiplying the remainder from each stage by ten.\n\nAs to who invented it, I'm going to guess Arab/Indian scholars as it needs place notation and the zero to work. It's possible the Chinese had something similar using an abacus. The ancient Egyptians had something similar but used smaller and smaller unitary fractions (1/x) rather than powers of ten to share out the successive remainders.",
"Lets do 123/5 with the same steps as in long division but in more rigorous fashion.\n\n123 can be written as 1×100 + 2×10 + 3×1 (or with exponents as 1×10^2 + 2×10^1 + 3×10^(0). We'll need this later).\n\nSo now we have ( 1×100 + 2×10 + 3×1 ) / 5.\n\nWe can write this as\n\n( 1×100 ) / 5 + ( 2×10 ) / 5 + ( 3×1 ) / 5\n\nAnd further.\n\n1/5 × 100 + 2/5 × 10 + 3/5 × 1\n\nNow we can start doing the divisions.\n\n1/5 would result in some fraction. We do not accept any fractions here. So lets go back few steps and combine the 100 term and 10 terms together.\n\n( 1×100 + 2×10 + 3×1 ) / 5 = ( 12×10 + 3×1 ) / 5. = 12/5 × 10 + 3/5 × 1\n\n12/5 is 2 and leftover 2/5 so. Lets keep the 2 here and move the leftover to the next term. So 12/5 ×10 = 2×10 + 2/5×10.\n\n12/5 × 10 + 3/5 × 1 = 2×10 + 2/5 × 10 + 3/5 ×1 = 2×10 + 23/5 × 1\n\n23/5 is 4 and 3/5 as leftover. \n\n2×10 + 23/5 × 1 = 2×10 + 4×1 + 3/5 × 1\n\nAgain lets keep the 4 here and move 3/5 to the next term. \nBut we do not have any terms left? We can just add more.\n\nAt the beginnign we wrote the number using decreasing powers of 10 (10^(2), 10^(1), 10^(0)). So we can just add 0×10^-1 (=0×0.1) in there! (it is just zero, we can add zeros to number as many as we like)\n\n2×10 + 4×1 + 3/5 × 1 + 0×10^-1 = 2×10 + 4×1 + 30/5 ×10^-1\n\n30/5 is nice even 6.\n\nSo our result is \n\n2×10 + 4×1 + 6 ×10^-1\n\nNow we just turn this back into normal number.\n\n24.6\n\nLong division does these steps. (lets see how long division works with reddit formatting...)\n\n 5|123\n -0 5 doesn't go into 1.\n 12 carry the 1 to the next term.\n -10 5 goes into 12 2 times. 2×10 goes into the result so remove 2×5 from here.\n 23 And carry the remaining 2 to next term.\n -20 5 goes into 23 4 times. 4×1 goes to the result so remove the 4×5 from here.\n 30 And carry the remaining 3 to the next term.\n -30 5 goes into 30 6 times. 6×0.1 goes to the result so remove the 6×5 from here.\n 00 No more remainders to carry so we are done.\n Result is 2×10 + 4×1 + 6×0.1"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'fzta9q',
'query': 'why does long division work?',
'query_type': 'Mathematics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '560382',
'title': 'Fascia',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical significance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 393,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Fascia becomes important clinically when it loses stiffness, becomes too stiff or has decreased shearing ability. When inflammatory fasciitis or trauma causes fibrosis and adhesions, fascial tissue fails to differentiate the adjacent structures effectively. This can happen after surgery where the fascia has been incised and healing includes a scar that traverses the surrounding structures.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1023019',
'title': 'Hypertrophic scar',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 493,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'When a normal wound heals, the body produces new collagen fibres at a rate which balances the breakdown of old collagen. Hypertrophic scars are red and thick and may be itchy or painful. They do not extend beyond the boundary of the original wound, but may continue to thicken for up to six months. They usually improve over one or two years, but may cause distress due to their appearance or the intensity of the itching; they can also restrict movement if they are located close to a joint.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '53652137',
'title': 'Periwound',
'section': 'Section::::Periwound issues.:Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 833,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'This type of damage is more common in chronic wounds due to exudate composition which differs from fluids produced in acute wounds or burns. Chronic wound exudate contains proteolytic enzymes and other components that degrade skin integrity and predispose it to inflammation. Moisture-associated skin damage can also be caused by bodily fluids or other contaminants that enter the periwound areas, for example, in patients suffering from urinary or fecal incontinence, or colostomy patients. Other causes include dryness of the skin due to ageing and skin or systemic disorders, allergic reactions to wound care products, damage that may result from poor application and removal technique of adhesive products used in wound treatment, as well as exposure to infection or extrinsic contaminants at the time of wound dressing changes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '77668',
'title': 'Scar',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 875,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Scar tissue is composed of the same protein (collagen) as the tissue that it replaces, but the fiber composition of the protein is different; instead of a random basketweave formation of the collagen fibers found in normal tissue, in fibrosis the collagen cross-links and forms a pronounced alignment in a single direction. This collagen scar tissue alignment is usually of inferior functional quality to the normal collagen randomised alignment. For example, scars in the skin are less resistant to ultraviolet radiation, and sweat glands and hair follicles do not grow back within scar tissues. A myocardial infarction, commonly known as a heart attack, causes scar formation in the heart muscle, which leads to loss of muscular power and possibly heart failure. However, there are some tissues (e.g. bone) that can heal without any structural or functional deterioration.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5018294',
'title': 'Cutis laxa',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 821,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'It is characterised by skin that is loose, hanging, wrinkled, and lacking in elasticity. The loose skin can be either generalised or localised. Biopsies have shown reduction and degeneration of dermal elastic fibres in the affected areas of skin. The loose skin is often most noticeable on the face, resulting in a prematurely aged appearance. The affected areas of skin may be thickened and dark. In addition, the joints may be loose (hypermobile) because of lax ligaments and tendons. When cutis laxa is severe, it can also affect the internal organs. The lungs, heart (supravalvular pulmonary stenosis), intestines, or arteries may be affected with a variety of severe impairments. In some cases, hernias and outpouching of the bladder can be observed. Patients can also present with whites of the eyes that are blue.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '653750',
'title': 'Wrinkle',
'section': 'Section::::Skin.:Causes for aging wrinkles.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 989,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Development of facial wrinkles is a kind of fibrosis of the skin. Misrepair-accumulation aging theory suggests that wrinkles develop from incorrect repairs of injured elastic fibers and collagen fibers. Repeated extensions and compressions of the skin cause repeated injuries of extracellular fibers in derma. During the repairing process, some of the broken elastic fibers and collagen fibers are not regenerated and restored but replaced by altered fibers. When an elastic fiber is broken in an extended state, it may be replaced by a “long” collagen fiber. Accumulation of “long” collagen fibers makes part of the skin looser and stiffer, and as a consequence, a big fold of skin appears. When a “long” collagen is broken in a compressed state, it may be replaced by a “short” collagen fiber. The “shorter” collagen fibers will restrict the extension of "longer" fibers, and make the “long” fibers in a folding state permanently. A small fold, namely a permanent wrinkle, then appears.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '77668',
'title': 'Scar',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Atrophic.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 465,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'An atrophic scar takes the form of a sunken recess in the skin, which has a pitted appearance. These are caused when underlying structures supporting the skin, such as fat or muscle, are lost. This type of scarring is often associated with acne, chickenpox, other diseases (especially "Staphylococcus" infection), surgery, certain insect and spider bites, or accidents. It can also be caused by a genetic connective tissue disorder, such as Ehlers–Danlos syndrome.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does the healed skin on my wounds have the same patterns, wrinkles and creases as before?',
'selftext': 'I had to cauterize a rather big area on my pinky finger. After 2-3 weeks the skin is healed almost completely, but it seems strange to me that it has the same "imperfections" as the surrounding skin (creases, wrinkles, lines). Why isn\'t the healed skin scar tissue? (smooth and without almost any marks)',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Because the skin there is constantly being crushed and stretched, resulting in it becoming wrinkled. If it was pure scar tissue it would rip when you tensed your tendons. ',
"Look at your hand, now move the inside of the base of your thumb towards your pinky. See all the folds and such? Your skin will fold the same way even after scarring.\n\nAnother example is that I game about as often as someone with a fulltime job is at work (30ish hours a week) my hand positioning presses the pinky side of my palm into my desk, causing a unique fold that wasn't there just a few years ago. If I sliced that part of my hand up (or burned it) the healed skin wont have those creases and wrinkles, but will develop them again as I continue to hold that unique hand position.\n",
"When you have a wound, it's usually only the top layer of the skin that gets damaged. The wrinkles and creases however come from the deepest layers of the skin. \n\nSo the skin that grows back grows onto the same creases - they haven't gone anywhere. If you were to have a wound so bad that your skin is gone completely, the creases would be gone or at least different. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6c9s7u',
'query': 'why does the healed skin on my wounds have the same patterns, wrinkles and creases as before?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '26644416',
'title': 'Relaxation (psychology)',
'section': 'Section::::Progressive muscle relaxation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
'end_character': 277,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Progressive muscle relaxation helps relax your muscles by tensing certain parts of the body (such as the neck), and then releasing the tension in order to feel the muscles relaxing. This technique helps for people with anxiety because they are always tense throughout the day.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26166115',
'title': 'Audio-visual entrainment',
'section': 'Section::::Research.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
'end_character': 433,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A study by Thomas and Siever showed that many people with chronic temporomandibular joint disorder (TMD) brace up when asked to relax. AVE at 10\xa0Hz produced deep masseter muscle relaxation and finger warming within six minutes. Audio entrainment has shown promise as a singular therapeutic modality for treating jaw tension and TMD pain. AVE has been used to reduce jaw pain, patient anxiety and heart rate during dental procedures.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16622',
'title': 'Knitting',
'section': 'Section::::Health benefits.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 127,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 127,
'end_character': 445,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'help prevent and manage stress, pain and depression, which in turn strengthens the body\'s immune system", as well as create a relaxation response in the body which can decrease blood pressure, heart rate, help prevent illness, and have a calming effect. Pain specialists have also found that hand knitting changes brain chemistry, resulting in an increase in "feel good" hormones (i.e. serotonin and dopamine) and a decrease in stress hormones.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1697643',
'title': 'Muscle tone',
'section': 'Section::::Pathological tonus.:Cramps.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 931,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Normally, people are unaware of their muscle tone in their daily activities. The body maintains the balance between the tone of flexor and extensor muscle groups. Sometimes, in normal, healthy people, that tone is lost either in flexors or extensor muscle groups in isolation, temporarily and intermittently resulting in "muscle cramps". Treating these extensor or flexor group of muscles in isolation to relax can be difficult. Generally, muscle relaxants or quinine can help with cramps and is warranted when they become troublesome. But these medication cause their relaxing effect in both groups by moderating their tone. The cause of disproportionate intermittent contractions of either flexors or extensors or the cause of cramps is unknown. The stimulus for these "cramps" may originate in the cerebral cortex, the spinal cord, or the muscle itself. This could indicate developing pathology or other problems in the future.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19592340',
'title': 'Management of chronic headaches',
'section': 'Section::::Non-medicinal.:Relaxation training.:Physical methods.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Physical relaxation methods involve actual body movement or action. One physical method for releasing tension involves "purposefully tensing and then relaxing groups of muscles in a definite sequence", which is named accordingly progressive muscle relaxation. Another physical method of relaxation is deep breathing. Deep breathing is done by breathing from the bottom of the lungs up, which is characterized by the rise and fall of the stomach, not the chest. These are the two most common physical methods of relaxation for chronic headache sufferers.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '1983036',
'title': 'Neck stiffness',
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'passage_text': 'Neck stiffness, stiff neck and nuchal rigidity are terms often used interchangeably to describe the medical condition when one experiences discomfort or pain when trying to turn, move, or flex the neck. Possible causes include muscle strain or sprain, cervical spine disorders, meningitis, and subarachnoid hemorrhage.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '11198392',
'title': 'Neck pain',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Alternative medicine.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Exercise plus joint manipulation has been found to be beneficial in both acute and chronic mechanical neck disorders. In particular, specific strengthening exercise may improve function and pain. Both cervical manipulation and cervical mobilization produce similar immediate-, and short-term changes. Multiple cervical manipulation sessions may provide better pain relief and functional improvement than certain medications at immediate to long-term follow-up. Thoracic manipulation may also improve pain and function. Low level laser therapy has been shown to reduce pain immediately after treatment in acute neck pain and up to 22 weeks after completion of treatment in patients that experience chronic neck pain. Low quality evidence suggests that cognitive-behavioural therapy may be effective at reducing pain in the short-term. Massaging the area may provide immediate and short-lived benefits but, long term effects are unknown. There is a lack of high-quality evidence to support the use of mechanical traction however, side effects include headaches, nausea and injury to tissue. Radiofrequency denervation may provide temporary relief for specific affected areas in the neck. \n',
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'title': 'Why does your neck get tense when you’re stressed and how does a massage fix it?',
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'answers': ['When you are stressed, you experience fight-or-flight, even if the stressor is emotional/psychological in nature. When this response occurs, it causes you to produce more adrenaline. Adrenaline causes muscle tension (muscle tension being a sign of stress). If you massage a muscle, you can cause that muscle to relax. So stress increases adrenaline, causing muscle tension, massage relaxes muscles.',
'Typically when you\'re stressed most people clench their jaw or tense their muscles without realizing it. After so long that muscle will stay tense. MT helps to release those muscle from all that tension by applying pressure in certain areas of the muscle to have it "let go". Stretching the muscle(s) helps as well because tension can cause muscles to shorten. ',
'Animals curl up into a ball when they are threatened. This is part of the “fight or flight” response. Our brains evolved in a world full of predators and dangers. The problems of our modern world like stress over money or friendships trigger the same “fight or flight” response. That part of our brain isn’t smart enough to know the difference. That’s why stress tenses us up into knots, and why stretching in the opposite direction can feel really good.\n\nAs to why massage “works”, I’m not totally sure — I think it’s something people are still debating over.',
"Forgive my formatting as I'm on mobile and forgive the oversimplification.\nThere are a few reasons why on both sides (why im tense vs why I stop being tense.) Muscles are affected by certain nerotransmitters when you're stressed. Also, hydrogen and collegen can bind together muscle fibers and create knots. Also part duex, a lot of people dont tend to realize they clench their jaws or move their head forward when they are stressed. Massage (of which there are several modalities) can in essence break apart muscle tissue, leading to fibroblasts (the clean up guys) and lymphatic fluid to clear up those transmitters, while the massage itself affects the parasympathetic nervous system and releases other neruotransmitters that help relax muscles. For knots, we use something called friction, stripping or deep transverse friction that literally help pull apart the muscle tissues and those hydrogen,collagen bonds or taught bands of tissue. So in essence, we kind of best your muscle up in a nice way and good neurotransmitters fix the rest.",
"When people are tense, they tend to shrug their shoulders up (no idea why). We're not talking shrugging a lot, but it's enough to activate the trapezius muscle and the muscles of the neck. Overtime, the muscles get sore and contracted from having been activated for so long. When they've been contracted for so long, it's also hard for the muscle fibers to relax and release to their normal length. This is what you experience as an achy/sore neck.\n\n The reason a massage fixes it is due to the massage forcing the muscle fibers to extend again. When the muscle fibers can lengthen to their normal range, bam, no tightness.",
'I’ve seen explantations on why it gets tense so I’ll just tell you what might help. I work at a salon that offers massage and one of the massage therapist told me just having someone put pressure on your neck/shoulders with there elbows helps a lot. It has made a huge difference. Hope this helps!',
"If you've ever seen a cat or dog get frightened, you'll notice they puff up and try to look bigger. This is a response to danger and our body experiences stress in the same way. We tuck our shoulders up and keep our head low. Doing this for a long time can cause the muscles tension. An easy way to massage this is to slowly rotate your neck from the left, to down, to right and back again over and over. You can also shrug and relax your shoulders. Lastly, hold your finders on one side of your neck close to your shoulders, pretty tight but not too tight, and then cock your head to the opposite side slowly, then move your fingers a bit higher and repeat. The key to any stretching is if it hurts, don't do it. If you're still experiencing pain, you should consider seeing your doctor. Many insurance plans cover massage for rehabilitation of injury, most massage chains won't/can't bill your insurance, so try to go to a sports medicine specialists, they employee masseuses that can bill your insurance. Source: Me, 36 free massages a year baby!",
'As the other redditors have thoughtfully and thoroughly explained the reasons why your neck gets tense and the effect of the massage i wont get into it but instead give you an alternative. A massage is(usually) a temporary relief for the muscles as it just takes a new series of stressfull events and boom your muscles are tense again. \n\nNow the tension in the muscles is nothing but stored information: stress that has tensed up the muscles in reaction to a stressfull situation. However by learning how to breathe with the belly in a relaxed and calm manner you can project that sense of calm feeling towards any tension point in the body, making it relaxed(provided you are in a correct upright posture).\n\nAlso breathing and emotions are linked, for example by experiencing or thinking about something anxious your breath shortens and becomes more shallow(try it). So by controlling the breath you not only can learn to relax your muscles but also keep your stress away from physically manifesting in your body. \n\nPeace :)\n',
"Your neck muscles don't have much to do, and they are quite complicated. Because we rarely workout the neck muscles they don't get practice lining up correctly. When the rest of your body is under stress the neck tries to help, and the muscles contract in unexpected ways. ",
'Now you know the why. Now seek help from massage, yoga, tai chi, acupuncture, and acupressure. All these are great at helping relieve the tension.',
'One of the only perks to the house I overpaid for is a hot tub. Am I imagining it helps the occasional sore back & neck, and if so, how?',
'Hiya! Massage Therapist here. \n\nMuscles can do lots of things! You can use them to move parts of your body around, like your arms and legs. You can also use them to hold yourself really still, like a statue! This is called tensing up. When you use your muscles to tense up, it’s really hard for anyone to push you around. Try it! Have a friend try to push you over while your body is relaxed. Then have them try to push you while your muscles are tense, and feel the difference. Tensing up can protect you!\n\nNow, when a person is overly stressed, they may feel the need to be in a constant state of protection, and stay tense all the time. This is called ‘hypertension’ (double edit: that isn’t the correct term, forgive me! It’s really called hypertonicity.). The shoulders and neck are the most common place for stuck tension, but it can be held in different places all over the body.\n\nWhen a muscle is constantly contracted, it can cause some problems. Tense muscles restrict blood circulation, which can prevent the muscle from getting the nutrients it needs to be healthy. Also, a muscle that doesn’t relax and can limit the amount of movement your body can do.\n\nPhew! That was a lot of information! Let’s shake it out before we continue.\n\nOkay, so now we get to the good stuff: how does massage actually help? The simple answer is that it takes the muscles out of tension, and into a supple, relaxed state. BUT HOW? \n\nFirst, a massage can only be effective if the person can relax. They need to be in a space where they feel safe, where they can lower their tension defenses. This is why spas and massage studios pay extra attention to atmosphere and ambiance. Soft music, low lights, and privacy are standard in most massage spaces.\n\nThen you get to the actual massage. There are a ton of techniques that massage therapists use to loosen muscles! By kneading, stroking, pressing, shaking and/or tapping muscles, we help them out of tension and into relaxation. Without the tension, you can move the muscle more easily, the circulation to the area improves, and posture improves. \n\nAlso, there can be great emotional relief alongside the physical relief, when you can shift away from feeling defensive and locked down.\n\nI hope this helps, I know it’s long-winded. Feel free to ask me any questions you have about the benefits of massage! I love the field, and am so happy to help people feel better in their bodies all day!',
'While some people have explained the relationship between your flight-or-fight system and muscle tension, I would actually suggest that massages often by untrained hands or even at the hands of professionals have lower success than exercising the muscles. I can explain further if you prefer but I will say this, I suffer from frequent tension in my traps and neck because I sit down for long hours in the day and spend a decent amount of time studying in bed. The thing about most massage therapies is that often they are very acute or short term solutions and won\'t solve the roots of the problem. Personally I do a particular resistance band exercise for relief and I make sure to have frequent "walking breaks". \n\n\nSource: 4th Year Kinesiology Student ',
'How many people just started rubbing their sore neck and shoulders? I did.',
'Essentially, muscles have different types of fibers and neuro-sensory organs that responds to different types of stimuli and elicit a response. Some of these receptors are mechanoreceptors and they respond to pressure differences. Within the muscles, our two main sensory organs that elicit a response are muscle spindles and golgi tendon. And in simple terms, golgi tendon organs are those that respond to an overload of tension and fires up the opposite muscle so that the muscle that is currently contracting, relaxes before there is damage. This is the protective mechanism you have when you have this heavy load you can\'t maintain and you automatically just drop it. The other sensory organ is the muscle spindle. This is the one where there is a stretch , or lengthening of a muscle because of a load, so this fires up so that that same muscle contracts so there\'s no lengthening. This is the one you are mainly using all the time, like holding your phone. Now knots has to deal a lot with this mechanism. More often than not it\'s more of a neuronal component and with that, you have to also consider nerve insertions and piercing points of fascia. Fascia is the covering of your muscles that serves as lubrication and provides glide, for the most part. Now...knots are thought to be an over stimulation of these muscle spindles...where your muscle sustain contraction for a long time, hence slouching or being sat in a particular way or even diseases processes can illicit the nervous system to activate. this creates a reflex that then elicits your muscles to contract. And there you have your knots. When you are stressed you are activating your sympathetic system, the fight-or-flight respond. If sustained, this can lead to a hyperactivation of this reflex. Now, you\'ve probably heard of stress points where most often than not you\'ll find a knot. This if I\'m not mistaken, has to deal with nerve penetrating the fascia. So, there are multiple things that can happen. Be it that the nerve is hyperactivated and is causing congestion around the fascial penetration spot. Or that because of an awkward muscle contraction you have, the fascia is creating pressure on the nerve causing it to fire and sustain that knot... you\'ll have a knot. Lol. Now massages can help with by different mechanisms. Be it that you are creating direct inhibition, hence removing the congestion around the nerve and then leading to relief. Or direct inhibition causing a break from the reflex loop hence no sustained contraction, or the mechanoreceptors responding to this different type of pressure that then relaxes the muscles...You are essentially trying to reset the system. And this leads either way to the activation of inflammation, to "heal" the area. Hence why you can feel sore or bruised a day or two after massages. Now...going back to the neck...It\'s all anatomy. So we need to know muscles, bones and nerves and their location. From a chiropractor or Osteopathic medical approach, you have to consider articulation dysfunctions, at the level of joints. That could be pinching or shortening a muscle. Think of the same thing but with nerves. In terms of muscles, your trapezius, splenius capitus, levator scapulae, scalenes, sternocleidomastoids and your suboccipital muscles are your major culprits for neck pain under stress. Also, especially if you have a propensity of headaches and migraines, your suboccipital muscles will be tight. These are the muscles at the back of the base of your skull. You more likely than not if you have migraines, you\'ll have a tenderpoint/knot at the opthalmic nerve (facial nerve V1 branch) that will radiate to the back/posterior base of the skull wherever your suboccipital/occipital nerves exit through. And these can lead to these pains. By treating the reflex...you can aid these things and these symptoms might diminish.',
'Ok, sidebar here, from a nerdy ((and pedantic) massage therapist:\n\nThere are lots of responses here, all giving very reasonable and more or less science-y sounding answers expressed with absolute confidence. They\'re all missing one important thing.\n\nHere\'s the somewhat awkward truth: we don\'t really know. In fact, the answer to most questions about massage is "We don\'t know for sure." There are a lot of things that we know definitely work, and we have some theories as to why, but we aren\'t really sure. \n\nThere are a couple of really good reasons for this. \n\nFirst, massage is really hard to study in a scientifically rigorous way. You can\'t even do a proper blind study - every subject will know whether or not they got a massage! \n\nThe second reason is that to really understand how massage works, you\'d have to be able to see what\'s going on in a living body on a sub-microscopic level in real-time, and we don\'t have any way to do that. Through decades of studying chemical structures of proteins and other components in muscle tissues and nerve fibers, scientists have developed a really good sense of how these things work, and *some* of the ways things can go wrong. But there are still lots of failure modes that aren\'t well understood yet.\n\nSo, if we don\'t know exactly why your neck gets tense when you\'re stressed, or why massage fixes it, what *do* we know? Well, let\'s start with a basic understanding of the feedback loop that regulates the tension in any given muscle (or really, any cluster of muscle fibers within a muscle):\n\n1. Sensory receptors in and around every muscle in the body, every second of every day, send information up to the brain. This includes pressure sensors in the muscle that detect contraction, stretch sensors in the tendons, chemical receptors throughout the muscle tissue that detect inflammation, and more.\n2. The brain receives all this info, and compares it to past experience to estimate the current position, motion, and state of every body part, including the current tension of each muscle. (When you close your eyes and wave your arms around and you can feel where they are, this is what makes that possible.)\n3. The brain determines the difference between the position and motion of each body part vs where it wants those body parts to be, as well as the current contraction state of each muscle, and contracts or relaxes all muscles accordingly. (This is why you\'re capable of walking, or even standing, without falling over.)\n4. Return to step #1.\n\nSo, if a muscle is more tense (that is, trying to contract more) than it should be - or, if just a few fibers in a muscle are tense, as in the case of a "knot" - the problem could be at any step of that process. Perhaps the tissues are sending incorrect or contradictory information to the brain, or the brain is misinterpreting the information, or the brain is sending the wrong signals to the muscle, or the signal from the brain isn\'t reaching the muscle properly. And of course, there are several possible causes for each of these.\n\nMassage could help any of those situations. It can increase lymphatic flow, flushing out metabolic byproducts that might interfere with nerve signals or with the muscle\'s ability to respond. It could also "recalibrate" the brain\'s sensorimotor system, by sending a wide range of unusual signals - for example, I can stretch the tendon at one end of the muscle without simultaneously stretching the other end - something that rarely happens naturally, forcing the brain to "recalibrate" its idea of what a given sensory input means.\n\nWithout being able to trace individual nerve signals, let alone look at the chemical changes inside a muscle cell from one millisecond to the next, it\'s surprisingly hard to tell for sure exactly which of these things is happening, and why, and how. Which is why the most honest answer to why massage works is still almost always "I don\'t know."\n\n & #x200B;\n\nSo, with that huge disclaimer, let\'s finally come back to your original question: my own pet theory, based on what I\'ve read and my personal experience, is something like this: \n\nUnder normal circumstances, it\'s very rare that you\'ll keep the same muscle active for an extended period. You\'re always making small movements and adjustments, giving any particular group of muscle fibers a chance to relax every now and then. When you\'re under stress, however, as others have pointed out, your brain switches to "fight or flight" mode, releasing cortisol, adrenaline, and other hormones into your body. This can cause you to tense up all your muscles in preparation for sudden action. It can also help you to hold very still, perhaps as you focus intently one one thing. And then, of course, the mental distraction of the stress may cause you not to consciously notice that you\'ve held one muscle tight long enough that it\'s getting uncomfortable.\n\nAt some point, when you perform this unusual action of keeping a muscle tight for a very long time, something goes wrong in the feedback loop above. Perhaps the tight muscles inhibit lymphatic flow, causing a build up of metabolic byproducts, causing inflammation. Or perhaps fatigue of the overworked stretch sensors causes the brain to misinterpret their signals, or start to ignore them completely. For whatever reason, that muscle (or part of a muscle) keeps trying to contract more than is appropriate. Then you get a massage, and (one way or another) everything is cleared out and recalibrated, and you feel better.\n\nWhy does this happen in the neck, specifically? Well, it can happen anywhere, and different people "carry their tension" in different places. The thing about the neck is, those muscles are pretty busy. If you\'re not lying down, you\'re probably using those muscles to support your head. And especially if you spend your days at a desk, looking at a screen or at paperwork or anything involving focused attention, not looking around much, while feeling stressed and anxious... it\'s just asking for trouble!',
'I have constant neck and back pain. Sometimes it’s not too bad but sometimes it still hurts even when I’m just lying in bed. I’m a side and stomach sleeper which I’ve heard is bad, but I absolutely cannot sleep on my back. Is there anything I can do to help it? Supportive pillows? Should I be finding a massage therapist? Any ideas? ',
'I always thought it was because your head fills up with thoughts when your anxious and gets heavier and adds stress to your neck. ',
"I completely recovered after getting familiar with Sarno's TMS hypothesis. Hope it will do for you what it did for me.",
"The explanation hinges on whether you are prepared to accept the existence and function of the subconscious or unconscious portion of the human mind. If you can accept it, there is a very adequate explanation (largely not accepted by mainstream medicine) that has fallen out of favor, though has never been disproven.\n\nObviously, if the pain is caused directly by injury or disease that can be explained with clinical diagnostic, then the pain is caused by that injury or disease. However, where there is no obvious explanation for the pain, the pain may be caused by stress or essentially, your own brain. What is pain caused by the brain? Psychosomatic illness or symptoms. What is the psychosomatic illness caused by? Suppressed or repressed anger -- the most powerful emotion. Why would the brain cause you pain? To offer a distraction from your unsolvable or inescapable problems or let downs in life that you may consider inescapable, to, in essence, allow you to function.\n\nThe brain frequently picks a 'favorite' site to locate physical psychosomatic pain. I carried my psychosomatic pain in my shoulders/neck for many years, and after a back injury, my brain then 'preferred' to locate my psychosomatic pain in my back instead. Long after my back injury had healed, I still had un-explainable back pain (like 3 bloody years later!).\n\n & #x200B;\n\nPlease let me explain (and sorry for the wall of text, oof).\n\n & #x200B;\n\nSarno^(1,2) believes that the purpose of psychosomatic symptoms or pain are to offer a distraction, to relieve the person suffering of emotional pain, by substituting physical symptoms instead. The bigger the stressor, the more unsolvable, the more intractable, the more emotionally painful it is, the greater the risk is of developing psychosomatic symptoms, and the greater the resulting psychosomatic pain.\n\nPsychosomatic illness or symptoms causing pain are largely unconscious, as in not under any direct voluntary executive conscious control, reactions to strong emotions, particularly anger. This doesn't mean the pain is made up, it means, we aren't even aware its made up, and cannot certainly just pretend it away. The pain is very real, the muscle tension is real, the symptoms are real. The cause, however, is not organic: it is our own brain.\n\nHow does the brain cause pain? As Sarno^(1,2) points out, there are studies that show that enervated muscle tissue suffering from psychosomatic pain actively has lower oxygen content. Sarno believes that the brain is capable of utilizing the autonomic nervous system to deprive target tissues of blood flow, and hence oxygen. Nerves that are deprived of oxygen are capable of generating pain.\n\nMassaging the affected areas may increase blood flow, and hence, temporarily alleviate the tension symptoms.\n\nWhat do psychosomatic symptoms include? They can include muscle pain, particularly lower back pain that doesn't have any obvious cause, depression, anxiety, sleep problems, IBS, fibromyalgia, among others.\n\nFreud is largely credited with documentation and early work on this, however, his insistence that psychosomatic illness was as a result of repressed sexual feelings missed the mark.\n\nLater work (by Sarno^(1,2), Hanscom^(3), Schechter^(4), Schubiner^(5), and Kellerman^(6)) has shown that suppressed or repressed anger or rage is the primary emotion that drives psychosomatic illness. Why repress rage? Because those of us who act on it and lash out end up ostracized, in fights we may not win, hurting people, losing our jobs, or ending up in jail. Thats why. As social animals, we evolved to repress rage.\n\nHow does suppressed or repressed anger or rage work? According to Kellerman^(6) ,Sarno^(1), and Luskin^(7), subconscious anger is generated when we experience let downs, stress or our 'wishes' or expectations in life don't get met. Note this is normal: we either (1) don't get what we want, (2) don't get what we want the way we want it, (3) in the amount we want it in, (4) or when we want it.\n\nThe anger may also be the result of grevious insult or injury, caused by accidents, abuse, crime (assault, rape, or murder of family member or loved one), see Luskin^(7).\n\nCertain personalities of people, as Sarno^(1,2) pointed out, seem to be at higher risk for developing symptoms of psychosomatic illness. People who suffer from 'goodism', or want to do the right thing and internalize anger very readily may suffer moreso from psychosomatic symptoms.\n\nAccording to Hanscom^(3) and Sarno^(2), symptom relief provided by massage therapy, accupuncture, chiropractic manipulation, physiotherapy may simply be providing temporary relief of the pain caused by psychosomatic illness, but in the end all of these are possibly a placebo, and do not treat the cause (again, if the cause is not an obvious injury or clinically diagnosable disease).\n\nOne way to rid yourself of the anger causing the psychosomatic symptoms is to forgive those who have transgressed against you or caused you emotional suffering. As Luskin^(7) points out, many people who suffer from anger and hurt, decades later, caused by grevious injury or injustice, gain better emotional peace of mind by forgiving.\n\nThe more I read about it, the more I am fascinated by anger as an emotion.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nReferences:\n\n1. Sarno, John. The Divided Mind: The Epidemic of Mind-Body Disorders. 2009. Harper-Collins. [_URL_4_](_URL_4_). Also, _URL_7_\n2. Sarno, John. The Mindbody Prescription: Healing the Body, Healing the Pain. 1999. [_URL_1_](_URL_1_)\n3. Hanscom, David. Back in Control: A Surgeon's Roadmap out of chronic pain. 2016. Vertus Press. Also [_URL_0_](http://_URL_0_).\n4. Schechter, David. Think Away Your Pain: Your Brain is the Solution to Your Pain. 2014. MindBody Medicine Publications. Also [_URL_3_](_URL_3_)\n5. Schubiner, Howard. Unlearn Your Pain. 2010. Mind Body Publishing. [_URL_6_](_URL_6_). Also, [_URL_2_](_URL_2_).\n6. Kellerman, Henry. The 4 Steps to Peace of Mind: The Simple Effective Way to Cure Our Emotional Symptoms. 2007. Rowman & Littlefield. [_URL_8_](_URL_8_).\n7. Luskin, Fred. Forgive for Good: A Proven Prescription for Health and Happiness. [_URL_5_](_URL_5_)\n\n & #x200B;",
'wait what neck is this?',
'dealing with this now. Been so stressed out about my thesis defence, while writing for hours on end i think i have been clenching and lifting my shoulders (towards my ears). Been seeing a PT for it...but it just wont go away. Hopefully soon it will.',
'Stress is often acompanied by unconscious muscle tensing. \nWhen muscles are tensed in a sustained manner, they can block the lymphatic system from collecting and purging the body of toxins. Massages works by loosening those pathways, allowing the lymphatic system to do its job',
'And how does a Sauna/Hot tub help with this?\n\nOne of my last massages included 30 minutes in a sauna before the massage, and that did something to my muscles which really improved the effect on my muscles during the massage. It was like a whole other level of therapy.'],
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'passage_text': 'After Disney died in 1966 before his vision was realized, the Disney Company board decided that it did not want to be in the business of running a city. Most of Walt\'s ideas for his planned city were eventually abandoned, and thus the residential areas were never built, causing some to cry foul. Most notably, Richard Foglesong argues in his book, "Married to the Mouse: Walt Disney World and Orlando", that Disney has abused its powers by remaining in complete control of the District, and using its autonomy solely for commercial interests inside its self-contained resort instead of maintaining an actual city. And although Disney built an actual community, Celebration, Florida, on their property in the 1990s, it was later de-annexed from the District and the company\'s control.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '693753',
'title': 'Bansko',
'section': 'Section::::Economy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Many of the infrastructure problems have been given attention to since 2009. The large portion of unfinished apartments are now being given attention as well. Due to the global recovery from the financial crisis and the more realistic pricing, apartments are attracting more buyers from across Europe. In 2010 the resort recovered from the crisis and has seen record profits.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2087269',
'title': 'History of Las Vegas',
'section': 'Section::::Since 2007: downturn and recovery.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 75,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 75,
'end_character': 486,
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'passage_text': "The home mortgage crisis (2007-2010) and the late 2000s recession affected Las Vegas' economic success. New home construction was stalled, and construction projects were either canceled, postponed, or continued with financial troubles. Some of these projects included the MGM Mirage property of CityCenter, Fontainebleau, Echelon, and The Plaza. The global financial situation also had a negative effect on gaming and tourism revenue, causing many of the companies to report net loss. \n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Disney World is such a money maker, why are the cities surrounding it so poor with such a housing crisis?',
'selftext': 'Poor Florida.',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The thing I would say is that no one who goes to Disney world is really going to stay for a long time in that area. Two I don’t really think any of those theme parks really pay there employees all that much. And most of the area around is full of swamp places.',
"Disney doesn't pay a living wage. Also many of the homes near the park are Air BnBs for the tourists. It jacks up the rental rate for residents.",
"Look into the history of the city of Celebration, FL, and learn the story of Disney's attempt (and failure) at building the perfect city",
"Because that money does not go back to the local economy. It instead gets funneled to corporate accounts, and the corporate team doesn't live in these neighborhoods.\n\nA company doing well only helps the local area if they put the money back in. For example paying workers well, ordering supplies from local companies, making donations to local charities, paying a fair amount of taxes.\n\n\nWhat usually happens is that none of those happen. Workers get low wages, supplies are bought from the cheapest foreign supplier, donations are pretty often less than 0.05%, and they find ways to avoid paying taxes.",
'It allows Disney to leach off of the desperate families by offering them employment but at rates of pay so poor they are unable to move out of their current situation.',
"All the headlines say that central Florida is experiencing an *affordable* housing crisis. This is different from the housing crisis that followed the Great Recession, where lots of people couldn't afford mortgages they had already taken out and lost their homes. This crisis means that some people in the region can't find housing in their price range. You can get in that situation by having a lot of low income people, by having a lot of expensive housing, or both. \n\nCentral Florida isn't exactly the richest region in the US. It's swampy and plagued by heat and hurricanes. Some counties have poverty rates up to 30%, though the areas around Disney World are more in the 15-20% range, so it's unlikely that Disney World is making surrounding communities *less* prosperous (though that's a low bar). \n\nDisney World could be contributing on the supply side. If you are a real estate developer in the region, you will probably get a higher return to building a resort, hotel, or timeshares than you would with inexpensive resident housing. Land is in fixed supply, so every vacation home in that area takes up property that could be use to house residents. This could be compounded with the fact that even if Disney World pays a decent wage, it's paying a lot of people to do relatively unskilled jobs like concessions and janitorial work. Those jobs are necessary, but the people who do them are getting priced out of the areas around their workplace, forcing them into longer commutes.",
"The area around Disney World is not especially poor. Check these maps:\n\n_URL_2_\n_URL_3_\n\nThe Orlando area has relatively low poverty compared to the Florida panhandle or Miami. It's not spectacularly wealthy, but it's not bad either.\n\nThe Orlando area also doesn't have a community-wide housing crisis. Housing prices there are near the national average.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nIt does, however, have a low-income housing crisis. There are very few homes for the very poor. \n\n_URL_1_\n\nLow-income housing doesn't happen by accident in growing cities: opportunities must be created -- or at least permitted -- by the local government, which reflects the priorities of its voters. IMO, Orlando has a low-income housing crisis because it has a whole lot of residents who don't want a trailer park or housing project anywhere near their retirement home."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'cuabo0',
'query': 'disney world is such a money maker, why are the cities surrounding it so poor with such a housing crisis?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2555865',
'title': 'Aura (symptom)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Auras can also be confused with sudden onset of panic, panic attacks or anxiety attacks creating difficulties in diagnosis. The differential diagnosis of patients who experience symptoms of paresthesias, derealization, dizziness, chest pain, tremors, and palpitations can be quite challenging.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33784314',
'title': 'Social stress',
'section': 'Section::::Mental health.:Anxiety.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "The biological basis for anxiety disorders is rooted in the consistent activation of the stress response. Fear, which is the defining emotion of an anxiety disorder, occurs when someone perceives a situation (a stressor) as threatening. This activates the stress response. If a person has difficulty regulating this stress response, it may activate inappropriately. Stress can therefore arise when a real stressor is not present or when something isn't actually threatening. This can lead to the development of an anxiety disorder (panic attacks, social anxiety, OCD, etc.). Social anxiety disorder is defined as the fear of being judged or evaluated by others, even if no such threat is actually present.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '922',
'title': 'Anxiety',
'section': 'Section::::Symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 428,
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'passage_text': 'The emotional effects of anxiety may include "feelings of apprehension or dread, trouble concentrating, feeling tense or jumpy, anticipating the worst, irritability, restlessness, watching (and waiting) for signs (and occurrences) of danger, and, feeling like your mind\'s gone blank" as well as "nightmares/bad dreams, obsessions about sensations, déjà vu, a trapped-in-your-mind feeling, and feeling like everything is scary."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '57688',
'title': 'Anxiety disorder',
'section': 'Section::::Classification.:Situational anxiety.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 739,
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'passage_text': 'Situational anxiety is caused by new situations or changing events. It can also be caused by various events that make that particular individual uncomfortable. Its occurrence is very common. Often, an individual will experience panic attacks or extreme anxiety in specific situations. A situation that causes one individual to experience anxiety may not affect another individual at all. For example, some people become uneasy in crowds or tight spaces, so standing in a tightly packed line, say at the bank or a store register, may cause them to experience extreme anxiety, possibly a panic attack. Others, however, may experience anxiety when major changes in life occur, such as entering college, getting married, having children, etc.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '922',
'title': 'Anxiety',
'section': 'Section::::Risk factors.:Medical conditions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 66,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 66,
'end_character': 597,
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'passage_text': 'Many medical conditions can cause anxiety. This includes conditions that affect the ability to breathe, like COPD and asthma, and the difficulty in breathing that often occurs near death. Conditions that cause abdominal pain or chest pain can cause anxiety and may in some cases be a somatization of anxiety; the same is true for some sexual dysfunctions. Conditions that affect the face or the skin can cause social anxiety especially among adolescents, and developmental disabilities often lead to social anxiety for children as well. Life-threatening conditions like cancer also cause anxiety.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35645628',
'title': 'Anxiety sensitivity',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Anxiety sensitivity (AS) refers to the fear of behaviors or sensations associated with the experience of anxiety. Bodily sensations related to anxiety are mistaken as a harmful experience causing more intense anxiety or fear. For example, a person may fear the shakes as impending neurological disorder.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25441349',
'title': 'Preoperational anxiety',
'section': 'Section::::Effects.:Preparation for surgery.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 49,
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'passage_text': 'On the positive side, if a patient experiences moderate amounts of anxiety, the anxiety can aid in the preparation for surgery. On the negative side, the anxiety can cause harm if the patient experiences an excessive or diminutive amount. One reason for this is that small amounts of anxiety will not adequately prepare the patient for pain. Also, higher levels of anxiety can over-sensitize the patient to unpleasant stimuli, which would heighten their senses of touch, smell or hearing. This results in intense pain, dizziness, and nausea. It can also increase the patient’s feelings of uneasiness in the unfamiliar surroundings.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does anxiety cause one to experience feeling unattached to one\'s body, or "derealization"?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It's a coping mechanism; really short answer, dissociation/derealization is a defense mechanism to deal with stress or trauma. Not being there = not having to deal with the stressful situation. If you need me to expand on it I can. :o\n\nSource: I have severe dissociation and dissociative identity disorder "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6f2foo',
'query': 'how does anxiety cause one to experience feeling unattached to one\'s body, or "derealization"?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '11730980',
'title': 'Percentage in point',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 343,
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'passage_text': 'The major currencies (except the Japanese yen) are traditionally priced to four decimal places, and a pip is one unit of the fourth decimal point: for dollar currencies this is to 1/100th of a cent. For the yen, a pip is one unit of the second decimal point, because the yen is much closer in value to one hundredth of other major currencies.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1326729',
'title': 'Non-decimal currency',
'section': 'Section::::Historic non-decimal currencies.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 830,
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'passage_text': 'Decimalised currencies also have disadvantages. The principal advantage of most non-decimal currencies is that they are more easily divided, particularly by numbers such as 3 and 8, than decimal currencies, due to being based upon conversion values that have a large number of factors. A currency with a 100:1 ratio divisible neither into 3 nor into 8, and furthermore 100 may be an uncomfortably large number for some poorly educated people to deal with. For example, one-third of an Austrian Gulden (of 60 Kreuzer) was 20 Kreuzer while a third of a dollar is 33. cents. This divisibility is useful when trading and when sharing out sums of money. For these reasons, many states chose in the past to adopt non-decimal currencies based on divisions into sub-units such as 12 or 20, sometimes with more than one tier of sub-units.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1469133',
'title': 'Preferred number',
'section': 'Section::::1–2–5 series.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The denominations of most modern currencies, notably the euro and British pound, follow a 1–2–5 series. The United States and Canada follow the approximate 1–2–5 series 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 (cents), $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, $100. The ––1 series (… 0.1 0.25 0.5 1 2.5 5 10 …) is also used by currencies derived from the former Dutch gulden (Aruban florin, Netherlands Antillean gulden, Surinamese dollar), some Middle Eastern currencies (Iraqi and Jordanian dinars, Lebanese pound, Syrian pound), and the Seychellois rupee. However, newer notes introduced in Lebanon and Syria due to inflation follow the standard 1–2–5 series instead.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '211017',
'title': 'Decimalisation',
'section': 'Section::::Decimal currency.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 279,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Decimal currencies have sub-units based on a factor of 10. There are most commonly 100 sub-units to the base currency unit, but currencies based on 1,000 sub-units also exist, especially in Arab countries. The Chinese Yuan is widely considered to be the first decimal currency .\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '524783',
'title': 'Denomination (currency)',
'section': 'Section::::Decimal vs. non-decimal.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 634,
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'passage_text': 'A decimal currency is a currency where the ratio between the main unit and the subunit is an integral power of 10. Non-decimal currencies are now rare but had some advantages in daily life transactions. For example, 1 South German Gulden = 60 Kreuzer. 60 can be divided into 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20 or 30 parts that are still integers, making pricing easy. This advantage (in an age without mechanical or electronic calculators) and the lack of widespread accurate weighing apparatus (meaning an item might sometimes simply be divided in 2,4,6 etc.) coupled with tradition were the reasons why non-decimal currencies were used.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '180311',
'title': 'Exchange rate',
'section': 'Section::::Manipulation of exchange rates.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 84,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "Other nations, including Iceland, Japan, Brazil, and so on have had a policy of maintaining a low value of their currencies in the hope of reducing the cost of exports and thus bolstering their economies. A lower exchange rate lowers the price of a country's goods for consumers in other countries, but raises the price of imported goods and services for consumers in the low value currency country.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '180311',
'title': 'Exchange rate',
'section': 'Section::::Quotations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 864,
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'passage_text': 'Market convention from the early 1980s to 2006 was that most currency pairs were quoted to four decimal places for spot transactions and up to six decimal places for forward outrights or swaps. (The fourth decimal place is usually referred to as a "pip"). An exception to this was exchange rates with a value of less than 1.000 which were usually quoted to five or six decimal places. Although there is no fixed rule, exchange rates numerically greater than around 20 were usually quoted to three decimal places and exchange rates greater than 80 were quoted to two decimal places. Currencies over 5000 were usually quoted with no decimal places (for example, the former Turkish Lira). e.g. (GBPOMR : 0.765432 - : 1.4436 - EURJPY : 165.29). In other words, quotes are given with five digits. Where rates are below 1, quotes frequently include five decimal places.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why the value of so many western currencies is roughly equal?',
'selftext': "USD, EUR, CHF, GBP, AUD, CAD, are more or less aligned to a 1:1 ratio, when I don't think there is any economic/financial reason why they should be so. Is it just the result of a convenient choice?",
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Many of these currencies are or were pegged to the USD after WWII. Since the United States had the vast majority of the world's gold (lend-lease was expensive, as it turns out), the agreement was that the USD would be backed by gold and the other currencies would be backed by the Dollar. (The [Bretton Woods](_URL_0_) system)\n\nIn fact, France and Switzerland actually followed through on this, redeeming their reserve USD for around $250 million in gold in the late 60's. This of course prompted Nixon to make the Dollar free floating, backed by nothing in particular. (The Nixon Shock)\n\nSince the Euro and Australian Dollar were created after this system, it made sense to value them around 1:1 with the USD. The Pound Sterling and the Swiss Franc were initially valued at around 4:1 with the dollar, but the post war economic boom in America rapidly increased the relative value if American dollars, bringing them more in line with each other. \n\nThe Canadian dollar, on the other hand, was pegged at 1.1:1 in the 40s and has been slightly less valuable ever since. \n\nTL;DR: America had all the gold after WWII and made the rules.",
"That's a great question! I'm sure someone else can give a more complete answer, but it's in part due to the fact that several of these western countries had explicit currency pegs tying their currency to the price of gold at similar rates (so, you could covert dollars to gold at a fixed rate the government set) - read about the Bretton Woods system for more info about that: _URL_0_. For a time several countries also explicitly tied their exchange rates to the US dollar (so, you could exchange that currency for US dollars at fixed rates). This kept the exchange rates relatively stable, and many of these countries chose pegs that were near a 1:1 ratio.\n\nToday, those countries you listed don't have explicit pegs, but the central banks operate in similar ways. Many central banks of developed western countries either formally or informally manage their policies in order to hit an inflation target of around 1-2%. This and the fact that the currencies had similar initial values due to the choice of the previously fixed rates keeps the exchange rates fairly stable as the different central banks have similar goals. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7e975d',
'query': 'why the value of so many western currencies is roughly equal?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '50164726',
'title': "Children's right to adequate nutrition in New Zealand",
'section': 'Section::::Benefits of current programmes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 54,
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'passage_text': 'Breakfast, in particular, has been found to have a beneficial effect on children’s study, behaviour, and attendance and there is mounting evidence that eating a good quality breakfast reduces the risk of obesity. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3088926',
'title': 'Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics',
'section': 'Section::::Influence and positions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The Academy states that children who eat breakfast have better concentration, problem-solving skills, and eye–hand coordination. Children who do not eat breakfast are tired at school and eat more junk food.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '68768',
'title': 'Breakfast',
'section': 'Section::::Effect on health.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 433,
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'passage_text': 'While breakfast is commonly referred to as "the most important meal of the day", some epidemiological research indicates that having breakfast high in rapidly available carbohydrates increases the risk of metabolic syndrome. Present professional opinion is largely in favor of eating breakfast, but some contest the positive implications of its "most important" status. The influence of breakfast on managing body weight is unclear.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50164726',
'title': "Children's right to adequate nutrition in New Zealand",
'section': 'Section::::Benefits of current programmes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 55,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 55,
'end_character': 252,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Evidence for the benefit of breakfast for children is mixed. In large part, this is due to benefits diminishing as children get older and exercise more control over their food intake, with older children being more likely to skip breakfast altogether.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50164726',
'title': "Children's right to adequate nutrition in New Zealand",
'section': 'Section::::Benefits of current programmes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 56,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 56,
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'passage_text': 'For younger children the evidence is clear that breakfast provides a number of benefits. Breakfast is the meal most likely to be skipped, with only 40% of New Zealand children reporting eating breakfast. The Ministry of Health reported that found around 15% of children leave for school without having eaten breakfast, and that Maori and Pacific children were less likely to eat breakfast at home every day compared with other groups.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17348237',
'title': 'Champagne breakfast',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 290,
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'passage_text': 'It may be part of any day or outing considered particularly luxurious or indulgent. The accompanying breakfast is sometimes of a similarly high standard and include rich foods such as salmon, caviar, chocolate or pastries, which would not ordinarily be eaten at breakfast or more courses. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '51267644',
'title': 'Meal',
'section': 'Section::::Breakfast.:Variations of breakfast.:Champagne breakfast.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'It may be part of any day or outing considered particularly luxurious or indulgent. The accompanying breakfast is sometimes of a similarly high standard and include rich foods such as salmon, caviar, chocolate or pastries, which would not ordinarily be eaten at breakfast or more courses. \n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is it unhealthy/more difficult for hunger’s sake to eat a 2000 calorie breakfast instead of lighter meals throughout the day?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Your body doesn't need 2000 calories all at once. If you eat a single 2000 calorie meal, then your body will use however many calories it needs at that moment, and then store the rest as fat to be used later. However, when you need calories a few hours later, it won't immediately dip into your fat reserves. Instead it makes you feel hungry. Your body would rather turn fresh food into energy than stored fat. \n\n",
"It's neither unhealthy nor inherently difficult, the fact is you've simply adjusted to eating throughout the day. You could adjust to eating all at once if you stick with it long enough (or eating more often).\n\nThere are some theories about timing your meals for optimum absorption and use of macros and nutrients, but at the end of the day the difference is either negligible or only useful in a case by case basis. All else equal, given time you'll likely notice no significant difference eating all your food at once or spread throughout the day. If you're one of the people who would notice a difference, you'd likely be advanced enough in nutrition to not be asking. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '85xose',
'query': 'why is it unhealthy/more difficult for hunger’s sake to eat a 2000 calorie breakfast instead of lighter meals throughout the day?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '155627',
'title': 'Ibuprofen',
'section': 'Section::::Research.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 50,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "Ibuprofen is sometimes used for the treatment of acne because of its anti-inflammatory properties, and has been sold in Japan in topical form for adult acne. As with other NSAIDs, ibuprofen may be useful in the treatment of severe orthostatic hypotension (low blood pressure when standing up). NSAIDs are of unclear utility in the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer's disease.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25327696',
'title': 'Acid-sensing ion channel',
'section': 'Section::::Pharmacology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
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'passage_text': 'Commonly used non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have been found to play a role in ASIC inhibition which contributes to pain modulation. The well-known mechanism for NSAID function is their inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, a major inflammatory compound. However, findings show that NSAIDs ibuprofen and aspirin inhibit ASICs with IC50 values of 350µM and 260µM, respectively. NSAIDs likely inhibit the ASIC current during acute pain, particularly that caused by tissue inflammation, and thus inhibit the signal to pain-sensing neurons.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '411879',
'title': 'Dysmenorrhea',
'section': 'Section::::Management.:NSAIDs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 324,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen and naproxen, are effective in relieving the pain of primary dysmenorrhea. They can have side effects of nausea, dyspepsia, peptic ulcer, and diarrhea. People who are unable to take the more common NSAIDs may be prescribed a COX-2 inhibitor such as celecoxib.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4336497',
'title': 'Flurbiprofen',
'section': '',
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'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Flurbiprofen is a member of the phenylalkanoic acid derivative family of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). It is primarily indicated as a pre-operative anti-miotic (in an ophthalmic solution) as well as orally for arthritis or dental pain. Side effects are analogous to those of ibuprofen.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1481453',
'title': 'Adenomyosis',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Medications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 60,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- NSAIDs: Nonsterioidal anti-inflammatory drugs, such as ibuprofen and naproxen, are commonly used in conjunction with other therapies for pain relief. NSAIDs inhibit the production of prostaglandins by decreasing the activity of the enzyme\xa0cyclooxygenase. Prostaglandins have been shown to be primarily responsible for dysmenorrhea or the cramping pelvic pain associated with menses.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '155627',
'title': 'Ibuprofen',
'section': 'Section::::Pharmacology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Like aspirin and indomethacin, ibuprofen is a nonselective COX inhibitor, in that it inhibits two isoforms of cyclooxygenase, COX-1 and COX-2. The analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory activity of NSAIDs appears to operate mainly through inhibition of COX-2, which decreases the synthesis of prostaglandins involved in mediating inflammation, pain, fever, and swelling. Antipyretic effects may be due to action on the hypothalamus, resulting in an increased peripheral blood flow, vasodilation, and subsequent heat dissipation. Inhibition of COX-1 instead would be responsible for unwanted effects on the gastrointestinal tract. However, the role of the individual COX isoforms in the analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and gastric damage effects of NSAIDs is uncertain and different compounds cause different degrees of analgesia and gastric damage.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50289753',
'title': 'Intestinal mucosal barrier',
'section': 'Section::::Physiology.:Endogenous regulators.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 262,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) can cause increased gastric acid secretion, diminished bicarbonate secretion, diminished mucus secretion and diminished trophic effects on epithelial mucosa by inhibiting COX-1, COX-2 and prostaglandins.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is the difference between the anti-inflammatory effects of chemicals like curcumin versus NSAIDs like ibuprofen?',
'selftext': "Hello! I'm not sure if this seems like a silly question, but I've started looking into the benefits of an anti-inflammatory diet pertaining to health/disease prevention. There are a wide variety of studies on the use of curcumin, broccoli, et cetera but I don't think I'm understanding something. What is the difference between taking curcumin (or another anti-inflammatory supplement) and an NSAID pain-reliever/anti-inflammatory like ibuprofen?",
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["I think they both lead to the same thing. You can just increase your turmeric intake in your food for the same effect that you'd have in a supplement or a pill. The pill is a specific, calculated, dose whereas you don't know the exact quantity of chemical you're getting in the food. ",
'NSAIDS can aggravate stomach ulcers and conditions other conditions in the stomach. Not recommended for prolonged use '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '9zavo6',
'query': 'what is the difference between the anti-inflammatory effects of chemicals like curcumin versus nsaids like ibuprofen?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '45838854',
'title': 'Auditory arrhythmia',
'section': 'Section::::Neurological bases of music.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'Neuroplasticity allows the brain to grow and change, especially in the auditory and motor cortex. Listening and playing music helps both of these areas of the brain to develop more, which was found to be correlated to having an improves auditory imagery in many performers in a study conducted at Utrecht University in the Netherlands.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25213736',
'title': 'Music-specific disorders',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Neuroscientists have learned a lot about the role of the brain in numerous cognitive mechanisms by understanding corresponding disorders. Similarly, neuroscientists have come to learn a lot about music cognition by studying music-specific disorders. Even though music is most often viewed from a "historical perspective rather than a biological one" music has significantly gained the attention of neuroscientists all around the world. For many centuries music has been strongly associated with art and culture. The reason for this increased interest in music is because it "provides a tool to study numerous aspects of neuroscience, from motor skill learning to emotion".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15910459',
'title': 'Psychoanalysis and music',
'section': 'Section::::Future: psychoanalysis, neuroscience and music.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
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'passage_text': 'Recent developments in cognitive neuroscience of music have led to a new way of looking at music and emotion. Neurologist Oliver Sacks states that music occupies more areas of the brain than language does, and that humans are primarily a musical species.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25213736',
'title': 'Music-specific disorders',
'section': 'Section::::Musical disorders.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'With a growing interest in music cognition amongst neuroscientists, music-specific disorders are becoming more relevant in research and in understanding music processing in the brain. In the past decade, myriad music-specific disorders have been identified, causes ranging from congenital to acquired (specific lesions in the brain).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23755918',
'title': 'This Is Your Brain on Music',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'The aim of "This Is Your Brain on Music" was to make recent findings in cognitive neuroscience of music accessible to the educated layperson. Characteristics and theoretical parameters of music are explained alongside scientific findings about how the brain interprets and processes these characteristics. The neuroanatomy of musical expectation, emotion, listening and performance is discussed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12009679',
'title': 'James M. Honeycutt',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'There are physiological arousal in terms of music as the brain is stimulated Indeed, the pitch, rhythm, meter and timbre are processed in various parts of the brain including the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus and parietal lobe. Rhythm and pitch are primarily left brain hemisphere functions, while timbre and melody are processed primarily in the right hemisphere. See more at: http://www.omharmonics.com/blog/how-music-affects-the-brain/#sthash.icpaf4wl.dpuf\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10118105',
'title': 'Music education and programs within the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Music as a core subject.:Impacts on childhood development and academic success.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 50,
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'passage_text': 'Analyzing the interaction between music and the brain helps in understanding how and why music education affects students the way that it does. Music has the ability to engage the entire brain, which is unlike any other method of education. Scripp and Gilbert, who have analyzed these effects, also make note of the fact that musical training helps in the development of the brain physically and cognitively. It is also mentioned that the human brain is predisposed to musical development, meaning that music is rooted in our auditory, motor, and cognitive functions and plays a large role in the way we as individuals perceive the world around us. Scripp and Gilbert use evidence from ultrasound images of fetal tissue to draw the conclusion that there are “selective responses” to certain songs even before birth. Additionally, musical training seems to affect the brain just as exercise affects the body. For example, someone with musical training will have a more developed sense of auditory processing than someone who is not musically trained.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does the brain tend to constantly play music on its own ?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["I don't recall source but your brain will repeat songs because it's trying to figure out what comes next. Listening to the song in its entirety is said to fix this, i.e. help your brain figure out what's next. I'll find some sources if anyone's interested!",
"Hey, I have this too, if we are talking about really 24/7 here.\n\nMost answers you get are probably from people who think you talk about ear worms, I had that problem at least when I tried to explain it in real life.\n\nI've since been to a few neurologists, and they are all very interested as hearing music in your head truly 100% of the time seems to be very rare. I was offered to participate in some studies, but they all take at least 10 days an I can't really be bothered to disappear from life for over a week for basically nothing, as I was assured the condition is not dangerous (no tumour or anything). ",
"If you're talking about getting a song stuck in your head, I was always under the impression that is happens because neurons that just fired are prone to fire again because the physiology of the neuron. It's been a while since I heard this, but I believe it's an ion channel that separates when it fires, but when it happens the separation isn't as complete as a non-fired channel, which makes the neuron prone to refiring again. Theory is that tendency to refire can maybe explain why you get a song stuck in your head. ",
"Well humming, singing and other things (like stroking your hair) are self-soothing activities. People do it all the time, and don't realize that they are humming to a song in their head to keep them calm. When you are panicked - are you singing a song? No. But doing the dishes or in the shower or sitting at your desk at work, you may start to hum or sing a song in your head to calm yourself (not calm yourself from a panicked state, but just soothe yourself).",
"Just a note: if you are interested in music, the brain, the psychology and neuroscience behind their interaction, I suggest reading Oliver Sacks book Musicophilia.\n\nIt's really really interesting and will probably teach you things about the interaction of the brain and music you never even thought of.\n\nReally great book and really interesting for anyone who is into music.",
'From the experience of a musician, it\'s always there. It never leaves. But then again, we want it there. There\'s no "Maybe if I complete the song instead of turning it off in between, it will stop." I guess we have to always make sure it\'s something we like.\n\nIt can be bad though, like when you are talking to people. They\'re telling about their petty, melodramatic life and you\'re zoning out thinking about that sick part you just heard, muttering the drum rudiment under your breath.',
'Personally I do this to avoid thinking about, well, just about anything else.\n\nAllowing a song to occupy the background of the mind limits the amount of random thoughts which can trigger anxiety and panic.\n\nPeople who are less prone to being overly anxious seem to do this less often in my experience.\n\nThe Simpsons did a pretty good example of how different types can react to being alone with their thoughts: _URL_0_',
'Think of it like a screensaver. When you brain goes into a low cognitive state, it often will occupy your thoughts with a song while in the background it is organising it\'s self. So while you a "hearing" this song in your mind, your brain is moving memories from short term to long term and other brain functions like that.',
'To be quite clear, you\'re just talking about yourself.\n\nPeople also report that when they think of ideas, they do so with an "inner voice" which talks. This is extremely common, but in primitive cultures like hunter-gatherer societies, it just doesn\'t happen. Instead, in these primitive cultures, words thought of it ones head are interpreted as being from ancestors or spirits, and thought is done in other ways, like with spacial objects, and not with words.\n\nI may hypothesize that in these primitive populations we might also find less instances of people having music "playing" in their minds, though of course it may still be common, it\'s just a guess. The takeaway I think is that we hear in our heads what we have already heard, and so it mirrors that.',
'Your brain is in a constant flux. And your neurons fire back and forth. In there, the paths your electrical impulse take. It transverse a memory of a song? Or that tasty burger you ate yesterday. Even that dream you forgot 10years ago? \n\nThe memories lie in a specific pattern. If you for different reasons manage to activate it. You experience it. \n\nRemember this though. Experience something from outside, is far from the memory you are left with. Its only the most parts about the experience that stood out that you will remember. Because as i said before, memories are the etching of patterns with neurons. And this etching will only be in context to how strong this experience is. \n\nAnd lastly, the strength of an experience isnt the same as feeling a strong feeling. Its more, the strength of the experience in contrast to normative expeirence of the same situation. So wheb you remember things from studying, you know you learnt something because you feel and know the information being etched. Its lile that expeirence just wanderd from the outside into your consciousness. You didnt get an orgasm like feeling. Just a strong relaxing feeling of a puzzle falling together. Intense? nope. strong? yes. ',
"I'm just a lay person in this area but my understanding was always that our sense of music is piggybacking on our capacity for language. Just like we're imagining conversations in our head(going over past conversations, preparing for future conversations), so too do we imagine music.",
"Because the brain is like an echo chamber that can be filled with silent sounds. It is not electrically/mechanically perfect, and so there are little inklings of sound even when none really exists. And then you have the individual perceiving it all, shifting minute amounts of attention to this or that within the inklings... If you're familiar with a song that's even remotely similar to how the inklings fit into your perception, it can bubble all the way up into that song's chorus or bridge.\n\n\nTLDR: you listen to so much pop music that even silence reminds you of songs you know",
"Oliver Sacks, in his books about brain injuries, mentions patients with recurrent musical loops constantly playing in their heads. Sometimes it would be music they haven't heard since childhood. One man, with a background in music, with dementia couldn't remember even how to dress himself because he would lose his train of thought. They found however that if he hummed a tune (his memory of music was unaffected) he could follow tasks even if he wasn't fully conscious of it.",
"Your brain is addicted to stimulus. When you are bored and not receiving enough stimulus, your brain creates it. You know those zen moments of emptiness that you hear about being so difficult to reach, where you have to empty your mind and become one with the universe? Turns out, that's the majority of your day. And you spend those moments of emptiness trying to fill them with popsongs so your brain can get its fix. ",
'This might be kind of a digression, but the reason a song pops into our heads could be that in a subtle mathematical way it mirrors the neurological patterns of something we are thinking about.Well-liked music of any genre, when analyzed mathematically, tends to produce a fractal pattern., and so does neurological activity. The closer to the central nervous system you measure nerve activity the more fractal it is, which might explain how a sequence of musical notes can evoke an emotion or remind us of a memory. This could be because they contain fractal patterns that are a close match, which could also explain why a thought or experience brings a tune into our heads. ',
"In cognitive psychology, they call your minds ability to play back sound and voices your phonetic loop. This space of your working cognition plays sounds that last about 5-7 seconds in length, often times repeated, so they can be processed later or better memorized. You may have noticed that if you didn't hear someone but heard them speak, you can replay what sounds you've heard in the past few seconds and then attend to them to process the sounds. It's like we have an echo chamber in our minds that keeps sounds around after they've happened. \n\nDid I lock my door just a second ago? Do I remember hearing it click?\n\nShit, girlfriend is talking but I wasn't actually listening. Hold on while I play back what's in my phonetic loop and listen this time. \n\nIt's also why songs stuck in our heads are usually only 1 verse or just the chorus. 5-7 seconds. ",
'What played in our heads before music?'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '5npttd',
'query': 'why does the brain tend to constantly play music on its own ?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '92171',
'title': 'Webcam',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Later developments.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Around the turn of the 21st century, computer hardware manufacturers began building webcams directly into laptop and desktop screens, thus eliminating the need to use an external USB or FireWire camera. Gradually webcams came to be used more for telecommunications, or videotelephony, between two people, or among several people, than for offering a view on a Web page to an unknown public.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '92171',
'title': 'Webcam',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Videocalling and videoconferencing.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Webcam can be added to instant messaging, text chat services such as AOL Instant Messenger, and VoIP services such as Skype, one-to-one live video communication over the Internet has now reached millions of mainstream PC users worldwide. Improved video quality has helped webcams encroach on traditional video conferencing systems. New features such as automatic lighting controls, real-time enhancements (retouching, wrinkle smoothing and vertical stretch), automatic face tracking and autofocus, assist users by providing substantial ease-of-use, further increasing the popularity of webcams.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '366244',
'title': 'Trojan Room coffee pot',
'section': 'Section::::Development.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'In 1993, web browsers gained the ability to display images, and it soon became clear that this would be an easier way to make the picture available to users. The camera was connected to the Internet and the live picture became available via HTTP in November of the same year, by computer scientists Daniel Gordon and Martyn Johnson. It therefore became visible worldwide and grew into a popular landmark of the early web.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17530988',
'title': 'History of the web browser',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "The explosion in popularity of the Web was triggered in September 1993 by NCSA Mosaic, a graphical browser which eventually ran on several popular office and home computers. This was the first web browser aiming to bring multimedia content to non-technical users, and therefore included images and text on the same page, unlike previous browser designs; its founder, Marc Andreessen, also established the company that in 1994, released Netscape Navigator, which resulted in one of the early browser wars, when it ended up in a competition for dominance (which it lost) with Microsoft's Internet Explorer (for Windows).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4010858',
'title': 'Video relay service',
'section': 'Section::::Technical details.:Videotelephony descriptive names & terminology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 109,
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'passage_text': '"Webcams" are popular, relatively low cost devices which can provide live video and audio streams via personal computers, and can be used with many software clients for both video calls and videoconferencing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2304367',
'title': 'Videotelephony',
'section': 'Section::::Descriptive names and terminology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 172,
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'passage_text': '"Webcams" are popular, relatively low cost devices which can provide live video and audio streams via personal computers, and can be used with many software clients for both video calls and videoconferencing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2304367',
'title': 'Videotelephony',
'section': 'Section::::Major categories.\n',
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'passage_text': '"Webcams" are popular, relatively low cost devices which can provide live video and audio streams via personal computers, and can be used with many software clients for both video calls and videoconferencing.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why have built-in webcam covers not surged in popularity yet?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["I think offering a built-in cover would be perceived as an acknowledgement that the product is not entirely secure in its own right.\n\nIt's like selling a house with bars on the windows. Makes you wonder what's wrong with the neighborhood. ",
" > Can anyone offer a better explanation?\n\nTape is cheaper. Also, I think you overexaggerate the paranoia. People may ring their hands about spying, but no one really believes *they're* a target. The second you tell them they need a new computer to be save they'll just spend $0.50 on a roll of electrical tape and just cover it up.",
'They probably know most people just cover it up anyway and its not that profitable thing to invest in'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '67oekt',
'query': 'why have built-in webcam covers not surged in popularity yet?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '28738',
'title': 'Synchronization',
'section': 'Section::::Human movement.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Synchronization of movement is defined as similar movements between two or more people who are temporally aligned. This is different to mimicry, as these movements occur after a short delay. Muscular bonding is the idea that moving in time evokes particular emotions. This sparked some of the first research into movement synchronization and its effects on human emotion.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10314564',
'title': 'Pluralistic walkthrough',
'section': 'Section::::Benefits and Limitations.:Limitations.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The walkthrough can only progress as quickly as the slowest person on each panel. The walkthrough is a group exercise and, therefore, in order to discuss a task/screen as a group, we must wait for all participants to have written down their responses to the scenario. The session can feel laborious if too slow.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '383364',
'title': 'Bassline',
'section': 'Section::::Walking bass.:Examples.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
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'end_paragraph_id': 31,
'end_character': 244,
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'passage_text': 'In both cases, "walking" refers both to the steady duple rhythm (one step after the other) and to the strong directional motion created; in the examples above, from C to F and back in the second, and from root to seventh and back in the first.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32070582',
'title': 'Aging movement control',
'section': 'Section::::Walking gait.\n',
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'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 583,
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'passage_text': 'In an experiment, for a single-task walking, 24% of old adults have gait speed <0.8\xa0m/s but for a dual-task of walking and talking, 62% of old adults have gait speed <0.8\xa0m/s. In practical terms, this means that a large proportion of healthy community-dwelling old adults may not walk fast enough to safely cross the street while simultaneously having a conversation. These findings support the assertion that generating spontaneous speech is highly demanding on cognitive resources and suggest that real world dual-task effects on gait may be underestimated by reaction time tasks.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17153519',
'title': 'Mahasati meditation',
'section': 'Section::::Four basic positions to meditate.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
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'passage_text': 'While walking back and forth, practitioners should be aware of the feeling or the feet. It is not necessary to say to themselves, "right foot moves", "left foot moves". Practitioners should not walk too fast or too slow, they have to walk naturally.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '413740',
'title': 'Ear training',
'section': 'Section::::Rhythm recognition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 382,
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'passage_text': 'Another way to practise rhythms is by muscle memory, or teaching rhythm to different muscles in the body. One may start by tapping a rhythm with the hands and feet individually, or singing a rhythm on a syllable (e.g. "ta"). Later stages may combine keeping time with the hand, foot, or voice and simultaneously tapping out the rhythm, and beating out multiple overlapping rhythms.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7281404',
'title': 'Walk and talk',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Walk and talk is a storytelling-technique used in filmmaking and television production in which a number of characters have a conversation while walking somewhere. Walk and talk often involves a walking character who is then joined by another character. On their way to their destinations, the two talk. Variations include interruptions from other characters and walk and talk relay races, in which new characters join the group and one of the original characters leaves the conversation, while the remaining characters continue the walking and talking.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do we synchronize our pace when walking next to someone?',
'selftext': "I've noticed that more often than not, two people walking next to each other will take their steps simultaneously, syncing together within about 10 steps. Whenever I point it out to my friends and tell one of them to try stepping at a different pace, it's almost as if their brain stops working. They struggle to accomplish that. Why does all of this happen? Also, I had no idea if this was more of a Culture or Biology question so I just picked one.",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['I\'m pretty sure that\'s only true for people of similar height.\n\nMy girlfriend is a good 10 inches shorter than me, and so when we walk "together", she takes many short steps and I take longer steps.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '89i0ne',
'query': 'how do we synchronize our pace when walking next to someone?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '18952287',
'title': 'Woody plant',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Wood is primarily composed of xylem cells with cell walls made of cellulose and lignin. Xylem is a vascular tissue which moves water and nutrients from the roots to the leaves. Most woody plants form new layers of woody tissue each year, and so increase their stem diameter from year to year, with new wood deposited on the inner side of a vascular cambium layer located immediately beneath the bark. However, in some monocotyledons such as palms and dracaenas, the wood is formed in bundles scattered through the interior of the trunk. Stem diameter increases continuously throughout the growing season and halts during the dormant period.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1003930',
'title': 'Cunninghamia',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'As the tree grows its trunk tends to sucker around the base, particularly following damage to the stem or roots, and it then may grow in a multi-trunked form. Brown bark of mature trees peels off in strips to reveal reddish-brown inner bark. Older specimens often look ragged, as the old needles may cling to stems for up to 5 years.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5209188',
'title': 'Kigelia',
'section': 'Section::::Habitat.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'It is a tree growing up to tall and it typically has spreading branches. The bark is grey and smooth at first, peeling on older trees. It can be as thick as on a diameter branch. The wood is pale brown or yellowish, undifferentiated and not prone to cracking.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56337510',
'title': 'Pandanus drupaceus',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'A low-lying, spreading, freely-branching tree. Decumbent branches can lie along the ground and root to form new trees. There are only a few stilt-roots at the base of the trunk, and the pale grey bark is cracked and fissured.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1111506',
'title': 'Lepidodendron',
'section': 'Section::::Description and biology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 1266,
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'passage_text': 'The stem of the trees had a unifacial vascular cambium, contrasting with the bifacial vascular cambium of modern trees. Though the bifacial cambium of modern trees produces both secondary phloem and xylem, the unifacial cambium of "Lepidodendron" trees produced only secondary xylem. As the trees aged, the wood produced by the unifacial cambium decreased towards the top of the plant such that terminal twigs resembled young "Lepidodendron" stems. The stems and branches of the trees contained little wood as compared to modern trees, with the majority of mature stems consisting of a massive cortical meristem. The near uniform growth of this cortical tissue indicates no difference in growth during changing seasons, and the absence of dormant buds further indicates the lack of seasonality in "Lepidodendron" species. The outermost cortex of oldest stems developed into the bark-like lycopod periderm. The bark of the trees was somewhat similar to that of "Picea" species, as leaf scars formed peg-like projections that stretched and tore as the bark stretched. To resist the bending force of wind, "Lepidodendron" trees depended on their outer bark rather than their vascular tissues, as compared to modern trees that rely mostly on their central mass of wood.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18258915',
'title': 'Tree: A Life Story',
'section': 'Section::::Synopsis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 461,
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'passage_text': 'Over the centuries, the tree grows thicker and taller as successive rings develop around its trunk and new buds grow on the branches. The tree becomes part of an old growth forest with a shaded and damp understory of broadleaf trees, shrubs, and ferns. In the canopy, a mat of dead needles and lichen accumulate on the wide upper branches. Exposed to light, air, and rain, the needles decompose and the mat becomes colonized by insects, fungus, and new plants.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '142473',
'title': 'Plantation',
'section': 'Section::::Forest plantations.:Growth cycle.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 243,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- As the trees grow and become dense and crowded again, the thinning process is repeated. Depending on growth rate and species, trees at this age may be large enough for timber milling; if not, they are again used as pulp and chips.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do trees start out as flimsy sprouts but then change into hard wood?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['You have heard the saying that if you cut down a tree, you can count the rings to see how old it is. \n\nEvery year the tree builds another layer onto itself, creating a new ring, thus getting taller, thicker and more sturdy as time goes on.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'eex3zu',
'query': 'how do trees start out as flimsy sprouts but then change into hard wood?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '31198',
'title': 'Tuning fork',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
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'passage_text': 'Tuning forks have traditionally been used to tune musical instruments, though electronic tuners have largely replaced them. Forks can be driven electrically by placing electronic oscillator-driven electromagnets close to the prongs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31198',
'title': 'Tuning fork',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'Commercial tuning forks are tuned to the correct pitch at the factory, and the pitch and frequency in hertz is stamped on them. They can be retuned by filing material off the prongs. Filing the ends of the prongs raises the pitch, while filing the inside of the base of the prongs lowers it.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31198',
'title': 'Tuning fork',
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'passage_text': "A tuning fork is an acoustic resonator in the form of a two-pronged fork with the prongs (tines) formed from a U-shaped bar of elastic metal (usually steel). It resonates at a specific constant pitch when set vibrating by striking it against a surface or with an object, and emits a pure musical tone once the high overtones fade out. A tuning fork's pitch depends on the length and mass of the two prongs. They are traditional sources of standard pitch for tuning musical instruments.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4551243',
'title': 'Tuning wrench',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'A tuning wrench (also called a tuning lever or tuning hammer) is a specialized socket wrench used to tune string instruments, such as the piano, harp, and hammer dulcimer, that have strings wrapped around tuning pins. Other string instruments do not require a tuning wrench because their tuning pins or pegs come with handles (as with the violin), or geared tuning machines (as with the guitar or banjo).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3284916',
'title': 'Tuning mechanisms for stringed instruments',
'section': 'Section::::Screw-and-lever tuners.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
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'passage_text': "Fine tuners are not geared. They have a screw with a knurled head, whose lower end advances against one end of a lever with a right-angle bend in it. The string is fastened to the other end of the lever, and tightening the screw tightens the string. With the screw at the lower limit of its travel, the lever can come close enough to the instrument's top to pose a risk of scarring it. To avoid damage to the top, the screw may be turned out as far as it goes while still engaging the lever, and the string re-tuned using the peg.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31198',
'title': 'Tuning fork',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'A tuning fork is a fork-shaped acoustic resonator used in many applications to produce a fixed tone. The main reason for using the fork shape is that, unlike many other types of resonators, it produces a very pure tone, with most of the vibrational energy at the fundamental frequency. The reason for this is that the frequency of the first overtone is about = = times the fundamental (about octaves above it). By comparison, the first overtone of a vibrating string or metal bar is one octave above (twice) the fundamental, so when the string is plucked or the bar is struck, its vibrations tend to mix the fundamental and overtone frequencies. When the tuning fork is struck, little of the energy goes into the overtone modes; they also die out correspondingly faster, leaving a pure sine wave at the fundamental frequency. It is easier to tune other instruments with this pure tone.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4385464',
'title': 'Electronic tuner',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Bell tuning.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 47,
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'passage_text': 'Strobe tuners are used in the tuning of bells, which require accurate tuning of many partials. The removal of metal from various parts of the bell shape is by a tuning lathe, and once too much metal has been removed it cannot be reversed. Hence accurate approach to the desired tuning partial is essential to prevent overshoot.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'how do tuning forks stay in tune, and can they ever go out of tune?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['When struck the metal reverberates in such a way to produce the correct frequency, the correct tune.\n\nAs for if they can go out of tune? Probably not likely that one youd use would. It would require the metal to become deformed or chipped in some way so that it doesnt rattle the same way.',
'Tuning forks are meant to be struck on a certain type of material which is like a hard rubber in the form of a small block or mallet. If you strike it on something else you risk deforming it and changing its pitch. \n\nthat’s what I was told in choir.',
'Technically, their "tune" changes all the time because their temperature (and thus their size) changes. Granted, its a very small change and not really perceptible by the human ear but it is measurable with sensitive enough equipment.\n\nUnless you keep your tuning fork in an absolutely climate controlled environment that was exactly the same as when they were tuned the first time.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'brjqyn',
'query': 'how do tuning forks stay in tune, and can they ever go out of tune?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '50018370',
'title': 'Cross-device tracking',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'This form of tracking is utilized primarily by technology companies and advertisers who use this information to piece together a cohesive profile of the user. These profiles inform and predict the type of advertisements the user receives.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38203832',
'title': 'Web beacon',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Using such beacons, companies and organizations can track the online behavior of web users. At first, the companies doing such tracking were mainly advertisers or web analytics companies; later social media sites also started to use such tracking techniques, for instance through the use of buttons which act as tracking beacons.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50018370',
'title': 'Cross-device tracking',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'There are many ways in which online tracking has manifested itself. Historically, when companies wanted to track users’ online behavior, they simply had users sign in to their website. This is a form of deterministic cross-device tracking, in which the user’s devices are associated with their account credentials, such as their email or username. Consequently, while the user is logged in, the company can keep a running history of what sites the user has been to and which ads the user interacted with between computers and mobile devices.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41940646',
'title': 'Marketing automation',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 735,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Marketing intelligence: Uses tracking codes in social media, email and webpages to track the behavior of anyone interested in a product or service to gain a measure of intent. It can record which social media group or thread they followed, which link was clicked on in an email or which search term was used to access a website. Multiple link analysis can then track buyer behavior - following links and multiple threads related to product A but not B will show an interest only in A. This allows more accurately targeted response and the development of a nurturing program specifically targeted towards their interest and vertical market. Due to its interactive nature this has been described as Marketing Automation 2.0.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5068415',
'title': 'HTTP cookie',
'section': 'Section::::Privacy and third-party cookies.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 120,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 120,
'end_character': 342,
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'passage_text': "Advertising companies use third-party cookies to track a user across multiple sites. In particular, an advertising company can track a user across all pages where it has placed advertising images or web bugs. Knowledge of the pages visited by a user allows the advertising company to target advertisements to the user's presumed preferences.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55084453',
'title': 'Dark advertising',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'This form of advertising is commonly found on online social media platforms that make target group identification possible. Groups can be identified using age based targeting, geotargeting, behavioural targeting and more recently psychographic targeting, among others.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9635376',
'title': 'Search advertising',
'section': 'Section::::Keywords.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "Search advertising is sold and delivered on the basis of keywords. The user of a search engine enters keywords to make queries. A keyword may consist of more than one word. The user interested in the product or service searches using a specific keyword or search term which lets them interact with advertiser's website.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How do targeted ads from things you've searched on a computer get to your phone? How does the tracking process work?",
'selftext': "For example yesterday I found myself in a website I'd never been to that sells furniture. I also visited some other furniture sites. Today on my phone all the ads on my apps are for furniture I viewed it the site I'd never heard of before yesterday. How does that work?",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Is your email attached to both devices? Do you have similar accounts between the two? That's how they do it. It's just spamming the devices attached to your accounts.",
'Have you ever logged in to the same account of any site on both devices? That in conjunction with cookies that advertisement networks like AdSense use result in that they know both are used by you.\n\nIf it is an android device you almost certainly have a google account you are logged in with. If log in to google on your computer like to Gmail it is quite clear that the one used the browser and phone is the same individual. If you use chrome on both signed in on your account there is a clear connection.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'dyz1dd',
'query': "how do targeted ads from things you've searched on a computer get to your phone? how does the tracking process work?",
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '319536',
'title': '7400-series integrated circuits',
'section': 'Section::::Families.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 62,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The 74H family is the same basic design as the 7400 family with resistor values reduced. This reduced the typical propagation delay from 9\xa0ns to 6\xa0ns but increased the power consumption. The 74H family provided a number of unique devices for CPU designs in the 1970s. Many designers of military and aerospace equipment used this family over a long period and as they need exact replacements, this family is still produced by Lansdale Semiconductor.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24538587',
'title': 'Intel Core',
'section': 'Section::::Nehalem microarchitecture (1st generation).:Core i3.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The Core i3-3xxM processors are based on Arrandale, the mobile version of the Clarkdale desktop processor. They are similar to the Core i5-4xx series but running at lower clock speeds and without Turbo Boost. According to an Intel FAQ they do not support Error Correction Code (ECC) memory. According to motherboard manufacturer Supermicro, if a Core i3 processor is used with a server chipset platform such as Intel 3400/3420/3450, the CPU supports ECC with UDIMM. When asked, Intel confirmed that, although the Intel 5 series chipset supports non-ECC memory only with the Core i5 or i3 processors, using those processors on a motherboard with 3400 series chipsets it supports the ECC function of ECC memory. A limited number of motherboards by other companies also support ECC with Intel Core ix processors; the Asus P8B WS is an example, but it does not support ECC memory under Windows non-server operating systems.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3503207',
'title': 'Multi-core processor',
'section': 'Section::::Network processors.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 59,
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'passage_text': ', multi-core network processors have become mainstream, with companies such as Freescale Semiconductor, Cavium Networks, Wintegra and Broadcom all manufacturing products with eight processors. For the system developer, a key challenge is how to exploit all the cores in these devices to achieve maximum networking performance at the system level, despite the performance limitations inherent in a symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) operating system. Companies such as 6WIND provide portable packet processing software designed so that the networking data plane runs in a fast path environment outside the operating system of the network device.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47168922',
'title': 'Kaby Lake',
'section': 'Section::::Development history.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'As with previous Intel processors (such as the 8088, Banias, Dothan, Conroe, Sandy Bridge, Ivy Bridge, and Skylake), Kaby Lake\'s development was led by Intel\'s Israeli team, based in Haifa. Intel Israel Development Centers manager Ran Senderovitz said: "When we started out on the project, we were only thinking about basic improvements from the previous generation. But we began looking at things differently with a lot of innovation and determination and we achieved major improvements." He added that the performance of the seventh generation chips was improved by 12% for applications and 19% for Internet use compared with the sixth generation chips. Third-party benchmarks do not confirm these percentages as far as gaming is concerned.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9506857',
'title': 'History of general-purpose CPUs',
'section': 'Section::::Timeline of events.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 158,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 158,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- 2017. Intel introduced Coffee Lake, which increases core counts by two on Core i3, Core i5, and Core i7 processors while removing hyperthreading for Core i3. The Core i7 now has six hyperthreaded cores, which was once only available to high-end desktop computers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '64826',
'title': 'Motorola 68000 series',
'section': 'Section::::Main uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 67,
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'passage_text': 'The 68000 line of processors has been used in a variety of systems, from modern high-end Texas Instruments calculators (the TI-89, TI-92, and Voyage 200 lines) to all of the members of the Palm Pilot series that run Palm OS 1.x to 4.x (OS 5.x is ARM-based), and even radiation-hardened versions in the critical control systems of the Space Shuttle. However, they became most well known as the processors powering desktop computers such as the Apple Macintosh, the Commodore Amiga, the Sinclair QL, the Atari ST, and several others. The 68000 was also the processor of choice in the 1980s for Unix workstations and servers from firms such as Sun Microsystems, NeXT and Silicon Graphics (SGI). There was a 68000 version of CP/M called CP/M-68K, which was initially proposed to be the Atari ST operating system, but Atari chose Atari TOS instead.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16142167',
'title': 'History of personal computers',
'section': 'Section::::1990s and 2000s.:Multiprocessing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 169,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 169,
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'passage_text': 'In May 2005, AMD and Intel released their first dual-core 64-bit processors, the Pentium D and the Athlon 64 X2 respectively. Multi-core processors can be programmed and reasoned about using symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) techniques known since the 60s (see the SMP article for details).\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is the importance of 7nm processors?',
'selftext': 'I’m usually really on top of things like this (I’m really into new tech and consumer electronics), but I must have gotten lost somewhere. I see a lot of companies like Apple and Microsoft as well as Youtubers like Linus Tech Tips talk about the importance of the introduction of 7nm (or below) processors, but I have no idea why they’re important and what they add to the future of technology. Does it just result in smaller processors? Better performance? Thanks!',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["yes. smaller processors. better performance.\n\nimagine drawing a schematic with a bingo marker. your lines will big and fat and you won't be able to make many wires. now use a sharpie. better lines but still pretty fat. now use a fine tip marker. you're able to make more finer lines than ever before. each of those lines will carry electricity. and you can make the components smaller and less distance and resistance for electricity to travel.",
"it's self explanatory. fit more transistors on a wafer and you can make more chips per wafer (each one becomes cheaper) or you can put more transistors on each chip and thus increase processing power while passively reducing heat production and energy consumption (by means of ykno, smaller transistors that require less power).\n\n\n\nThe term 7nm is a myth, though. It refers to nothing on the transistor itself. 7nm AMD is not the same as 7nm Intel which is not the same as 7nm qualcomm. It's just a corporate simplification to sell shit.",
"Think of a chip as a bunch of wires and gates. The smaller the wires and gates, the less power needed to make the same system work, and the smaller the system can be. This has a couple of perks. \n\nPower does two things - it generates heat, and if the system gets too hot then it stops working. Power also costs money and resources, so smaller chips that use less power are cheaper to run. The speed of light's also finite (though really fast), so smaller chips can run faster (by letting one instruction go through the chip before the next one gets sent). So smaller chips use less power, and/or they can run faster.\n\nAnother side of this is that while the technology being used to make these smaller chips is really difficult to develop and really expensive, once it's done correctly you can put more chips on the same size wafer. This means that it's cheaper to make them, all else being equal. Sometimes it's so much harder to make them that a lot of chips don't work (low yields), which increases the price, but once kinks get worked out there's typically a cost savings.\n\nIf they want to make chips with more wires and gates, which can do more stuff than the old chips, they can do it without taking up more space than the old ones, so they can make more powerful chips in that way as well.\n\nOne issue is how to manage heat - it's easier to get rid of heat from a big chip than from a small chip, so if a small chip is pushed to use more power (and get more performance), then it can be tricky to keep it cool. Another is that once the wires and gates get so small, sometimes they don't work properly - the power starts to jump across wires and gates and it messes up. That's hard to work around."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'dic37k',
'query': 'what is the importance of 7nm processors?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '5831794',
'title': 'Somatic anxiety',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Somatic anxiety is often pushed to the side and is not being treated as seriously as other forms of anxiety. Although not recognized, the most common way people express anxiety is through physical pain. This is including sayings like "butterflies in my stomach." A lot of people someway relate their pain to the culture they were raised in. An example given by Charlotte Hanlon and Abebaw Fekeddu was that someone of sub African descent might describe their somatic pain as burning or crawling sensations all over the body.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8146278',
'title': 'Test anxiety',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
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'passage_text': "Researchers believe that feelings of anxiety arise to prepare a person for threats. In humans, anxiety symptoms are distributed along a continuum and different symptom levels of anxiety predict outcomes. Responses consist of increased heart rate, stress hormone secretion, restlessness, vigilance, and fear of a potentially dangerous environment. Anxiety prepares the body physically, cognitively, and behaviourally to detect and deal with threats to survival. As a result, a person's body begins to hyperventilate to allow more oxygen to enter the bloodstream, divert blood to muscles, and sweat to cool the skin. In individuals, the degree to which an anxiety response is developed is based on the probability of bad things happening in the environment and the individual's ability to cope with them. In the case of test taking, this might be a failing exam grade that prevents the student from being accepted to a post-secondary institution. A person's beliefs about their own competencies are a form of self-knowledge, which plays an important role in analyzing situations that might be threatening. When a person has feelings of low competence about their abilities they are likely to anticipate negative outcomes such as failure, under uncertain conditions. Thus, evaluative situations including tests and exams, are perceived as more threatening by students who have low competencies.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '922',
'title': 'Anxiety',
'section': 'Section::::Symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'The emotional effects of anxiety may include "feelings of apprehension or dread, trouble concentrating, feeling tense or jumpy, anticipating the worst, irritability, restlessness, watching (and waiting) for signs (and occurrences) of danger, and, feeling like your mind\'s gone blank" as well as "nightmares/bad dreams, obsessions about sensations, déjà vu, a trapped-in-your-mind feeling, and feeling like everything is scary."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '922',
'title': 'Anxiety',
'section': 'Section::::Risk factors.:Medical conditions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 66,
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'passage_text': 'Many medical conditions can cause anxiety. This includes conditions that affect the ability to breathe, like COPD and asthma, and the difficulty in breathing that often occurs near death. Conditions that cause abdominal pain or chest pain can cause anxiety and may in some cases be a somatization of anxiety; the same is true for some sexual dysfunctions. Conditions that affect the face or the skin can cause social anxiety especially among adolescents, and developmental disabilities often lead to social anxiety for children as well. Life-threatening conditions like cancer also cause anxiety.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31307752',
'title': 'State-Trait Anxiety Inventory',
'section': 'Section::::The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'Feelings of unease, worry, tension, and stress can be defined as anxiety. It is usually accompanied by a situation that causes these feelings for example, a big test or interview. It can also be caused by anxiety disorders such as Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) or Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD). The STAI tests two different types of anxiety, state and trait anxiety.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5831794',
'title': 'Somatic anxiety',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': '"Symptoms typically associated with somatization of anxiety and other psychiatric disorders include abdominal pain, dyspepsia, chest pain, fatigue, dizziness, insomnia, and headache." These symptoms can either happen alone or multiple can happen at once.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '146000',
'title': 'Amygdala',
'section': 'Section::::Neuropsychological correlates of amygdala activity.:Anxiety.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 63,
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'passage_text': 'Feelings of anxiety start with a catalyst – an environmental stimulus that provokes stress. This can include various smells, sights, and internal feelings that result in anxiety. The amygdala reacts to this stimuli by preparing to either stand and fight or to turn and run. This response is triggered by the release of adrenaline into the bloodstream. Consequently, blood sugar rises, becoming immediately available to the muscles for quick energy. Shaking may occur in an attempt to return blood to the rest of the body. A better understanding of the amygdala and its various functions may lead to a new way of treating clinical anxiety.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How is it possible for people with anxiety to express physical symptoms like shaking or imagining chest pain that isn't there?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
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'answers': ["Muscle contractions and just genereal panic, especially if you aren't used to them. \n\nI have mild anxiety for the most part but the one time I had a full on panic attack, I was sure I was having a heart attack and was dying which of course only made it worse. ",
"First off... the physical symptoms are really there. THe cause of those symptoms might be neurological or hormonal, but that doesn't make the experience of them any different than if someone got stabbed in the chest and the body reacted the same way.\n\nSo that hints as to the how... we experience those feelings with our brains, and all the brain bits are interconnected. So if you trigger the bit that says your muscles around your heart are contracting uncomfortably, it really doesn't matter to the person experiencing the pain what triggered the feeling in the first place.\n\nAlso, the same methods are used to decrease the pain for people having an anxiety attack that are used for a person having a heart attack or a stabbing. Calm down, use steady slow breathing, and remove stress from the area."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '9640we',
'query': "how is it possible for people with anxiety to express physical symptoms like shaking or imagining chest pain that isn't there?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '22153',
'title': 'Nuclear power',
'section': 'Section::::Life cycle of nuclear fuel.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 127,
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'passage_text': 'In modern light-water reactors the fuel rods will spend about 3 operational cycles (typically 6 years total now) inside the reactor, generally until about 3% of their uranium has been fissioned, then they will be moved to a spent fuel pool where the short lived isotopes generated by fission can decay away.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55017',
'title': 'Fusion power',
'section': 'Section::::Safety and the environment.:Waste management.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 252,
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'passage_text': 'The half-life of the radioisotopes produced by fusion tends to be less than those from fission, so that the inventory decreases more rapidly. Unlike fission reactors, whose waste remains radioactive for thousands of years, most of the radioactive material in a fusion reactor would be the reactor core itself, which would be dangerous for about 50 years, and low-level waste for another 100. Although this waste will be considerably more radioactive during those 50 years than fission waste, the very short half-life makes the process very attractive, as the waste management is fairly straightforward. By 500 years the material would have the same radiotoxicity as coal ash.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2378570',
'title': 'Plutonium-239',
'section': 'Section::::Production.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'A nuclear reactor that is used to produce plutonium for weapons therefore generally has a means for exposing U-238 to neutron radiation and for frequently replacing the irradiated U-238 with new U-238. A reactor running on unenriched or moderately enriched uranium contains a great deal of U-238. However, most commercial nuclear power reactor designs require the entire reactor to shut down, often for weeks, in order to change the fuel elements. They therefore produce plutonium in a mix of isotopes that is not well-suited to weapon construction. Such a reactor could have machinery added that would permit U-238 slugs to be placed near the core and changed frequently, or it could be shut down frequently, so proliferation is a concern; for this reason, the International Atomic Energy Agency inspects licensed reactors often. A few commercial power reactor designs, such as the "reaktor bolshoy moshchnosti kanalniy" (RBMK) and pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR), do permit refueling without shutdowns, and they may pose a proliferation risk. (In fact, the RBMK was built by the Soviet Union during the Cold War, so despite their ostensibly peaceful purpose, it is likely that plutonium production was a design criterion.) By contrast, the Canadian CANDU heavy-water moderated natural-uranium fueled reactor can also be refueled while operating, but it normally consumes most of the Pu-239 it produces "in situ;" thus, it is not only inherently less proliferative than most reactors, but can even be operated as an "actinide incinerator." The American IFR (Integral Fast Reactor) can also be operated in an "incineration mode," having some advantages in not building up the Pu-242 isotope or the long-lived actinides, either of which cannot be easily burned except in a fast reactor. Also IFR fuel has a high proportion of burnable isotopes, while in CANDU an inert material is needed to dilute the fuel; this means the IFR can burn a higher fraction of its fuel before needing reprocessing. Most plutonium is produced in research reactors or plutonium production reactors called breeder reactors because they produce more plutonium than they consume fuel; in principle, such reactors make extremely efficient use of natural uranium. In practice, their construction and operation is sufficiently difficult that they are generally only used to produce plutonium. Breeder reactors are generally (but not always) fast reactors, since fast neutrons are somewhat more efficient at plutonium production.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22151',
'title': 'Nuclear reactor',
'section': 'Section::::Natural nuclear reactors.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 168,
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'passage_text': 'Such reactors can no longer form on Earth in its present geologic period. Radioactive decay of formerly abundant uranium-235 over the time span of hundreds of millions of years has reduced the proportion of this naturally occurring fissile isotope to below the amount required to sustain a chain reaction.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37257',
'title': 'Radioactive waste',
'section': 'Section::::Sources.:Nuclear fuel cycle.:Proliferation concerns.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Pu-239 decays to U-235 which is suitable for weapons and which has a very long half-life (roughly 10 years). Thus plutonium may decay and leave uranium-235. However, modern reactors are only moderately enriched with U-235 relative to U-238, so the U-238 continues to serve as a denaturation agent for any U-235 produced by plutonium decay.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3901932',
'title': 'Thorium fuel cycle',
'section': 'Section::::Nuclear reactions with thorium.:Fission product wastes.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Nuclear fission produces radioactive fission products which can have half-lives from days to greater than 200,000 years. According to some toxicity studies, the thorium cycle can fully recycle actinide wastes and only emit fission product wastes, and after a few hundred years, the waste from a thorium reactor can be less toxic than the uranium ore that would have been used to produce low enriched uranium fuel for a light water reactor of the same power.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22151',
'title': 'Nuclear reactor',
'section': 'Section::::How a nuclear reactor works.:Reactivity control.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The physics of radioactive decay also affects neutron populations in a reactor. One such process is delayed neutron emission by a number of neutron-rich fission isotopes. These delayed neutrons account for about 0.65% of the total neutrons produced in fission, with the remainder (termed "prompt neutrons") released immediately upon fission. The fission products which produce delayed neutrons have half lives for their decay by neutron emission that range from milliseconds to as long as several minutes, and so considerable time is required to determine exactly when a reactor reaches the critical point. Keeping the reactor in the zone of chain-reactivity where delayed neutrons are "necessary" to achieve a critical mass state allows mechanical devices or human operators to control a chain reaction in "real time"; otherwise the time between achievement of criticality and nuclear meltdown as a result of an exponential power surge from the normal nuclear chain reaction, would be too short to allow for intervention. This last stage, where delayed neutrons are no longer required to maintain criticality, is known as the prompt critical point. There is a scale for describing criticality in numerical form, in which bare criticality is known as "zero dollars" and the prompt critical point is "one dollar", and other points in the process interpolated in cents.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If uranium is radioactive for millions of years, why do nuclear reactors go through spent rods so quickly?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Being radioactive is not the same as undergoing fission.\n\nThe fact that it is radioactive means that, over time, it will release some form of radiation and decay to a lower energy state ~~(a neutron in Uranium 235's case)~~. The design of the reactors will slow down any neutrons to a speed where it is likely to be absorbed into the U-235 core which will make it unstable and cause it to undergo fission and be broken up into lighter elements like Iodine and Xenon while releasing more neutrons to continue the chain reaction.\n\nSo, over the life of the fuel, the Uranium is turning into other elements through fission, so the reactors need to be refueled occasionally.\n\nEDIT: Removed the neutron decay part, I forgot that it Alpha decays as /u/osgjps mentioned and the neutron is received from elsewhere in the environment or from fission.",
'think of it like burning wood vs burning cordite(gunpowder). One is a raw material which releases its chemical energy slowly, the other is a well refined, chemically similar product (carbon) which burns very quickly.\n\nUranium decaying naturally releases its energy very slowly. Refined into nuclear fuel it releases its energy much faster (though still in a controllable way, unlike in a nuclear weapon)\n\nWhilst theoretically possible, there is a very low chance of finding naturally-occuring uranium which wouldn\'t need refinement. Similar to the unlikelihood of finding naturally occurring cordite.\n\nTL:DR, We make the Uranium get "burnt" much faster than would happen naturally.',
'As mentioned, fission is a much faster process than radioactive decay.\n\nBut in addition, the nuclear reactors in the world today are almost all based on U-235 and are pressurized water reactors. There are types of reactors that use other fissile isotopes (thorium is the one Reddit seems to love) that are more efficient than U-235.\n\nThe main problem with U-235 reactors is the percentage of U-235 in a fuel rod is low, if it were too high then it\'d be more like a bomb.\n\nWhen U-235 splits, you get 2 lower numbered elements that are very radioactive, but aren\'t fissile. So over time the fuel rods get full of this highly radioactive "waste" and no longer produce the energy that we want. That\'s why they have to be removed.\n\nThere is a process that can take these spent fuel rods and remove the waste and you then have new fuel rods that still have U-235. But it\'s banned because this process is also how you get plutonium for nuclear weapons.',
'The uranium undergoes fission faster than it would in nature since it is induced by the free neutrons in the reactor. As the fission happens, the daughter products (the sub-atoms that break off from the atom undergoing fission) include what are called "poisons". They are generally poisonous to humans but in this sense they suck up neutrons in the reactor without undergoing fission themselves and adding new neutrons back to the party.\n\nWhen a reactor is loaded up with uranium at the beginning of its fuel cycle, it is very carefully calibrated to be "critical" when the control rods are removed and when water is in the reactor. This sounds bad but it just means that the rate of fission is steady. If the reactor is "sub-critical" in means the rate of fission is declining. "Supercritical" means the rate of neutrons is rising. You want it to be as steady as possible since that keeps the system stable and since nuclear reactors can take up to 72 hours to reach a steady state. \n\nWhen a reactor is first refueled, the fuel has fewer neutron poisons in it and more of the atoms that will undego fission. At the start of the cycle (most) reactors have the control rods in a bit. As the neutron poisons build up, keeping the reactor critical becomes harder and they remove the rod a bit to keep it operating in a steady state. This can go on for about 18 months before it is economically necessary to change out the fuel rods.\n\nThis is not an easy task. Most reactors have to be disassembled. And we\'re talking about enormous heavy structures needing to be moved. Fun fact: ships in the US submarine fleet have fuel that is much more enriched (higher proportion of the "good" uranium atoms) and to be refueled about four times a century. To do so they cut the submarine in half and then weld it back together.',
"The radiation isn't what makes a reactor work. \n\nA reactor works by splitting atoms. Radiation is a gradual breakdown process that is completely different. \n\nYou really need to consider the fact that nuclear fuel is extremely energy dense, and when we load a reactor with fuel it lowers over a millions homes for up to 2 years with 1/3rd of its fuel. \n\n_URL_0_\n\nThe decay time has nothing to do with fission. They are different processes. ",
"Radioactive decay takes place over a long time, whereas Induced fission is what takes place in a reactor. It's a forced process. Similar to how composting in a bin is faster than just throwing something out into wild.\n"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6svtog',
'query': 'if uranium is radioactive for millions of years, why do nuclear reactors go through spent rods so quickly?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '286454',
'title': 'Settling',
'section': 'Section::::Physics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': "The terminal velocity of the particle is affected by many parameters, i.e. anything that will alter the particle's drag. Hence the terminal velocity is most notably dependent upon grain size, the shape (roundness and sphericity) and density of the grains, as well as to the viscosity and density of the fluid.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '256662',
'title': 'Terminal velocity',
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'passage_text': 'Terminal velocity is the maximum velocity attainable by an object as it falls through a fluid (air is the most common example). It occurs when the sum of the drag force ("F") and the buoyancy is equal to the downward force of gravity ("F") acting on the object. Since the net force on the object is zero, the object has zero acceleration.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34556514',
'title': 'Velocity Moments',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "In the field of computer vision, velocity moments are weighted averages of the intensities of pixels in a sequence of images, similar to image moments but in addition to describing an object's shape also describe its motion through the sequence of images. Velocity moments can be used to aid automated identification of a shape in an image when information about the motion is significant in its description. There are currently two established versions of velocity moments: Cartesian and Zernike.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17016531',
'title': 'Hagen–Poiseuille equation',
'section': 'Section::::Derivation.:Faster lamina.\n',
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'passage_text': "Assume that we are figuring out the force on the lamina with radius . From the equation above, we need to know the area of contact and the velocity gradient. Think of the lamina as a ring of radius , thickness , and length . The area of contact between the lamina and the faster one is simply the area of the inside of the cylinder: . We don't know the exact form for the velocity of the liquid within the tube yet, but we do know (from our assumption above) that it is dependent on the radius. Therefore, the velocity gradient is the change of the velocity with respect to the change in the radius at the intersection of these two laminae. That intersection is at a radius of . So, considering that this force will be positive with respect to the movement of the liquid (but the derivative of the velocity is negative), the final form of the equation becomes\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '65927',
'title': 'Angular velocity',
'section': 'Section::::Orbital angular velocity of a point particle.:Particle in two dimensions.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In the simplest case of circular motion at radius formula_2, with position given by the angular displacement formula_3 from the x-axis, the orbital angular velocity is the rate of change of angle with respect to time: formula_4. If formula_5 is measured in radians, the distance from the x-axis around the circle to the particle is formula_6, and the linear velocity is formula_7, so that formula_8. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7534',
'title': 'Centripetal force',
'section': 'Section::::Analysis of several cases.:Nonuniform circular motion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 60,
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'passage_text': 'This result for the velocity matches expectations that the velocity should be directed tangentially to the circle, and that the magnitude of the velocity should be "rω". Differentiating again, and noting that\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '495598',
'title': 'Blade element theory',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Alternatively the variation of the induced velocity along the radius can be modeled by breaking the blade down into small annuli and applying the conservation of mass, momentum and energy to every annulus. This approach is sometimes called the Froude-Finsterwalder equation.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'how do you determine the terminal velocity of oddly shaped objects?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It is very difficult to compute, requiring a supercomputer or more commonly simply using a wind tunnel to directly measure. Turbulence of air or other fluids are not simple to figure out.',
"You drop 'em. Or you put them in an apparatus that simulates dropping them, such as a wind tunnel. If you want to find the terminal velocity of any real world object with accuracy, that's how you do it."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'fsnyit',
'query': 'how do you determine the terminal velocity of oddly shaped objects?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '20888255',
'title': 'Isopropyl alcohol',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Automotive.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
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'passage_text': 'Isopropyl alcohol is a major ingredient in "gas dryer" fuel additives. In significant quantities water is a problem in fuel tanks, as it separates from gasoline and can freeze in the supply lines at low temperatures. Alcohol does not remove water from gasoline—but the alcohol solubilizes water in gasoline. Once soluble, water does not pose the same risk as insoluble water, as it no longer accumulates in the supply lines and freezes, but is consumed with the fuel itself. Isopropyl alcohol is often sold in aerosol cans as a windshield or door lock deicer. Isopropyl alcohol is also used to remove brake fluid traces from hydraulic braking systems, so that the brake fluid (usually DOT 3, DOT 4, or mineral oil) does not contaminate the brake pads and cause poor braking. Mixtures of isopropyl alcohol and water are also commonly used in homemade windshield wiper fluid.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '352353',
'title': 'Spirit level',
'section': 'Section::::Construction.\n',
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'passage_text': "Alcohols such as ethanol are often used rather than water. Alcohols have low viscosity and surface tension, which allows the bubble to travel the tube quickly and settle accurately with minimal interference from the glass surface. Alcohols also have a much wider liquid temperature range, and won't break the vial as water could due to ice expansion. A colorant such as fluorescein, typically yellow or green, may be added to increase the visibility of the bubble. \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8437923',
'title': 'Liquid-to-gas ratio',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'Solubility is a very important factor affecting the amount of a pollutant that can be absorbed. Solubility governs the amount of liquid required (liquid-to-gas ratio) and the necessary contact time. More soluble gases require less liquid. Also, more soluble gases will be absorbed faster.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10303',
'title': 'Evaporation',
'section': 'Section::::Theory.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'Liquids that do not evaporate visibly at a given temperature in a given gas (e.g., cooking oil at room temperature) have molecules that do not tend to transfer energy to each other in a pattern sufficient to frequently give a molecule the heat energy necessary to turn into vapor. However, these liquids "are" evaporating. It is just that the process is much slower and thus significantly less visible.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38220209',
'title': 'Liquid-feed flame spray pyrolysis',
'section': 'Section::::Process.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Typically, the solvent serves as the fuel; thus cost and solubility issues leads to use of ethanol or other "low cost" alcohols to dissolve the precursors. The oxygen/alcohol aerosol undergoes rapid combustion within milliseconds, oxidizing all the organic components at temperatures up to 2000\xa0°C leaving only metal-oxyanions e.g., (M-O) in the gas phase. These oxyanions thereafter nucleate to form clusters and finally sub-100\xa0nm particles, as seen in Figure 1.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '66723',
'title': 'Respiratory system',
'section': 'Section::::Fish.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Oxygen is poorly soluble in water. Fully aerated fresh water therefore contains only 8–10\xa0ml O/liter compared to the O concentration of 210\xa0ml/liter in the air at sea level. Furthermore, the coefficient of diffusion (i.e. the rate at which a substances diffuses from a region of high concentration to one of low concentration, under standard conditions) of the respiratory gases is typically 10,000 faster in air than in water. Thus oxygen, for instance, has a diffusion coefficient of 17.6\xa0mm/s in air, but only 0.0021\xa0mm/s in water. The corresponding values for carbon dioxide are 16\xa0mm/s in air and 0.0016\xa0mm/s in water. This means that when oxygen is taken up from the water in contact with a gas exchanger, it is replaced considerably more slowly by the oxygen from the oxygen-rich regions small distances away from the exchanger than would have occurred in air. Fish have developed gills deal with these problems. Gills are specialized organs containing filaments, which further divide into lamellae. The lamellae contain a dense thin walled capillary network that exposes a large gas exchange surface area to the very large volumes of water passing over them.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20888255',
'title': 'Isopropyl alcohol',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Solvent.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Isopropyl alcohol dissolves a wide range of non-polar compounds. It also evaporates quickly, leaves nearly zero oil traces, compared to ethanol, and is relatively non-toxic, compared to alternative solvents. Thus, it is used widely as a solvent and as a cleaning fluid, especially for dissolving oils. Together with ethanol, n-butanol, and methanol, it belongs to the group of alcohol solvents, about 6.4 million tonnes of which were used worldwide in 2011.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does alcohol (isopropyl) evaporate so much faster than other liquids than say water?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Well thats a very relative question. It is a liquid at room temperature, which puts its boiling temperature above that of any gases. Water has a higher one, wood/metal has a higher one still.\n\nThe boiling point is determined by the intramolecular forces in the liquid state. They are weaker than water. Also importantly they can lower the boiling point of a mixture when added to water (which it always is) so its just about how well the molecules stick together (cause they always want to escape).'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '7oevts',
'query': 'why does alcohol (isopropyl) evaporate so much faster than other liquids than say water?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '5174980',
'title': 'Early 1980s recession',
'section': 'Section::::United States.:Financial industry crisis.:Banks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
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'passage_text': 'The recession came at a particularly bad time for banks because of a recent wave of deregulation. The Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act of 1980 had phased out a number of restrictions on their financial practices, broadened their lending powers, and raised the deposit insurance limit from $40,000 to $100,000, which caused moral hazard. Banks rushed into real estate lending, speculative lending, and other ventures as the economy soured.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2685269',
'title': 'Great Depression in the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Banking failures.\n',
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'passage_text': "A large contribution to the recession was the closure and suspension of thousands of banks across the country. Financial institutions failed for several reasons, including unregulated lending procedures, confidence in the Gold standard, consumer confidence in future economics, and agricultural defaults on outstanding loans. With these compounding issues the banking system struggled to keep up with the public's increasing demand for cash withdrawals. This overall decreased the money supply and forced the banks to result to short sale (real estate) and liquidation of existing loans. In the race to liquidate assets the banking system began to fail on a wide scale. In November 1930 the first major banking crisis began with over 800 banks closing their doors by January 1931. By October 1931 over 2100 banks were suspended with the highest suspension rate recorded in the St. Louis Federal Reserve District, with 2 out of every 5 banks suspended. The economy as a whole experienced a massive reduction in banking footholds across the country amounting to more than nine thousand closed banks by 1933. \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '871535',
'title': 'Early 1990s recession',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Primary factors believed to have led to the recession include the following: restrictive monetary policy enacted by central banks, primarily in response to inflation concerns, the loss of consumer and business confidence as a result of the 1990 oil price shock, the end of the Cold War and the subsequent decrease in defense spending, the savings and loan crisis and a slump in office construction resulting from overbuilding during the 1980s. The US economy returned to 1980s level growth by 1993 and global GDP growth by 1994.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '455150',
'title': 'Causes of the Great Depression',
'section': 'Section::::Specific theories of cause.:Financial institution structures.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 95,
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'passage_text': "The city banks also suffered from structural weaknesses that made them vulnerable to a shock. Some of the nation's largest banks were failing to maintain adequate reserves and were investing heavily in the stock market or making risky loans. Loans to Germany and Latin America by New York City banks were especially risky. In other words, the banking system was not well prepared to absorb the shock of a major recession.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5174980',
'title': 'Early 1980s recession',
'section': 'Section::::United States.:Financial industry crisis.:Banks.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The recession affected the banking industry long after the economic downturn had technically ended, in November 1982. In 1983, another 50 banks failed. The FDIC listed another 540 banks as "problem banks", on the verge of failure.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1610496',
'title': 'Economic history of the United States',
'section': 'Section::::21st century.:Great Recession.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The Great Recession was a sharp decline in the United States\' economy. In 2008, a series of related economic disasters hit the American and European financial systems. The bursting of a worldwide bubble in housing set the recession in motion. The end of housing bubbles in California, Florida and Arizona led to the collapse of housing prices and the shrinkage of construction sector. Millions of mortgages (averaging about $200,000 each) had been bundled into securities called collateralized debt obligations that were resold worldwide. Many banks and hedge funds had borrowed hundreds of billions of dollars to buy these securities, which were now "toxic" because their value was unknown and no one wanted to buy them.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3065147',
'title': 'Hugh McColl',
'section': "Section::::Career.:Effect of McColl's merger strategy on financial crisis of 2007–2008.\n",
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'passage_text': 'During the financial crisis of 2007-2008, after McColl\'s retirement, Bank of America was dubbed "too big to fail" and received $45 billion in federal government funds. In a 2012 article for Rolling Stone titled "Bank of America: Too Crooked to Fail," author Matt Taibbi attributed factors at Bank of America leading up to the Bank bailout of 2008 directly to McColl\'s creation of a coast to coast bank, saying the "concept of an overmassive, acquiring-everything-in-sight, bicoastal megabank was hatched" in a "terminal inferiority complex" and described McColl (along with Ed Crutchfield of then First Union) as having launched "a cartoonish arms race of bank acquisitions that would ultimately turn the American business world upside down."\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How did banks greatly contribute/ cause to the Great Recession in the 2000’s?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['They made a lot of very bad lending decisions. They gave people money in exchange for pieces of paper saying they will get paid back. The people they gave money to a lot of times weren’t going to be able to pay it back, but the banks still gave them the money. Then, they sold all of their pieces of paper to their bank friend. The other bank then took all the pieces of paper and turned them into a super package of papers and sold pieces of the super package to their bank friends.\n\nWhen the people couldn’t pay the money back, all of the super pieces of paper were worth nothing.',
"They didn't care that they were giving loans to people who would default because they sold the risk to others who then repackaged. Also a lot of hubris thinking that nothing bad would ever happen and when they realized it would all go south they bet against the crap loans they originally sold to make money",
'The people in this thread have answered it well. I\'m no expert at this subject at all, but the movie "the big Short" seemed to capture everything pretty well and describes the different factors at play if you want an entertaining movie to get more info.',
"1. Loaned money to poor people who couldn't pay. \n2. Resold that debt to others to collect\n3. Repeat",
'Before the recession, the value of homes were growing at very fast rate. So, many banks gave out loans, think that even if they didn\'t get money back from the loan, they could sell the home and get it back and make profit.\n\nThey started giving "sub-prime loans" with really high interest rates to people with bad credit. Many people couldn\'t afford their loans, defaulted, and the bank was out of money. They took possession of their homes. \n\nThe demand for homes went down, however, and caused their price to go down too, so selling them didn\'t make enough money back. The banks started failing because they lost so much money on the loans.',
'They made millions of home loans to people they should have known would not be able to pay them back. In many cases they were quite aware they would not be getting paid.\n\nThen "securities" were created which were basically like a loan that uses a bunch of smaller loans as collateral. These smaller loans were those risky mortgages I mentioned above. So the big securities were worthless but most people didn\'t know they were worthless.\n\nOne small stock market crash and it caused a cascade of home loans to go into default, causing the securities to fail, causing banks to fail, crashing the economy.',
'OK, the best way to discribe this is to discribe the "old" way and then compare it to the new way.\n\nIn the old days, a bank would lend money. They would then get paid back according to the terms of that loan. So they would lend $100,000 on day 1, and it would take 20 years to get it all back in monthly payments. The up side here is they would receive interest along the way.\n\nSo if someone failed to repay the loan, it\'s the bank that actually lent the money that would suffer the loss. So there was a strong incentive to only make good loans. \n\nThis is slimier to how it works today, banks lend money to people. They decide who to lend to and what interest rates to set. The problem is, immediately after lending the money the banks would sell the loan to someone else. \n\nThis transfers the risk of the loan to a new person (or instution). And normally this would mean this new person requires a higher interest rate because they did not have a hand in setting the original terms of the loan, so they are by default less confident in the repayment of the loan. But there was a step (or two) that prevented this from happening.\n\nFirst thing is that the person who bought the loan actually bought hundreds of loans. They take those loans and bundle them all together. So instead of 1 $100,000 loan, they have 10, 20 or even 100. They then take that bundle of loans and cut it up into smaller bits and they resell those bits to other investors.\n\nSo if I have $100,000 invested in loans, what I actually have is 1/100th of 100 different loans. So I own $1,000 of each of 100 different $100,000 mortgages. This spreads the risk around, it\'s highly unlikely that all 100 of me peaces of loan will default, sure some of them might but most won\'t. This effectively lowers the risk of the initial debt.\n\nSo to recap. Someone bought the banks loan, they bought many of them. They mixed the loans all together then cut the mix up into peaces again and sold the peaces. These new loan peaces are considered very low risk because the risk of default is spread among a large number of borrowers. \n\nThere\'s one more thing. Even if someone defaults, we are talking mortgages here and mortgages have houses as collateral. So even if someone defaults their house is taken and resold. Since (prior to 2008) home prices always go up, the value of the collateral is "always" more than the value of the loan itself. \n\nEVEN IF everything failed, these little investments have insurance on them! So the insurance company pays if everything goes wrong with one of these investments. \n\nThis allows the financial industry to sell these new things (loan bits) as VERY, VERY safe investments. There are third parties that have basically certified these investments as virtual guarantees. \n\nInvestments that are considered to be basically zero risk have a very special place in the way banking works in a modern system. Banks are not required to hold onto all of the money you deposit into them. They are allowed to make loans with the money, but they are required to hold onto a portion of it. This is known as fractional reserve banking and I won\'t get into the details of it, just know it exists. The banks are required to hold a portion of their deposits in... wait for it... very safe investments. \n\nSame thing with insurance companies. They might write policies that would see them paying our $50,000 if it fails, but they don\'t need to have all of that cash on hand at any given time because every policy is unlikely to fail all at once. So they only need to have cash on hand for a fraction of their total oblations. They keep that cash in, very safe investments. \n\nSo now for the problem. All of this safety and risk assumes that a small number of the loans go bad. If they go bad there\'s insurance and the value of the house there to recover any potential loss. Even if there is some loss it\'s all spread around to different investors so no one person takes a big hit. \n\nAnd so along comes 2008. Because the banks lending the money are not the ones taking the risk of repayment the banks get a little too free with lending the money. So they are giving loans to people who are highly unlikely to repay them. But remember, that\'s OK because home values "always" go up, and there\'s insurance on these things anyway!.\n\nExcept... home prices do NOT always go up. When people start to fail at repaying their mortgages there\'s all of a sudden a whole bunch more homes on the market. Banks see that happen so they tighten up their lending a little bit and that removes some buyers form the market. A high supply, and a lack of buyers activates the laws of supply and demand, and that means prices must fall. So home prices start to go down.\n\nBut there\'s still all these "investments" out there in mortgages who\'s risk level was determined assuming that home prices will not fall. All of a sudden these investments are losing money and they are held by people who absolutely cannot have losses in their accounts.\n\nInsurance companies start having to pay out on policies, but they themselves have held these investments because they thought they were safe, so they don\'t actually have the money to cover everything they have promised. AIG, one of the largest insurance companies in the country goes under. \n\nThe banks who were making these mortgages all of a sudden can\'t sell them like they used to. They are forced to hold onto them. So they start making considerably fewer mortgage deals. That means fewer home buyers and THAT means lower home prices (again). This means that there\'s lots of people out there who have mortgages that are higher than the value of the underlying property, so these people stop paying the mortgage (because why would you). This causes these properties to foreclose and go onto the sale market, that means more homes for sale and home prices drop, again. \n\nThose chopped up mortgage investments are now worth considerably less than people thought they would be. It\'s like a series of dominoes falling, one after the other. Insurance companies, banks, retirement funds and all kinds of other investors are all of a sudden holding something they thought was low risk but was actually fairly high risk. So they are all freaking out about their investments and the losses they are taking. \n\nBanks now can\'t lend money because they don\'t have enough cash on hand to cover the fraction they are required to keep. Insurance companies can\'t pay out on policies for the same reasons. Home owners can\'t sell homes because no one can get a mortgage and people with mortgages are refusing to pay them because the house is not worth what they expected it to be. \n\nIt all came crashing down, hard and fast. Very few people saw the inherent flaws in the system that had been build. The main flaw being that the person who decides to lend the money is not the person on the hook if that choice turns out to be a poor one.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'ez23y3',
'query': 'how did banks greatly contribute/ cause to the great recession in the 2000’s?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '48338',
'title': 'Butterfly',
'section': 'Section::::Biology.:Ecology.:Defences.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Butterflies without defences such as toxins or mimicry protect themselves through a flight that is more bumpy and unpredictable than in other species. It is assumed this behavior makes it more difficult for predators to catch them, and is caused by the turbulence created by the small whirlpools formed by the wings during flight.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '53307',
'title': 'Lepidoptera',
'section': 'Section::::Behavior.:Flight.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 79,
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'end_paragraph_id': 79,
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'passage_text': 'Some species of butterflies can reach fast speeds, such as the southern dart, which can go as fast as 48.4\xa0km/h. Sphingids are some of the fastest flying insects, some are capable of flying at over 50\xa0km/h (30\xa0mi/h), having a wingspan of 35–150\xa0mm. In some species, sometimes a gliding component to their flight exists. Flight occurs either as hovering, or as forward or backward motion. In butterfly and moth species, such as hawk moths, hovering is important as they need to maintain a certain stability over flowers when feeding on the nectar.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2120900',
'title': 'Heliconius charithonia',
'section': 'Section::::Mating system.:Mating cues.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
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'passage_text': 'A common problem among all butterflies is to avoid mating with other butterfly species. Mistakes are rare as males can distinguish between the emissions produced when the larvae and other herbivores eat the plant. The larvae release volatiles similar chemically to those emitted by the plant. "H. charithonia" mating cues are controlled by multiple genes (they are pleiotropic), particularly in regards to Müllerian mimicry.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24104729',
'title': 'Insect morphology',
'section': 'Section::::External.:Thorax.:Wings.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 57,
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'end_paragraph_id': 57,
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'passage_text': 'Insect flight can be extremely fast, maneuverable, and versatile, possibly due to the changing shape, extraordinary control, and variable motion of the insect wing. Insect orders use different flight mechanisms; for example, the flight of a butterfly can be explained using steady-state, nontransitory aerodynamics, and thin airfoil theory.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15053780',
'title': 'Zygaena ephialtes',
'section': 'Section::::Behavior.:Migration.\n',
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'end_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': "Because of the slower nature of the adult butterflies' movement, a typical butterfly's range was thought to be on the smaller side. However, after observing populations in the Czech Republic, it was found that this species was found during quick flying events over longer distances.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55815126',
'title': 'Locomotor mimicry',
'section': 'Section::::Aerial locomotor mimicry.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In butterflies, it is thought that palatability to predators is related to flight components. Typically, fast-flying prey are more palatable, whereas unpalatable species tend to fly more slowly. These flight characteristics could help predators recognize prey as being palatable or unpalatable. Researchers compared the flight patterns of palatable non-mimetic, palatable mimetic, and unpalatable butterflies by looking at directional flight changes of each species. It was determined that the palatable mimetic butterfly species had a significantly different flight pattern compared to the palatable non-mimetic. The palatable mimetic species had a flight pattern that resembled that of their unpalatable models.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48338',
'title': 'Butterfly',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Butterflies are often polymorphic, and many species make use of camouflage, mimicry and aposematism to evade their predators. Some, like the monarch and the painted lady, migrate over long distances. Many butterflies are attacked by parasites or parasitoids, including wasps, protozoans, flies, and other invertebrates, or are preyed upon by other organisms. Some species are pests because in their larval stages they can damage domestic crops or trees; other species are agents of pollination of some plants. Larvae of a few butterflies (e.g., harvesters) eat harmful insects, and a few are predators of ants, while others live as mutualists in association with ants. Culturally, butterflies are a popular motif in the visual and literary arts.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why is it that butterflies don't need to learn how to fly ?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['They are little pre-programmed organic machines. Just as spiders don’t have to learn how to weave a web, and crickets don’t have to learn to chirp. \n\nLower level insects are reacting to stimuli and running their software loops (with an ultimate goal / focus on successful reproduction). ',
'If you go a little bit abstract and think about it, the process of learning is needed where the necessary information for survival cannot be contained in the DNA.\n\nYou\'re born with the necessary muscle movements for your heart for instance, but you have to learn spoken languages for survival.\n\nIn that sense, living things that are simple enough are born with the entire information they need to survive; from the instructions for their body plans to the actions that those bodies will perform.\n\nIn Ancestor\'s Tale, Dawkins elaborates on an experiment where beavers in isolation start "mime-building" dams in thin air. The action is hard wired in them, so even if there are no rivers or logs around, they are compelled to continue to the action; alluding to the fact that just like morphological characteristics, behavioral characteristics are also passed down genetically.\n\nSo for the butterfly, flight is literally in their DNA.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '8ohvee',
'query': "why is it that butterflies don't need to learn how to fly ?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '56380502',
'title': 'Titanium adhesive bonding',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "Titanium is often used in medical and military applications because of its strength, weight, and corrosion resistance characteristics. In implantable medical devices, titanium is used because of its biocompatibility and its passive, stable oxide layer. Also, titanium allergies are rare and in those cases mitigations like parylene coating are used. In the aerospace industry titanium is often bonded to save cost, touch times, and the need for mechanical fasteners. In the past, Russian submarines hulls were completely made of titanium because the non-magnetic nature of the material went undetected by the defense technology at that time. This article will discuss surface preparation for adhesive bonding to titanium. There is not a single solution for all applications. For example, etchant and chemical methods are not biocompatible and cannot be human used in blood and tissue contact. Mechanical surface roughness techniques like sanding and laser roughening may make the surface brittle and create micro-hardness regions that would not be suitable for cyclic loading found in military applications. Air oxidation at high temperatures will produce a crystalline oxide layer at a lower investment cost but the increased temperatures can deform precision parts. The type of adhesive, thermosetting or thermoplastic, and curing methods are also factors in titanium bonding because of the adhesive's interaction with the treated oxide layer. Surface treatments can also be combined. For example, a grit blast process can be followed by a chemical etch and a primer application.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30040',
'title': 'Titanium',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Aerospace and marine.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 67,
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'passage_text': "Because titanium is resistant to corrosion by sea water, it is used to make propeller shafts, rigging, and heat exchangers in desalination plants; heater-chillers for salt water aquariums, fishing line and leader, and divers' knives. Titanium is used in the housings and components of ocean-deployed surveillance and monitoring devices for science and the military. The former Soviet Union developed techniques for making submarines with hulls of titanium alloys forging titanium in huge vacuum tubes.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37422114',
'title': 'Titanium biocompatibility',
'section': 'Section::::Biocompatibility.\n',
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'passage_text': "Titanium is considered the most biocompatible metal due to its resistance to corrosion from bodily fluids, bio-inertness, capacity for osseointegration, and high fatigue limit. Titanium's ability to withstand the harsh bodily environment is a result of the protective oxide film that forms naturally in the presence of oxygen. The oxide film is strongly adhered, insoluble, and chemically impermeable, preventing reactions between the metal and the surrounding environment. The mechanical properties of the material and the loading conditions in the host have, conventionally, influenced material selection for different clinical applications: predominantly Ti6Al4V in orthopaedics while commercially pure titanium in dentistry.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30040',
'title': 'Titanium',
'section': 'Section::::Precautions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 98,
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'passage_text': 'Titanium can catch fire when a fresh, non-oxidized surface comes in contact with liquid oxygen. Fresh metal may be exposed when the oxidized surface is struck or scratched with a hard object, or when mechanical strain causes a crack. This poses a limitation to its use in liquid oxygen systems, such as those in the aerospace industry. Because titanium tubing impurities can cause fires when exposed to oxygen, titanium is prohibited in gaseous oxygen respiration systems. Steel tubing is used for high pressure systems (3,000 p.s.i.) and aluminium tubing for low pressure systems.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1836449',
'title': 'Titanium alloy',
'section': 'Section::::Properties.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Titanium alone is a strong, light metal. It is stronger than common, low-carbon steels, but 45% lighter. It is also twice as strong as weak aluminium alloys but only 60% heavier. Titanium has outstanding corrosion resistance to seawater, and thus is used in propeller shafts, rigging and other parts of boats that are exposed to seawater. Titanium and its alloys are used in airplanes, missiles, and rockets where strength, low weight, and resistance to high temperatures are important. Further, since titanium does not react within the human body, it and its alloys are used in artificial joints, screws, and plates for fractures, and for other biological implants. See Titanium#Orthopedic implants.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30040',
'title': 'Titanium',
'section': 'Section::::Characteristics.:Chemical properties.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'Atmospheric passivation gives titanium excellent resistance to corrosion, almost equivalent to platinum. Titanium is capable of withstanding attack by dilute sulfuric and hydrochloric acids, chloride solutions, and most organic acids. However, titanium is corroded by concentrated acids. As indicated by its negative redox potential, titanium is thermodynamically a very reactive metal that burns in normal atmosphere at lower temperatures than the melting point. Melting is possible only in an inert atmosphere or in a vacuum. At , it combines with chlorine. It also reacts with the other halogens and absorbs hydrogen.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30040',
'title': 'Titanium',
'section': 'Section::::Precautions.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Titanium is non-toxic even in large doses and does not play any natural role inside the human body. An estimated quantity of 0.8 milligrams of titanium is ingested by humans each day, but most passes through without being absorbed in the tissues. It does, however, sometimes bio-accumulate in tissues that contain silica. One study indicates a possible connection between titanium and yellow nail syndrome. An unknown mechanism in plants may use titanium to stimulate the production of carbohydrates and encourage growth. This may explain why most plants contain about 1 part per million (ppm) of titanium, food plants have about 2 ppm, and horsetail and nettle contain up to 80 ppm.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is titanium flammable?',
'selftext': 'Specifically titanium shavings',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The oxidation of titanium gives off heat. When the titanium heats up, this reaction proceeds faster and faster. This produces a fire, one that is quite difficult to stop. \n\nAs for why shavings and powder are flammable. It's the same reason why leaves are more flammable than a log. The oxidation reaction is limited by surface area. Making shavings from a block greatly increases the reaction speed. ",
"This is not really something special about titanium.\n\nMany materials have pretty much the same thing going on.\n\nMetals like titanium can oxidize. When that happens to iron we call it rust. With most metal objects they automatically form a thin layer of oxidized material on the surface. If you scratch that layer you expose the unoxidized metal which on contact with oxygen oxidizes.\n\nThe problem comes when the protective layer can not form quickly enough.\n\nIf you create lots of metal shavings you end up with a really big amount of surface area per mass of metal and all that surface area is exposed to oxygen in the air. A single spark under this circumstances can set it all aflame and lead to a small (or not so small) explosion.\n\nThis can also happen with materials that aren't metal but are at least somewhat flammable. Wood dust can explode too.\n\nA famous example of stuff becoming explosive when turned into powder/shavings/mist are grain silos which can explode in much the same way.",
"The reaction with oxygen is exothermic. Finer flakes/shavings have more surface area for the reaction to take place. At some point, it becomes a self sustaining fire.\n\nAnd I have seen it in action - we made titanium sponge where I used to work. Some fool tried to use a Dremel to cut around 2 kg of sponge off the electrode on which it formed.\n\nIt immediately caught fire - think of what magnesium burning looks like. It was that intense. They emptied two CO2 extinguishers on it, which only made it worse, so the idiot who started it tries to carry it outside - but it melted through the stainless steel tray he had it on (I still can't believe he could get near enough to pick it up, but he did)."],
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'query_id': '774lu6',
'query': 'why is titanium flammable?',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3797203',
'title': 'Angular momentum operator',
'section': 'Section::::Angular momentum as the generator of rotations.:SU(2), SO(3), and 360° rotations.\n',
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'passage_text': 'On the other hand, formula_65 in all circumstances, because a 360° rotation of a "spatial" configuration is the same as no rotation at all. (This is different from a 360° rotation of the "internal" (spin) state of the particle, which might or might not be the same as no rotation at all.) In other words, the formula_66 operators carry the structure of SO(3), while formula_67 and formula_68 carry the structure of SU(2).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11147557',
'title': 'Full twisting layout',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'A full twisting layout, also called a full twist or a full, is a gymnastics move. The layout requires an extended body while flipping upside down; while the full-twist requires a 360-degree rotation, Because it combines flipping and twisting simultaneously, it is an advanced move.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25935424',
'title': 'Plane of rotation',
'section': 'Section::::Four dimensions.:Double rotations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
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'passage_text': 'A double rotation has two angles of rotation, one for each plane of rotation. The rotation is specified by giving the two planes and two non-zero angles, and (if either angle is zero the rotation is simple). Points in the first plane rotate through , while points in the second plane rotate through . All other points rotate through an angle between and , so in a sense they together determine the amount of rotation. For a general double rotation the planes of rotation and angles are unique, and given a general rotation they can be calculated. For example a rotation of in the -plane and in the -plane is given by the matrix\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '54329799',
'title': 'Gear Cube',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': "Each side is permitted to turn in only 180° increments or half turns. Due to the gears not making a full rotation along with the side it's attached to, it prohibits 90° turns. This is why all of the algorithms involve either half turns or a full rotation.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29780709',
'title': 'Angle of rotation',
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'passage_text': 'In mathematics, the angle of rotation is a measurement of the amount, namely the angle, that a figure is rotated about a fixed point, often the center of a circle. A clockwise rotation is considered a negative rotation, so that, for instance, a rotation of 310° (counterclockwise) can also be called a rotation of –50° (since , a full rotation (turn)). A counterclockwise rotation of more than one complete turn is normally measured modulo 360°, meaning that 360° is subtracted off as many times as possible to leave a non-negative measurement less than 360°.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25935424',
'title': 'Plane of rotation',
'section': 'Section::::Four dimensions.:Double rotations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
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'passage_text': 'In a double rotation there are two planes of rotation, no fixed planes, and the only fixed point is the origin. The rotation can be said to take place in both planes of rotation, as points in them are rotated within the planes. These planes are orthogonal, that is they have no vectors in common so every vector in one plane is at right angles to every vector in the other plane. The two rotation planes span four-dimensional space, so every point in the space can be specified by two points, one on each of the planes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25935424',
'title': 'Plane of rotation',
'section': 'Section::::Four dimensions.:Isoclinic rotations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
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'passage_text': 'A special case of the double rotation is when the angles are equal, that is if . This is called an isoclinic rotation, and it differs from a general double rotation in a number of ways. For example in an isoclinic rotation, all non-zero points rotate through the same angle, . Most importantly the planes of rotation are not uniquely identified. There are instead an infinite number of pairs of orthogonal planes that can be treated as planes of rotation. For example any point can be taken, and the plane it rotates in together with the plane orthogonal to it can be used as two planes of rotation.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does one full rotation equal 360°?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Mathematics',
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'answers': ['The metric system recommends using radians and not degrees. The math always works much better in radians. You can seamlessly switch back and forth between exponential, power-series and trigonometric functions (sine, cosine, etc) when you use radians.\n\nWhy degrees ended up being 360 is a historical (pre-historical?) quirk. There are 360 days in a year. Multiples of 12 and 60 were common in ancient systems because they have a lot of divisors.',
"Because it was made by a civilization that existed before the metric system. It came up around the time a ancient Greece and Babylon, so most ideas around why it's 360 is more educated guesses that proof.\n\nFor starters we know that the Babylonians and Persians had a calendar based off of a 360 day period so that seems reasonable to tie it to a circle if the said circle was used as a calendar. \n\n\nThe Babylonians also used a base 60 counting system, which doesn't fit into 100 very nicely. \n\nAlso 360 is just such a nice number for math. It has a ton of divisors, many more than 100 does, which makes doing fractions of a circle much easier to calculate when your TI-84 runs out of batteries. ",
'360 is a relic of ancient base 12 mathematics from the middle east.\n\nThe Mesopotamians were big fans of 12 and its multiples because of how simple the mathematics are.\n\n360 is evenly divisible by: 180, 120, 90, 60, 45, 40, 30, 24, 20, 18, 15, 12, 10, 9, 8, 6, 5, 4, 3, and 2.\n\nIt has a *huge* number of clean divisions.\n\n100 is way less functional. 50, 25, 20, 10, 5, 4, 2.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9lbvpy',
'query': 'why does one full rotation equal 360°?',
'query_type': 'Mathematics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '12842287',
'title': 'Heated clothing',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Most heated clothing is designed for cold-weather sports and activities, such as motorcycle riding, downhill skiing, diving, winter biking, and snowmobiling, trekking and for outdoor workers such as construction workers and carpenters. Since the London Olympics, heated clothing has also been used by athletes to keep their muscles warm between the warm-up and the race.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12842287',
'title': 'Heated clothing',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:By function.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': "The most widely available types of heated clothing are products for the extremities; the hands and feet. These parts are the most likely to suffer frostbite or frostnip in severe cold. As such, many manufacturers make heated gloves, mittens, socks, and boot liners, which can be purchased at workers' supply stores (serving construction workers) and motor sports stores. Heated torso coverings like vests, jackets, or leggings are available from specialty retailers that cater to motorcyclists and downhill skiers.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38180',
'title': 'Clothing',
'section': 'Section::::Functions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'end_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'The most obvious function of clothing is to protect the wearer from the elements. In hot weather, clothing provides protection from sunburn or wind damage. In the cold it offers thermal insulation. Shelter can reduce the functional need for clothing. For example, coats, hats, gloves and other outer layers are normally removed when entering a warm place. Similarly, clothing has seasonal and regional aspects, so that thinner materials and fewer layers of clothing are generally worn in warmer regions and seasons than in colder ones.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '435759',
'title': 'Extreme cold weather clothing',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "Extreme cold weather clothing refers to clothing for arctic or mountainous areas. Its primary function is to trap air as an insulator to prevent heat loss from the wearer's body. Secondary and necessary is to conduct water vapor away from the body to keep the insulating layers dry. A shell keeps the wind from disturbing the still air in the insulating layers. In warmer conditions, the shell protects from water intrusion.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7268161',
'title': 'Sportswear (activewear)',
'section': 'Section::::Thermal properties.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'end_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'Sportswear design must consider the thermal insulation needs of the wearer. In hot situations, sportswear should allow the wearer to stay cool; while in cold situations, sportswear should help the wearer to stay warm.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7455643',
'title': 'Thermal comfort',
'section': 'Section::::Influencing factors.:Clothing insulation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': 'The amount of thermal insulation worn by a person has a substantial impact on thermal comfort, because it influences the heat loss and consequently the thermal balance. Layers of insulating clothing prevent heat loss and can either help keep a person warm or lead to overheating. Generally, the thicker the garment is, the greater insulating ability it has. Depending on the type of material the clothing is made out of, air movement and relative humidity can decrease the insulating ability of the material.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4308755',
'title': 'Air conditioned clothing',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Air cooled clothing is a term for clothing that actively cools down the wearer. It has primarily been used by workers in areas where air conditioning systems cannot be easily installed, such as tunnels and underground construction sites. Air-cooled clothing on the market does not operate by actually cooling down the air, as a room AC unit does. Instead, it increases the natural body cooling of the wearer by blowing air and sometimes water vapor around the body, decreasing skin temperature by the evaporation of sweat and vapor.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is thermal clothing warm?',
'selftext': 'Is the fabric different from other clothes? Or is it the way it is made?',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['People are walking, talking heat generators. Normally, this heat gets lost into the air and spread out across the Earth. Thermal clothing is designed to trap pockets of air so when you heat it up, rather than blowing away to be replaced by cooler air, it stays next to you, keeping your heat close.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'a7lrpq',
'query': 'why is thermal clothing warm?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '16179920',
'title': 'App Store (iOS)',
'section': 'Section::::Controversial apps.:Large-scale app removals.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 58,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 58,
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'passage_text': "On September 1, 2016, Apple announced that starting September 7, it would be removing old apps that do not function as intended or that don't follow current review guidelines. Developers will be warned and given 30 days to update their apps, but apps that crash on startup will be removed immediately. Additionally, app names registered by developers cannot exceed 50 characters, in an attempt to stop developers from inserting long descriptions or irrelevant terms in app names to improve the app's ranking in App Store search results. App intelligence firm Sensor Tower revealed in November 2016 that Apple, as promised from its September announcement of removing old apps, had removed 47,300 apps from App Store in October 2016, a 238 percent increase of its prior number of average monthly app removals.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21011166',
'title': 'WebOS',
'section': 'Section::::History.:2010–2013: Acquired by HP; the launch of Open webOS.:Growth and decline of HP App Catalog.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'Subsequently, the number of available apps decreased because many apps were withdrawn from the App Catalog by their owners. Examples include the apps for "The New York Times" and Pandora Radio. After a Catalog splash screen on November 11, 2014 announcing its depreciation, the HP App Catalog servers were permanently shut down on March 15, 2015. The number of functional apps remaining at that time is unknown but was probably much lower due to the imminent abandonment of the project.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16161443',
'title': 'IOS',
'section': 'Section::::Features.:Multitasking.:Task completion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 57,
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'passage_text': "Task completion allows apps to continue a certain task after the app has been suspended. As of iOS 4.0, apps can request up to ten minutes to complete a task in the background. This doesn't extend to background up- and downloads though (e.g. if you start a download in one application, it won't finish if you switch away from the application).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22631818',
'title': 'Microsoft Kin',
'section': 'Section::::Original Kin series features.:Social networking.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
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'passage_text': 'Commentators noted Loop\'s 15-minute delay for updates, which CNET\'s Ina Fried described as "odd". "PC World" argued this delay was at odds with Microsoft\'s claim that the phone is "always-connected". Users could not adjust this interval, although updates could be manually triggered with an on-screen refresh button, or locking then unlocking the phone. Microsoft cited battery life and immature social networking APIs as reasons for the delay; "Engadget" speculated that Microsoft may have been using the delayed messaging to encourage Verizon to offer lower-priced data plans, which would be attractive to the platform\'s teenage target audience.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56739645',
'title': 'Application permissions',
'section': 'Section::::Mobile devices.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
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'passage_text': "On Android 6 permissions are not usually revokable, though there is AppOps mechanism in some OSes (it's usually present in vanilla Android and aftermarket OSes, but usually removed in stock OSes) allowing to deprive apps access to some personal data. In Android ≥6 apps can request permissions in run time, but this requires app developer collaboration (developer is free to use non-runtime permissions only and the app will likely crash if permission is not granted and the ones not granting the permission is not a target audience of an app) and some permissions marked as permissions in previous versions of the OS, like internet access, are non-revocable and are not even show on apps installation. This can be fixed with XPrivacy.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '59602196',
'title': 'Digital media use and mental health',
'section': 'Section::::Response of large technology firms.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In 2018, Alphabet Inc released an update for Android smartphones, including a dashboard app enabling users to set timers on application overuse. Apple Inc purchased a third-party application and then incorporated it in iOS 12 to measure "screen time". However, journalists have questioned the functionality for users and for parents and companies\' motivations for these interventions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32440947',
'title': 'Delta update',
'section': 'Section::::Example.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': "Any app that is ready for updating can be updated faster and more efficiently due to this new system. If, for example, a game that is 300 megabytes is updated with a new racetrack that adds an additional two megabytes to the application's size, only two megabytes will be downloaded instead of 302 megabytes.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How have phone operating systems, today managed to reduce the time required to uninstall an app within a second, irrespective of its size(Android OS)',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["I can't destroy a building you're using in a second, but I can lock the main door in a second. The result will be the same for you, you can't use the building anymore. I'll then take my time to actually destroy it properly. \n\nYour phone doesn't completely delete all the stuff in a second. It is just deletes the icon that launches it, then it can take its time to actually delete all the data. \n\nAlso, deleting a 200Mb app doesn't mean actually doing something with all the 200Mb of actual switches in your memory. It just tells the phone that it can write something else on that part of the memory, which makes even the deleting process in background faster. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '6kiaay',
'query': 'how have phone operating systems, today managed to reduce the time required to uninstall an app within a second, irrespective of its size(android os)',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3167780',
'title': 'Diaphragmatic breathing',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Diaphragmatic breathing, or deep breathing, is breathing that is done by contracting the diaphragm, a muscle located horizontally between the thoracic cavity and abdominal cavity. Air enters the lungs, the chest does not rise and the belly expands during this type of breathing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '66723',
'title': 'Respiratory system',
'section': 'Section::::Mammals.:Mechanics of breathing.\n',
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'passage_text': 'During heavy breathing, exhalation is caused by relaxation of all the muscles of inhalation. But now, the abdominal muscles, instead of remaining relaxed (as they do at rest), contract forcibly pulling the lower edges of the rib cage downwards (front and sides) (Fig.\xa08). This not only drastically decreases the size of the rib cage, but also pushes the abdominal organs upwards against the diaphragm which consequently bulges deeply into the thorax (Fig.\xa08). The end-exhalatory lung volume is now well below the resting mid-position and contains far less air than the resting "functional residual capacity". However, in a normal mammal, the lungs cannot be emptied completely. In an adult human there is always still at least 1 liter of residual air left in the lungs after maximum exhalation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3167780',
'title': 'Diaphragmatic breathing',
'section': 'Section::::In complementary and alternative medicine.\n',
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'passage_text': "Due to the lung expansion being lower (inferior) on the body as opposed to higher up (superior), it is referred to as 'deep' and the higher lung expansion of rib cage breathing is referred to as 'shallow'. The actual volume of air taken into the lungs with either means varies.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1632955',
'title': 'Tae eul ju',
'section': 'Section::::Method of Tae Eul Ju meditation.:Breathing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
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'end_paragraph_id': 25,
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'passage_text': 'Breathe from the lower abdomen. As you exhale, the lower abdomen goes in; as you inhale the lower abdomen goes out. This breathing technique is almost the same throughout all different meditations with few exceptions. It is important to do this in a natural way, not tensing or forcing the stomach muscles. Before long, you will feel any stress-related tension in your chest fall away as the fire energy descends and the water energy rises. This process is called "suseunghwagang" (水昇火降).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '366663',
'title': 'Body language',
'section': 'Section::::Physical expressions.:Breathing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 520,
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'passage_text': "Body language related to breathing and patterns of breathing can be indicative of a person's mood and state of mind; because of this, the relationship between body language and breathing is often considered in contexts such as business meetings and presentations. Generally, deeper breathing which uses the diaphragm and abdomen more is interpreted as conveying a relaxed and confident impression; by contrast, shallow, excessively rapid breathing is often interpreted as conveying a more nervous or anxious impression.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '690094',
'title': 'Bartenieff Fundamentals',
'section': 'Section::::Basic Six.:Preparation.:Breath Flow Support.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
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'passage_text': 'Consists of bringing awareness to the way the breath shapes the body\'s "internal kinesphere" during inhaling and exhaling. This is described generally as growing and shrinking, bulging and hollowing in the saggital dimension, widening and narrowing in the horizontal dimension and lengthening and shortening in the vertical dimension.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20903424',
'title': 'Breathing',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'During heavy breathing (hyperpnea) as, for instance, during exercise, exhalation is brought about by relaxation of all the muscles of inhalation, (in the same way as at rest), but, in addition, the abdominal muscles, instead of being passive, now contract strongly causing the rib cage to be pulled downwards (front and sides). This not only decreases the size of the rib cage but also pushes the abdominal organs upwards against the diaphragm which consequently bulges deeply into the thorax. The end-exhalatory lung volume is now less air than the resting "functional residual capacity". However, in a normal mammal, the lungs cannot be emptied completely. In an adult human, there is always still at least one liter of residual air left in the lungs after maximum exhalation.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Every now and then when you inhale deeply there is that extra room to breathe in really deep that feels great. What is the biological mechanism behind this?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['A deep breath increases oxygen to the brain and stimulates the parasympathetic nervous system which promotes calmness.',
' > What is the biological mechanism behind this?\n\nWhich part, taking a big breathe, feeling like you have extra "room", or it feeling good?\n\n > Taking a big breathe\n\nOur body is pretty good at regulating our blood oxygen level - but it isn\'t perfect and sometimes our oxygen levels drop a little. We\'re actually really bad at recognising low oxygen levels, but we\'re really good at noticing a buildup of carbon dioxide.\n\nWhen the levels of CO2 in our blood gets too high, our brain tells our lungs to take a big breathe to get rid of a bit of extra CO2 and get a bit of extra oxygen. You\'ll probably also breathe a little bit faster and more deeply for a minute or two after the big breathe, but we tend not to notice that because it\'s fairly normal.\n\n > Extra room to breathe\n\nIt\'s always there, it\'s just that most of the time we don\'t need full lungs. Our bodies are designed for our peak performance, not average... when we\'re resting, we only need a smaller proportion of our lung capacity, less than half. We only use the extra room (expanding our lungs fully) when we\'ve been exercising heavily and need more oxygen, or for these occasional "big breaths"\n\n > That feels great\n\nIt feels good for a few reasons\n\n1. Your brain "rewarding" you for taking a big breathe by releasing happy hormones, like the endorphine rush we get when we hug someone we like, or the adrenaline rush from a big drop on a rollercoaster, our brains give us chemicals we like to encourage us to do certain things\n2. Like a cold drink when we\'re thirsty, the cool (usually) air entering our lungs can feel nice\n3. It\'s like when you yawn/stretch - when we take a full breath it stretches our chest muscles. Stretching allows extra blood into our muscles which helps bring oxygen to them and remove any toxins. This prompts our brain to release some more endorphines because it likes that.',
'I have a fairly well-educated guess. It\'s just an increase in lung surface area that\'s adding some extra O2 to your blood, which generally feels good. Here\'s the longer version:\n\nThe lung is pear shaped. Most of the time, when you inhale, you take in what\'s called the "tidal volume" of the lung -- a smallish inhale, and a smallish exhale. It\'s about 1 L or so, with the midpoint around 3 L. Most of the air inhaled normally goes to the middle-bottomish area of the pear. \n\nThe part of the lungs that actually take in the air and exchange oxygen with blood are called alveoli. This means the alveoli in the middle-bottomish part of your lungs get most of your oxygen.\n\nWhen you inhale very forcefully, by engaging your diaphragm and a portion of your intercostals, you can actually inhale a volume of air that is equal to your total lung capacity (6-7 L in an adult). When you do this, you fill up ALL of the lung, and the bronchioles and alveoli that are not typically transferring O2 into the blood get in on the action. You can think of this as filling everything from the middle to the top of the "pear."\n\nIf nothing else, your body knows how to put extra oxygen to good use. It\'s so good, in fact, that adult hemoglobin has to be "worse" than fetal hemoglobin, or we\'d have too much oxygen! So we\'re calibrated to take shallow breaths when we\'re breathing normally.\n\nThe hypothalamus does respond to blood oxygen levels, but the most direct neurological control of respiration rate comes from the medulla. I am skeptical. It is certainly true that portions of the medulla do communicated directly with the hypothalamus. The next question would have to be, which primary messenger hormone is released to the pituitary, and what secondary hormone does it release? This makes a seemingly complex question very easy! \n\nSince the OP describes this as a rapid phenomenon, we know it must be a peptide hormone rather than a steroid one -- the onset and duration match. Since the anterior pituitary produces the peptides, we can look at the "FLAT" portion of the "FLAT PEG" acronym and see if there\'s a hormone that matches the symptoms.\n\nThe only hypothalamic hormones that get anywhere near inducing the physiology OP describes are cortico-releasing factor, but you gotta squint your eyes, turn your head sideways, and REALLY want to see it.\n\nMost likely, he\'s just exposing extra lung surface area to oxygen and modest hypoxia feels pretty good. \n\nI\'m no judge, and I\'m open to other ideas, but I\'ve love to gavel an ELI5 to completion just once, and say "case closed," like in all of that Law and Order I grew up on.\n\nEDIT - Sorry for typos. It\'s my day off, so breakfast is Wavy Lays and cheap American beer. Butter fingers plus bubbly brain can make for a hell of a menagerie of typos.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'baqzer',
'query': 'every now and then when you inhale deeply there is that extra room to breathe in really deep that feels great. what is the biological mechanism behind this?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1092939',
'title': 'Toothache',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Dental.:Pulpal.:Dentin hypersensitivity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'or air), sweet or spicy foods, and beverages. Teeth will normally have some sensation to these triggers, but what separates hypersensitivity from regular tooth sensation is the intensity of the pain. Hypersensitivity is most commonly caused by a lack of insulation from the triggers in the mouth due to gingival recession (receding gums) exposing the roots of the teeth, although it can occur after scaling and root planing or dental bleaching, or as a result of erosion. The pulp of the tooth remains normal and healthy in dentin hypersensitivity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25205682',
'title': 'Periodontal abscess',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 627,
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'passage_text': 'The main symptom is pain, which often suddenly appears, and is made worse by biting on the involved tooth, which may feel raised and prominent in the bite. The tooth may be mobile, and the lesion may contribute to destruction of the periodontal ligament and alveolar bone. The pain is deep and throbbing. The oral mucosa covering an early periodontal abscess appears erythematous (red), swollen and painful to touch. The surface may be shiny due to stretching of the mucosa over the abscess. Before pus has formed, the lesion will not be fluctuant, and there will be no purulent discharge. There may be regional lymphadenitis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1915187',
'title': 'Acid erosion',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.:Shape.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 261,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'One of the most severe signs of dental erosion is cracking, where teeth begin to crack off and become coarse. Other signs include pain when eating hot, cold, or sweet foods. This pain is due to the enamel having been eroded away, exposing the sensitive dentin.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1092939',
'title': 'Toothache',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Dental.:Periodontal.:Food impaction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 860,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Food impaction occurs when food debris, especially fibrous food such as meat, becomes trapped between two teeth and is pushed into the gums during chewing. The usual cause of food impaction is disruption of the normal interproximal contour or drifting of teeth so that a gap is created (an open contact). Decay can lead to collapse of part of the tooth, or a dental restoration may not accurately reproduce the contact point. Irritation, localized discomfort or mild pain and a feeling of pressure from between the two teeth results. The gingival papilla is swollen, tender and bleeds when touched. The pain occurs during and after eating, and may slowly disappear before being evoked again at the next meal, or relieved immediately by using a tooth pick or dental floss in the involved area. A gingival or periodontal abscess may develop from this situation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23915342',
'title': 'Cracked tooth syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 429,
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'passage_text': 'According to one theory, the pain on biting is caused by the 2 fractured sections of the tooth moving independently of each other, triggering sudden movement of fluid within the dentinal tubules. This activates A-type nociceptors in the dentin-pulp complex, reported by the pulp-dentin complex as pain. Another theory is that the pain upon cold stimuli results from leak of noxious substances via the crack, irritating the pulp.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21282070',
'title': 'Taste',
'section': 'Section::::Further sensations and transmission.:Metallicness.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 77,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 77,
'end_character': 858,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A metallic taste may be caused by food and drink, certain medicines or amalgam dental fillings. It is generally considered an off flavor when present in food and drink. A metallic taste may be caused by galvanic reactions in the mouth. In the case where it is caused by dental work, the dissimilar metals used may produce a measurable current. Some artificial sweeteners are perceived to have a metallic taste, which is detected by the TRPV1 receptors. Many people consider blood to have a metallic taste. A metallic taste in the mouth is also a symptom of various medical conditions, in which case it may be classified under the symptoms dysgeusia or parageusia, referring to distortions of the sense of taste, and can be caused by various kinds of medication, including saquinavir and zonisamide, and occupational hazards, such as working with pesticides.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5533507',
'title': 'Gingival recession',
'section': 'Section::::Symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 286,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Dentin hypersensitivity (over-sensitive teeth) - short, sharp pain is triggered by hot, cold, sweet, sour, or spicy food and drink. If the cementum covering the root is not protected anymore by the gums, it is easily abraded exposing the dentin tubules to external stimuli.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why is the feeling of silverware hitting your teeth so uncomfortable?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Soft material will absorb impact much better than hard material. Think about hitting that spoon on your shin and your calf - the shin will feel much weirder than your calf. As for WHY that sensation is so much more uncomfortable, I could only suppose it’s the way we evolved pain to avoid injuring ourselves - certain things hurt more than others.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8rj6dw',
'query': 'why is the feeling of silverware hitting your teeth so uncomfortable?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '844668',
'title': 'Chalazion',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 1394,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "If they continue to enlarge or fail to settle within a few months, smaller lesions may be injected with a corticosteroid, or larger ones may be surgically removed using local anesthesia. This is usually done from underneath the eyelid to avoid a scar on the skin. If the chalazion is located directly under the eyelid's outer tissue, however, an excision from above may be more advisable so as not to inflict any unnecessary damage on the lid itself. Eyelid epidermis usually mends well, without leaving any visible scar. Depending on the chalazion's texture, the excision procedure varies: while fluid matter can easily be removed under minimal invasion, by merely puncturing the chalazion and exerting pressure upon the surrounding tissue, hardened matter usually necessitates a larger incision, through which it can be scraped out. Any residual matter should be metabolized in the course of the subsequent healing process, generally aided by regular appliance of dry heat. The excision of larger chalazia may result in visible hematoma around the lid, which will wear off within three or four days, whereas the swelling may persist for longer. Chalazion excision is an ambulant treatment and normally does not take longer than fifteen minutes. Nevertheless, owing to the risks of infection and severe damage to the eyelid, such procedures should only be performed by a medical professional.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '996227',
'title': 'High-test peroxide',
'section': 'Section::::Safety.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 223,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Contact with skin causes immediate whitening due to the production of oxygen below the skin. Extensive burns occur unless washed off in seconds. Contact with eyes can cause blindness, and so eye protection is usually used.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '794008',
'title': 'Dry eye syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 459,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Having dry eyes for a while can lead to tiny abrasions on the surface of the eyes. In advanced cases, the epithelium undergoes pathologic changes, namely squamous metaplasia and loss of goblet cells. Some severe cases result in thickening of the corneal surface, corneal erosion, punctate keratopathy, epithelial defects, corneal ulceration (sterile and infected), corneal neovascularization, corneal scarring, corneal thinning, and even corneal perforation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41974780',
'title': 'Eye injuries during general anaesthesia',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism of Injury.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 220,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Iatrogenic injury of the eyelids is also common. Bruising (frequently) and tearing (rarely) of the eyelid can occur when the adhesive dressing used to hold the eye closed is removed. Removal of eyelashes can also occur.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '470742',
'title': 'Keratitis',
'section': 'Section::::Prognosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 35,
'end_character': 266,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Some infections may scar the cornea to limit vision. Others may result in perforation of the cornea, (an infection inside the eye), or even loss of the eye. With proper medical attention, infections can usually be successfully treated without long-term visual loss.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56533',
'title': 'Diabetic retinopathy',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 435,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'These spots are often followed within a few days or weeks by a much greater leakage of blood, which blurs the vision. In extreme cases, a person may only be able to tell light from dark in that eye. It may take the blood anywhere from a few days to months or even years to clear from the inside of the eye, and in some cases the blood will not clear. These types of large hemorrhages tend to happen more than once, often during sleep.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15614719',
'title': 'Acute retinal necrosis',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 539,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Though uncommon, some patients may experience pain. Most patients will only experience this in one eye (unilateral), though possible for the condition to be seen in both (bilateral, BARN). If the first eye is left without treatment, some cases have shown the disease progressing to the other eye in a month's time. Further progressed stages of the disease can cause blindness in the eye experiencing ARN. Though the disease may be present itself, the inflammation of the retina may not been visualized for decades after the initial signs.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What would happen if one of my eyes are covered for a long time?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['What do you mean by "a long time"? Is it half an hour? Half a month? Five years? Twenty years? \n\nIn like 15 minutes, your pupil would dilate(non-native English speaker, is this right? I am thinking expand), letting in more light. Therefore, if you plan on going somewhere dark, or you think it suddenly will become dark where you are, wear an eyepatch on eye. When entering the dark room, switch Wich eye you are covering. Instant night vision.\n\nIf you are talking about covering an eye for more than a day, better find someone else than me.',
"If you are a child and still in a developing stage for vision and perception, covering one of your eyes can cause amblyopia. Amblyopia -a disorder also called lazy eye- causes decreased vision in covered eye due to the interruption in the eye-brain pathway. \nIf done with growing up, i think it is fine to strut around with pirate's eyepatch."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '798v9m',
'query': 'what would happen if one of my eyes are covered for a long time?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2420418',
'title': 'Color of water',
'section': 'Section::::Intrinsic colour.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 300,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The intrinsic colour of liquid water may be demonstrated by looking at a white light source through a long pipe that is filled with purified water and closed at both ends with a transparent window. The light turquoise blue colour is caused by weak absorption in the red part of the visible spectrum.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6752609',
'title': 'Underwater vision',
'section': 'Section::::Color vision.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 437,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Water preferentially absorbs red light, and to a lesser extent, yellow, green and violet light, so the color that is least absorbed by water is blue light. Particulates and dissolved materials may absorb different frequencies, and this will affect the color at depth, with results such as the typically green color in many coastal waters, and the dark red-brown color of many freshwater rivers and lakes due to dissolved organic matter.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2420418',
'title': 'Color of water',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'The color of water varies with the ambient conditions in which that water is present. While relatively small quantities of water appear to be colorless, pure water has a slight blue color that becomes a deeper blue as the thickness of the observed sample increases. The blue hue of water is an intrinsic property and is caused by selective absorption and scattering of white light. Dissolved elements or suspended impurities may give water a different color.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24027000',
'title': 'Properties of water',
'section': 'Section::::Physical properties.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 336,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Water is a tasteless, odorless liquid at ambient temperature and pressure. Liquid water has weak absorption bands at wavelengths of around 750\xa0nm which cause it to appear to have a blue colour. This can easily be observed in a water-filled bath or wash-basin whose lining is white. Large ice crystals, as in glaciers, also appear blue.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6102',
'title': 'Cyan',
'section': 'Section::::In science and nature.:Color of water.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 286,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Pure water is nearly colorless. However, it does absorb slightly more red light than blue, giving large volumes of water a bluish tint; increased scattering of blue light due to fine particles in the water shifts the blue color toward green, for a typically cyan net color.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11589447',
'title': 'Lake Louise (Alberta)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'The turquoise colour of the water comes from rock flour carried into the lake by melt-water from the glaciers that overlook the lake. The lake has a surface of and is drained through the 3\xa0km long "Louise Creek" into the Bow River.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33306',
'title': 'Water',
'section': 'Section::::Chemical and physical properties.:Color and appearance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 577,
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'passage_text': 'Through a thickness of or more, however, the intrinsic color of water (or ice) is visibly turquoise (greenish-blue). Its absorption spectrum has a sharp minimum at a violet-blue color of light (1/227 m at 418\xa0nm). The lower, but still significant, absorption of longer wavelengths makes the perceived colour to be nearer to a turquoise shade. The color becomes increasingly stronger and darker with increasing thickness. (Practically no sunlight reaches the parts of the oceans below of depth.) Infrared and ultraviolet light, on the other hand, is strongly absorbed by water.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why is the water in some rivers almost turquoise in color while in other ones it's just transparent?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Dissolved solids.\n\nDepending on what’s floating around in the water will affect its colour.\n\nAlgae and turbid mud will make a hazy brown/green river. Clear water is free from floating debris. Coloured water has something dissolved in it to make it that colour, eg iron, copper, and other elements.',
'Rivers that originate from the melting of alpine glaciers/snow pack are often very clear because the water doesn’t have to drain through a typical particulate-laden watershed. \n \n\n\n\n\n\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9ri25z',
'query': "why is the water in some rivers almost turquoise in color while in other ones it's just transparent?",
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '48691513',
'title': "Aristotle's biology",
'section': 'Section::::Method.:Classification.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 65,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 65,
'end_character': 431,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Animals without blood were divided into soft-shelled "Malakostraka" (crabs, lobsters, and shrimps); hard-shelled "Ostrakoderma" (gastropods and bivalves); soft-bodied "Malakia" (cephalopods); and divisible animals "Entoma" (insects, spiders, scorpions, ticks). Other animals without blood included fish lice, hermit crabs, red coral, sea anemones, sponges, starfish and various worms: Aristotle did not classify these into groups.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11633366',
'title': 'Blood as food',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 365,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Blood is the most important byproduct of slaughtering. It consists predominantly of protein and water, and is sometimes called "liquid meat" because its composition is similar to that of lean meat. Blood collected hygienically can be used for human consumption, otherwise it is converted to blood meal. Special fractions of animal blood are used in human medicine.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '49072',
'title': 'Francis Galton',
'section': 'Section::::Empirical test of pangenesis and Lamarckism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 40,
'end_character': 1060,
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'passage_text': 'Now, in the chapter on Pangenesis in my "Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication" I have not said one word about the blood, or about any fluid proper to any circulating system. It is, indeed, obvious that the presence of gemmules in the blood can form no necessary part of my hypothesis; for I refer in illustration of it to the lowest animals, such as the Protozoa, which do not possess blood or any vessels; and I refer to plants in which the fluid, when present in the vessels, cannot be considered as true blood. The fundamental laws of growth, reproduction, inheritance, &c., are so closely similar throughout the whole organic kingdom, that the means by which the gemmules (assuming for the moment their existence) are diffused through the body, would probably be the same in all beings; therefore the means can hardly be diffusion through the blood. Nevertheless, when I first heard of Mr. Galton\'s experiments, I did not sufficiently reflect on the subject, and saw not the difficulty of believing in the presence of gemmules in the blood.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4359961',
'title': 'Shemini (parsha)',
'section': 'Section::::In classical rabbinic interpretation.:Leviticus chapter 11.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 123,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 123,
'end_character': 460,
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'passage_text': 'Reading the Mishnah compared human blood to the blood of domestic animals in one respect, and to the blood of reptiles in another respect. The Mishnah noted that human blood is like the blood of animals in that it renders seeds susceptible to impurity (by virtue of ) and like the blood of reptiles in that one would not be liable to extirpation (, "karet") on account of consuming it. ( forbids consuming the blood of animals, but not the blood of reptiles.)\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4246939',
'title': 'Notothenioidei',
'section': 'Section::::Physiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 715,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'While the majority of animal species have up to 45% of hemoglobin (or other oxygen-binding and oxygen-transporting pigments) in their blood, the notothenioids of the family Channichthyidae do not express any globin proteins in their blood. As a result, the oxygen-carrying capacity of their blood is reduced to less than 10% that of other fishes. This trait likely arose due to the high oxygen solubility of the Southern Ocean waters. At cold temperatures, the oxygen solubility of water is enhanced. The loss of hemoglobin is compensated in these species by the presence of a large, slow-beating heart and enlarged blood vessels that transport a large volume of blood under low pressure to enhance cardiac output.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52242569',
'title': 'Biofluid dynamics',
'section': 'Section::::Elements of Blood and Blood Rheology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 495,
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'passage_text': 'The fluids associated with the human body include air, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, solvents, solutions, suspensions, serum, lymph, and blood. The major body fluid which acts as the lifeline of the living organisms is "Blood". Blood is an extremely complex biological fluid. It consists of blood cells suspended in plasma and other different types of cells which include white blood cells, platelets etc. The blood flow in arteries and veins are closely linked to the blood vessel properties.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '67158',
'title': 'Red blood cell',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.:Vertebrates.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Almost all vertebrates, including all mammals and humans, have red blood cells. Red blood cells are cells present in blood in order to transport oxygen. The only known vertebrates without red blood cells are the crocodile icefish (family Channichthyidae); they live in very oxygen-rich cold water and transport oxygen freely dissolved in their blood. While they no longer use hemoglobin, remnants of hemoglobin genes can be found in their genome.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What exactly is in blood and how come some animals are able to survive without it?',
'selftext': 'Additional question: Why do some animals have different coloured blood?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Very, very few complex animals do not have circulation. Flatworms, nematodes, jellyfish, sea anemones, and corals are among the species that do not have a circulatory system and thus do not have blood. Their body cavity has no lining or fluid within it. They obtain nutrients and oxygen directly from the environment that they live in.\n\nThe only non-red blood animal I know of is the octopus. Octopus blood is blue because it contains a protein called Harmocyanin. This compares to Hemoglobin in mammals, which is the "red" part of mammal blood. (The color actually depends on the amount of oxygen in the blood, but that\'s a different question.)'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'apmywv',
'query': 'what exactly is in blood and how come some animals are able to survive without it?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '596646',
'title': 'Recommender system',
'section': 'Section::::Approaches.:Content-based filtering.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 40,
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'passage_text': 'In this system, keywords are used to describe the items and a user profile is built to indicate the type of item this user likes. In other words, these algorithms try to recommend items that are similar to those that a user liked in the past, or is examining in the present. It does not rely on a user sign-in mechanism to generate this often temporary profile. In particular, various candidate items are compared with items previously rated by the user and the best-matching items are recommended. This approach has its roots in information retrieval and information filtering research.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1385230',
'title': 'Incremental search',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'In computing, incremental search, incremental find or real-time suggestions is a user interface interaction method to progressively search for and filter through text. As the user types text, one or more possible matches for the text are found and immediately presented to the user. This immediate feedback often allows the user to stop short of typing the entire word or phrase they were looking for. The user may also choose a closely related option from the presented list.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27909496',
'title': 'Content discovery platform',
'section': 'Section::::Methodology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'In order to provide and recommend content, a search algorithm is used within a content discovery platform to provide keyword related search results. User personalization and recommendation are tools that are used in the determination of appropriate content. Recommendations are either based on a single article or show, a particular academic field or genre of TV, or a full user profile. Bespoke analysis can also be undertaken to understand specific requirements relating to user behaviour and activity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '445959',
'title': 'File Explorer',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2.:Libraries.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 66,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 66,
'end_character': 650,
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'passage_text': 'Search Filter Suggestions are a new feature of the Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 Explorer\'s search box. When the user clicks in the search box, a menu shows up below it showing recent searches as well as suggested Advanced Query Syntax filters that the user can type. When one is selected (or typed in manually), the menu will update to show the possible values to filter by for that property, and this list is based on the current location and other parts of the query already typed. For example, selecting the "tags" filter or typing "tags:" into the search box will display the list of possible tag values which will return search results.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19990354',
'title': 'Features new to Windows 7',
'section': 'Section::::Shell and user interface.:Windows Explorer.:Libraries.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 623,
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'passage_text': 'Search Filter Suggestions are a new feature of the Windows 7 Explorer\'s search box. When the user clicks in the search box, a menu shows up below it showing recent searches as well as suggested Advanced Query Syntax filters that the user can type. When one is selected (or typed in manually), the menu will update to show the possible values to filter by for that property, and this list is based on the current location and other parts of the query already typed. For example, selecting the "tags" filter or typing "tags:" into the search box will display the list of possible tag values which will return search results.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38838',
'title': 'Cyclic redundancy check',
'section': 'Section::::Application.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'When a codeword is received or read, the device either compares its check value with one freshly calculated from the data block, or equivalently, performs a CRC on the whole codeword and compares the resulting check value with an expected "residue" constant.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15914332',
'title': 'AmbieSense',
'section': 'Section::::AmbieSense main components.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 232,
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'passage_text': 'The users can also receive recommendations or search results based on their context. These may be explicitly stated, implicitly derived through accessing their search behaviour, or use environment information from the context tags.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does a bot on this website scan all comments continuously for keywords to find relevant comments to reply to?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Using reddit's API. See this link: _URL_0_\n\nIt contains the latest comments (which you can see when you go to _URL_1_) in a format that is compact and easily parsable by a computer program. Each entry in this page contains the actual content of the comment and various metadata, including when the comment was posted, who posted it, the original link to the comment, the comment and post's unique identifiers, and such. The bot can use the IDs to post a reply to the comment (again using the reddit API)."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'ffapm9',
'query': 'how does a bot on this website scan all comments continuously for keywords to find relevant comments to reply to?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '42210873',
'title': 'Green star (astronomy)',
'section': 'Section::::Objects that resemble green stars.:The Sun.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': 'The Sun can sometimes appear as a green spot for a second or two as it is rising or setting: this is known as green flash. Roughly speaking, the red light from the Sun is blocked by Earth, the blue light is scattered by the atmosphere, and the green light is refracted by the atmosphere to the observer. A similar effect can occasionally be seen with other astronomical objects such as the moon and bright planets.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '83124',
'title': 'Black dwarf',
'section': 'Section::::Future of the Sun.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'end_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'Once the Sun stops fusing helium in its core and ejects its layers in a planetary nebula in about 8 billion years, it will become a white dwarf and, over trillions of years time, eventually will no longer emit any light. After that, the Sun will not be visible to the equivalent of the naked human eye, removing it from optical view even if the gravitational effects are evident. The estimated time for the Sun to cool enough to become a black dwarf is about 10 (1 quadrillion) years, though it could take much longer than this, if weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs) exist, as described above.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1730537',
'title': 'March equinox',
'section': 'Section::::Apparent movement of the Sun.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': "Due to refraction of light rays in the Earth's atmosphere the Sun will be visible above the horizon even when its disc is completely below the limb of the Earth. Additionally, when seen from the Earth, the Sun is a bright disc in the sky and not just a point of light, thus sunrise and sunset can be said to start several minutes before the sun's geometric center even crosses the horizon, and extends equally long after. These conditions produce differentials of actual durations of light and darkness at various locations on Earth during an equinox. This is most notable at the more extreme latitudes, where the Sun may be seen to travel sideways considerably during the dawn and evening, drawing out the transition from day to night. At the north and south poles, the Sun appears to move steadily around the horizon, and just above the horizon, neither rising nor setting apart from a slight change in declination of about 0.39° per day as the equinox passes.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26751',
'title': 'Sun',
'section': 'Section::::Observation and effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 139,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The brightness of the Sun can cause pain from looking at it with the naked eye; however, doing so for brief periods is not hazardous for normal non-dilated eyes. Looking directly at the Sun causes phosphene visual artifacts and temporary partial blindness. It also delivers about 4\xa0milliwatts of sunlight to the retina, slightly heating it and potentially causing damage in eyes that cannot respond properly to the brightness. UV exposure gradually yellows the lens of the eye over a period of years, and is thought to contribute to the formation of cataracts, but this depends on general exposure to solar UV, and not whether one looks directly at the Sun. Long-duration viewing of the direct Sun with the naked eye can begin to cause UV-induced, sunburn-like lesions on the retina after about 100 seconds, particularly under conditions where the UV light from the Sun is intense and well focused; conditions are worsened by young eyes or new lens implants (which admit more UV than aging natural eyes), Sun angles near the zenith, and observing locations at high altitude.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6070049',
'title': 'Risin og Kellingin',
'section': 'Section::::Legend of the Giant and the Witch.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': "If the sun shines on a giant or witch, it turns to stone. So it was that as they continued to struggle they didn't notice time passing, and as dawn broke a shaft of sunlight put a stop to their efforts by turning them to stone on the spot. They have stood there ever since, staring longingly across the ocean towards Iceland.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4968799',
'title': 'Sky brightness',
'section': 'Section::::Indirect scattering of sunlight.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 502,
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'passage_text': "When the sun's altitude is < -6° 99% of the atmosphere in zenith is in the Earth's shadow and second order scattering takes over. At the horizon, however, 35% of the atmosphere along the line of sight is still directly illuminated, and continues to be until the sun reaches -12°. From -12° to -18° only the uppermost parts of the atmosphere along the horizon, directly above the spot where the sun is, is still illuminated. After that, all direct illumination ceases and astronomical darkness sets in.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17574685',
'title': 'History of geophysics',
'section': 'Section::::20th century.:Atmospheric influences.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
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'passage_text': "The luminosity of the Sun increases as it progresses through its life cycle and are visible over the course of millions of years. Sunspots can form on the Sun's surface, which can cause greater variability in the emissions that Earth receives.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How come we can see the sun for the first couple minutes after it rises without it being so bright?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Because of the Earths curvature (come at me flat-earthers), the sunlight goes through dozens of miles of atmosphere, being dispersed and reflected, when it's lower on the horizon vs when it's high up (only about 2 miles.)\n\n & #x200B;\n\nEdit: Graph giving a general idea of how this is works\n\n[_URL_0_](_URL_0_)"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'fq91dc',
'query': 'how come we can see the sun for the first couple minutes after it rises without it being so bright?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '192316',
'title': 'Virtual particle',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'In physics, a virtual particle is a transient quantum fluctuation that exhibits some of the characteristics of an ordinary particle, while having its existence limited by the uncertainty principle. The concept of virtual particles arises in perturbation theory of quantum field theory where interactions between ordinary particles are described in terms of exchanges of virtual particles. A process involving virtual particles can be described by a schematic representation known as a Feynman diagram, in which virtual particles are represented by internal lines.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '192316',
'title': 'Virtual particle',
'section': 'Section::::Pair production.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Virtual particles are often popularly described as coming in pairs, a particle and antiparticle which can be of any kind. These pairs exist for an extremely short time, and then mutually annihilate, or in some cases, the pair may be boosted apart using external energy so that they avoid annihilation and become actual particles, as described below.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '886876',
'title': 'Crowd simulation',
'section': 'Section::::Particle systems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 357,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'One way to simulate virtual crowds is to use a particle system. Particle systems were first introduced in computer graphics by W. T. Reeves in 1983. A particle system is a collection of a number of individual elements or "particles". Each particle is able to act autonomously and is assigned a set of physical attributes (such as color, size and velocity).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '192316',
'title': 'Virtual particle',
'section': 'Section::::Properties.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The concept of virtual particles arises in the perturbation theory of quantum field theory, an approximation scheme in which interactions (in essence, forces) between actual particles are calculated in terms of exchanges of virtual particles. Such calculations are often performed using schematic representations known as Feynman diagrams, in which virtual particles appear as internal lines. By expressing the interaction in terms of the exchange of a virtual particle with four-momentum , where is given by the difference between the four-momenta of the particles entering and leaving the interaction vertex, "both momentum and energy are conserved at the interaction vertices" of the Feynman diagram.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '192316',
'title': 'Virtual particle',
'section': 'Section::::Properties.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'There are two principal ways in which the notion of virtual particles appears in modern physics. They appear as intermediate terms in Feynman diagrams; that is, as terms in a perturbative calculation. They also appear as an infinite set of states to be summed or integrated over in the calculation of a semi-non-perturbative effect. In the latter case, it is sometimes said that virtual particles contribute to a mechanism that mediates the effect, or that the effect occurs through the virtual particles.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '192316',
'title': 'Virtual particle',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The term is somewhat loose and vaguely defined, in that it refers to the view that the world is made up of "real particles": it is not; rather, "real particles" are better understood to be excitations of the underlying quantum fields. Virtual particles are also excitations of the underlying fields, but are "temporary" in the sense that they appear in calculations of interactions, but never as asymptotic states or indices to the scattering matrix. The accuracy and use of virtual particles in calculations is firmly established, but as they cannot be detected in experiments, deciding how to precisely describe them is a topic of debate.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '192316',
'title': 'Virtual particle',
'section': 'Section::::Properties.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'Written in the usual mathematical notations, in the equations of physics, there is no mark of the distinction between virtual and actual particles. The amplitude that a virtual particle exists interferes with the amplitude for its non-existence, whereas for an actual particle the cases of existence and non-existence cease to be coherent with each other and do not interfere any more. In the quantum field theory view, actual particles are viewed as being detectable excitations of underlying quantum fields. Virtual particles are also viewed as excitations of the underlying fields, but appear only as forces, not as detectable particles. They are "temporary" in the sense that they appear in calculations, but are not detected as single particles. Thus, in mathematical terms, they never appear as indices to the scattering matrix, which is to say, they never appear as the observable inputs and outputs of the physical process being modelled.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'virtual particles please.',
'selftext': 'I understand the basic concept behind them but would like to know more.',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Virtual particles are particles that *cannot* be measured but *must* exist. Take, for example, two electrons interacting with each other. Because they have the same charge, they will repel each other. How do they "know" they have the same charge? How do they "know" that there\'s another electron nearby repelling them? They share a photon.\n\nThe photon carries the electromagnetic force between the two electrons, transferring momentum between them and sharing the information to each of them that they exist. That photon has to be there. That photon is how the electrons communicate - it\'s how any charged particles communicate. That photon is also undetectable.\n\nYou detect photons by having them interact with charged particles. But the photon is already interacting with two charged particles. It can\'t make a pitstop through your detector. If it gets detected, it\'s absorbed, and the information it was carrying between the two electrons is gone. It\'s not like you "aren\'t allowed" to detect that photon, you just *can\'t*. As far as anything other than the two electrons is concerned, the photon doesn\'t exist. And in a shaky kind of way, it really doesn\'t exist. Does something exist if you can\'t measure it?\n\nThe math that describes the interactions of particles says that the virtual particle exists. It has to. But it only exists long enough for the math to work.\n\nThey can be visualized by [Feynman Diagrams](_URL_0_), which show the interaction of particles. This one shows two electrons coming near each other, exchanging a virtual photon, and then leaving the interaction. The squiggly line is the virtual photon. Notice that the photon doesn\'t leave the diagram. It goes from one electron to the other, but it doesn\'t go in or out. It can\'t. If it did, it could be absorbed and detected somewhere else. Anything in the middle of a Feynman Diagram like that is a virtual particle.\n\nAlso worth noting slash just kind of neat: virtual particles don\'t just go from one place to another or "exist" in a continuous, rational kind of way. That virtual photon might spontaneously become an electron-positron pair, and then those will annihilate each other again to become the photon. The virtual photon can take literally any possible path through space to get from one electron to another. And an electron can spontaneously emit a virtual photon and then reabsorb it again. Any of those things can happen any number of times, and it doesn\'t change the outcome of the interaction between the original two electrons which are the real particles. Anything in-between is virtual.',
'A key point I see missing in many of these responses: these particles can exist on account of Heisenburg\'s uncertainty principle (a derivative of the approximation of all particles as wave functions). \n\nThe lesser known relationship ΔΕΔt < = hbar/2 (the uncertainty in the energy of the particle times the uncertainty of the duration of this particle is less than or equal to planck\'s constant divided by 4π, which can be derived from the more familiar ΔpΔx < =hbar/2) provides a means for these to exist:\n\nif we consider the rest mass (and "kinetic" energy, but assuming they are not moving only the rest mass needs to be taken into account) of the virtual particle to be the uncertainty in the energy (ΔE), then these particles can exist for a certain uncertainty of time Δt such that the product of these two is less than or equal to hbar/2.\n\nsources: krane "modern physics" (you can probably find a pdf of it online), intro modern physics class'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7fh92g',
'query': 'virtual particles please.',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '11727583',
'title': 'Macropod hybrid',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Some hybrids between similar species have been achieved by housing males of one species and females of the other together to limit the choice of mate. To create a "natural" macropod hybrid, young animals of one species have been transferred to the pouch of another so as to imprint into them the other species. In-vitro fertilization has also been used and the fertilized egg implanted into a female of either species.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24884',
'title': 'Peppered moth',
'section': 'Section::::Polymorphism.:Introduction on forms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': "By contrast, different subspecies of the same species can theoretically interbreed with one another and will produce fully fertile and healthy offspring, but in practice do not, as they live in different regions or reproduce in different seasons. Full-fledged species are either unable to produce fertile and healthy offspring, or do not recognize each other's courtship signals, or both.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19544',
'title': 'Microevolution',
'section': 'Section::::Four processes.:Gene flow.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 836,
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'passage_text': 'Depending on how far two species have diverged since their most recent common ancestor, it may still be possible for them to produce offspring, as with horses and donkeys mating to produce mules. Such hybrids are generally infertile, due to the two different sets of chromosomes being unable to pair up during meiosis. In this case, closely related species may regularly interbreed, but hybrids will be selected against and the species will remain distinct. However, viable hybrids are occasionally formed and these new species can either have properties intermediate between their parent species, or possess a totally new phenotype. The importance of hybridization in creating new species of animals is unclear, although cases have been seen in many types of animals, with the gray tree frog being a particularly well-studied example.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '825332',
'title': 'Purebred',
'section': 'Section::::Wild species, landraces, and purebred species.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
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'end_paragraph_id': 33,
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'passage_text': 'Breeders of purebred domesticated species discourage crossbreeding with wild species, unless a deliberate decision is made to incorporate a trait of a wild ancestor back into a given breed or strain. Wild populations of animals and plants have evolved naturally over millions of years through a process of natural selection in contrast to human controlled Selective breeding or artificial selection for desirable traits from the human point of view. Normally, these two methods of reproduction operate independently of one another. However, an intermediate form of selective breeding, wherein animals or plants are bred by humans, but with an eye to adaptation to natural region-specific conditions and an acceptance of natural selection to weed out undesirable traits, created many ancient domesticated breeds or types now known as landraces.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21780446',
'title': 'Species',
'section': "Section::::The species problem.:When Mayr's concept breaks down.\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 55,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 55,
'end_character': 231,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- When scientists do not know whether two morphologically similar groups of organisms are capable of interbreeding; this is the case with all extinct life-forms in palaeontology, as breeding experiments are not possible.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1787105',
'title': 'Animal sexual behaviour',
'section': 'Section::::Types of sexual behaviour.:Reproductive sexual behaviour.:Others.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 95,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 95,
'end_character': 317,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Interbreeding: Hybrid offspring can result from the mating of two organisms of distinct but closely related parent species, although the resulting offspring is not always fertile. According to Alfred Kinsey, genetic studies on wild animal populations have shown a "large number" of inter-species hybrids.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '54746',
'title': 'Incest taboo',
'section': 'Section::::Source of the taboo.:Limits to biological evolution of taboo.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 1096,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'While it is theoretically possible that natural selection may, under certain genetic circumstances, select for individuals that instinctively avoid mating with (close) relatives, biological evolution cannot select for punishing others for incest, since even genetically weakened, inbred individuals are better watchposts against predators than none at all, and weak individuals are useful for the stronger individuals in the group as looking out for predators without being able to seriously compete with the stronger individuals. Punishing both parties in an incestous relation cannot even be beneficial for the genes of individuals punishing a somewhat more distant relative for mating with a closer relative, since punishing the closer relative as well is counterproductive to any function of protecting the closer relative and the health of its offspring (in a context where predation and starvation are significant factors, as opposed to a rich welfare state). Genetic sexual attraction theory is also incompatible with the theory of smell being a significant factor in avoiding inbreeding.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why cannot there ever be a successful breeding between a human being and another animal?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Huge over simplification; when you make a baby, its DNA comes equally from the mom and the dad. The DNA is a big set of building instructions, and a playbook of how to react to situations. For humans, we get every odd page from Mom, and even pages from Dad. Most of the time, the instructions still make sense. Chimeras, like mules, ligers, and tilons have building instructions close enough that it doesn't die instantly. \n\nImagine trying to assemble an F35, if the guide book has the instructions for an F16 in English in the evens, and an s300 in Swahili on the odd pages. \n\nYou might get somewhere, but will it fly?",
'Did you try ALL of the animals?',
"Because, the mechanics of genetics have some clear and simple nuances to prevent this from happening, so divergence of inherited traits doesn't result in cronenburg babies. These are long evolved over time.\n In short, this is complex life forms were talking about, Not a piers Anthony novel",
"All questions must begin with “ELI5”. That's in the sidebar."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'bvjjbh',
'query': 'why cannot there ever be a successful breeding between a human being and another animal?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '12950',
'title': 'Glucose',
'section': 'Section::::Pathology.:Diabetes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 65,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "Diabetes is a metabolic disorder where the body is unable to regulate levels of glucose in the blood either because of a lack of insulin in the body or the failure, by cells in the body, to respond properly to insulin. Each of these situations can be caused by persistently high elevations of blood glucose levels, through pancreatic burnout and insulin resistance. The pancreas is the organ responsible for the secretion of the hormones insulin and glucagon. Insulin is a hormone that regulates glucose levels, allowing the body's cells to absorb and use glucose. Without it, glucose cannot enter the cell and therefore cannot be used as fuel for the body's functions. If the pancreas is exposed to persistently high elevations of blood glucose levels, the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas could be damaged, causing a lack of insulin in the body. Insulin resistance occurs when the pancreas tries to produce more and more insulin in response to persistently elevated blood glucose levels. Eventually, the rest of the body becomes resistant to the insulin that the pancreas is producing, thereby requiring more insulin to achieve the same blood glucose-lowering effect, and forcing the pancreas to produce even more insulin to compete with the resistance. This negative spiral contributes to pancreatic burnout, and the disease progression of diabetes.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30035714',
'title': 'Breath diagnostics',
'section': 'Section::::Breath Acetone for Diabetes Diagnosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Diabetes mellitus can be subdivided into; type I diabetes, where the body does not produce insulin, the hormone which facilitates the uptake of glucose by cells; and type II diabetes, where the body becomes resistant to insulin, thus inhibiting the extent of glucose usage. In each case, the ineffective use of glucose as a source of energy leads to the subsequent breakdown of fatty acids to compensate. This consumption of fatty acids by ketosis, produces acetone which is excreted into the blood, before equilibrating with air in the lungs. Diabetes may therefore be characterised by elevated breath acetone levels.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40017873',
'title': 'Diabetes',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 69,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 69,
'end_character': 344,
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'passage_text': 'Insulin is the principal hormone that regulates the uptake of glucose from the blood into most cells of the body, especially liver, adipose tissue and muscle, except smooth muscle, in which insulin acts via the IGF-1. Therefore, deficiency of insulin or the insensitivity of its receptors play a central role in all forms of diabetes mellitus.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56549',
'title': 'Beta cell',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical significance.:Type 1 Diabetes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 818,
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'passage_text': "Type 1 diabetes mellitus, also known as insulin dependent diabetes, is believed to be caused by an auto-immune mediated destruction of the insulin producing beta cells in the body. The destruction of these cells reduces the body's ability to respond to glucose levels in the body, therefore making it nearly impossible to properly regulate glucose and glucagon levels in the bloodstream. The body destroys 70–80% of beta cells, leaving only 20–30% of functioning cells. This can cause the patient to experience hyperglycemia, which leads to other adverse short-term and long-term conditions. The symptoms of diabetes can potentially be controlled with methods such as regular doses of insulin and sustaining a proper diet. However, these methods can be tedious and cumbersome to continuously perform on a daily basis.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18113832',
'title': 'Diabetic cardiomyopathy',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.:Microangiopathy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 457,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Over the years, several hypotheses were postulated to explain the endothelial dysfunction observed in diabetes. It was hypothesized that the extracellular hyperglycemia leads to an intracellular hyperglycemia in cells unable to regulate their glucose uptake, most predominantly, endothelial cells. Indeed, while hepatocytes and myocytes have mechanisms allowing them to internalize their glucose transporter, endothelial cells do not possess this ability. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '68349',
'title': 'HFE hereditary haemochromatosis',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.:End-organ damage.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 41,
'end_character': 298,
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'passage_text': 'The pancreas, which also stores iron, is very important in the body’s mechanisms for sugar metabolism. Diabetes affects the way the body uses blood sugar (glucose). Diabetes is, in turn, the leading cause of new blindness in adults and may be involved in kidney failure and cardiovascular disease.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33926436',
'title': 'Sleep and metabolism',
'section': 'Section::::Sleep deprivation and Type 2 diabetes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 233,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Baseline levels of insulin do not signal muscle and fat cells to absorb glucose. When glucose levels are elevated, the pancreas responds by releasing insulin. Blood sugar will then rapidly drop. This can progress to type 2 diabetes.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does diabetes work on a cellular level?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Really rough and basic: imagine your cell has a lock on it. Insulin is the key to open that lock. Depending on whether you have Type 1 (little to no insulin production) or type 2 (insulin cannot recognize the key hole and thus can’t let the sugar (glucose) into the cell), the sugar builds up in your blood and causes damage to your blood vessels and organs.The body does what it can to remove the excess sugar through your urine etc. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'as3glk',
'query': 'how does diabetes work on a cellular level?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '34439',
'title': 'Zoonosis',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Pets.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
'end_character': 802,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Pets can transmit a number of diseases. Dogs and cats are routinely vaccinated against rabies. Pets can also transmit ringworm and "Giardia", which are endemic in both non-human animal and human populations. Toxoplasmosis is a common infection of cats; in humans it is a mild disease although it can be dangerous to pregnant women. Dirofilariasis is caused by "Dirofilaria immitis" through mosquitoes infected by mammals like dogs and cats. Cat-scratch disease is caused by "Bartonella henselae" and "Bartonella quintana" from fleas which are endemic in cats. Toxocariasis is infection of humans of any of species of roundworm, including species specific to the dog ("Toxocara canis)" or the cat ("Toxocara cati"). Cryptosporidiosis\xa0can be spread to humans from pet lizards, such as the leopard gecko.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16176078',
'title': 'Cat health',
'section': 'Section::::Diseases.:Genetic diseases.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
'end_character': 307,
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'passage_text': "Domestic cats are affected by over 250 naturally occurring hereditary disorders, many of which are similar to those in humans, such as diabetes, hemophilia and Tay–Sachs disease. For example, Abyssinian cat's pedigree contains a genetic mutation that causes retinitis pigmentosa, which also affects humans.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26083190',
'title': 'Kimimon',
'section': 'Section::::Features.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 245,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Medicine – The pets can die if their health status deteriorates due to neglect in its happiness, hunger, and cleanliness levels. At the Pharmacy, players have the option to purchase medicine which helps increase their health levels.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '219640',
'title': 'Animal husbandry',
'section': 'Section::::Husbandry.:Animal health.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 50,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 50,
'end_character': 249,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Animals are susceptible to a number of diseases and conditions that may affect their health. Some, like classical swine fever and scrapie are specific to one type of stock, while others, like foot-and-mouth disease affect all cloven-hoofed animals.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16482656',
'title': 'Pawly Pets: My Animal Hospital',
'section': 'Section::::Synopsis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 1260,
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'passage_text': "Many of the animals only have minor problems, such as fleas or long claws, etc. Others, however, will have more major problems, things like heart disease or poisoning. These animals will need to stay in the hands of the player until they can be released (go back home) which requires the player to look after them for a few days. Depending on the type of problem they have, they may stay in the hospital for a short or long period of time (e.g. an animal with toothache would only have to stay for one day whereas an animal with heart disease would have to stay for four days.) While looking after them, you will have to keep an eye on their health status. If their health gets too low, they will be taken to somewhere else, and the player's reputation will go down. The player will need to feed the animals, by buying food from a shop. This food comes in three different portions; normal feed, premium feed and super premium feed. The normal feed is the cheapest in the shop. The player will also need to play with, pet and give follow up treatment to the pets when necessary. Without these things, the animal's health will go down. Also, if the player diagnoses the pet incorrectly, he/she will need to do it again until the problem is correctly identified.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55937596',
'title': 'Pet policy in public housing estates in Hong Kong',
'section': 'Section::::Policy comparison.:Taiwan.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 109,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 109,
'end_character': 333,
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'passage_text': 'However, in 2014, pets started to be allowed on the condition that the pets are not dangerous and would not bark, cause smell and urinate. If a pet owner is reported for noise nuisance, failure to clean up the urine of pets and causing injury to other residents for 3 times, then the tenancy of National Housing would be terminated.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '512274',
'title': 'Hypercalcaemia',
'section': 'Section::::Other animals.:Household pets.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 93,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 93,
'end_character': 1120,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Household pets such as dogs and cats are found to develop hypercalcemia. It is less common in cats, and many feline cases are idiopathic. In dogs, lymphosarcoma, addison’s disease, primary hyperparathyroidism, and chronic renal failure are the main causes of hypercalcemia, but there are also environmental causes usually unique to indoor pets. Ingestion of small amounts of calcipotriene found in psoriasis cream can be fatal to a pet. Calcipotriene causes a rapid rise in calcium ion levels. Calcium ion levels can remain high for weeks if untreated and lead to an array of medical issues. There are also cases of hypercalcemia reported due to dogs ingesting rodenticides containing a chemical similar to calcipotriene found in psoriasis cream. Additionally, ingestion of household plants is a cause of hypercalcemia. Plants such as "Cestrum diurnum", and "Solanum malacoxylon" contain ergocalciferol or cholecalciferol which cause the onset of hypercalcemia. Consuming small amounts of these plants can be fatal to pets. Observable symptoms may develop such as polydipsia, polyuria, extreme fatigue, or constipation.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Can you get your pets sick, or vice versa?',
'selftext': "We were supposed to take home a new kitten tonight, but my son was sick (Possibly strep. Negative on the quick strep test but the doctor wanted to do a culture because the symptoms say strep.) So we had to reschedule. Between orange juice and ibuprofen, my son asked if he could get the kitten sick. I honestly don't know the answer. Can pets catch the common cold? What other illnesses can pets and humans share? Do I have to worry about his kitten getting strep throat?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Sometimes. \n\nDifferent animals and humans have different bacteria and viruses that can get them sick. Some can affect both, while others only one. \n\nMost only affect one. I believe strep throat can be passed to cats though. \n\nMost diseases that can spread between animals and humans are larger parasites though. This is because they live in the environment of our flesh, with less specialization needed. Bacteria and viruses use our cells to help them grow, where as parasites are more like a bug or animal eating the meat to grow.',
'You can definitely get your pets sick under at least one circumstance:\n\n- If you have rabies, and you bite your pet.',
'There are some diseases that can spread from animals to humans, but many can\'t. Diseases that do jump between us and animals are known as "zoonotic diseases". Which disease can jump between species is often quite specific. Flu, for example, can infect pigs and birds as well as humans easily but is unlikely to be transmitted to cats. Ebola jumps from monkeys to humans. AIDS evolved from a simian (monkey) virus and then made humans their host. The list of known zoonotic diseases is pretty long.',
"Sometimes, but only with specific illnesses. Diseases that can pass between humans and animals are called zoonitic diseases, but most common diseases that humans get can't be passed to animals. It's usually the animals that get *us* sick. Infectious diseases tend to be very specialized in terms of what organisms they can infect, so the majority of diseases can't cross species. That means cats and dogs can't get the flu or a human cold (cats and dogs can get colds, but it's a different virus that humans can't get). Pets can pass some diseases to humans like rabies and certain parasites, but they can't give us common pet diseases like parvo in dogs or calcivirus in cats. Rest easy knowing that you can bring your kitten home and your son can't get it sick."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'es4g5q',
'query': 'can you get your pets sick, or vice versa?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1832184',
'title': 'MacConkey agar',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Mucoid colonies.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 253,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Some organisms, especially "Klebsiella" and "Enterobacter", produce mucoid colonies which appear very moist and sticky. This phenomenon happens because the organism is producing a capsule, which is predominantly made from the lactose sugar in the agar.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44315347',
'title': 'Sticky Sticky',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': '"Sticky Sticky" is a song by South Korean girl group Hello Venus. It was released on November 6, 2014 under Fantagio and is the group\'s fourth single overall. It is the first release to feature new members Seoyoung and Yeoreum following the departures of Yooara and Yoonjo after Pledis Entertainment and Fantagio had ended their partnership in July 2014.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '207336',
'title': 'Salivary gland',
'section': 'Section::::Function.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 59,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 59,
'end_character': 248,
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'passage_text': 'Saliva acts as a solvent in which solid particles can dissolve in and enter the taste buds through oral mucosa located on the tongue. These taste buds are found within foliate and circumvallate papillae, where minor salivary glands secrete saliva.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '204420',
'title': 'Saliva',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 316,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Saliva is an extracellular fluid produced and secreted by salivary glands in the mouth. In humans, saliva is 99.5% water plus electrolytes, mucus, white blood cells, epithelial cells (from which DNA can be extracted), enzymes (such as amylase and lipase), antimicrobial agents such as secretory IgA, and lysozymes. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '207336',
'title': 'Salivary gland',
'section': 'Section::::Function.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 44,
'end_character': 250,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Saliva consists of proteins (for example; mucins) that lubricate and protect both the soft and hard tissues of the oral cavity. Mucins are the principal organic constituents of mucus, the slimy visco-elastic material that coats all mucosal surfaces.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2108774',
'title': 'Subcloning',
'section': 'Section::::Example case: bacterial plasmid subcloning.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 260,
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'passage_text': 'The digest products, now containing compatible sticky ends with each other (but incompatible sticky ends with themselves) are subjected to ligation, creating a new plasmid which contains the background elements of the original plasmid with a different insert.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20630639',
'title': 'Oral ecology',
'section': 'Section::::Saliva.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 615,
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'passage_text': 'The main function of saliva is to flush out all of the micro-organisms that could potentially threaten our health. The flow of saliva constantly bathes the mouth and detaches all micro-organisms that are not already firmly attached to a surface. This makes it difficult for bacteria to adhere to surfaces to even begin to form biofilms. Many harmful micro-organisms, therefore, are unable to attach quick enough to a surface before they are caught in saliva and swallowed. Although saliva does a lot to keep our bodies healthy, it cannot completely keep all bacteria from adhering to tooth, tongue or gum surfaces.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does saliva become "sticky" sometimes?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Vape liquids are literally vaporized sugar water with flavors/nicotine.\n\nIt's just sugar alcohols and water. Also any kind of respiratory irritant will cause a bodily response and increases mucus secretion.",
"People aren't meant to inhale irritants. When we do our airways will increase mucosal output as part of our body's immune response. Mucous can be watery and thin or thicker. Thicker mucous is generally meant to trap any offending bacteria or foreign body to help us cough it up."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'fcvbgs',
'query': 'how does saliva become "sticky" sometimes?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '45437860',
'title': 'Xylocopa nasalis',
'section': 'Section::::Behavior.:Communication.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
'end_character': 219,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Like almost all other bee species, "X. nasalis" communicates mainly by dancing, which can communicate information to nearby bees. Information can include the location of provisions, danger warnings, and mating rituals.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15819274',
'title': 'Bombus lapidarius',
'section': 'Section::::Behavior.:Pheromones.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 362,
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'passage_text': 'Chemicals are often emitted from the bees via the cephalic labial gland, called pheromones. "B. lapidarius" pheromones are believed to be “precopulatory signals”, or are used in an attempt to attract mates. These secreted signals are species-specific. These pheromones are often copied by cuckoo species, described in further detail in the parasite subsection. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4654',
'title': 'Bee',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 662,
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'passage_text': 'A bee has a pair of large compound eyes which cover much of the surface of the head. Between and above these are three small simple eyes (ocelli) which provide information for the bee on light intensity. The antennae usually have thirteen segments in males and twelve in females and are geniculate, having an elbow joint part way along. They house large numbers of sense organs that can detect touch (mechanoreceptors), smell and taste, and small, hairlike mechanoreceptors that can detect air movement so as to "hear" sounds. The mouthparts are adapted for both chewing and sucking by having both a pair of mandibles and a long proboscis for sucking up nectar.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1166387',
'title': 'Electroreception',
'section': 'Section::::Examples.:Bees.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
'end_character': 406,
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'passage_text': "Animals detect electric fields through insulating air by mechano-reception, not electroreception. Bees sense the electric field changes via the Johnston's organs in their antennae and possibly other mechano-receptors. They distinguish different temporal patterns and learn them. During the waggle dance, honeybees appear to use the electric field emanating from the dancing bee for distance communication.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33318412',
'title': 'Hymenoptera training',
'section': 'Section::::Odour detection.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 608,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Trained hymenopterans have been shown to successfully detect explosive materials including TNT, Semtex, and C-4 as well as gunpowder and propellants. Wasps can be trained to detect the early signs of fungal disease on crops and may have medicinal value, identifying people with cancer just by being exposed to their breath. Bees have been shown to detect and respond to more than 60 different odours including methamphetamine, uranium, and tuberculosis. They have been used to detect lung and skin cancers, diabetes, and to confirm pregnancy. It is not known if they can detect potential seizures in humans.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '49394536',
'title': 'Precision beekeeping',
'section': 'Section::::Bee colony monitoring.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 651,
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'passage_text': 'Audio signals and audio processing techniques can be applied to estimate bee behaviour. Many devices and methods have been developed for sound analysis but they are not widely applied in industrial beekeeping. So far, the solutions seem to work only in the hands of researchers. The reason for this may be the large stochastic component in the buzz of a colony and the complexity of sound interpretation. As well means of a simple transducer secured to the outside wall of a hive, a set of statistically independent instantaneous vibration signals of honey bees can be identified and monitored in time using a fully automated and non-invasive method.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '588615',
'title': 'Ant colony optimization algorithms',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.:Artificial pheromone system.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 417,
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'passage_text': 'bees, ants and termites; both for inter-agent and agent-swarm communications. Due to its feasibility, artificial pheromones have been adopted in multi-robot and swarm robotic systems. Pheromone-based communication was implemented by different means such as chemical or physical (RFID tags, light, sound) ways. However, those implementations were not able to replicate all the aspects of pheromones as seen in nature.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Can Bees sense any ''human-made'' signals such as Bluetooth or Wi-Fi?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['I don’t know what type of waves they can detect, but is it possible he was just responding to the vibrations of your head phones? Or perhaps his hearing is better than ours, so he could hear the music?',
'Do you wear hairspray? From my personal experience they seem to really like that stuff.',
"There does seem to be some suggestion that bees can detect (or at least are mildly affected by) radio waves. [This website](_URL_0_) compiles a large number of studies that have looked into effects of electromagnetic fields, and includes several studies on bees if you scroll down a bit. Some of these studies seem much more useful than others though, and I'd recommend actually looking at the primary material rather than just trusting the synopses on that page, which may be biased."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'bwr0yy',
'query': "can bees sense any ''human-made'' signals such as bluetooth or wi-fi?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '262733',
'title': 'Dynamic range compression',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Marketing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 53,
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'passage_text': 'Most television commercials are heavily compressed (typically to a dynamic range of no more than 3\xa0dB) to achieve near-maximum perceived loudness while staying within permissible limits. This causes a problem that TV viewers often notice: when a station switches from minimally compressed program material to a heavily compressed commercial, the volume sometimes seems to increase dramatically. Peak loudness might be the same—meeting the letter of the law—but high compression puts much more of the audio in the commercial at close to the maximum allowable, making the commercial seem much louder.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58416132',
'title': 'TV advertisements by country',
'section': 'Section::::United States of America.:Popularity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'Despite the popularity of some advertisements, many consider them to be an annoyance for a number of reasons. The main reason may be that the sound volume of advertisements tends to be higher (and in some cases much higher) than that of regular programming. The United States Congress passed a bill on September 30, 2010, called the CALM Act, to reduce the sound volume of advertisements, and loudness rules set by the FCC are effective as of December 13, 2012. In the UK, the Broadcast Committee of Advertising Practice has a similar regulation. The increasing number of advertisements, as well as overplaying of the same advertisement, are secondary annoyance factors. A third might be that television is currently the main medium to advertise, prompting advertising campaigns by everyone from cell-phone companies, political campaigns, fast food restaurants, to local businesses, and small businesses, prompting longer commercial breaks. Another reason is that advertisements often cut into certain parts in the regular programming that are either climaxes of the plot or a major turning point in the show, which many people find exciting or entertaining to watch.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '450085',
'title': 'Dolby Laboratories',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'On January 8, 2007, Dolby announced the arrival of Dolby Volume at the International Consumer Electronics Show. It enables users to maintain a steady volume while switching through channels or program elements (i.e., loud TV commercials).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18050150',
'title': 'Commercial Advertisement Loudness Mitigation Act',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The Commercial Advertisement Loudness Mitigation Act (/) (CALM Act) requires the U.S. Federal Communications Commission to bar the audio of TV commercials from being broadcast louder than the TV program material they accompany by requiring all "multichannel video programming" distributors to implement the "Techniques for Establishing and Maintaining Audio Loudness for Digital Television" issued by the international industry group Advanced Television Systems Committee. The final bill was passed on September 29, 2010.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14629467',
'title': 'AccuRadio',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': "All of AccuRadio's audio channels (except those which are comedy-focused) provide continuous music streaming with no talk, though they do air occasional commercials. While a song is playing, album cover, artist, song and album or mixtape information appears on screen. AccuRadio programmers select the music based on what they think is perfect to be broadcast on the air and the database that's available to them..\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '262733',
'title': 'Dynamic range compression',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Broadcasting.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
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'passage_text': 'As was alluded to above, the use of compressors to boost perceived volume is a favorite trick of broadcasters who want their station to sound "louder" at the same volume than comparable stations on the dial. The effect is to make the more heavily compressed station "jump out" at the listener at a given volume setting.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21123733',
'title': 'Godzilla vs. Charles Barkley',
'section': 'Section::::Making of the commercial.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'This commercial was the first television commercial to ever utilize 3D Audio. The Barnaby microphone invented by Jeff Gold of 3D.Audio was used by Jeff Roth of Focused Audio to create a basketball dribbling sound that would literally jump out of the speakers. \n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why can the sound volume of commercials on internet TV be double the actual show's volume?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It is illegal in the USA for broadcasters, cable, and satellite providers to have louder commercials. The [CALM Act](_URL_1_) lays out procedures which must be followed. One problem is that some programs are 30 minute infomercials while the CALM Act applies only to commercials. You should register complaints at:\n\n_URL_0_',
'The commercials are allowed to be as loud as the shows. That means if the show has a gunshot, or an explosion, or a big dramatic music swell, then the commercial is allowed to be as loud as that. Thing is, the loudest sound in the show lasts for a few seconds at most, whereas the volume in the commercial is as high as that for the whole 30 seconds.',
'They compress the sound, making everything sound as loud as the maximum volume in a clip. \n\nUsually there are dynamics in a song or any audio clip. Some parts are played lower than others. Compression makes everything equally loud, removing dynamics but increasing the overall loudness. ',
"This was also the case on regular TV until the late '90s. Congress passed a law banning the practice. AFAIK the internet is under no such restrictions.\n\nWrite your Congressmonster and ask them to put forward a bill including internet content be included in the original bill. Not that it's a top-tier item at the moment, but it would be a relatively simple bill even in this period of rather epic inanity."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '94veki',
'query': "why can the sound volume of commercials on internet tv be double the actual show's volume?",
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '499545',
'title': 'Xerography',
'section': 'Section::::Uses in animation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
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'passage_text': 'Ub Iwerks adapted xerography to eliminate the hand-inking stage in the animation process by printing the animator\'s drawings directly to the cels. The first animated feature film to use this process was "One Hundred and One Dalmatians" (1961), although the technique was already tested in "Sleeping Beauty", released two years earlier. At first, only black lines were possible, but in the 1980s, colored lines were introduced and used in animated features like "The Secret of NIMH".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8329897',
'title': 'Théâtre Optique',
'section': 'Section::::Legacy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
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'passage_text': 'The animated segment in Winsor McCay\'s "Little Nemo" (1911) was probably the first animation to use more hand-drawn images than the 700 images of Reynaud\'s "Un Bon Bock". While most early animations were black and white, a version of "Little Nemo" was hand-colored by McCay. Winsor McCay also used short loops of repeated images in several films, which is quite similar to Reynaud\'s technique of moving the film back and forth during projection.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '498464',
'title': 'Traditional animation',
'section': 'Section::::Techniques.:Xerography.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 58,
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'passage_text': 'Applied to animation by Ub Iwerks at the Walt Disney studio during the late 1950s, the electrostatic copying technique called xerography allowed the drawings to be copied directly onto the cels, eliminating much of the "inking" portion of the ink-and-paint process. This saved time and money, and it also made it possible to put in more details and to control the size of the xeroxed objects and characters (this replaced the little known, and seldom used, photographic lines technique at Disney, used to reduce the size of animation when needed). At first, it resulted in a more sketchy look, but the technique was improved upon over time.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '593',
'title': 'Animation',
'section': 'Section::::Techniques.:Traditional animation.\n',
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'passage_text': "Traditional animation (also called cel animation or hand-drawn animation) was the process used for most animated films of the 20th century. The individual frames of a traditionally animated film are photographs of drawings, first drawn on paper. To create the illusion of movement, each drawing differs slightly from the one before it. The animators' drawings are traced or photocopied onto transparent acetate sheets called cels, which are filled in with paints in assigned colors or tones on the side opposite the line drawings. The completed character cels are photographed one-by-one against a painted background by a rostrum camera onto motion picture film.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27608',
'title': 'Science fiction on television',
'section': 'Section::::Science fiction television production process and methods.:Animation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'Originally, animation was all hand-drawn by artists, though in the 1980s, beginning with "Captain Power", computers began to automate the task of creating repeated images; by the 1990s, hand-drawn animation became defunct.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '49708991',
'title': 'Anne Jolliffe',
'section': 'Section::::Career.\n',
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'passage_text': 'While technologies were replacing the traditional 2D hand-drawn animation in the 20th century, Jolliffe was not convinced that it could overshadow the craft completely. Hand-drawn animation is still her preference over computerized animation. She believed computers “can’t fully convey the drama of animation”.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1117314',
'title': 'Cel',
'section': 'Section::::Technique.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The outline of the images are drawn on the front of the cel while colors are painted on the back to eliminate brushstrokes. Traditionally, the outlines were hand-inked but since the 1960s they are almost exclusively xerographed on. Another important breakthrough in cel animation was the development of the Animation Photo Transfer Process, first seen in "The Black Cauldron", released in 1985.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How did old hand-drawn animation achieve such consistent color?',
'selftext': 'Mainly wondering how they avoided discoloration or the presence of brushstrokes. Thanks!',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Speed and skill. Each pencil drawing by an animator was traced in ink on to a transparent sheet. Once the ink dried it was sent to painting where the paint was applied to the BACK of the transparent film. Each section of color had to be completed quickly while the paint was still very wet so it would show no brushstrokes or the cel was ruined, but going outside the lines would also ruin a cel, as even though it would not obscure the line, it would still show the color in the next section over.\n\nIn the golden age of Disney the ink and paint department was a fleet women who's only job was to trace or paint. The inking girls were considered to be a higher caliber than the painting girls, as their work required a more steady hand, but the painting girls were amazing in their own right. One of the greatest accomplishments of that department was maintaining consistency in color and positioning on Snow White's blushed cheeks, which were done with *actual blush.* The effect was so time consuming it was never used again. They stuck to solid colors from then on out.\n\nEdit: I have been corrected below. The use of actual blush is an urban legend. The effect was achieved no less amazingly with a dye applied to each cel by a very talented woman from inking named Helen Ogger. See the post correcting me below for more detail.",
'There were whole departments dedicated to mixing the paints, doing nothing but ensuring every batch of colour matched every other. Cosgrove Hall had a pot of paint simply called "DM\'s Nose", used also for Duckula\'s tongue.',
'The paint is paint- as long as you have it thick enough to be opaque, it looks the same if you apply extra anywhere. This was also necessary because it was layered over a background. Anything not opaque would be partially transparent when laid over the background. So it had to be opaque\n\nKeeping the paint look *identical* was a big thing.\n\nThe backgrounds were often watercolor. It was not possible to anything other than scroll it around, it must be static. Because you can\'t repaint animation cells in watercolor with any consistency.\n\nThus the Scooby Doo "secret door" or "something hiding behind a bush" being so obvious. If it opened or the bush shakes, that\'s animation so it has to be painted cells laid on a static watercolor background.',
"Unrelated to actual painting per se, but not every color on the cel was redrawn. They'd use layers much like Photoshop and sometimes just change the head that moved slightly while using the rest of the drawing/painting from the previous cel. It's also why lots of cartoon characters wore ties.",
"Finally something I can answer! I have studied under a traditional animation cel-painter that worked on Disney and Bluth films, I can give some background. When studios wanted to get colors to always match up, there were whole groups of people that spend all day being color scientists. They do lots of research and science to make sure that the paint and colors are always the same by mixing chemicals and making sure to keep the recipe exact every time. When you are painting an animation cel, the technique is to let the blobs of wet paint skim across the plastic. Technically, the brush should never sweep across the surface of the cel to make a brushstroke, the brush is there mainly to push the blobs paint around. Think of it like you are pushing a drop of water softly across a tabletop, you run your brush against the surface of the drop to spread it gently until you finish filling the section you need. I'm not sure how to explain it more, it's a lot easier to do a demo but hopefully that helps!",
"My godfather actually worked as a color specialist in a small animation studio in Lithuania during 80s. He told me the stories how he spent countless days mixing paint so it would be consistent. Writing down the exact numbers of how much of every color he used to create one or another shade of required color. Also he did mess up couple of times, just by adding couple drops more than needed. He said that in hand drawn animation it's VERY easy to notice even the slightest change in the shade of the colour when watching the final result",
'I can’t speak for the golden age of hand drawn animation, but by the time I arrived in Los Angeles there was a shop called ‘Cartoon Color’ that sold animation supplies, including a spectrum of premixed colors that were renowned for their consistency.\n\nI believe the store—now closed—was in Culver City. There appears to be a moribund website associated with them as well.',
"If I'm not mistaken, Adam Savage (Mythbusters, [_URL_0_](https://_URL_0_), former ILM) has discussed this before and recalled the days where he would have to paint the different layers on the cell and work out what colour it would be based on where it is on the stack. The further down, the more the colour changed, so they'd need to know how many layers the image was and then adjust each layer to colour correct for it.",
"Excellent question, OP. Anecdotally, years ago (I'm in my 50's), I took a basic animation class taught by a guy who worked on Sleeping Beauty. He was the biggest ass I've ever met, and I don't think he actually did anything but tell (with obvious nostalgia) stories of the male Disney animators getting into friendly fistfights after work, playing pranks on each other, or making fun of any woman dumb enough to want to do what they did. In hindsight, I'm betting he had a very minor role and never got to see the inside of the studio again, which would explain why he never actually taught us anything.",
'Also the paint colors were available in slightly different variations to accommodate the layering of animation cels.\n\nIf a character had a blue jacket for instance the blue would be Blue 0. And if you were going to animate just the characters arm. You would separate and animate the arm movements on a cel above the previous cel but if you used Jacket Blue 0 the top layered cel would shift the color of the blue layer beneath it when photographed. So you would paint the arm with a slightly different blue, a specially formulated Jacket Blue 1 to accommodate the slight color shift and in the final result the two Jacket Blue pigments would appear identical.',
'RE the presence of brush strokes, they use a specific kind of acrylic paint that goes on very consistently. When I was really getting into sculpting I read about Cel-Vinyl paints that Kat Sapene (amazing sculpture painter) uses. Here\'s what she has to say about it:\n\n"KS:\xa0I like to use animation cel-vinyl to paint my projects. It’s very similar to acrylic paints. But because it was meant to be used to paint animation cels (the individual frames that make up cartoons), the paint is very opaque. This means fewer layers of paint that need to be applied and therefore I don’t have to worry about paint buildup distorting the original sculpt. Aside from being opaque, cel-vinyl dries quickly, keeps its color over time, and is slightly flexible. The flexibility allows for handling without much chipping. And the paint is very versatile. It can be used for a wash, a dry brush, or even through an airbrush. I love it!"\n(_URL_0_)\n\nSo I went to the manufacturer and got those paints! Sure enough they are extremely even and bold, and because they supplied the painting professionals their colors were always consistent.\n\nEdit: a words',
"Cel vinyl paint. It was all premixed and put into tubes, ready to be used by the colorists. so there was no need to mix colors when it was time to paint. that's where you would run into inconsistencies with paint color. \n\nThere were no brush strokes in the color because for one, it was painted on the back of the cels so the camera, and you the viewer was really just seeing the underside of painting behind some thin plastic. Also cel vinyl had a thick, almost glue-like consistency so it flattened out quickly and evenly when painting. Artists didn't need the built up layers that oils or even acrylic needs to get rich, even color. \n\n\nI painted a lot of artwork with cel vinyl, just because of those qualities. It was the best! Sadly the only company that produced cel vinyl paint, Cartoon Colour Company just quietly went out of business a couple years ago."],
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'query_id': 'bq2hp1',
'query': 'how did old hand-drawn animation achieve such consistent color?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '5119916',
'title': 'Character education',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Modern scientific approaches.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Other neurological research is documenting how much the unconscious mind is involved in decision making. According to cognitive neuroscientists, we are conscious of only about 5 percent of our cognitive activity, so most of our decisions, actions, emotions, and behavior depends on the 95 percent of brain activity that goes beyond our conscious awareness. These studies show that actions come from preconscious brain activity patterns and not from people consciously thinking about what they are going to do.\x94 \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2882373',
'title': 'Adaptive unconscious',
'section': 'Section::::Adaptive Unconscious Verse Conscious Thinking.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Many used to think most of our behaviours, thoughts, feelings all came from our conscious brain. However, as our understanding has grown it is obvious our adaptive unconscious does much more than we originally thought. Once we thought the creation of goals and self-reflection occurred consciously but now we realise its all in our unconscious. Our unconscious and conscious minds do have to work together though for us to continue efficiently functioning. We need to understand the dual system our brain uses between our adaptive unconscious and our conscious mind more. Analysing information, attitudes and feelings in the unconscious mind first which then contributes and creates our conscious versions of this. The debate is no longer whether the adaptive unconscious exists but more which is more important in our everyday decision making? The adaptive unconscious or the conscious mind. Some would say it is becoming more and more apparent that our unconscious seems to be much more important than we originally thought especially compare to our conscious brain. The low-level processing we used to think our adaptive unconscious did we now realise may actually be the job of our conscious mind. Our adaptive unconscious may actually be the power house in our brain making the important decisions and holding the important information. It does this all without us even realising.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23753743',
'title': 'Biology of obsessive–compulsive disorder',
'section': 'Section::::Neuroanatomy.:Models.\n',
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'passage_text': 'One model suggests that obsessions do not drive compulsions, but are rather byproducts of compulsions, as evidenced by some studies reporting excessive reliance on habit. Dysfunctional habit based learning may be a driver behind neuroimaging studies of memory reporting increased hippocampus activity. The conscious processing of information that is normally implicitly processing may be the underlying cause of obsessions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1853648',
'title': 'Mental block',
'section': 'Section::::Motivated forgetting.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Cognitive control is known as the ability to access thoughts and memories, but as well as the ability to have control over unwanted thoughts surfacing from the unconscious. This kind of Suppression can be linked to the Think/no think (TNT) paradigm which is practice that is designed to remind us of undesired life experiences that result in unwanted feelings, such as a first heartbreak, that we would normally try and avoid thinking about.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28848456',
'title': 'Unconscious thought theory',
'section': 'Section::::The deliberation-without-attention effect.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Conscious thought is considered to lead to good choices. However, because of its low capacity to process multiple factors, it actually leads to worse choices on issues that are more complex. On the other hand, unconscious thought, deliberation without attention, is often considered to lead to poor choices. However, with unconscious thought, the quality of choice does not deteriorate with increased complexity, but will remain the same. Therefore, unconscious thought actually leads to better choices when encountering complex issues. For example, when buying a car based on few characteristics, individuals using conscious thought will most likely choose the most desirable car. But when trying to choose a car based on multiple aspects, those who use unconscious decisions are more likely to pick the best car, as well as have more post-choice satisfaction.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3005924',
'title': 'The Jackrabbit Factor',
'section': 'Section::::Contents.\n',
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'passage_text': "The author suggests that concentrating on how the attainment would feel reprograms a person's subconscious mind so that accomplishing the goal comes more naturally. These premises are based on the philosophy that without conscious intervention, the subconscious mind ultimately controls our tendencies, habits, decisions, and results.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19970134',
'title': 'Clotaire Rapaille',
'section': 'Section::::Career.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Rapaille believes that buying decisions are strongly influenced by the reptilian brain, which is made up of the brain stem and the cerebellum. Only accessible via the subconscious, the reptilian brain is the home of our intrinsic instincts. It programs us for two major things: survival and reproduction. Rapaille proposes that in a three-way battle between the cortical, the limbic (home of emotion) and the reptilian areas, the reptilian always wins, because survival comes first. This theory has become the basis for his thoughts on what a product means to consumers on the most fundamental level.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "What's the subconscious drive that gets you motivated to do something your conscious brain doesn't want to do?",
'selftext': 'Like when you\'re about to start the last rep or you need to get up and do laundry and you consciously think to yourself "I don\'t want to do this, I\'m tired" but then your body autopilot starts doing the task like starting that final set and you think "oh screw it" and bang it out.',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Humans have an instinct side, this decisions are made without our "permissions" and it represents what our reptilian side of the brain does.\n\nThe reptilian side of our brain represents our primary survival function. Your heart, lungs and other parts of the body survive thanks to this. This is the primitive side of the brain; it is involuntary, impulsive, and compulsive and it responds like any animal on danger: \n1) fight response, 2) flight response, or the 3) freeze response.\n\nSince the main goal of this part of the brain is survival, sometimes your body reacts over certain actions. From a natural perspective, if you see a Tiger in front of you ready to attack you, pretty sure your brain will trigger in automatically and run(flight response). This was a very basic example, but in First World Problems, you can generate these with other dangers such as "If I don\'t do my laundry now, I won\'t have a dress shirt and I am going to get fired from work and I won\'t have money and I will starve".'],
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'query_id': '751ph7',
'query': "what's the subconscious drive that gets you motivated to do something your conscious brain doesn't want to do?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '33537',
'title': 'Wing',
'section': 'Section::::Aerodynamics.\n',
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'passage_text': 'For a wing to produce "lift", it must be oriented at a suitable angle of attack relative to the flow of air past the wing. When this occurs the wing deflects the airflow downwards, "turning" the air as it passes the wing. Since the wing exerts a force on the air to change its direction, the air must exert a force on the wing, equal in size but opposite in direction. This force manifests itself as differing air pressures at different points on the surface of the wing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5096257',
'title': 'Pitch-up',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Wings generate a relatively complex pattern of forces at different points on their planform. These are usually described as lift and drag components, using vector decomposition. If these vectors are added up for the entire wing, the result is a single force acting at some point on the wing. This point is known as the "center of pressure", or CoP, and is normally located somewhere between ⅓ and ½ of the way back from the leading edge. The exact location changes with changes in the angle of attack, which leads to the requirement to trim aircraft as they change their speed or power settings.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '76236',
'title': 'Ground effect (aerodynamics)',
'section': 'Section::::Principle of ground effect.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A wing generates lift by deflecting the oncoming airmass (relative wind) downward. The deflected or "turned" flow of air creates a resultant force on the wing in the opposite direction (Newton\'s 3rd law). The resultant force is identified as lift. Flying close to a surface increases air pressure on the lower wing surface, nicknamed the "ram" or "cushion" effect, and thereby improves the aircraft lift-to-drag ratio. The lower/nearer the wing is with regards to the ground, the more pronounced the ground effect becomes. While in the ground effect, the wing requires a lower angle of attack to produce the same amount of lift. If the angle of attack and velocity remain constant, an increase in the lift coefficient ensues, which accounts for the "floating" effect. Ground effect also alters thrust versus velocity, where reduced induced drag requires less thrust in order to maintain the same velocity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1170314',
'title': 'Wingtip vortices',
'section': 'Section::::Generation of trailing vortices.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'When a wing generates aerodynamic lift the air on the top surface has lower pressure relative to the bottom surface. Air flows from below the wing and out around the tip to the top of the wing in a circular fashion. An emergent circulatory flow pattern named vortex is observed, featuring a low-pressure core.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '607942',
'title': 'Blown flap',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'The lift of a wing can be greatly increased with blowing flow control. With mechanical slots the natural boundary layer limits the boundary layer control pressure to the freestream total head. Blowing with a small proportion of engine airflow (internal blown flap) increases the lift. Using much higher quantities of gas from the engine exhaust, which increases the effective chord of the flap (the jet flap), produces supercirculation, or forced circulation up to the theoretical potential flow maximum. Surpassing this limit requires the addition of direct thrust.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2137292',
'title': 'Drag (physics)',
'section': 'Section::::Aerodynamics.:Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 64,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 64,
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'passage_text': 'When the airplane produces lift, another drag component results. Induced drag, symbolized formula_62, is due to a modification of the pressure distribution due to the trailing vortex system that accompanies the lift production. An alternative perspective on lift and drag is gained from considering the change of momentum of the airflow. The wing intercepts the airflow and forces the flow to move downward. This results in an equal and opposite force acting upward on the wing which is the lift force. The change of momentum of the airflow downward results in a reduction of the rearward momentum of the flow which is the result of a force acting forward on the airflow and applied by the wing to the air flow; an equal but opposite force acts on the wing rearward which is the induced drag. Induced drag tends to be the most important component for airplanes during take-off or landing flight. Another drag component, namely wave drag, formula_63, results from shock waves in transonic and supersonic flight speeds. The shock waves induce changes in the boundary layer and pressure distribution over the body surface.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '221400',
'title': 'Flight dynamics (fixed-wing aircraft)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'A fixed-wing aircraft increases or decreases the lift generated by the wings when it pitches nose up or down by increasing or decreasing the angle of attack (AOA). The roll angle is also known as bank angle on a fixed-wing aircraft, which usually "banks" to change the horizontal direction of flight. An aircraft is streamlined from nose to tail to reduce drag making it advantageous to keep the sideslip angle near zero, though an aircraft may be deliberately "sideslipped" to increase drag and descent rate during landing, to keep aircraft heading same as runway heading during cross-wind landings and during flight with asymmetric power.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "how does the shape of an airplane's wings generate lift? And how does the retractable wing flaps affect that?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The shape of the wing when viewed from the side is called an aerofoil.\n\nAs the aerofoil moves, the wind / air splits into 2 streams.\n\nThe air passing above the aerofoil generates higher velocity (speed in simpler terms). Whereas the air velocity below the wing is low.\n\nWithout going into the intricate details of fluid dynamics, higher velocity creates a low pressure and vice versa.\n\nSince the pressure below the wing is higher (due to the lower air velocity) it generates lift, hence enabling the aircraft to be airborne.\n\nA similar concept is applied to the rear spoiler of a car (the opposite) to create downforce.',
"Because of the curvature of the wing, the air around it will have a different pressure under and above the wing. This is due to the fact that the air is deviated from it's trajectory. \nThe air on top of the wing will have a lower pressure than the air above the wing.\nThe pressure is basically the force that a fluid is applying on a surface. As the pressure is lower on top of the wing, the air will push the wing up, and the plane will fly.\n\nThe pressure difference is proportional to something called the lift coefficients. Wich means the higher the lift coefficient is the greater the pressure difference. Also, to determine the total lift of the plane, you need to consider the speed. For a plane, the lift coefficient is fixed (it depends of the geometry of the wing), but the lift will increase if the plane goes faster. \n\nConcerning the retractable flaps, they are just here for the lift off and to land. They are just here to increase the lift coefficient at low speed by making the air to be more deflected by the wing. They do that because during these phases, the plane goes slower than it goes during the cruise. So increasing the lift coefficient will increase the lift.",
'A wing makes lift in two ways, from the shape of the wing and the angle of the wing. Both of these push the air that the plane is going through down toward the ground. Pushing the air down pushes the wing up.\n\nSo let\'s look at those two ways. The shape of a wing is like a frown, lower at the ends and higher in the middle. As the air passes over and under the wing it sticks to the wing just a little, making it go the same direction as the part of the wing it is passing. Since the back of the wing is pointing down, when the air leaves the back of the wing it is pointing down too.\n\nThe flaps at the back of the wing point the back of the wing downward even further, giving more lift. So why don\'t planes fly with their flaps down all the time? Because that extra lift also gives more drag. So it takes more fuel to push the plane through the air, and costs more money. So the flaps are only used at takeoff and landing, when the extra lift is needed to make flying safer.\n\nGoing back to the other way our wing makes lift, the angle of the wing. This angle is called "angle of attack". The more you lift the front of the wing, the further the back of the wing points down. But if you point the front of the wing up too far, it will make a lot of drag. If you point it up even farther, the air won\'t be able to stick to the wing and the wing will lose a lot of lift. This is called "stall". So pilots limit the angle of attack to avoid these problems.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'e7dshx',
'query': "how does the shape of an airplane's wings generate lift? and how does the retractable wing flaps affect that?",
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '13782970',
'title': 'Radiofrequency MASINT',
'section': 'Section::::Electromagnetic pulse MASINT.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 317,
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'passage_text': 'While EMP often is assumed to be a characteristic of nuclear weapons alone, such is not the case. Several open-literature techniques, requiring only conventional explosives, or, in the case of high power microwave, a large electrical power supply, perhaps one-shot as with capacitors, can generate a significant EMP:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41097',
'title': 'Nuclear electromagnetic pulse',
'section': 'Section::::Post-Cold War attack scenarios.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 77,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 77,
'end_character': 222,
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'passage_text': 'The United States EMP Commission was created by the [[United States Congress]] in 2001. The commission is formally known as the Commission to Assess the Threat to the United States from Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) Attack.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17346957',
'title': 'Nuclear holocaust',
'section': 'Section::::Effects of nuclear war.:Electromagnetic pulse.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 39,
'end_character': 438,
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'passage_text': 'An electromagnetic pulse (EMP) is a burst of electromagnetic radiation. Nuclear explosions create a pulse of electromagnetic radiation called a nuclear EMP or NEMP. Such EMP interference is known to be generally disruptive or damaging to electronic equipment. If a single nuclear weapon "designed to emit EMP were detonated 250 to 300 miles up over the middle of the country it would disable the electronics in the entire United States."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39519079',
'title': 'Electromagnetic pulse',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'EMP interference is generally disruptive or damaging to electronic equipment, and at higher energy levels a powerful EMP event such as a lightning strike can damage physical objects such as buildings and aircraft structures. The management of EMP effects is an important branch of electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) engineering.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39519079',
'title': 'Electromagnetic pulse',
'section': 'Section::::Types.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
'end_character': 292,
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'passage_text': 'An EMP arises where the source emits a short-duration pulse of energy. The energy is usually broadband by nature, although it often excites a relatively narrow-band "damped sine wave" response in the surrounding environment. Some types are generated as repetitive and regular "pulse trains".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41097',
'title': 'Nuclear electromagnetic pulse',
'section': 'Section::::Effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 60,
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'passage_text': 'An energetic EMP can temporarily upset or permanently damage electronic equipment by generating high voltage and high current surges; semiconductor components are particularly at risk. The effects of damage can range from imperceptible to the eye, to devices literally blowing apart. Cables, even if short, can act as antennas to transmit pulse energy to equipment.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39519079',
'title': 'Electromagnetic pulse',
'section': 'Section::::Effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 70,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The damaging effects of high-energy EMP have led to the introduction of EMP weapons, from tactical missiles with a small radius of effect to nuclear bombs tailored for maximum EMP effect over a wide area.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'EMPs',
'selftext': 'How do they work? And are the electronics that get affected by them permanently broken?',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['EMP stands for electromagnetic pulse. It is a sudden massive burst of energy, which can be created through multiple natural and artificial processes.\n\nThe main way EMPs cause damage is a huge current flowing through electronics, which will destroy capacitors, resistors, diodes, wiring and circuit boards. The magnetic field created might also break inductors or other magnetically sensitive components.\n\nA lightning strike creates multiple EMP pulses when the current enters the ground. The electromagnetic energy spreads through the ground and is luckily stopped by circuit breakers before it enters your house.\n\nThe rapid release of high energy photons and charged particles during a nuclear explosion can also generate EMP pulses. There are even plans to use the earth’s magnetic field to focus and direct the EMP pulse, which allows an army to disable electronics on the other side of the earth.',
'Current in electronic components is designed to flow in very specific ways within certain tolerances. A strong electromagnetic wave can create current in wires and components, causing it to flow in unpredictable and sometimes damaging ways as well as affect the way some digital devices store memory. As a result, the devices may be left in an unknown state and thus unable to function until they are restored to a known state again. If too much current went into sensitive electronics, it could potentially damage them or even break them to the point where they have to be replaced.',
"Electricity and magnetism is related, so magnetic fields going across a conductor will cause electricity to be induce in conductor, and electricity running through a wire will cause magnetic fields to be generated. This is how and why things like electric motors and loudspeakers can exist. \n\nPulses of electromagnetism can be caused by solar flares and other solar activity. They can also be caused by setting off nuclear explosions at the right altitudes. It's also possible to make smaller, portable devices that emit short range pulses of a few dozen feet.\n\nThe exact effect of an EMP can vary. If the EMP is weak, and the wires subjected to it are short, the surge of electricity might be stopped by protective components at for example a transformer station, and if the wires from that transformer station into a household are much shorter, the electricity induced over this distance might not be enough to knock out electronics in that house. \n\nIf the EMP is stronger, the transformer station might be get damaged, but leave the things behind it safe. If it's even stronger, it might be able to induce a destructive amount of electricity into even the shorter power lines going into houses, possibly causing lots of material damage. \n\nEquipment that isn't protected against power surges may very well be permanently destroyed. ",
'The ELI5 here is listen to AM radio during a lightning storm. The radio will have static and popping from lighting happening around you.\n\nRadios work on the principle that moving electrons around results in changing magnetic fields, and changing magnetic fields result in moving electrons around. The radio towers vibrate electrons in an antenna, a EM field radiates out, and eventually vibrates electrons around in your radio antenna. The moving electrons in the radio are detected as a current which can be amplified and used to move electrons in a speaker coil. The moving electrons in the speaker coil create an EM field that pushes against a fixed speaker magnet, resulting in the speaker diaphragm moving around making music.\n\nWhen lightning strikes, that\'s a massive amount of electrons racing between the ground and clouds which produces a large expanding EM field (just like a radio antenna). That field hits your radio, and in the exact same way the radio waves induce a current in the radio to provide music, the lightning\'s EM field induces current in the radio which results in a sharp pop. If the lightning is close enough (basically ontop of your house), that induced current *could* be large enough to damage the radio components. There\'s also the fact that an antenna is just a big wire. There\'s plenty of smaller wires, circuit-board traces, and electrical chips and components inside the radio that behave exactly like the antenna wire, and also get current induced in them from the lightning. (and technically from the radio waves as well).\n\nWhen people talk about "EMP" they\'re usually just talking about bombs designed to create similar large pulses of EM radiation with the explicit purpose of having a large enough flux to induce damaging currents in the target electronics.\n\n\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'av9j88',
'query': 'emps',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '13026734',
'title': 'Paroxysmal extreme pain disorder',
'section': 'Section::::Symptoms and signs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 398,
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'passage_text': 'During attacks in infants, the child often looks startled or terrified and can scream inconsolably. These attacks can be precipitated by injections, defecation, wiping of the perineum, eating, or the consumption of oral medication. When attacks occur due to such precipitation, pain and flushing are often present in the area of attack precipitation, though symptoms may also be diffuse in nature.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55003162',
'title': 'Infant crying',
'section': 'Section::::Abuse.:Normal crying.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 38,
'end_character': 519,
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'passage_text': 'The physical abuse of infants is related to crying. Crying may be related to the abusive head trauma in infants. This is the most common cause of child abuse death. Fathers are often the ones who shake the infant. Shaking may occur many times. This shaking can cause serious injuries in almost 50% of the time. Some caregivers are unaware that shaking the baby can seriously harm or kill the infant. This type of abuse is being addressed by efforts to educate parents and caregivers with educational flyers and videos.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3911668',
'title': 'Screaming',
'section': 'Section::::As a phenomenon.:First.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 296,
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'passage_text': 'Janov believes that for babies, screaming is the only form of communication he or she can have; it is the only way a baby can express his necessities, that he needs food, he is in pain or he simply needs some love. Janov writes, “screaming is a language – a primitive one, but a human language”.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11296',
'title': 'First aid',
'section': 'Section::::Key skills.:Preserving life.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 35,
'end_character': 381,
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'passage_text': 'If the chocking person is an infant, the aide will give five strong blows in the infant’s upper back by placing the infant’s face down on his forearm. The aide will be taught not to provide first aid if the infant is able to cough or cry. Coughing and crying indicate the airway is open and the foreign object will likely to come out from the force the coughing or crying produce \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24373',
'title': 'Pain',
'section': 'Section::::Assessment.:Assessment in people who are non-verbal.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 64,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 64,
'end_character': 355,
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'passage_text': 'Infants do feel pain, but lack the language needed to report it, and so communicate distress by crying. A non-verbal pain assessment should be conducted involving the parents, who will notice changes in the infant which may not be obvious to the health care provider. Pre-term babies are more sensitive to painful stimuli than those carried to full term.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3911668',
'title': 'Screaming',
'section': 'Section::::As a phenomenon.:Communication and language.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': 'Diana König, journalist and broadcasting author, writes: “If the scream of babies is their first communication method, then the scream of adults is a recession from communication. By screaming, in the opposite of calling, the voice becomes overloaded and over-amplified, and it loses its control, its fundamental sound”. The scream is there before language and it appears where the language reaches its limits.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19361790',
'title': 'Deaf education',
'section': 'Section::::Identifying deaf students.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "In cases of congenital hearing loss (hearing loss from birth), parents can start to notice differences in their kids hearing as soon as newborn to three months old. If a child doesn't respond to sudden loud sounds, this could be an indication. As the baby begins to age to around four to eight months, they should turn their head towards where the sound is coming from. Around a year to 16 months, if they don't pronounce words correctly, or don't speak at all, this could also be an indication. All those are indications of congenital hearing loss, which means the child was born this way. \n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How can babies scream for a long time and not hurt their vocal cords but adults can easily hurt themselves when they cream for a few minutes?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['When adults do what now?',
"Because most of the time, babies aren't screaming they're just vocalising. \n\nOpen your mouth, push air out by tensing your belly - that's what a baby does, it isn't actually engaging much in terms of it's tiny muscles. \n\nNow, if a baby is actually screaming (and you can tell the difference!) over sustained periods, like if they're poorly enough to be in pain/discomfort, it can damage their voices and they can develop all the normal stuff an adult would like Laryngitis.",
'First, babies may very well hurt their vocal cords, and that may contribute to more screaming - the natural "this hurts, so stop doing this" feedback loop takes time to develop.\n\nSecond, crying is different from screaming - adults can "loud cry" for a looooong time without irritation to vocal cords that might result from actual screaming for the same amount of time.\n\nThird, babies are designed by evolution to demand attention - they have no way to express pain or hunger or anything else other than through crying and other noises. \n Loudness confers an evolutionary advantage - a quiet baby doesn\'t demand attention the same way a loud baby does, and attention (food, tending to irritants and potentially dangerous conditions) enhances survival. Survival increases reproductive success. Reproductive success tends to propagate genes that foster that reproductive success. Infants "hardwired" to make loud noises when needing attention who are more likely to live to reproduce will pass on more of their genetic code FOR making loud noises in infancy than babies who aren\'t hardwired to make loud noises and therefore get less attention and therefore (on evolutionary timescales) tend to survive into adulthood less frequently and therefore tend to have fewer offspring, etc.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'ey4of4',
'query': 'how can babies scream for a long time and not hurt their vocal cords but adults can easily hurt themselves when they cream for a few minutes?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '8389',
'title': 'Major depressive disorder',
'section': 'Section::::Research.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 137,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 137,
'end_character': 600,
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'passage_text': 'MRI scans of patients with depression have revealed a number of differences in brain structure compared to those who are not depressed. Meta-analyses of neuroimaging studies in major depression reported that, compared to controls, depressed patients had increased volume of the lateral ventricles and adrenal gland and smaller volumes of the basal ganglia, thalamus, hippocampus, and frontal lobe (including the orbitofrontal cortex and gyrus rectus). Hyperintensities have been associated with patients with a late age of onset, and have led to the development of the theory of vascular depression.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25258288',
'title': 'Late life depression',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 580,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The exact changes in brain chemistry and function that cause either late life or earlier onset depression are unknown. It is known, however, that brain changes can be triggered by the stresses of certain life events such as illness, childbirth, death of a loved one, life transitions (such as retirement), interpersonal conflicts, or social isolation. Risk factors for depression in elderly persons include a history of depression, chronic medical illness, female sex, being single or divorced, brain disease, alcohol abuse, use of certain medications, and stressful life events.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19477293',
'title': 'Biology of depression',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 820,
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'passage_text': 'Scientific studies have found that numerous brain areas show altered activity in people with major depressive disorder, and this has encouraged advocates of various theories that seek to identify a biochemical origin of the disease, as opposed to theories that emphasize psychological or situational causes. Factors spanning these causative groups include nutritional deficiencies in magnesium, vitamin D, and tryptophan with situational origin but biological impact. Several theories concerning the biologically based cause of depression have been suggested over the years, including theories revolving around monoamine neurotransmitters, neuroplasticity, neurogenesis, inflammation and the circadian rhythm. Physical illnesses, including hypothyroidism and mitochondrial disease, can also trigger depressive symptoms.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10534087',
'title': 'Serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor',
'section': 'Section::::Role of monoamine neurotransmitters.:Monoamine hypothesis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 132,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 132,
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'passage_text': 'The original monoamine hypothesis postulates that depression is caused by a deficiency or imbalances in the monoamine neurotransmitters (5-HT, NE, and DA). This has been the central topic of depression research for approximately the last 50 years; it has since evolved into the notion that depression arises through alterations in target neurons (specifically, the dendrites) in monoamine pathways.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19477293',
'title': 'Biology of depression',
'section': 'Section::::Circadian rhythm.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 991,
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'passage_text': ' Depression may be related to abnormalities in the circadian rhythm, or biological clock. For example, rapid eye movement (REM) sleep—the stage in which dreaming occurs—may be quick to arrive and intense in depressed people. REM sleep depends on decreased serotonin levels in the brain stem, and is impaired by compounds, such as antidepressants, that increase serotonergic tone in brain stem structures. Overall, the serotonergic system is least active during sleep and most active during wakefulness. Prolonged wakefulness due to sleep deprivation activates serotonergic neurons, leading to processes similar to the therapeutic effect of antidepressants, such as the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Depressed individuals can exhibit a significant lift in mood after a night of sleep deprivation. SSRIs may directly depend on the increase of central serotonergic neurotransmission for their therapeutic effect, the same system that impacts cycles of sleep and wakefulness.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '229985',
'title': 'Isotretinoin',
'section': 'Section::::Pharmacology.:Mechanism of action.:CNS activities.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 56,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 56,
'end_character': 594,
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'passage_text': 'A possible biological basis for the case reports of depression involves decreased metabolism in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) of the frontal lobe. It has also been found that decreased OFC metabolism was correlated with headaches. People reporting headache as a side effect often report comorbid neuropsychiatric symptoms, especially depression; a statistically significant relationship between headache and depression has been established. It is suggested that people sensitive to isotretinoin-induced CNS effects may also be susceptible to other psychiatric side effects such as depression.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13190302',
'title': 'Evolutionary approaches to depression',
'section': 'Section::::Analytical rumination hypothesis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 606,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'One way depression increases the individual\'s focus on a problem is by inducing rumination. Depression activates the left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, which increases attention control and maintains problem-related information in an "active, accessible state" referred to as "working memory", or WM. As a result, depressed individuals have been shown to ruminate, reflecting on the reasons for their current problems. Feelings of regret associated with depression also cause individuals to reflect and analyze past events in order to determine why they happened and how they could have been prevented.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does depression sometimes cause cognitive dysfunction issues, such as reduced attention span, memory, concentration, information processing capability and executive functioning, that sometimes persist after a depressive episode is over?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Depression still exists in a depressed person\'s brain even after an "episode". Depression is more than just in your mind, it is like a mental disorder that actually causes physical changes in your brain\'s structure and neural network, and it is those changes that can cause the other symptoms you mentioned.',
'There are a bunch of reasons from a TBI (traumatic brain injury) that causes the depression in the first place with damaged dopamine receptors to “salience attribution”, a state of the brains rewiring due to the depression and the environmental stimulus (say if the conditions causing the depression cause the brain to “maladapt”), or “state transference” where the depressed patient cannot properly reframe/refocus due to projection of the episode onto future events akin to PTSD.',
'Unipolar or clinical depression is a mental illness and in itself causes your brain to function differently from other brains. Psychiatric medication and therapy will usually help. As far as I know depression cannot be cured.',
"Wish I knew. I'm taking SSRIs for my clinical depression and I feel a whole lot better but I'm afraid the cognitive damage has been done. That disease stripped my mind from a lot of ability. Fuck depression.",
"According to NiMH, depression is caused by many factors like genetic, biological, environmental, and psychological. Genetic would be your mother or father would have it, biological would be related to life so in this case it would be something about your life, environmental would be like if you grew up in an abusive household, and psychological would refer to your brain and how it works.\n\nThe last three I know of well because I grew up in households where people abused me physically and psychologically first hand. Mostly it was drunk step dads not being nice. The one threw a beer can at me and my mom. In my brain what happened was kid me at the time, went into panic mode when we got to our motel for the night because I was scared my stepdad would break the door down and beat us up. Things died down to 100% up until about a month ago, when I was fat shamed for eating 5 eggs because the eggs were small for an omelette, and when the guy's wife found out about it, I had stay at a motel for the night because he was so mad yelling profanities and such. As soon as I layed down on the bed, I was shaking a little because it was like I was reliving that traumatizing experience all over again. On top of that, the area around the motel gets real sketchy after dark. There were vehicles pulling in and out around 10pm. \n\nAlso during the time I had stepdads, I was bullied at school for being slow constantly so this resulted in a deeper depression for me even at one point I was close to committing suicide. The teachers knew about the bullies but did nothing to stop it much so it kept going. \n\n\nHarvard says that there are three parts of the brain that appear to play a role in what they call MDD (Major depressive disorder): the hippocampus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex.\n\nMDD is also called clinical depression.\n\nThe body releases a hormone called cortisol which is released during times of physical and mental stress, including during times of depression. Problems can occur when excessive amounts of cortisol are sent to the brain due to a stressful event or a chemical imbalance in the body.\n\nIn a healthy brain, brain cells (neurons) are produced throughout a person’s adult life in a part of the hippocampus called the dentate gyrus.\n\nIn people with MDD, however, the long-term exposure to increased cortisol levels can slow the production of new neurons and cause the neurons in the hippocampus to shrink. This can lead to memory problems.\n\nThe prefrontal cortex is located in the very front of the brain. It is responsible for regulating emotions, making decisions, and forming memories. When the body produces an excess amount of cortisol, the prefrontal cortex also appears to shrink.\n\nThe amygdala is the part of the brain that facilitates emotional responses, such as pleasure and fear. In people with MDD, the amygdala becomes enlarged and more active as a result of constant exposure to high levels of cortisol.\n\nAn enlarged and hyperactive amygdala, along with abnormal activity in other parts of the brain, can result in disturbances in sleep and activity patterns. It can also cause the body to release irregular amounts of hormones and other chemicals in the body, leading to further complications.\n\nMany researchers believe high cortisol levels play the biggest role in changing the physical structure and chemical activities of the brain, triggering the onset of MDD. Normally, cortisol levels are highest in the morning and decrease at night. In people with MDD, however, cortisol levels are always elevated, even at night.\n\n[_URL_1_](_URL_1_)\n\n[_URL_0_](_URL_0_)",
'As a Veteran who medically retired due Depression and PTSD related to Traumatic Brain Injury, my personal sentiments have been that: \n\n1) In my case, brain structure and neurons were damaged because of multiple concussions, reducing overall cognitive faculties. \n\n2) The Depression has lead to lingering thoughts of wanting to end things (I’m using a euphemism here), and these dark thoughts can interrupt my everyday train of thought.',
'Mental illnesses are very very hard to really "cure". in reality most patients just learn to live with it and not fall into the old patterns that are etched into their body. they learn to avoid certain things and thoughts that trigger those old patterns. that takes some cognitive skill which then can\'t be spend elsewhere. another part of it is that we don\'t really know what depression is on an small scale, as in individual cells. we only know the symptoms on an whole body scale and some small scale parts of the process. people often say its caused by an serotonin shortage for example, thats false and is not the leading theory. it hasn\'t been for a long time. we know it plays an role in the expression of symptoms or causation. but what role? we don\'t have the vaguest idea. you could compare this illness to an major illness that needs to be operated on. you\'re going to have scar tissue and bodily functions will probably never fully return to normal. you\'ll feel like your body betrays you because things don\'t work like they used to anymore. things you used to be able to do suddenly cause things they didn\'t before. its really important to note that mental illness IS physical illness. there is no part of it that isn\'t an physical process inside your body as far as we know.',
"Could be ADHD. It's pretty common to be feel depressed and inadequate because of how ADHD fucks with your brain/life and makes everything feel much harder than it really is. Especially if you are undiagnosed and just think you're crap - basically what happened to me! Feeling this way causes you to feel depressed and unhappy, which is what you'll tell your doctor, and which can commonly lead to a diagnosis of the depressive symptoms rather than diagnosis of cause.\n\nI was diagnosed with depression when I was a child, and ADHD only a year ago; I was told it was really common for people with ADHD to be misdiagnosed with depression and anxiety etc, and now I am dealing with my ADHD and learning how to manage the things that come with it, I actually feel a lot *less* depressed because I feel like I finally have an answer. \n\nAll I know for sure is everything you describe in your question are things people with ADHD will struggle with - attention span, memory, executive function, concentration... \n\nMight be worth considering, especially if you have struggled with these things for a long time!",
"We don't exactly know why or even that it's depression *causing* those problems, necessarily.\n\nMental health symptoms are caused by a lot of different things, and we still don't fully understand all of them. Each individual needs to work with their own health provider to figure out what works to address the problems they're having.\n\nAs one example, you could have an underlying condition causing you to not absorb nutrients as well as you should. The resulting vitamin deficiencies can cause depression as well as causing cognitive difficulties. As a second example, you could have ADHD along with depression (it's very common to have ADHD struggles lead to depression), so once the depression is treated, the cognitive difficulties remain.\n\nBoth of the above examples are problems I personally have, so you can even have multiple factors at play. It took a few years working with good medical professionals to get it sorted out.\n\nThere are a lot of different possibilities, unfortunately, and I don't think we even know all of them yet.",
'I did a systematic review on the subject for my masters, all of the mechanisms are not fully known yet. What we found however was that there is a correlation between higher levels of neuroinflammatory markers and cognitive deficits in people diagnosed with depression. So basically, neuroinflammation is associated with cognitive deficits in depressed people. \n\nHigher levels of Interleukin-6 has predicted poorer performance in psychomotor speed in 2/3 studies investigated. \n\nHigher levels of C-Reactive protein have been associated with lower cognitive performance, however there is more research needed to investigate if there is actually a significant association between C-Reactive protein and depression. There were a number of other markers investigated but none were found to be significant-but that may be because the sample studies were not large enough to tell.\n\nBasically, more research is needed but neuroinflammation has been associated with cognitive deficits, and is a reaction to depression. Depression promotes and maintains neuroinflammation by diminishing the sensitivity of the immune system to the glucocorticoid hormones responsible for ceasing the inflammatory response. But also production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (ie: interleukin-6) has been thought to increase in response to negative emotions and exposure to stressful experiences.',
"A lot of people here are saying depression cannot be cured. Is that really true? Once you're clinically depressed, you'll continue to be for the rest of your life? That's... really serious.",
'As I learned in my Psychology class, Depression causes physical changes in your brain, causing the frontal lobe to shrink. The physical changes can lead to worsening of the depression itself, as well as causing issues to persist even after the episode is over.',
"Hi, I am a person who has major depressive disorder (I have very intense depressive episodes), persistent depressive disorder (I have had depressive episodes nearly constantly and have had them for about 2 years), season affective disorder (winter boosts my episodes, making them more intense), and panic disorder (I have intense anxiety episodes that usually end in a panic attack). This is my experience with it and how it effects me, but everyone is different. Mine comes from genetics and was passed down to me by my mother, and a traumatic experience (I would rather not talk about it). \n\nSometimes the answer to your question is my brain is simply too focused on making me feel like shit. It's hard for me to remember to take a shower when I'm trying to convince myself why suicide is not a good idea. \n\nThere are a lot of physical differences between someone with a normal functioning brain and a depressed one too. There are millions of chemicals that control what is going on at any given moment in the brain, so pinpointing the exact causes of any given mental illness is incredibly difficult. Psychiatrists have found that dopamine, serotonin, and cortisol most likely play a decent sized role in how depression effects the brain.\n\n The main parts of the brain you want to look at are the amygdala, the hippocampus, and the frontal lobe. The amygdala controls emotions, and tends to be overactive when shown negative stimuli, and underactive with positive ones in depressed brains. The hippocampus controls memory, and will actually shrink with people who have depression. The frontal lobe controls personality and even attention and some emotional responses. This shrinks too. This is what causes the problems you are wondering about. Once this shrinking has occured, there isn't a way to reverse it. \n\nSometimes depression isn't even caused by the brain. Some people with hypothyroidism (an underactive thyroid) experience symptoms identical with depression. Other underlying health issues can cause minor depressive disorders as well, so that makes it even harder to find the source of someone's depression.\n\nDepressive disorders don't have a cure, only ways of relieving symptoms. For instance, I take escitalopram, an SSRI (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor). This doesn't cure my depression, but is a mood booster, making the symptoms a bit easier to handle. And these symptoms persist even outside of episodes. I lose things and misplace things constantly, I often feel very fatigued, and I have trouble focusing a lot of the time. \n\nI will have these illnesses for the rest of my life. I am lucky to have a very strong support group to help me through the tough times. All I want to do is spread awareness for a real illness that people often ignore.",
'Stress and anxiety has an impact on hippocampus and amygdala regions, when overwhelmed dopamine (responsible for motivation) can also be reduced. On the severe end this can impact executive function in the long term.\n\nThese have a role in perception , emotional regulation and processing external stimuli or input.Depression can be a symptom of these, it can be a condition or a disorder and the latter is often co-morbid with dysfunction in these regions. This can be expressed as lack of enjoyment or desire among other symptoms i.e mood, flattened affect (expression), impaired emotional cognition & cognition, sometimes this can be presented as lack of empathy, and this can relate to symptoms coldness, bluntness and a sense of being withdrawn.\n\nWith hippocampus is related to perception. When stressed this can cause memory impairment and on the severe end can cause cognitive disturbances.\n\nThis part of the brain is often related to schizophrenia. When there are abnormalities in all these regions this can cause not only difficulties with relating to others, it can impair speech, memory, perception and/or attention.\n\nSerotonin and dopamine can play a part in reducing the cognitive impairment, lack of enjoyment increase synaptic transmission (a neurotransmitter(without neurotransmitter the information between neurons (information) is reduced). This will impact mood and pleasure, the latter can increase focus and reduce cognitive impairment by temporarily stimulating dopamine production through neurotransmitters.\n\nAn anti-psychotic can reduce severe perceptual and emotional disturbances for those who experience distress from major depressive symptoms and schizo- disorders. Second generation or atypical anti-psychotics can alleviate or sedate low to mild experiences in perceptual and emotional disturbances. This can also cause other symptoms to appear but the goal is reducing or alleviating the condition where it can become severe.\n\nThe reason why these can persist after treatments is the impact of stress can cause abnormalities or lesions in the areas responsible for processing emotion, memory and attention.\n\nPeople with PTSD or complex PTSD may experience all of these, people with ASD may experience stress with overstimulation - to much information, but will tend to have high tolerance to perceived pain and reduced fear due to reduced gray matter volume - responsible for sensory and muscle control and likely to have low tolerance to sensory stimulation that can result in being overwhelmed. People with ADHD may experience being overwhelmed and is often co-morbid with ASD (paired) with emotions and will experience lack of executive function related to the frontal lobe (front of our brains) or other regions that may cause sensory issues. A typical ADHD person will have reduced executive function, responsible for managing all of these symptoms, the non-typical person may acquire such symptoms and be treated likewise.',
'I know this is ELI5. However, for anyone wanting to read a review of this area, [*The impact of anxiety upon cognition*](_URL_0_) is a great overview of the topic.',
"Eli5 how fusion works would probably make more sense then this. Sorry but some things simply cannot be explained like one is five years old, and when they do they could make more 'damage' then a simple I don't know. It would probably be something like 'drugs rewire one's brain, so one gets addicted', and this answer about addiction would be ridiculous if it wasn't tragic. \n\nDepression is a symptom. There are theories or rather hypothesis about things causing them. For example there is a theory it could have something to do with immune system response. IIRC there's some research showing depressed people have a better chance of surviving an infection.\n\nAnyhow we still don't know a lot, or we actually know very little about neurotransmitters, our physiology, and long term consequences of a long term imbalance of particular neurotransmitters.\n\nAny eli5 answer you might get here is probably going to be an oversimplification of a very complicated guess, or a guess based on a very limited knowledge."],
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'query_id': 'fnz9hq',
'query': 'why does depression sometimes cause cognitive dysfunction issues, such as reduced attention span, memory, concentration, information processing capability and executive functioning, that sometimes persist after a depressive episode is over?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '71734',
'title': 'Polygraph',
'section': 'Section::::Use.:Europe.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In most European jurisdictions, practice varies by country but polygraphs are generally not considered reliable evidence and are not generally used by law enforcement. Polygraph testing is widely seen in Europe to violate the right to remain silent.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '71734',
'title': 'Polygraph',
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'passage_text': 'In some countries, polygraphs are used as an interrogation tool with criminal suspects or candidates for sensitive public or private sector employment. US law enforcement and federal government agencies such as the FBI, NSA and the CIA and many police departments such as the LAPD and the Virginia State Police use polygraph examinations to interrogate suspects and screen new employees. Within the US federal government, a polygraph examination is also referred to as a psychophysiological detection of deception (PDD) examination.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '2698477',
'title': 'Employee Polygraph Protection Act',
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'passage_text': 'The Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988 (EPPA) is a United States federal law that generally prevents employers from using polygraph (lie detector) tests, either for pre-employment screening or during the course of employment, with certain exemptions.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '3750343',
'title': 'R v Béland',
'section': 'Section::::Opinion of the Court.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Justice William Rogers McIntyre, writing for the majority, held that polygraphs were inadmissible because they violated several rules of evidence. Polygraphs, if used for showing credibility, would violate the rule against "oath-helping", which prevents the use of evidence only to prove good credibility. Second, it also violates the rule against the admission of previous out of court statements. Third, it violates the character evidence rule that prohibits evidence that attacks character. Lastly, the polygraph is a type of expert evidence that must be excluded as matters of credibility are already within the experience of the judges and juries. \n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '71734',
'title': 'Polygraph',
'section': 'Section::::Effectiveness.:National Academy of Sciences.\n',
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'passage_text': 'When polygraphs are used as a screening tool (in national security matters and for law enforcement agencies for example) the level of accuracy drops to such a level that "Its accuracy in distinguishing actual or potential security violators from innocent test takers is insufficient to justify reliance on its use in employee security screening in federal agencies." The NAS concluded that the polygraph "may have some utility" but that there is "little basis for the expectation that a polygraph test could have extremely high accuracy".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '71734',
'title': 'Polygraph',
'section': 'Section::::Use.:India.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
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'passage_text': 'On May 5, 2010, The Supreme Court of India declared use of narcoanalysis, brain mapping and polygraph tests on suspects as illegal and against the constitution if consent is not obtained and forced. Article 20(3) of the Indian Constitution states: "No person accused of any offence shall be compelled to be a witness against himself." Polygraph tests are still legal if the defendant requests one.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '71734',
'title': 'Polygraph',
'section': 'Section::::Security clearances.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 57,
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'passage_text': 'A security clearance in the United States may not be revoked based solely on polygraph results. However, a person\'s access to sensitive information may be denied if the polygraph results are not favorable. In addition, persons being considered for a government position or job may be denied the employment, if the position specifically requires successful completion of a polygraph examination. It is difficult to precisely determine the effectiveness of polygraph results for the detection or deterrence of spying. It is inadmissible as evidence in most federal courts and military courts martial. The polygraph is more often used as a deterrent to espionage rather than detection. One exception to this was the case of Harold James Nicholson, a CIA employee later convicted of spying for Russia. In 1995, Nicholson had undergone his periodic five year reinvestigation where he showed a strong probability of deception on questions regarding relationships with a foreign intelligence unit. This polygraph test later launched an investigation which resulted in his eventual arrest and conviction. In most cases, however, polygraphs are more of a tool to "scare straight" those who would consider espionage. Jonathan Pollard was advised by his Israeli handlers that he was to resign his job from American intelligence if he was ever told he was subject to a polygraph test. Likewise, John Anthony Walker was advised by his handlers not to engage in espionage until he had been promoted to the highest position for which a polygraph test was not required, to refuse promotion to higher positions for which polygraph tests were required, and to retire when promotion was mandated. As part of his plea bargain agreement for his case of espionage for the Soviet Union, Robert Hanssen would be made to undergo a polygraph at any time as a means of damage assessment. In Hanssen\'s 25-year career with the FBI, not once was he made to undergo a polygraph.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why law enforcement uses polygraphs but they are not admissible in court',
'selftext': 'If polygraphs are not reliable enough to be admissible in court then why do law enforcement use them to help eliminate suspects or possibly confirm their suspicions?',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Because even though it might not be admissible In court, it\'ll flag people who are worth investigating further... and when you investigate those people further, you WILL find evidence that IS admissible in court.\n\nEg: \nCop: "Did you kill her?" \nMurderer: "Naw!" \nPolygraph: "He\'s lying." \nCop: "So, if I check inside your house, I won\'t find a murder weapon?" \nMurderer: "Hale naw!" \nPolygraph: "He\'s telling the truth." \nCop: "And if I check your car?" \nMurderer: "Aw hell naw, bacon! There ain\'t nuffink in my motor! What is this?" \nPolygraph: "He\'s lying." \nCop: "I\'m totally checking your car." \n\nShort version - information gained by polygraph may not be admissible in court, but it can definitely still be useful when conducting an investigation. In this example, the cop might have wired up forty people, and asked them all if they killed the victim... and then only pressed further when the machine said that the person was lying about it.\n\nThat\'s the ELI5.',
'It is a useful tool for finding pressure points.\n\nThere are two types of modern police interrogations - reid method and interrogative. Interrogative - That is basically questioning people until you catch them in lies. Knowing which questions to ask is very helpful. Reid method is basically accusing them of doing something in a manner that follows a storyline.\n\nObviously, a trained liar has a better chance of passing a polygraph with discipline. Thing is that most criminals aren\'t highly trained or as sociopathic/anhedonic as is required to maintain the cool required to pass a polygraph in a simple criminal investigation. \n\nWhile the polygraph can be very revealing, it isn\'t considered admissible because of the technical arguments for guilt are easily refuted with arguments by the defense for "innocent behavior".',
"Mind games. \nPolygraphs make people nervous. It's harder to lie or keep a story straight when you're nervous. This means you're more likely to say something the cops find suspicious or incriminating - even if you're innocent. You might even get so nervous to confess to something you didn't do or some other bad thing you did do."],
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'query_id': 'a6ua46',
'query': 'why law enforcement uses polygraphs but they are not admissible in court',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '4745',
'title': 'Black people',
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'passage_text': 'Black people is a skin group-based classification used for specific people with a mid to dark brown complexion. Not all "black people" are dark skinned. However, in certain countries, often in socially based systems of racial classification in the Western World, it is used to describe persons who are perceived to be dark-skinned when compared to other populations. Depending on the usage, it is mostly used for the people of Sub-Saharan Africa and the indigenous peoples of Oceania, Southeast Asia and India.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38079914',
'title': 'Dark skin',
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'passage_text': 'Dark skin is the human skin color—effectively some shade of brown—that is rich in melanin, especially, eumelanin pigments. People with very dark skin are often referred to as "black people", although this usage can be ambiguous in some countries where it is also used to specifically refer to different ethnic groups or populations.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36120567',
'title': 'Shades of black',
'section': 'Section::::Black.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'Black is a color, the perception of which is evoked by the total absence of light that stimulates any of the three types of color sensitive cone cells in the human eye and with very low brightness compared to the surroundings. A black visual stimulation will be void of hue and grayness. Black is the darkest possible color.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '163408',
'title': 'Mestizo',
'section': 'Section::::Former Portuguese colonies.:Lusophone South America.:Brazilian mestiço.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 114,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Other people who are not brown (and thus not ), but also their phenotypes by anything other than skin, hair and eye color do not match white ones but rather those of people of color may be just referred to as , without specification to skin color with an identitarian connotation (there are the distinctions, though, of , for the fair-skinned ones, and , for those of olive skin tones). In Brazilian censuses, those people may choose to identify mostly with (White) or (brown) or leave the question on ethnic/color blank.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '163408',
'title': 'Mestizo',
'section': 'Section::::Former Portuguese colonies.:Lusophone South America.:Brazilian mestiço.\n',
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'passage_text': "One of the most notorious group is the (brown people), also informally known as (tan skinned people; given its euphemism-like nature, it may be interpreted as offensive). They include mostly those of non-white skin color. Nevertheless, not all are . For example, an Amerindian (initially and most often , often more formally , rarely , an East Indian ()) or a Filipino may be initially described as (in opposition to , white, , Afro, and , yellow) if his or her ethnicity is unknown, and it is testified by the initial discovery reports of Portuguese navigators. In the same way, , a term used to describe anyone with any degree of miscegenation in one's blood line, may apply to all said groups (that in Portugal and its ex-colonies, always depended solely on phenotype, meaning a brown person may have a full sibling of all other basic phenotypes and thus ethnic groups).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1631652',
'title': 'Nordic race',
'section': 'Section::::Nordicism.:Nordicist thought in Germany.:Nazi Nordicism.\n',
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'passage_text': "Who of us is racially pure? Even if somebody's appearance is Nordic he might be a bastard inside. That somebody is blond and blue-eyed does not mean that he is racially pure. He might even be a degenerate coward. Bastardization shows in different aspects. We have to be on our guard against racial arrogance. Racial arrogance would be as devastating as hatred among classes.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10867610',
'title': 'Archibald Motley',
'section': 'Section::::Skin tone and identity.\n',
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'passage_text': "They're not all the same color, they're not all black, they're not all, as they used to say years ago, high yellow, they're not all brown. I try to give each one of them character as individuals. And that's hard to do when you have so many figures to do, putting them all together and still have them have their characteristics. (Motley, 1978)\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How can people with dark skin say they\'re, "Half-white" and white people can say they\'re, "Half-black"?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['No, race is a complicated and mostly made up categorization. It includes culture and characteristics beyond phenotypes including historical affiliation.\n\nIts not a good categorization, but its more complicated than just skin tone.',
'Differences are more noticeable than similarities within a group.\n\nWithin a population of white people, someone with mixed blood are not going to be called "half-white." They are classified by how they are different: "half-black," "half-Asian," etc.\n\nThe same thing happens in fantasy worlds. We have mixed blood "races" described as half-elf and half-orc because the descriptions are human-centric. But for a bunch of elves, a half-elf would be considered half-human.',
'If you take race to be ancestry then it’s really about who your parents are. For example, Nazi doctrine defined everyone with at least 1/4 Jewish ancestors as racially Jewish regardless of religion or characteristics.\n\nIf you think of race as a generic heritage, then this has to do with assuming a mix between parents even though each offspring inherits a different subset of genes from their parents so multiple siblings could have different skin tones'],
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'query_id': 'ae8kf0',
'query': 'how can people with dark skin say they\'re, "half-white" and white people can say they\'re, "half-black"?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '48195554',
'title': 'Melon soup',
'section': 'Section::::Varieties.:Watermelon soup.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Watermelon soup is prepared with watermelon as a primary ingredient, and may be served chilled. The seeds of the watermelon may be removed, or seedless watermelon may be used, and additional ingredients can include additional fruits, ginger, chili pepper and sugar.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52753346',
'title': 'Sukiyan',
'section': 'Section::::Preparation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Sukiyan is prepared by cooking green gram in enough water. Water is drained out. Boiled Jaggery is mixed with grated coconut and this green gram. To this mixture cardamom powder, cumin powder and dried ginger powder. Small balls are made out of this mixture and kept aside. This is further covered with a mixture of maida, rice flour and a pinch of turmeric. Turmeric gives the yellow hue to this snack. This is then deep fried, preferably in coconut oil or any other vegetable oil.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29287934',
'title': 'Hydrophile',
'section': 'Section::::Molecules.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 314,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Hydrophilic substances (ex: salts) can seem to attract water out of the air. Sugar is also hydrophilic, and like salt is sometimes used to draw water out of foods. Sugar sprinkled on cut fruit will "draw out the water" through hydrophilia, making the fruit mushy and wet, as in a common strawberry compote recipe.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20596557',
'title': 'Watermelon',
'section': 'Section::::Food and beverage.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 59,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 59,
'end_character': 201,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Watermelons are a sweet, popular fruit of summer, usually consumed fresh in slices, diced in mixed fruit salads, or as juice. Watermelon juice can be blended with other fruit juices or made into wine.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '857823',
'title': 'Snow cone',
'section': 'Section::::Similar confections.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 1029,
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'passage_text': 'In Perú this dessert is called Raspadilla, which is served in cups along with a spoon and/or a straw. It consists in ground ice which is thick and topped with juices of different flavors that can be combined, regularly the most common flavors are pineapple and strawberry juices but it can also be served with berries juice, passion fruit juice (maracuya), chicha morada (purple corn juice), and in some cases but uncommon it can be topped with condensed milk or yogurt. Its very popular in the beaches during summertime, but it also is consumed in the towns and the cities as well. It is sold in carts spread around some streets and avenues of the city, being prepared at the moment (some of them grind the ice in a block with a device or some spoon with a blade like razor in one end, others have the ice already ground stored in a coolerbox) but all of them serve the portion of ice in the cup in front of the customer and then ask which flavor of juice would be poured on top of the ice, then they put a spoon and the straw.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8321003',
'title': 'Watermelon steak',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 479,
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'passage_text': 'If the watermelon is baked, a texture like raw fish can result, "Boston Phoenix" writer Robert Nadeau comparing a grilled watermelon to seared, raw tuna. He added that the flavor of the fruit "isn\'t sweet, although it isn\'t meaty either, but enough of the browning comes through to make it a little like a piece of meat". When well cooked, most of the fruit\'s water evaporates, concentrating flavor and texture while leaving the watermelon tender, "kind of like a fillet steak".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '433851',
'title': 'Orgeat syrup',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Orgeat syrup is a sweet syrup made from almonds, sugar, and rose water or orange flower water. It was originally made with a barley-almond blend. It has a pronounced almond taste and is used to flavor many cocktails. Orgeat syrup is an important ingredient in the Mai Tai and many Tiki drinks.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How to choose delicious watermelon?',
'selftext': 'Hi,guys. Hot summer is around corner. Does anyone know how to choose delicious watermelon by its appearance or something else?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Weight and sound. The heaviest one per size means that they have more water, and usually more sweetness. When you tap on the watermelon it should be more of a dull/muffled thud rather than a higher pitched sound.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '69y5jv',
'query': 'how to choose delicious watermelon?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '15525006',
'title': 'List of binary codes',
'section': 'Section::::Other.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Morse code is a variable length telegraphy code, which traditionally uses a series of long and short pulses to encode characters. It relies on gaps between the pulses to provide separation between letters and words, as the letter codes do not have the "prefix property". Morse code can be represented as a binary stream by allowing each bit to represent one unit of time. Thus a "dit" or "dot" is represented as a single 1 bit, while a "dah" or "dash" is represented as three consecutive 1 bits. Spaces between symbols, letters and words are represented as one, three, or seven consecutive 0 bits. For example, "UP" in Morse Code is "..- .--.", which could be represented in binary as "101011100010111011101".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18935',
'title': 'Morse code',
'section': 'Section::::Representation, timing, and speeds.:Transmission.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 59,
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'end_paragraph_id': 59,
'end_character': 396,
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'passage_text': 'Morse code is transmitted using just two states (on and off). Historians have called it the first digital code. Morse code may be represented as a binary code, and that is what telegraph operators do when transmitting messages. Working from the above ITU definition and further defining a bit as a dot time, a Morse code sequence may be made from a combination of the following five bit-strings:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18935',
'title': 'Morse code',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Morse code is usually transmitted by on-off keying of an information carrying medium such as electric current, radio waves, visible light or sound waves. The current or wave is present during time period of the dot or dash and absent during the time between dots and dashes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27944981',
'title': 'Timeline of United States inventions (before 1890)',
'section': 'Section::::Independence and the Federalist Era (1776–1801).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 89,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Morse code is a type of character encoding that transmits telegraphic information using rhythm. Morse code uses a standardized sequence of short and long elements to represent the letters, numerals, punctuation, and special characters of a given message. After many years of development, an electrical telegraph came to exclusively refer to a signaling telegram, as an operator makes and breaks an electrical contact with a telegraph key, resulting in an audible signal at the other end produced by a telegraph sounder which is interpreted and transcribed by an operator. The short and long elements are formed by sounds, marks, or pulses, in on off keying and are commonly known as "dots" and "dashes" or "dits" and "dahs". In 1832, Alfred Vail in collaboration with Samuel Morse, began the process of co-inventing the Morse code signalling alphabet. After a few minor changes, including the development of International Morse code which is distinct from the original encoding system, American Morse code, Morse code was standardized in 1865 by the International Telegraphy Congress in Paris, France and later made the norm by the International Telecommunication Union. After 160 years of continuous use, international regulations beginning on January 31, 1999, no longer required ships at sea to call for help in an emergency using Morse code or the famous SOS signal.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '679207',
'title': 'Telegraph code',
'section': 'Section::::Manual telegraph codes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Morse code can be transmitted and received with very simple electrical equipment, such as the electrical telegraph invented in 1816. Morse code represents each letter of the alphabet as a series of "dots and dashes" (short and long bursts of electronically-generated noise). The speed of sending is directly related to the length of the shortest (dot) element: a dash is three dots long, an inter-character gap is the same length (3 dots), and inter-word and sentence gaps should be 5 or 7 dots long (change from earlier standard – 5 dots). The speed of sending is also referred to as words per minute, and is classically based on the \'paris\' formula - as \'paris\' is considered to be an average length word. See main article on Morse Code.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18935',
'title': 'Morse code',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Morse code is a character encoding scheme used in telecommunication that encodes text characters as standardized sequences of two different signal durations called "dots" and "dashes" or "dits" and "dahs". Morse code is named for Samuel F. B. Morse, an inventor of the telegraph.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5573125',
'title': 'Morse code mnemonics',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Morse code mnemonics are systems to represent the sound of Morse characters in a way intended to be easy to remember. Since every one of these mnemonics requires a two-step mental translation between sound and character, none of these systems are useful for using manual Morse at practical speeds. Amateur radio clubs can provide resources to learn Morse code. \n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does Morse code work',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['With silences. A silence the duration of three dots separates between letters, while a silence with the duration of 7 dots separates between words.',
"Morse code comes from a time when we couldn't transmit voice or video over wired and wireless links yet.\n\nImagine having a radio where the only reliable sound you can make is a beep. So we invented a method of using different beeps to represent a message.\n\nMorse consists of 3 symbols.\n\nA dot or short beep\n\nA dash or a long beep\n\nAnd a space or silence\n\nEach letter and number is encoded using a series of these symbols separated by a space to represent the end of a word.\n\nInterestingly a lot of abbreviations we still use comes from Morse. Like MSG for Message, or OK for okay. This was to make it easier to transmit messages. So technically we've been using internet slang since the Morse days.\n\nThe most famous one of course being SOS (Save our Souls) which was used because SOS in Morse is ... - - - ... which was very easier to transmit and very noticeable.\n\nIf you've studied aviation at all you would know that all airports have a 3-digit designation like YYZ (Toronto) which also comes from the Morse days\n\nWhen you get good at it people can listen to morse and translate it live.\n\nThis is a live translator that you can input words and sentences and see what the output would sound like in Morse. You can hear the spaces.\n\n_URL_0_",
'Letters, words, and sentences were separated by increasing amounts of silence.\n\nAlso, telegraph operators would typically write the letters down as they arrived, and if something was unclear you could figure it out by context.',
'It\'s all about the timing. A dash has to be a certain length of time (something like the time of two dots, I think), and a break between letters is another certain length of time, and the break between a wordis a longer length of time.\n\nIt means that the system can transmit as fast or as slow as you like, because it\'s about the rhythm and spacing and consistency, rather than anything else. It also means that it\'s as simple as possible - you can transmit with a "dot" that you can only turn on/off once a second (e.g. a lightbulb that\'s slow to come on), or at 100WPM... so long as a dash is the same length of time as X amount of dots, and the breaks are the appropriate number of "dot" pauses.\n\nAnd you only need ONE signal - digital on or off. No guesswork, interpretation, etc. required.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'fossrl',
'query': 'how does morse code work',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '36777018',
'title': 'Causes of cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Lifestyle.:Obesity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 46,
'end_character': 290,
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'passage_text': 'Physical inactivity is believed to contribute to cancer risk not only through its effect on body weight but also through negative effects on immune system and endocrine system. More than half of the effect from diet is due to overnutrition rather than from eating too little healthy foods.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29088737',
'title': 'Cancer-related fatigue',
'section': 'Section::::Management.:Addressing specific causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
'end_character': 295,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Nutritional disturbances: Patients may have difficulty eating, may not be absorbing food well, or may have chosen an extreme diet as an alternative cancer treatment. Loss of appetite, diarrhea and vomiting may result in the patient consuming too few calories or becoming dehydrated.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '261613',
'title': 'Stomach cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Diet.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 464,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Dietary factors are not proven causes and the association between stomach cancer and various foods and beverages is weak. Some foods including smoked foods, salt and salt-rich foods, red meat, processed meat, pickled vegetables, and bracken are associated with a higher risk of stomach cancer. Nitrates and nitrites in cured meats can be converted by certain bacteria, including "H. pylori", into compounds that have been found to cause stomach cancer in animals.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '729500',
'title': 'Head and neck cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Prognosis.:Digestive system.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 133,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 133,
'end_character': 568,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The treatments for throat cancer can also be harmful to the digestive system as well as other body systems. Radiation therapy can lead to nausea and vomiting, which can deprive a body of vital fluids (although these may be obtained through intravenous fluids if necessary). Frequent vomiting can lead to an electrolyte imbalance which has serious consequences for the proper functioning of the heart. Frequent vomiting can also upset the balance of stomach acids which has a negative impact on the digestive system, especially the lining of the stomach and esophagus.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '261613',
'title': 'Stomach cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Prevention.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 52,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 530,
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'passage_text': 'Getting rid of "H. pylori" in those who are infected decreases the risk of stomach cancer, at least in those who are Asian. A 2014 meta-analysis of observational studies found that a diet high in fruits, mushrooms, garlic, soybeans, and green onions was associated with a lower risk of stomach cancer in the Korean population. Low doses of vitamins, especially from a healthy diet, decrease the risk of stomach cancer. A previous review of antioxidant supplementation did not find supporting evidence and possibly worse outcomes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '88078',
'title': 'Prostate cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Prevention.:Diet and lifestyle.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 68,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 68,
'end_character': 406,
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'passage_text': 'Consuming fish may lower prostate-cancer deaths but does not appear to affect its occurrence. Some evidence supports lower rates of prostate cancer with a vegetarian diet. There is some tentative evidence for foods containing lycopene and selenium. Diets rich in cruciferous vegetables, soy, beans and other legumes may be associated with a lower risk of prostate cancer, especially more advanced cancers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '105219',
'title': 'Cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Local symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 808,
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'passage_text': 'Local symptoms may occur due to the mass of the tumor or its ulceration. For example, mass effects from lung cancer can block the bronchus resulting in cough or pneumonia; esophageal cancer can cause narrowing of the esophagus, making it difficult or painful to swallow; and colorectal cancer may lead to narrowing or blockages in the bowel, affecting bowel habits. Masses in breasts or testicles may produce observable lumps. Ulceration can cause bleeding that, if it occurs in the lung, will lead to coughing up blood, in the bowels to anemia or rectal bleeding, in the bladder to blood in the urine and in the uterus to vaginal bleeding. Although localized pain may occur in advanced cancer, the initial swelling is usually painless. Some cancers can cause a buildup of fluid within the chest or abdomen.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'are there any negative side effects to eating a tumor?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['When you say eat, do you mean like eating with your mouth and digestive system or like with your immune system attacking something?',
'I’m honestly not sure how much nutritional benefit could be gained, but it wouldn’t be poisonous nor give you cancer. Only side effect would be grossing out the redditors who read your question, afaik. ',
'No more so than eating non-cancerous tissue of the same cell type.\n\nMammalian cells can’t survive the digestion process, only a few specialized bacteria have that honor. The tumor would be broken down and digested just like any other animal tissue. \n\nAs for how it would taste, that would depend on the type of cell the tumor was made of and how it was prepared, but likely it wouldn’t be very good.',
'I love how this question is tagged “learning” as if anyone here is going to apply this knowledge ',
"I don't know if this applies to humans, but there are known instances of contagious cancers. One example is the Tasmanian devil, who has been decimated by a contagious face cancer. \n\nJust to be on the safe side, I would advise *against* eating a tumor.",
"Biologically, there probably wouldn't be any negative effects, as the tissue would be broken down during the digestion process. Socially though, I would think cannibalism would be looked down on.",
'I had a small fatty, gelatinous tumor removed from my breast called a myxoma and enjoyed it atop a ceasar salad alongside some green olives.',
'I got a piece of fried chicken with a tumor on it. I am no doctor, if this it wasn’t a tumor I don’t know what the hell it was. It looked like regular chicken meat other than the fact it was a strange out of place growth. Ate around it, but I bet it would have tasted like chicken.',
"A tumor is still organic tissue, it would be destroyed in the digestion process, as for the taste, it depends of what kind of tumor and obviously if it's cooked, seasoned, etc.",
' > *What would it taste like?*\n\nPicture this conversation:\n\n < chewing > \n\n\n"It might be a tumor."\n\n"It\'s not a tumah."\n\n & #x200B;',
"An unusual but interesting question. \n\nAs mentioned, beyond a possible change in texture and possibly taste, i do not expect a particular difference from regular tissues. \n\nI also suspect the cow industry doesn't segregate cancerous parts. That would be very difficult. \n\nIn other words : I'm pretty sure that Macdonald burgers would already have some, very regularly. ",
'Have you been listening to Nirvana?',
'The more important question here, is why? ',
'I read that as "tuber" and thought "No, why are you asking?" Now I\'m gonna go and throw up.',
"Thanks for asking this gross question. I recently found out I'd spent the last little while swallowing semen from a cancerous testicle. And I was mildly concerned but know cancer isn't contagious. I still didn't know if this was different as the cells were entering my body. as I'm not the one seeing an oncologist, I have no clue where to ask. Google mildly reassured it was safe. I'd still like more reassurance.\n\n(the guy didn't know either. Just found out a few weeks ago) "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9iw7pm',
'query': 'are there any negative side effects to eating a tumor?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '5398797',
'title': 'Exogenous DNA',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'Transformation of bacteria, plant cells and animal cells has important research and commercial functions. Targeted introduction of exogenous DNA is used to identify genes because the introduced DNA can act cause a mutation or altered expression of the gene into which it inserts. This technology, known as insertion mutagenesis, often employs retroviruses as the vectors of DNA delivery. Such insertion mutagenesis has been often used to identify many oncogenes in specific locations in tumor cells.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1460525',
'title': 'Oncovirus',
'section': 'Section::::DNA Oncoviruses.:Variations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 44,
'end_character': 342,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'DNA oncoviruses typically cause cancer by inactivating p53 and Rb, thereby allowing unregulated cell division and creating tumors. There may be many different mechanisms which have evolved separately; in addition to those described above, for example, the Hepatitis B virus (an RNA virus) inactivates p53 by sequestering it in the cytoplasm.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12891',
'title': 'Gene therapy',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 501,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Generally, efforts focused on administering a gene that causes a needed protein to be expressed. More recently, increased understanding of nuclease function has led to more direct DNA editing, using techniques such as zinc finger nucleases and CRISPR. The vector incorporates genes into chromosomes. The expressed nucleases then knock out and replace genes in the chromosome. these approaches involve removing cells from patients, editing a chromosome and returning the transformed cells to patients.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36836014',
'title': 'Jennifer Doudna',
'section': 'Section::::Career and research.:CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing discovery.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 1065,
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'passage_text': 'In 2012, Doudna and her colleagues made a new discovery that reduces the time and work needed to edit genomic DNA. Their discovery relies on a protein named Cas9 found in the Streptococcus bacterial "CRISPR" immune system that cooperates with guide RNA and works like scissors. The protein attacks its prey, the DNA of viruses, and slices it up, preventing it from infecting the bacterium. This system had been known but she and Charpentier showed for the first time that they could use different RNAs to program it to cut and edit different DNAs. In 2015, Doudna gave a TED Talk about the bioethics of using CRISPR. As CRISPR becomes increasingly used to edit multicellular organisms, Doudna continues to be called upon to speak clearly about the ethics of changing an organism\'s function using CRISPR. Their discovery has since been further developed by many research groups for applications ranging from fundamental cell biology, plant, and animal research to treatments for diseases including sickle cell anemia, cystic fibrosis, Huntington\'s disease, and HIV.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41602531',
'title': 'Horizon Discovery',
'section': 'Section::::Gene Editing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 431,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Gene editing is the process by which specific changes are made to the sequence of a gene within the context of a host cell. By editing the code of a patient-derived cell to introduce or repair a genetic change believed to drive disease, a patient’s disease can be reproduced in a laboratory setting, letting researchers ask important biological questions of potential drugs or cell therapies earlier in the drug discovery process.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25799',
'title': 'Retrovirus',
'section': 'Section::::Provirus.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 414,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'This DNA can be incorporated into host genome as a provirus that can be passed on to progeny cells. The retrovirus DNA is inserted at random into the host genome. Because of this, it can be inserted into oncogenes. In this way some retroviruses can convert normal cells into cancer cells. Some provirus remains latent in the cell for a long period of time before it is activated by the change in cell environment.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8489099',
'title': 'Crosslinking of DNA',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Crosslinking of DNA and protein.:Clinical treatments.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
'end_character': 530,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'DNA repair pathways can result in the formation of tumor cells. Cancer treatments have been engineered using DNA cross-linking agents to interact with nitrogenous bases of DNA to block DNA replication. These cross-linking agents have the ability to act as single-agent therapies by targeting and destroying specific nucleotides in cancerous cells. This result is stopping the cycle and growth of cancer cells; because it inhibits specific DNA repair pathways, this approach has a potential advantage in having fewer side effects.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': '- I saw a TED video today about altering the DNA in bacteria to fight cancer. How does one "Edit" the DNA in something??',
'selftext': "In the video (and similar videos I've seen) they say that they change the DNA to change the organisms' function, but not how they do it. I know DNA can change through mutation, but how do geneticists alter DNA sequence??",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Kurzgesagt made [the most clear and amazing video](_URL_0_) about how we can use CRISPR to edit DNA',
'So the most common and promising method, which is still pretty early on, is called CRISPR-Cas9. \n\nBasically it’s a modified version of a bacterial defense system. Bacteria basically use it to help cut out attacks by viruses and stuff. The enzyme, Cas9 basically finds strands of DNA that match a certain template and just cut it out to prevent it from causing damage. \n\nScientists realized though that this was programmable. They could give it basically any DNA strand and it could find it and cut it out, either removing it entirely or replacing it with something else. \n\nIt’s still a fairly newish technology, and there’s concerns about if it makes extra changes and what kind of unexpected side effects could occur from changing DNA we don’t fully understand, but it could be some game changing stuff in the not too distant future.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'e8wh8k',
'query': '- i saw a ted video today about altering the dna in bacteria to fight cancer. how does one "edit" the dna in something??',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '55112880',
'title': 'Cute aggression',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Cute aggression is superficially aggressive behaviour caused by seeing something cute, such as a human baby or young animal. People experiencing cute aggression may grit their teeth, clench their fists, or feel the urge to pinch and squeeze something they consider cute, while not actually causing or intending to cause any harm.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52396167',
'title': 'Sianne Ngai',
'section': 'Section::::Publications.:"Our Aesthetic Categories" (2012).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': '"Cute" is a much more ambivalent description than social niceties will allow us to admit. When we snatch up something cute in an embrace, we pantomime the act of defending a defenseless little pal from an imaginary threat, but the rigid urgency of our embrace, and the concomitant \'devouring-in-kisses\' suggests that what we\'re protecting the cute thing from is ourselves.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55112880',
'title': 'Cute aggression',
'section': 'Section::::Terminology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'Playful aggression is in reference to the expressions that people show sometimes when interacting with babies. Sometimes we say things and appear to be more angry than happy, even though we are happy. For example some people grit their teeth, clench their hands, pinch cheeks, or say things like “I want to eat you up!” It would be difficult to ask about every possible behavior of playful aggression, so we ask generally about things of this kind—calling them playful aggressions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6757724',
'title': "It's All Coming Back to Me Now",
'section': 'Section::::Inspiration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 533,
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'passage_text': "It's about obsession, and that can be scary because you're not in control and you don't know where it's going to stop. It says that, at any point in somebody's life, when they loved somebody strongly enough and that person returns, a certain touch, a certain physical gesture can turn them from being defiant and disgusted with this person to being subservient again. And it's not just a pleasurable feeling that comes back, it's the complete terror and loss of control that comes back. And I think that's ultimately a great weapon.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '768817',
'title': 'Amusement',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Amusement is considered an "epistemological" emotion because humor occurs when one experiences a cognitive shift from one knowledge structure about a target to another, such as hearing the punchline of a joke. The pleasant surprise that happens from learning this new information leads to a state of amusement which people often express through smiling, laughter or chuckling.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44896434',
'title': 'Cute High Earth Defense Club Love!',
'section': 'Section::::Characters.:Season 2.:Monsters.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 292,
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'passage_text': "People who are overcome with jealously and are turned into monsters by The Vepper by launching Dadacha at their victim, after which he latches himself to the victim's face and transforms the said victim into a loveless. The names of the loveless are puns on what kind of monster they become.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55112880',
'title': 'Cute aggression',
'section': 'Section::::Terminology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'The concept of playful aggression is also captured in several non-English terms. In Filipino, for example, the word "gigil" refers to "the gritting of teeth and the urge to pinch or squeeze something that is unbearably cute."\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do we sometimes get the urge to do violent things to cute things?',
'selftext': "Edit: Something along the lines of [Key and Peele's comedy sketch]( URL_0 )",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["I think it's probably along the same lines of why we think about jumping off a cliff when we get too close to the edge. We are analyzing outcomes and consequences. It's a totally normal thing to do, it likely keeps us from actually doing these things because we examine the situation and outcomes instead of acting them out in real life and seeing what happens. ",
'Look up the term cute aggression.\n\nA popsci article talks a little about it [here](_URL_0_), but it is mostly speculative as to "why." \n\n"The study\'s researchers, led by Rebecca Dyer, a graduate student in psychology at Yale University, dubs the phenomenon "cute aggression."\n\n"We think it\'s about high positive-affect, an approach orientation and almost a sense of lost control," she said. It\'s so adorable, it drives you crazy."',
'I read an article about this once, basically the first reaction to something cute is extremely positive and the secondary response (violence) is a way of counteracting the super positive reaction.',
'It\'s called "The Imp of the Perverse." Essentially, it\'s the urge to do something wrong simply because you can. It\'s similar to "Call of the Void," but involves outwardly destructive behavior rather than self-destructive. \n\nAs for why it happens, we don\'t really know for sure. Like /u/phlegming11 said, it could be your brain playing through a scenario to assess possible outcomes. However, it doesn\'t explain why we actually have the urge rather than just imagining it in our minds.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6lpg6l',
'query': 'why do we sometimes get the urge to do violent things to cute things?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '191490',
'title': 'Machine tool',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "Forerunners of machine tools included bow drills and potter's wheels, which had existed in ancient Egypt prior to 2500 BC, and lathes, known to have existed in multiple regions of Europe since at least 1000 to 500 BC. But it was not until the later Middle Ages and the Age of Enlightenment that the modern concept of a machine tool—a class of machines used as tools in the making of metal parts, and incorporating machine-guided toolpath—began to evolve. Clockmakers of the Middle Ages and renaissance men such as Leonardo da Vinci helped expand humans' technological milieu toward the preconditions for industrial machine tools. During the 18th and 19th centuries, and even in many cases in the 20th, the builders of machine tools tended to be the same people who would then use them to produce the end products (manufactured goods). However, from these roots also evolved an industry of machine tool builders as we define them today, meaning people who specialize in building machine tools for sale to others.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12527374',
'title': 'History of construction',
'section': 'Section::::Iron Age construction.:Ancient Egypt.:Technology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 880,
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'passage_text': 'Although the Egyptians achieved extraordinary feats of engineering, they appear to have done so with relatively primitive technology. As far as is known they did not use wheels or pulleys. They transported massive stones over great distances using rollers, ropes and sledges hauled by large numbers of workers. The ancient Egyptians are credited with inventing the ramp, lever, lathe, oven, ship, paper, irrigation system, window, awning, door, glass, a form of plaster of Paris, the bath, lock, shadoof, weaving, a standardized measurement system, geometry, silo, a method of drilling stone, saw, steam power, proportional scale drawings, enameling, veneer, plywood, rope truss, and more. There are no surviving Egyptian manuals so there has been considerable speculation on how stones were lifted to great heights and obelisks erected. Most theories centre on the use of ramps.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '73327',
'title': 'Minoan civilization',
'section': 'Section::::Agriculture and cuisine.:Tools.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 63,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 63,
'end_character': 417,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Tools, originally made of wood or bone, were bound to handles with leather straps. During the Bronze Age, they were made of bronze with wooden handles. Due to its round hole, the tool head would spin on the handle. The Minoans developed oval-shaped holes in their tools to fit oval-shaped handles, which prevented spinning. Tools included double adzes, double- and single-bladed axes, axe-adzes, sickles and chisels.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '491658',
'title': 'Heavy equipment',
'section': 'Section::::History.:From horses, through steam, to diesel.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 919,
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'passage_text': '"Until almost the twentieth century, one simple tool constituted the primary earthmoving machine: the hand shovel - moved with animal and human powered, sleds, barges, and wagons. This tool was the principal method by which material was either sidecast or elevated to load a conveyance, usually a wheelbarrow, or a cart or wagon drawn by a draft animal. In antiquity, an equivalent of the hand shovel or hoe and head basket—and masses of men—were used to move earth to build civil works. Builders have long used the inclined plane, levers, and pulleys to place solid building materials, but these labor-saving devices did not lend themselves to earthmoving, which required digging, raising, moving, and placing loose materials. The two elements required for mechanized earthmoving, then as now, were an independent power source and off-road mobility, neither of which could be provided by the technology of that time."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '867800',
'title': 'Portsmouth Block Mills',
'section': 'Section::::The manufacture of the block-making machines.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 55,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 55,
'end_character': 770,
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'passage_text': 'These machines were almost entirely hand made, the only machine tools used being lathes to machine circular parts, and drilling machines for boring small holes. At that time there were no milling, planing or shaping machines, and all flat surfaces were made by hand chipping, filing and scraping. There is evidence that the grinding of flats was also done to get near-precision finishes. Each nut was made to fit its matching bolt and were numbered to ensure they were replaced correctly. This was before the days of interchangeability, of course. The materials used were cast and wrought iron, brass and gun metal. The use of metal throughout their construction greatly improved their rigidity and accuracy which became the standard for later machine tool manufacture.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1352555',
'title': 'Wheel and axle',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 710,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'One of the first applications of the wheel to appear was the potter\'s wheel, used by prehistoric cultures to fabricate clay pots. The earliest type, known as "tournettes" or "slow wheels", were known in the Middle East by the 5th millennium\xa0BCE. One of the earliest examples was discovered at Tepe Pardis, Iran, and dated to 5200–4700\xa0BCE. These were made of stone or clay and secured to the ground with a peg in the center, but required significant effort to turn. True potter\'s wheels, which are freely-spinning and have a wheel-and-axle mechanism, were developed in Mesopotamia (Iraq) by 4200–4000\xa0BCE. The oldest surviving example, which was found in Ur (modern day Iraq), dates to approximately 3100\xa0BCE.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19174764',
'title': 'Pointing machine',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 341,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The invention of the tool has been ascribed to both the French sculptor and medallist Nicolas-Marie Gatteaux (1751–1832) and to the British sculptor John Bacon (1740–1799). It was later perfected by Canova. However, similar devices were used in ancient times, when the copying of Greek sculptures for the Roman market was a large industry. \n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How did Humans create perfectly flat objects prior to the invention of advanced tools/machinery?',
'selftext': 'If they used necessary contemporary tools, how did they create those tools to be flat? EDIT: How were these primitive methods of getting a flat surface applied to large-scale constructions and objects? (i.e. furniture, construction materials, etc.)',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['If you just take two moderately flat stones and rub them against each other in random circles, they will wear away the highest points until they get quite flat.\n\n',
'There are no *perfectly* flat objects being made today.\n\nEven the mirrors on giant telescopes have fluctuations on the surface.\n\nIf one wanted to make a fairly flat stone surface with only stone tools available one could use water in a bucket and grind a disk (or whatever) so that the edges and surface are even with the still water.\n\nMetals can be pounded flat pretty easily. Polish them to see how flat they are and work at it some more if necessary.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5m301z',
'query': 'how did humans create perfectly flat objects prior to the invention of advanced tools/machinery?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '722459',
'title': 'Uber',
'section': 'Section::::Criticism.:Alleged short-changing of drivers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 83,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 83,
'end_character': 317,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In May 2017, after the New York Taxi Workers Alliance (NYTWA) filed a class action lawsuit in federal court in New York, Uber admitted to underpaying New York City drivers tens of millions of dollars over 2.5 years by calculating driver commissions on a net amount. Uber agreed to pay the amounts owed plus interest.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16416558',
'title': 'Business idea',
'section': 'Section::::Profitability.:High valued companies making a loss.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 242,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Uber is valued at $50 billion and is making a $417 million operating loss. Despite this, investors are still willing to offer large amounts of money to fund the company because of the potential the company has in the longer term.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45374721',
'title': 'Legality of transportation network companies by jurisdiction',
'section': 'Section::::Legality by country.:United Kingdom.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 196,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 196,
'end_character': 209,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In November 2018, Uber was fined £385,000 under the Data Protection Act 1998 for a data breach affecting 35 million users worldwide, and more detailed data from 3.7 million drivers including their weekly pay.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39502824',
'title': 'Sharing economy',
'section': 'Section::::Criticism.:Relationship to job loss.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 107,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 107,
'end_character': 342,
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'passage_text': 'However, in a report published in January 2017, Carl Benedikt Frey found that while the introduction of Uber had not led to jobs being lost, but had caused a reduction in the incomes of incumbent taxi drivers of almost 10%. Frey found that the "sharing economy", and Uber in particular, has had substantial negative impacts on workers wages.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50824743',
'title': 'Carl Benedikt Frey',
'section': 'Section::::Other work.:The Uber effect.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 378,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In "Drivers of Disruption? Estimating the Uber Effect", Frey found that while the introduction of Uber had not led to jobs being lost, but had caused a reduction in the incomes of incumbent taxi drivers of almost 10 percent. On Al Jazeera he called the TFL decision to restrict Uber in London a massive transfer of consumer surplus from millions of users to a few taxi drivers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24437894',
'title': 'Boston',
'section': 'Section::::Economy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 67,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 67,
'end_character': 226,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "In 2019, a yearly ranking of time wasted in traffic listed Boston area drivers lost approximately 164 hours a year in lost productivity due to the area's traffic congestion. This amounted to $2,300 a year per driver in costs.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60629787',
'title': "2019 Lyft and Uber drivers' strikes",
'section': 'Section::::Demands.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 340,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In Los Angeles, Uber and Lyft drivers demanded that the companies pay their drivers a base minimum wage of $27.86 an hour, so that pay after expenses, such as gas and toll roads, would be at least $17.22, allowing drivers to keep up with the rising cost of living in the city. Further demands include overtime pay, and healthcare benefits.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does Uber lose so much money annually?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Because Uber is undercharging for rides (charging customers less then the net amount being paid to the drivers) in an attempt to force the competition out of business and gain a monopoly, after which they can charge what they want because they'll be the only choice.",
"Uber heavily subsidizes each trip. ie when you book a trip on Uber it costs Uber more than you're paying. Uber has some costs: the biggest is paying their drivers but there are also costs involved in running and maintaining the app and marketing to consumers and recruiting drivers. They're also investing heavily in expanding their business and in developing driverless cars technology. ",
"Uber loses money because they are investing in scaling their business...\n\nThey are spending a ton of money on litigation and lobbying to be allowed to operate, since most urban areas had strict regulations on taxi services. They are fighting law suits, they are hiring lobbyist to pitch legislation changes to allow them to operate.\n\nUber also needs to build a symbiotic network of drivers and passengers in order for their platform to work. Drivers don't drive if there's no passengers, and customers won't use this service is they can't dependably get a ride when they need one. This means sign-on bonuses to drivers and discounts/artificially low fares to lure in passengers to build up a base of supply and demand.\n\nOnce they've established that they can operate legally, and have a base of drivers and passengers, then those expenses taper off considerably and the make profits.",
'I saw a study not that long ago (end of 2016?) that basically looked at how Uber can lose so much money. They found that if they stopped spending money on expansion, and just operated in their current markets, they would be profitable. They are constantly trying to grow into markets, which is very expensive. The idea is that they are "investing in the future" and once they are in all these markets, it gives them more avenues for profit. It\'s about growth basically.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6ktl0f',
'query': 'how does uber lose so much money annually?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '60737',
'title': 'Bond (finance)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'Bonds and stocks are both securities, but the major difference between the two is that (capital) stockholders have an equity stake in a company (that is, they are owners), whereas bondholders have a creditor stake in the company (that is, they are lenders). Being a creditor, bondholders have priority over stockholders. This means they will be repaid in advance of stockholders, but will rank behind secured creditors, in the event of bankruptcy.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3154281',
'title': 'Fed model',
'section': 'Section::::Support.:Competing assets argument.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 311,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Stocks and bonds are competing asset classes for investors. When stocks yield more than bonds, investors are better off investing in stocks. When funds flow from bonds into stocks on a large scale, the yield on bonds should increase and the yield on stocks decrease, until the Fed model equilibrium is reached.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2029112',
'title': 'Bond market',
'section': 'Section::::Bond investments.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 337,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Because most bonds have predictable income, they are typically purchased as part of a more conservative investment scheme. Nevertheless, investors have the ability to actively trade bonds, especially corporate bonds and municipal bonds with the market and can make or lose money depending on economic, interest rate, and issuer factors.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60737',
'title': 'Bond (finance)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Thus a bond is a form of loan or IOU: the "holder" of the bond is the lender (creditor), the "issuer" of the bond is the borrower (debtor), and the "coupon" is the interest. Bonds provide the borrower with external funds to finance long-term investments, or, in the case of government bonds, to finance current expenditure. Certificates of deposit (CDs) or short-term commercial paper are considered to be money market instruments and not bonds: the main difference is the length of the term of the instrument.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19372783',
'title': 'Stock',
'section': 'Section::::Shares.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 225,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, South Africa, and Australia, "stock" can also refer to completely different financial instruments such as government bonds or, less commonly, to all kinds of marketable securities.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60737',
'title': 'Bond (finance)',
'section': 'Section::::Investing in bonds.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 108,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 108,
'end_character': 523,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Bonds are bought and traded mostly by institutions like central banks, sovereign wealth funds, pension funds, insurance companies, hedge funds, and banks. Insurance companies and pension funds have liabilities which essentially include fixed amounts payable on predetermined dates. They buy the bonds to match their liabilities, and may be compelled by law to do this. Most individuals who want to own bonds do so through bond funds. Still, in the U.S., nearly 10% of all bonds outstanding are held directly by households.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '93768',
'title': 'Government bond',
'section': 'Section::::U.S. Government Bonds.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 39,
'end_character': 335,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The bonds are sold through an auction system by the government. The bonds are buying and selling on the secondary market, the financial market in which financial instruments such as stock, bond, option and futures are traded. The secondary market may be separate into two market categories over-the-counter market and exchange market.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What are bonds, and what is the difference between stocks and bonds?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['A Bond is a certification of a debt. Where as a stock is a certification of ownership. So when you buy a stock you become a partial owner of that business. But when you buy a bond, you are buying a certificate that says the bond issuer will pay you back both your money and interest. ',
"Bonds : Local bakery has a great idea for muffin tops. They need 500 for the special muffin top slicing machine and non stick pans. The local bank won't give them a loan because the idea is so new and they haven't been in business for long. But everyone in the neighbourhood is super excited. So the bakery prints out 500 bond certificates that cost $1.00 each and the certificates say that in 1 year from now they can be redeemed for $1.10 at the cash register. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5xgc2t',
'query': 'what are bonds, and what is the difference between stocks and bonds?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1997887',
'title': 'Xenoestrogen',
'section': 'Section::::Effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 402,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'There has been speculation that falling sperm counts in males may be due to increased estrogen exposure in utero. Sharpe in a 2005 review indicated that external estrogenic substances are too weak in their cumulative effects to alter male reproductive functioning, but indicates that the situation appears to be more complex as external chemicals may affect the internal testosterone-estrogen balance.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '822224',
'title': 'Sperm competition',
'section': 'Section::::Evolutionary consequences.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
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'passage_text': 'Evolution to increase ejaculate volume in the presence of sperm competition has a consequence on testis size. Large testes can produce more sperm required for larger ejaculates, and can be found across the animal kingdom when sperm competition occurs. Males with larger testes have been documented to achieve higher reproductive success rates than males with smaller testes in male yellow pine chipmunks. In chichlid fish, it has been found that increased sperm competition can lead to evolved larger sperm numbers, sperm cell sizes, and sperm swimming speeds.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12137890',
'title': 'Human penis',
'section': 'Section::::Evolved adaptations.:Ejaculate adjustment.:Size.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 67,
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'passage_text': "The number of sperm in any given ejaculate varies from one ejaculate to another. This variation is hypothesised to be a male's attempt to eliminate, if not reduce, his sperm competition. A male will alter the number of sperm he inseminates into a female according to his perceived level of sperm competition, inseminating a higher number of sperm if he suspects a greater level of competition from other males.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1698623',
'title': 'Virility',
'section': 'Section::::Male virility.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'Sperm count declines with age, with men aged 50–80 years producing sperm at an average rate of 75% compared with men aged 20–50 years. However, an even larger difference is seen in how many of the seminiferous tubules in the testes contain mature sperm;\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20611030',
'title': 'Ejaculation',
'section': 'Section::::Phases.:Quality.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'The number of sperm in an ejaculation also varies widely, depending on many factors, including the time since the last ejaculation, age, stress levels, and testosterone. Greater lengths of sexual stimulation immediately preceding ejaculation can result in higher concentrations of sperm. An unusually low sperm count, not the same as low semen volume, is known as oligospermia, and the absence of any sperm from the semen is termed azoospermia.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9999924',
'title': 'Semen analysis',
'section': 'Section::::Parameters.:Sperm count.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': 'Sperm count, or "sperm concentration" to avoid confusion with "total sperm count", measures the concentration of sperm in a man\'s ejaculate, distinguished from "total sperm count", which is the sperm count multiplied with volume. Over 15 million sperm per milliliter is considered normal, according to the WHO in 2010. Older definitions state 20 million. A lower sperm count is considered oligozoospermia. A vasectomy is considered successful if the sample is azoospermic (zero sperm of any kind found). Some define success as when rare/occasional non-motile sperm are observed (fewer than 100,000 per millilitre). Others advocate obtaining a second semen analysis to verify the counts are not increasing (as can happen with re-canalization) and others still may perform a repeat vasectomy for this situation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3042204',
'title': 'Male infertility',
'section': 'Section::::Global trends.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 116,
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'end_character': 509,
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'passage_text': 'Starting in the late 20th century, scientists have expressed concerns about the declining semen quality in men. A study was done in 1992 with men who had never suffered from infertility showed that the amount of sperm in semen had declined by 1% per year since 1938. Further research a few years later also confirmed the decline in sperm count and also seminal volume. Various studies in Finland, Southern Tunisia, and Argentina also showed a decline in sperm count, motility, morphology, and seminal volume.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why are sperm count in men decreasing?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['From _URL_0_:\n\n > The analysis did not explore reasons for the decline, but researchers said falling sperm counts have previously been linked to various factors such as exposure to certain chemicals and pesticides, smoking, stress and obesity.\n\n > In contrast, no significant decline was seen in South America, Asia and Africa. The researchers noted, however, that far fewer studies have been conducted in these regions.\n\n > Richard Sharpe at Edinburgh University added: "Given that we still do not know what lifestyle, dietary or chemical exposures might have caused this decrease, research efforts to identify (them) need to be redoubled and to be non-presumptive as to cause."\n\nSo, the scientists are not sure about it yet.\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'aplm1o',
'query': 'why are sperm count in men decreasing?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '16269727',
'title': 'End artery',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'Because vital tissues such as the brain or heart muscle are vulnerable to ischaemia, arteries often form anastomoses to provide alternative supplies of fresh blood. End arteries can exist when no anastomosis exists or when an anastomosis exists but is incapable of providing a sufficient supply of blood, thus the two types of end arteries are:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '146642',
'title': 'Coronary circulation',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Because the rest of the body, and most especially the brain, needs a steady supply of oxygenated blood that is free of all but the slightest interruptions, the heart works constantly and sometimes works quite hard. Therefore its circulation is of major importance not only to its own tissues but to the entire body and even the level of consciousness of the brain from moment to moment. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '424348',
'title': 'Cardiac muscle',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical significance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
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'passage_text': "Heart muscle can also become damaged despite a normal blood supply. The heart muscle may become inflamed in a condition called myocarditis, most commonly caused by a viral infection but sometimes caused by the body's own immune system. Heart muscle can also be damaged by drugs such as alcohol, long standing high blood pressure or hypertension, or persistent abnormal heart racing. Specific diseases of heart muscle called cardiomyopathies can cause heart muscle to become abnormally thick (hypertrophic cardiomyopathy), abnormally large (dilated cardiomyopathy), or abnormally stiff (restrictive cardiomyopathy). Some of these conditions are caused by genetic mutations and can be inherited.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7610506',
'title': 'Athletic heart syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 665,
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'passage_text': "Athlete's heart is a result of dynamic physical activity, such as aerobic training more than 5 hours a week rather than static training such as weightlifting. During intensive prolonged endurance or strength training, the body signals the heart to pump more blood through the body to counteract the oxygen deficit building in the skeletal muscles. Enlargement of the heart is a natural physical adaptation of the body to deal with the high pressures and large amounts of blood that can affect the heart during these periods of time. Over time, the body will increase both the chamber size of the left ventricle, and the muscle mass and wall thickness of the heart.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19408984',
'title': 'Neocardiogenesis',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical importance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 373,
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'passage_text': 'The heart has the potential to repair itself when damaged using progenitor and stem cells. Clinical trials have shown that heart muscle has not previously been able to regenerate itself. New noninvasive drugs, which may make this possible in humans, are required to induce the cardiac myocytes to proliferate. Studies have been done in an attempt to find such a treatment.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '242110',
'title': 'Cardiac output',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "Because cardiac output is related to the quantity of blood delivered to various parts of the body, it is an important indicator of how efficiently the heart can meet the body's demands for perfusion. For instance, physical exercise requires a higher than resting-level of oxygen to support increased muscle activity, where, in the case of heart failure, actual CO may be insufficient to support even simple activities of daily living; nor can it increase sufficiently to meet the higher metabolic demands stemming from even moderate exercise.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '424348',
'title': 'Cardiac muscle',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Diseases of heart muscle are of major importance. These include conditions caused by a restricted blood supply to the muscle including angina pectoris and myocardial infarction, and other heart muscle disease known as cardiomyopathies.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why can\'t the human heart "get used to" having to work harder in an individual with restricted arteries, causing it to get stronger under the increased work load like normal muscles?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['well uuuh, it does... If you suffer from high blood pressure or clogged arteries your heart will grow to compensate for it. The issue is that youe heart is a muscle that is constantly active and having high BP or clogged arteries means your heart has to beat stronger which it can do for a while but eventually too much is simply too much',
'Actually it does, by a process called Starling’s Law. \n\nWhen the blood volume in the heart increases (in this case due to the decreased volume of the arteries), the heart expands to compensate and then contracts with greater force to ensure that the same amount of blood continues to flow.\n\nYou see this with short demand increases, like exercise, but when it’s a constant-ish increase over time the heart continues to stretch out but becomes unable to contract back to its original size.\n\nSo in a very basic way, that is how someone ends up left ventricular hypertrophy and/or congestive heart failure.',
'You are really talking about two different things here, without realizing it.\n\nFirst of all, the heart does "get used to" having to work harder. If it is pumping against a higher blood pressure (because the patient has hypertension and it isn\'t being treated), then over time it was develop hypertrophy. This sounds great, right? The heart is stronger! Except the problem is that it will have a harder time relaxing, so it is harder to fill with blood. This leads to congestive heart failure, which is bad. Please note, I\'m not going to go into depth with congestive heart failure. Yes, there are two types, and I\'ve only talked about one of them here, but I\'m tired and this is ELI5.\n\nSecond, when you talk about restricted arteries, I presume you mean partial blockages in the coronary arteries. The issue here is a lack of blood making it to the heart muscle cells, not lack of strength of the heart itself. The muscle cells can only work so hard with a limited amount of oxygen and other nutrients.',
'It does but it\'s not a good plan for your heart.\n\nIf you have clogged arteries or anything like that will force your heart to work harder, you\'ll trigger a morphological change in the heart = > The (generally) left ventricule will get thicker and start to eat the the space for blood. \nSince the space for the blood is reduced, your heart will need to beat faster and faster in order to send a good amount of blood to your organs, you\'ll also increase the blood pressure to keep a decent blood provision to your organs and therefore will force your heart to work harder and harder and get thicker and eat up more space for the blood and so till the blood pressure gets so high that once the blood arrive to the heart in order to get pumped back into the organism, the left ventricule will get super strecthed and get "loose" : Then it will not be able to pump blood and you\'ll die.\n\nNote that you also have a risk to die of tachycardia because of how quick your heart needs to beat in order to pump blood.\n\n\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8iza3q',
'query': 'why can\'t the human heart "get used to" having to work harder in an individual with restricted arteries, causing it to get stronger under the increased work load like normal muscles?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '24410331',
'title': 'Self-perceived quality-of-life scale',
'section': 'Section::::Theory.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'Everything we do or do not do, wish or do not wish, and have or do not have has an explicit or an implicit relevance to how good or not good we perceive our lives to be. Because the preference for a good life over a bad life underlies all facets of our lives, understanding what constitutes and influences a good life on an individual level has a significant value for all people.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1055577',
'title': 'Black Hole Sun',
'section': 'Section::::Lyrics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "It's really difficult for a person to create their own life and their own freedom. It's going to become more and more difficult, and it's going to create more and more disillusioned people who become dishonest and angry and are willing to fuck the next guy to get what they want. There's so much stepping on the backs of other people in our profession. We've been so lucky that we've never had to do that. Part of it was because of our own tenacity, and part of it was because we were lucky.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '197033',
'title': 'Mencius',
'section': 'Section::::Main concepts.:The four beginnings (or sprouts).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
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'passage_text': "Human nature has an innate tendency towards goodness, but moral rightness cannot be instructed down to the last detail. This is why merely external controls always fail in improving society. True improvement results from educational cultivation in favorable environments. Likewise, bad environments tend to corrupt the human will. This, however, is not proof of innate evil because a clear thinking person would avoid causing harm to others. This position of Mencius puts him between Confucians such as Xunzi who thought people were innately bad, and Taoists who believed humans did not need cultivation, they just needed to accept their innate, natural, and effortless goodness. The four beginnings/sprouts could grow and develop, or they could fail. In this way Mencius synthesized integral parts of Taoism into Confucianism. Individual effort was needed to cultivate oneself, but one's natural tendencies were good to begin with. The object of education is the cultivation of benevolence, otherwise known as Ren.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18637184',
'title': 'Compliance gaining',
'section': 'Section::::Recent techniques.:64 compliance gaining strategies.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 113,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::34. Expertise (Negative): Try to get others to comply by pointing out that because of the way the world works, unfavorable things will happen if they don\'t change their behavior. That is, try to gain their compliance by noting that in the natural course of things, bad outcomes will occur if they don\'t do what you want. Example: "You will get the flu, if you don\'t get a flu shot."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '49235401',
'title': 'Héctor Abad Gómez',
'section': 'Section::::Thoughts of Héctor Abad Gómez.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
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'passage_text': "'But there is an inner force that impels them to work in favour of those who need their help. For many of them, this force has become their reason for living. This struggle gives meaning to their lives. Living is justified if the world is a little better when one dies, as a result of one's work and efforts. To live simply for pleasure is a legitimate animal ambition. But for human beings, for Homo sapiens, it is to be content with very little. In order to distinguish ourselves from other animals, in order to justify our time on this earth, we must aspire to goals superior to the mere enjoyment of life. The fixation on goals distinguishes some men from others. And here the most important thing is not to achieve those goals, but to fight for them. We cannot all be the protagonists of history. We are all merely cells in the universal human body, but we should be aware that each of us can do something to improve the world in which we live and in which those who come after us will live. We must work for the present and for the future, and this will bring us more happiness than simple pleasure in material goods.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11418268',
'title': 'Questioning (sexuality and gender)',
'section': 'Section::::Adolescents and other youths.:Behaviors and development.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'According to Sarah Gardner, the ways in which humans behave are based on five basic needs: survival, love and belonging, power, freedom and enjoyment. An individual will shift their behaviors in order to satisfy these needs. In the case of questioning youth, some or all of these needs are not met. When one or more of these needs are not fulfilled, their behaviors may become aggravated, confused or discouraged in trying to satisfy the need to either survive, feel loved or that they belong, achieve freedom, gain power or feel a sense of enjoyment.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17249050',
'title': 'Code of Personal Status in Tunisia',
'section': 'Section::::The Code and religion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': '"There are still people who do not conceive that reason must apply to all things in this world and command all human activity; for these people certain domains, that of religion in particular, must escape the ascendancy of the intelligence. But then, in behaving this way one destroys at one blow the fervour and veneration that we all owe to the sacred. How admit this ostracism against reason? How abase ourselves to this functioning of an intelligent animal?"\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why do humans feel the need to do things that are bad for us?',
'selftext': 'Why sometimes can we not help but hurt ourselves or others? Eat too much, lie, cheat, smoke, have a sedentary life style, drink etc...',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The majority of those things "feel" good. I don\'t think humans as a whole feel the need to be self destructive. Its more of a byproduct of the things they enjoy. ',
'Because unfortunately our lifestyles have evolved faster than our genes. If you look at humans as animals that went through natural selection just like any other, a lot of our "destructive" behaviors made sense in the context of nature and survival, but things became so much more convenient and we haven\'t yet evolved to really deal with that. Like, our bodies only ever expected to find sweetness in fruits and the like, which were healthy to eat. It never expected that we\'d extract sweeteners and put them into processed foods. So our body doesn\'t "know" that it\'s bad, it thinks it\'s good, and it rewards us with the enjoyment of eating something sugary, even though it\'s actually not at all what evolution intended. This applies to many other things, though perhaps not as easily explainable for some things. ',
" > Eat too much\n\nThe body regulates a lot of things for us automatically, blood pressure, volume, oxygen level, water, pH, CNS. Calories are one thing we have to monitor ourselves, and we did passively for the longest period due to cost. In the last 50 years kcal/$ has risen astronomically as so we need to track it manually since we can afford so much.\n\nEvidently, the education on TDEE and proper portion sizes for this is lacking in some parts(America, UK, Australia) and not others(Asia).\n\n > lie\n\nLying is advantageous in many ways and there are levels to the severity. If you're aware of the others lack of information and that fear of consequences is so great then honesty becomes the worst option.\n\n > cheat\n\nThis can mean several things, cheating a test, a video game, a relationship. If the value of the obtained result is greater than the consequence then a clearer path is made. On the subject of cheating a test, the value achieved in a particular mark(or certificate) is held in higher regard than the actual knowledge, the mark or cert has become treated as the goal.\n\n > have a sedentary life style\n\nRegular exercise is painful, energy and time consuming, without immediately benefits. It was always in the bodies best interest to conserve energy for when absolutely necessary, and it was necessary in our hunter gatherer lifestyle far more often than our current one. The default is still to conserve, its a conscious effort to override that.\n\n > smoke, drink\n\nNicotine and tobacco are well documented addictive substances, and [there is some data](_URL_0_) pointing to alcohol being a fast acting anti-depressant, giving you a buzz. Its also extremely easy to produce. The nature of eventually feeling as if your sober self is not the 'real' you is the transition point for user to abuser.",
'in addition to the evolutionary/biological reasons given by others, there\'s also the "lack of immediacy" to most of the downsides. \n\nEven if, intellectually, we know there are downsides to our actions, unless there is a reasonable chance of them being experienced within a short time frame, we disassociate the "penalty" from the "pleasure". This decreases the perceived future impact of the downside, meaning we are more likely to repeat the "bad" behaviour\n\ni.e. if I can get a short-lived feeling from a huge/salty/fatty/whatevery meal, because there is no immediate downside, I can justify it to myself (e.g. it\'s ok, I\'ll just eat lettuce for the next two days). \n\nWhen I next feel like a similar meal, I think "well, it didn\'t do me any harm last time" - and before you know it, habit has formed. \n\nIt generally takes a major wake up call (heart-attack, diabetes etc) to shake someone out of these habits (and even then, doesn\'t always stick)'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '9xe3vo',
'query': 'why do humans feel the need to do things that are bad for us?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '256354',
'title': 'IBM System/34',
'section': 'Section::::SPOOLING.:The need for spooling.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Computer printers are slow. On the S/34, computer programs could write data to the printer much faster than the printer can print and there can be more than one program writing to a printer at the same time.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5272',
'title': 'Printer (computing)',
'section': 'Section::::Technology.:Obsolete and special-purpose printing technologies.:Impact printers.:Line printers.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Line printers are the fastest of all impact printers and are used for bulk printing in large computer centres. A line printer can print at 1100 lines per minute or faster, frequently printing pages more rapidly than many current laser printers. On the other hand, the mechanical components of line printers operate with tight tolerances and require regular preventive maintenance (PM) to produce top quality print. They are virtually never used with personal computers and have now been replaced by high-speed laser printers. The legacy of line printers lives on in many computer operating systems, which use the abbreviations "lp", "lpr", or "LPT" to refer to printers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '544762',
'title': 'Offset printing',
'section': 'Section::::Web-fed offset.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 56,
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'passage_text': 'Web offset presses are beneficial in long run printing jobs, typically press runs that exceed ten or twenty thousand impressions. Speed is a determining factor when considering the completion time for press production; some web presses print at speeds of 3,000 feet (915 meters) per minute or faster. In addition to the benefits of speed and quick completion, some web presses have the inline ability to cut, perforate, and fold.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50677',
'title': 'Laser printing',
'section': 'Section::::Printing process.:Fusing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
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'passage_text': 'Some printers use a very thin flexible metal foil roller, so there is less thermal mass to be heated and the fuser can more quickly reach operating temperature. If paper moves through the fuser more slowly, there is more roller contact time for the toner to melt, and the fuser can operate at a lower temperature. Smaller, inexpensive laser printers typically print slowly, due to this energy-saving design, compared to large high speed printers where paper moves more rapidly through a high-temperature fuser with a very short contact time.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30747',
'title': 'TRS-80',
'section': 'Section::::Peripherals.:Printers.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The "Quick Printer", is an electrostatic rotary printer that scans the video memory through the bus connector, and prints an image of the screen onto aluminum-coated paper in about one second. Unfortunately, it is incompatible with both the final, buffered version of the expansion interface, and with the "heartbeat" interrupt used for the real-time clock under Disk BASIC. This can be overcome by using special cabling, and by doing a "dummy" write to the cassette port while triggering the printer.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45879',
'title': 'Line printer',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Line printers are mostly associated with unit record equipment and the early days of digital computing, but the technology is still in use. Print speeds of 600 lines-per-minute (approximately 10 pages per minute) were achieved in the 1950s, later increasing to as much as 1200 lpm. Line printers print a complete line at a time and have speeds in the range of 150 to 2500 lines per minute. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5272',
'title': 'Printer (computing)',
'section': 'Section::::Attributes.:Printing speed.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The speed of early printers was measured in units of "characters per minute" (cpm) for character printers, or "lines per minute" (lpm) for line printers. Modern printers are measured in "pages per minute" (ppm). These measures are used primarily as a marketing tool, and are not as well standardised as toner yields. Usually pages per minute refers to sparse monochrome office documents, rather than dense pictures which usually print much more slowly, especially colour images. Speeds in ppm usually apply to A4 paper in Europe and letter paper, about 6% shorter, in the United States.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do printers work so accurately and fast?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['I don’t know what exactly you are looking for as an answer... \n\nThey work accurately because the motor that controls the printing head works in very small increments (typically 96 positions per inch) and the ink injectors can inject extremely small quantities of ink.\n\nThey work fast because the motor is fast.',
"Inventions build upon each other. \n\nIn the early 80's I worked on the first laser printer, the [zerox 9700](_URL_0_), a 120 page per minute, b & w 300x300 dpi laser printer. It was about the size of the car and at the very leading edge of technology.\n\nAs computers got faster, the 600 dpi was possible. Color was added. larger paper. Speed is limited by paper path and need for speed, the 35 year old printer would still be faster than most printers on the market today."],
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'query': 'how do printers work so accurately and fast?',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '489992',
'title': 'Diving mask',
'section': 'Section::::Use.\n',
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'passage_text': 'To prevent a mask from fogging up due to condensation on the glass many divers spit into the dry mask before use, spread the saliva around the inside of the plate and rinse it out with a little water. The saliva residue allows condensation to wet the glass and form a continuous film, rather than form droplets. There are commercial products that can be used as an alternative to the saliva method, some of which are more effective and last longer.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22311897',
'title': 'Conservation and restoration of stained glass',
'section': 'Section::::Types of treatments.:Cleaning.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
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'passage_text': 'Careful cleaning of stained glass can be a very effective means of improving its overall condition, because its appearance and function are so heavily dependent on its ability to transmit light. Unfortunately, owing to the fragility of corroded glass, nearly all cleaning treatments can cause changes in the surface of the glass that can expedite corrosion rates, or damage delicate paint layers (Romich et al. 2000). Thus, cleaning efforts should not necessarily be concerned with the complete removal of all encrustrations, but rather the careful thinning of these layers to a point where light can be transmitted through the glass at an acceptable level (Rauch 2004, 5). The simplest cleaning can be performed using carefully applied deionised water, although other mechanical or chemical means are often necessary, and must always be done slowly, in a controlled and focused manner (Rauch 2004, 5–6; Vogel et al. 2007, 9–10). Scalpels or a micro-jet process* can be used to gradually, mechanically thin out these encrustations layer by layer, in the lab. Conversely, poultices or gel pads steeped in a non-ionic detergent or EDTA can be applied to the surface of the glass for long periods of time for “deep, focused cleaning” (Rauch 2004, 6). With any of these methods, care must be taken to ensure the stability of painted layers, before treatment can take place. In the event that these layers appear particularly friable, it is necessary to clean the glass delicately with cotton swabs, and in more extreme cases, manually affix the original paint lines to the surface, under a microscope, by applying small tiny drops of resin at specific points (Rauch 2004, 6; Vogel et al. 2007, 10). Care should be taken not to remove any later over-painting without due consideration, as such layers may have historic value, in their own right (Rauch 2004, 7).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1266475',
'title': 'Scuba diving',
'section': 'Section::::Equipment.:Underwater vision.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Masks tend to fog when warm humid exhaled air condenses on the cold inside of the faceplate. To prevent fogging many divers spit into the dry mask before use, spread the saliva around the inside of the glass and rinse it out with a little water. The saliva residue allows condensation to wet the glass and form a continuous film, rather than tiny droplets. There are several commercial products that can be used as an alternative to saliva, some of which are more effective and last longer, but there is a risk of getting the anti-fog agent in the eyes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6142588',
'title': 'Glass disease',
'section': 'Section::::Conservation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
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'passage_text': 'In the earliest stage of glass disease, it may be possible to wash the glass to remove the surface alkali. The Corning Museum of Glass recommends washing with tap water (tepid, not hot) and a mild (non-ionic) conservation detergent. This should be followed by rinsing with de-ionized or distilled water, and careful drying to remove moisture. Careful washing can remove surface deposits, restore the appearance of clearness to the glass, and help to slow further deterioration. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8957615',
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'passage_text': 'Because the glass comes in direct contact with the marver, it must be kept exceptionally clean in order to prevent points of poor conduction or the transfer of debris into glass worked upon it. Metallic marvers are generally rubbed with steel wool and then wiped with rubbing alcohol to prevent rust.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2263486',
'title': 'Latanoprost',
'section': 'Section::::Adverse effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'Research suggests that wiping the eye with an absorbent pad after the administration of eye drops can result in shorter eyelashes and a lesser chance of hyperpigmentation in the eyelid, compared to not wiping off excess fluid.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7322105',
'title': 'Travoprost',
'section': 'Section::::Side effects.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Research suggests that wiping the eye with an absorbent pad after the administration of eye drops can result in shorter eyelashes and a lesser chance of hyperpigmentation in the eyelid, compared to not wiping off excess fluid.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why does breathing on glasses before wiping them clean off fingerprints so much better than wiping alone?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Breath contains small amounts of water vapour, so when you breathe on the glass you moisturise the glass before whipping it to off. It's like using water to clean glass, but in very small amounts ",
'It’s not the act of breathing, it’s the moisture from condensation that “fogs” up the glass. You’re adding water. Water cleans better than a dry cloth. ',
'Same thing happens when you lick the glasses but make sure you don’t have a peanut butter sandwich in your mouth I did that once and almost veered of the highway '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '8tq1hf',
'query': 'why does breathing on glasses before wiping them clean off fingerprints so much better than wiping alone?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '11611962',
'title': 'Trade-weighted US dollar index',
'section': 'Section::::Mathematical formulation.:Based on real exchange rates.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
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'passage_text': "The real exchange rate is a more informative measure of the dollar's worth since it accounts for countries whose currencies experience differing rates of inflation from that of the United States. This is compensated for by adjusting the exchange rates in the formula using the consumer price index of the respective countries. In this more general case the index value is given by:\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '214591',
'title': 'Tables of historical exchange rates to the United States dollar',
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'passage_text': 'Listed below is a table of historical exchange rates relative to the U.S. dollar, at present the most widely traded currency in the world. An exchange rate represents the value of one currency in another. An exchange rate between two currencies fluctuates over time. The value of a currency relative to a third currency may be obtained by dividing one U.S. dollar rate by another. For example, if there are ¥120 to the dollar and €1.2 to the dollar then the number of yen per euro is 120/1.2 = 100.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '180311',
'title': 'Exchange rate',
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'passage_text': 'In finance, an exchange rate is the rate at which one currency will be exchanged for another. It is also regarded as the value of one country’s currency in relation to another currency. For example, an interbank exchange rate of 114 Japanese yen to the United States dollar means that ¥114 will be exchanged for each US$1 or that US$1 will be exchanged for each ¥114. In this case it is said that the price of a dollar in relation to yen is ¥114, or equivalently that the price of a yen in relation to dollars is $1/114.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '214591',
'title': 'Tables of historical exchange rates to the United States dollar',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "The magnitude of the numbers in the list does not indicate, by themselves, the strength or weakness of a particular currency. For example, the U.S. dollar could be rebased tomorrow so that 1 new dollar was worth 100 old dollars. Then all the numbers in the table would be multiplied by one hundred, but it does not mean all the world's currencies just got weaker. However, it is useful to look at the variation over time of a particular exchange rate. If the number consistently increases through time, then it is a strong indication that the economy of the country or countries using that currency are in a less robust state than that of the United States (see e.g., the Turkish lira). The exchange rates of advanced economies, such as those of Japan or Hong Kong, against the dollar tend to fluctuate up and down, representing much shorter-term relative economic strengths, rather than move consistently in a particular direction.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '180311',
'title': 'Exchange rate',
'section': 'Section::::Purchasing power of currency.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Thus the real exchange rate is the exchange rate times the relative prices of a market basket of goods in the two countries. For example, the purchasing power of the US dollar relative to that of the euro is the dollar price of a euro (dollars per euro) times the euro price of one unit of the market basket (euros/goods unit) divided by the dollar price of the market basket (dollars per goods unit), and hence is dimensionless. This is the exchange rate (expressed as dollars per euro) times the relative price of the two currencies in terms of their ability to purchase units of the market basket (euros per goods unit divided by dollars per goods unit). If all goods were freely tradable, and foreign and domestic residents purchased identical baskets of goods, purchasing power parity (PPP) would hold for the exchange rate and GDP deflators (price levels) of the two countries, and the real exchange rate would always equal 1.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19971008',
'title': 'Effective exchange rate',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "Effective exchange rates are useful for gauging whether a currency has appreciated overall relative to trading partners. For example, in 2015 the Chinese RMB depreciated about 8% against the US dollar. However, more of China's trade is with Asia and Europe than with the United States, and the dollar appreciated against those currencies. The net effect was that once weighted by trade shares the value of the Chinese currency actually appreciated approximately 10% relative to its trading partners.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '64489',
'title': 'Purchasing power parity',
'section': 'Section::::Need for adjustments to GDP.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
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'passage_text': 'The exchange rate reflects transaction values for traded goods "between" countries in contrast to non-traded goods, that is, goods produced for home-country use. Also, currencies are traded for purposes other than trade in goods and services, "e.g.", to buy capital assets whose prices vary more than those of physical goods. Also, different interest rates, speculation, hedging or interventions by central banks can influence the foreign-exchange market.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why by do we use exchange rates to represent value of currency (eg: strong vs weak dollar)?',
'selftext': "For example, if 1 USD = 1.32 CAD, who cares? What's more important is what $1 can buy, right? If a candy bar costs $1 in the US and $1.32 in Canada, then the is no difference. How do we measure value of currency based on what goods we can buy after we exchange it?",
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Because when you look past the price your paying at the register, the product your buying has its own inputs. \n\nLet\'s say (making up numbers), a jar of peanut butter costs you 1 USD, while the peanuts in your peanut butter can be purchased for 1 XYZ, and further, 1 USD can buy 5 XYZ\'s.\n\n\n\nFurther, let\'s say all the other inputs to the cost of that jar of peanut butter cost 60 cents. So, it basically costs 80 cents to get that jar of peanut butter to the shelf in front of you\n\nNow, things get funky and XYZ currency "strengthens" relative to the US dollar and doubles in value. A USD can now only buy 2.5 XYZ\'s. however, since peanuts are still made in that other country and still cost 1 XYZ. This means that the cost to make that peanut butter has risen by 20 cents. Your grocery store can no longer sell it for 1 USD because there\'s no margin left in it for them. \n\nLooking at exchange rates at a single point in time doesn\'t really mean much, but over longer periods of time, while they don\'t affect you directly, they can influence the final price you pay at the register. \n\nNot sure if this was 5 year old speak, but I tried! :)',
'If you never leave your own country, and never buy anything not 100% made in your country, then it matters not at all. However, this is pretty much impossible, as pieces and parts are sourced from all over the globe, usually based on where the cheapest to get resources are.\n\nExample of how it matters:\n\nImagine I own a Canadian business. I make some chairs, and I buy some chairs, and then sell them to Canadians.\n\nI make my chairs using Canadian materials, which I pay $100 CAD for, and then pay another $100 CAD to my workers to build it. I sell these chairs for $400 CAD to the Canadian public.\n\nI also buy some chairs form the USA. These chairs cost $100 USD for materials, and $100 USD for labor. I can buy them for $200 USD, and then I can sell them in Canada. However, I can\'t just sell them for $400 CAD. I have to pay for them in USD. But all my sales of these chairs are in CAD! I have to then go to my bank, and say, "Please take the CADs, and pay this US company $200 in USD." The banks then need to figure out how much $200 USD is in CADs so they can pay the US company properly AND so I can price appropriately. \n\nIf the exchange rate is $1.50CAD to $1.00 USD, then I will need to have my bank take out $300 CAD to pay the US company. To keep my margins equal, I will need to charge $600 CAD for that US chair.\n\nIf the exchange rate is $0.50 CAD to $1.00 USD, then my bank only needs to pay the US company $100 CAD to cover the cost of the chair, and I can sell the US chairs for $200 CAD.\n\nIf you were a Canadian person shopping at my store, which would you buy? The $200 US chair, or the $400 Canadian chair? Alternatively, would you buy the $400 Canadian chair, or the $600 US chair? ',
"There are other measurement values such as the 'Big Mac Index' which tracks Big Mac prices across the world. \nIt's a little tongue-in-cheek, but its a nice reference for the average person. \n\nMin wage in the UK is £7.40. A Big Mac at £3.73 is about half an hours work. \nIn the US a Big Mac is $5.06. \nExchange rate is £1 = US$1.25, so that's a UK value of £4.04 \n\nIn Switzerland a Big Mac is 6.50 Francs ($6.35) which has a UK value of £5.07 \n\nSo looking at that, You can see that my pound is quite weak - I'd have to work 40ish mins on minimum wage to afford a Swiss burger. \n\nNow look at the Mexicans. Their Min wage is 80.04 Pesos, which is about $3.90. That's nearly an hours work to get a US big Mac, and maybe hour and a half for a Swiss one. \nThe Mexican Big Mac on the other hand is closer to 45.25 Peso which is about $2.20 and . About Half an hours work locally. \nOn my UK wage £1.76 - Thats closer to 10 mins work for me. \n\nSo If I earn my money in the UK and go to Switzerland I wont be able to buy as much as I'd be able to is I was to go to Mexico instead. \n\nThe amounts above are relatively low, but if you x them by 100 (Say hotel rooms or something), you are looking at significant differences in spending power. \n\nNow, the problem we have is - Who sets the prices for the Big Mac? McDonalds in the designated country do. They base the price on their own economy and tailor it to their own costs and the amount of money that regular people will have in their pockets. \n\nSo, It's important to know what the exchange rate is to see what your spending power is. Years ago the pound was worth $1.7 USD - Which meant i could buy a lot more with my pounds in america (That big mac would have cost me £2.96). Nowadays, not so much. \n\nIf you need further examples, have a look at holiday things in the Philippines (I was looking at Boracay) - the activities there are amazingly cheap for our currencies, but they may represent a fair chunk of the locals earning potential. \nI'm also excited that I'm going to Boracay. Throwing that in there :p \n",
"You are correct that how much a currency is worth is much more complicated than the exchange rate. You would be interested in the metric of [purchasing power parity](_URL_0_). \n\nHowever the exchange rate is a very simple number, and is highly relevant to anyone doing international trade. How many candy bars you can buy with $1.31 in Canada doesn't matter to someone in the US who is trading to Canada. He only cares how many candy bars you can get for $1 USD, and the exchange rate is what matters for that.",
'Ever heard of the "big Mac index"? \nCurrency exchange rates are internationally important for exports and imports but actually your (real) purchase power (how much do you have to pay for a certain basket of goods in relation to the currency exchange rate) determines the strength of your economy. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '5slzdq',
'query': 'why by do we use exchange rates to represent value of currency (eg: strong vs weak dollar)?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '92514',
'title': 'Detergent',
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'passage_text': 'In most household contexts, the term "detergent" by itself refers specifically to "laundry detergent" or "dish detergent", as opposed to "hand soap" or other types of cleaning agents. Detergents are commonly available as powders or concentrated solutions. Detergents, like soaps, work because they are amphiphilic: partly hydrophilic (polar) and partly hydrophobic (non-polar). Their dual nature facilitates the mixture of hydrophobic compounds (like oil and grease) with water. Because air is not hydrophilic, detergents are also foaming agents to varying degrees.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10290',
'title': 'Emulsion',
'section': 'Section::::Emulsifiers.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Detergents are another class of surfactant, and will interact physically with both oil and water, thus stabilizing the interface between the oil and water droplets in suspension. This principle is exploited in soap, to remove grease for the purpose of cleaning. Many different emulsifiers are used in pharmacy to prepare emulsions such as creams and lotions. Common examples include emulsifying wax, polysorbate 20, and ceteareth 20. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '147020',
'title': 'Hygiene',
'section': 'Section::::Home and everyday hygiene.:Laundry hygiene.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Laundry detergents contain a mix of ingredients including surfactants, builders, optical brighteners, etc. Cleaning action arises primarily from the action of the surfactants and other ingredients, which are designed to maximise release and suspension of dirt and microbes into the wash liquid, together with enzymes and/or an activated oxygen-based bleach which digest and remove stains. Although activated oxygen bleach is included in many powder detergents to digest and remove stains, it produces some chemical inactivation of bacteria, fungi and viruses. As a rule of thumb, powders and tablets normally contain an activated oxygen bleach, but liquids and all products (liquid or powder) used for "coloureds" do not. Surfactants also exert some chemical inactivation action against certain species although the extent of their action is not known.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2676476',
'title': 'Laundry detergent',
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'passage_text': 'Laundry detergent, or washing powder, is a type of detergent (cleaning agent) that is added for cleaning laundry. While detergent is still sold in powdered form, liquid detergents have been taking major market shares in many countries since their introduction in the 1950s.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14095325',
'title': 'Dispersant',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Detergents.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Dispersing is the principal goal in the use of detergents, which the liquid bath is water (detergents also are used as emulsifiers in some applications). Laundry detergents encase dirt and grime in miscelles, which naturally disperse.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '172111',
'title': 'Washing machine',
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'passage_text': 'A washing machine (laundry machine, clothes washer, or washer) is a home appliance used to wash laundry. The term is mostly applied to machines that use water as opposed to dry cleaning (which uses alternative cleaning fluids, and is performed by specialist businesses) or ultrasonic cleaners. The user adds laundry detergent, which is sold in liquid or powder form, to the wash water.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '92514',
'title': 'Detergent',
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'passage_text': 'A detergent is a surfactant or a mixture of surfactants with cleaning properties in dilute solutions. These substances are usually alkylbenzenesulfonates, a family of compounds that are similar to soap but are more soluble in hard water, because the polar sulfonate (of detergents) is less likely than the polar carboxylate (of soap) to bind to calcium and other ions found in hard water.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'how does washing detergent work?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["All soaps are surfactants. A surfactant is a molecule of which one end is attract to water (hydrophilic) and the other end doesn't like water (hydrophobic) but likes oils and dirt. Oils and dirt stick to the hydrophobic end and are washed away by water which attached to the hydrophobic end.",
"Detergent contains a surfactant, short for surface active agent that creates surface tension so dirt and grease stay in solution and don't redeposit back to the item being washed."],
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'query_id': 'c20pkp',
'query': 'how does washing detergent work?',
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'title': 'Five-dimensional space',
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'passage_text': 'A five-dimensional space is a space with five dimensions. If interpreted physically, that is one more than the usual three spatial dimensions and the fourth dimension of time used in relativistic physics. It is an abstraction which occurs frequently in mathematics, where it is a legitimate construct. In physics and mathematics, a sequence of "N" numbers can be understood to represent a location in an "N"-dimensional space. Whether or not the universe is five-dimensional is a topic of debate.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '1364622',
'title': 'Four-dimensional space',
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'passage_text': 'A four-dimensional space or 4D space is a mathematical extension of the concept of three-dimensional or 3D space. Three-dimensional space is the simplest possible abstraction of the observation that one only needs three numbers, called "dimensions", to describe the sizes or locations of objects in the everyday world. For example, the volume of a rectangular box is found by measuring its length, width, and height (often labeled "x", "y", and "z").\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '123450',
'title': 'Philosophy of physics',
'section': 'Section::::Philosophy of space and time.:Space.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In classical physics, space is a three-dimensional Euclidean space where any position can be described using three coordinates and parameterised by time. Special and general relativity use four-dimensional spacetime rather than three-dimensional space; and currently there are many speculative theories which use more than four spatial dimensions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Dimension',
'section': 'Section::::In philosophy.\n',
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'passage_text': '"Space has Four Dimensions" is a short story published in 1846 by German philosopher and experimental psychologist Gustav Fechner under the pseudonym "Dr. Mises". The protagonist in the tale is a shadow who is aware of and able to communicate with other shadows, but who is trapped on a two-dimensional surface. According to Fechner, this "shadow-man" would conceive of the third dimension as being one of time. The story bears a strong similarity to the "Allegory of the Cave" presented in Plato\'s "The Republic" (c. 380\xa0BC).\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '1364622',
'title': 'Four-dimensional space',
'section': 'Section::::Vectors.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Mathematically, four-dimensional space is simply a space with four spatial dimensions, that is a space that needs four parameters to specify a point in it. For example, a general point might have position vector a, equal to\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '15575410',
'title': 'Two-dimensional space',
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'passage_text': 'Two-dimensional space (also known as bi-dimensional space) is a geometric setting in which two values (called parameters) are required to determine the position of an element (i.e., point). The set of pairs of real numbers with appropriate structure often serves as the canonical example of a two-dimensional Euclidian space. For a generalization of the concept, see dimension.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '3054853',
'title': 'Three-dimensional space',
'section': 'Section::::In linear algebra.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Another way of viewing three-dimensional space is found in linear algebra, where the idea of independence is crucial. Space has three dimensions because the length of a box is independent of its width or breadth. In the technical language of linear algebra, space is three-dimensional because every point in space can be described by a linear combination of three independent vectors.\n',
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'title': 'I understand 4th dimensional space. But what exactly is 5th dimensional space? Does it exist outside Time and Space?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
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'answers': ["The universe, as far as we can tell, has 3 dimensions of space and 1 of time. If there were 4 dimensions of space instead, everything would be the same except there would be another independent direction to move in besides up/down, left/right, and forward/backward. That's all dimensions are: directions to move around in. There's no difference in principle between having 3 spatial dimensions and having 473 spatial dimensions.",
'A way to envision dimensions, I take this from Flatland.\n\nImagine a dimension that is your desk. Objects can move freely across the desk, but cannot come up off it, nor down below it. They are stuck.\n\nIf you, as a 3d being, were to push any one of those objects in any direction up or down from the desk, they would suddenly find themselves in a brand new infinitely large existence, but without anything they had before, because all that is just a tick in a dimension that the object cannot interact with. So for it, the entire existence it was part of is now gone. And it cannot move back into it.\n\nIt would be as if we move in a direction, a direction which we cannot conceive of because everything, our thoughts, language, existence, ALL experience, is in 3 dimensions. Having a 4th is unimaginable. To us it would be as if suddenly the universe disappeared and something else took its place.\n\nThere are hypothesis that we do see interaction when light from the 4th dimension intersects with light in our dimension causing a collision & release of energy which we can detect.\n\nEdit: typos.',
' > ELI5: I understand 4th dimensional space. \n\nHow can you understand 4d, but not 5d? Here is my suspicion: If you mean "time" as fourth dimension there is a problem, as that is *not* 4 dimensional space. It is three dimensions and time, and "time" isn\'t actually a proper dimension, just the result of things happening in 3d-space.\n\nHere is my take on "time", and what "time" and "space" actually mean. It also ties into entropy a lot, and sorry for the wall of text but I think we need to dive a bit deeper into this:\n\n---\n\nLet me start with the Big Thing, please stay with me: Time does not exist as actual dimension. Time is an illusion of "stuff happening in the physical world". \n\nImagine yourself to be in a room where no outer stimulus comes in. No light from a window, no sound from the other side of the door. Now, there is also nothing in the room itself that changes, no water tap with dripping drops, no breeze from a ventilator, no dust settling, no nothing. How could you tell that "time" passes? \n\nYou feel your own heartbeat, you feel your breathing. If you wait long enough you feel the need to eat, to drink, to sleep, to go to the toilet. If you wait long enough your nails and hair grow. But let us assume for some reason you do not have to, you just sit there and... sit there. How could you tell "time" passes?\n\nYou cannot - unless you move your hand. Unless you get up. Unless you take an object and let it drop so it falls down. \n\nNow you suddenly can tell *something happend*. A moment ago you were sitting on the chair, now you stand. The physical space has changed and there are two states, one before you got up and one after. If you let something drop you create a whole lot of differing physical states in space: you have a thing in the hand, it drops, it drops further, it drops faster and faster and faster... and it hits the ground and rolls under the bed.\n\nBy observing what happens in the physical space you can tell a passage of what we now call "time". You can also tell that "the time it took you to move your hand was shorter than the time it took you to walk through the room", this means you somehow start to quantize a new observable beyond mere "where is an object in the space I am in" in the universe: time. \n\nOur observation of time is very unprecise. Everyone knows that "time flies if you have fun" and stretches and strechtes if you are bored - on the other hand in our memory the day where we had lots of fun and did a lot of thing was much longer than the one we just waited out. To remedy this we build machines that repeat the same movement in space as precise as we can. \n\nA pendulum swings. A water drop dripping down from a defined opening (i.e. a water clock). A spring is wound up and makes some axis turn which moves a digit. We then count the repetitions and say "Ok, 60 of those is a minute, and 60 of those is an hour" or similar. The most simple clock is the sun, we say "If it is right above and then again, we call it a *day*". If a season repeats because earth fully turned around the sun we call it a *year*. \n\nSo far so simple. We get the impression time exists because "stuff" happens around in the universe - and that includes our cells that grow and die and finally we grow and die as that is just chemical (fundamentally physical) proceedings in space. \n\nNow for entropy: \n\n---\n\nIn the most simple approach entropy is a measurement of "Order in the Universe". In very broad strokes: The higher the entropy the less ordered is the universe, meaning there are more states. A piece of wood has a lower entropy than the burned piece of wood. Now, in physical space things only happen *on their own* where the entropy is increased. So a ball falling down happens on its own because it increases the entropy. You have "ordered" energy in the form a ball lying on a table. If it falls down it loses that energy by disturbing all the air molecules it falls through, it hits the floor and makes all those molecules in it vibrate, the ordered energy from the ball on the table is now very, very unordered all over the room and this means: the entropy in the room has increased from state 1 (ball on table) to the new state (ball has fallen down). \n\nWe call this "Energy is scattered all over the place and thus entropy increases" as "time moves forward". Because, on their own, balls do not fall up back on the table, cells do not "undie", a set of fallen deck of cards does not order itself again. Because that would require the entropy in the room to decrease again and the room taking a "more ordered state" (meaning the cards are not lying all over the place but are nicely on a stack, possibly in a specific order, i.e. all colors together etc). \n\nI wrote that entropy does not decrease on its own but you very much could go around and pick up the ball or the cards again, you might even order them again and put them back on the table. So you cheated entropy? You restored the highly ordered state of energy again? Yes, indeed, you did. But by that you increased the entropy in the room due to moving around, calling energy from your muscles and turning them into heat that now is in the room. You ordered the system of "ball and table", but the *total* entropy in the room (universe) went up - and as such you can tell that "time has passed forward between state 1 (deck of scards scattered) and state 2 (deck of cards neatly on the table)". \n\nNow one thing missing from your question: Muller writes about "improbable". Imagine the room has a billion billion billion possible states where the ball is on the floor, the air molecules it shoved aside are scattered, the molecules in the floor have swung and all the ball\'s energy has dissipated as heat and increased the entropy. Of course (yes, of course!) there is the hypthetical case where all the molecules are just randomly happen to just move in the reversed direction, all the air goes back where it was, all energy, by pure chance, transfers back in the ball and it comes to lie back on the table. That totally can happen and in that case you would observe the ball... uhhh... falling (?) back onto the table. \n\nIn that case the entropy in the room (universe) would indeed have decreased on its own, you now had a - from an energetic point of view - more ordered state. Time would have moved "forward" but the entropy would have decreased. Yes, that is possible. It is just that the chance for that is 1 to a billion billion billion so we simply do not observe that in the macroscopic world. And that means "it does not happen" but if you are mathmatically correct, as a physics book should be, you say "it is highly improbable". \n\n---\n\nNow what with the actual "4 dimensional space". Imagine 1d to be a line. I can tell you where you are by giving you a coordinate, for example you stand at "56 meters from zero" or "-2 meters from zero". This position is called "x".\n\nNow, 2d adds another line, in a right angle from the first. You can now stand on a plane and I can tell you where you are by giving two coordinates, one on one line and the other on the other. Let us call them "x" and "y". I could tell you are "56 meters on the x-line from zero and 3 meters from zero on the y line" and you would know where you are standing in that 2d-plane. \n\nIf you add a third line that needs to be in a right angle to BOTH of the other lines, you get a height. This is our 3d-space, and you know where you are if you know your position relative to zero and you can conveniantly tell that by knowing you are x, y and z along the lines. Maybe at 56 from x, 3 from y and like 10 meters above the ground. You know where you are in space and we can start to calculate positions of all kinds of physical objects, for example ones that fall, and derive the laws of physics from them, e.g. the law of gravity. \n\nNow, what happens if you add a fourth (and fifth and... tenth) dimension? Well, in our 3ds-space, where do we add the next coordinate? When we simplified to 1d and 2d, we could easily do it. We just used less dimensions than we have. But where to put a 4th and 6th spacial line? We cannot, as we only think in 3d, our brains are only made for 3d, our lives only happen in 3d. \n\nWe very fundamentally cannot imagine 4d-space, but we can make an analogy: Imagine you are a person living in flatland, in the 2d-plane and suddenly someone comes along and tries to tell you about a "mystical third dimension that goes... *up*". What is this "up" he talks about? You have no way to tell what this "up" is and it gets even more confusing: imagine there is a ball that bounces on the plane of flatland. You could observe a dot that gets bigger and bigger as the ball contracts, and then smaller and vanishes when it goes up again. For us that is trivial to understand, but for a flatlander that is a big mystery. Not only does he not understand where the ball comes from (from higher dimension!) but he might not even know what a "ball" is and why it would do what it does. \n\nTo imagine a 4th spacial dimension imagine a safe with money in it. And someone grabs in through the 4th dimension and takes it. Imagine a flat-earther and his box, which would be a square drawn on the ground and that would be a solid barrier for him, he cannot get in. But you can take whatever is in there through the 3rd dimension without issues.\n\nIt might be our world has more than three dimensions. We would be flatlanders trying to understand the bouncy ball that creates some very strange phenomenon in our world. \n\n---\n\nOur brains are not made to understand higher spaces, but luckily, math allows us reach it with other means. In math there is nothing that stops us and opening more dimensions by just adding coordinates, for example "x, y, z, w, v" for "five dimensional space" and we can try to find calculations that explain what happens in our 3d-world. ',
'Time is not a dimension in the same way the other 3 are. \n\nI had trouble imagining a 4th spatial dimension until recently, and then I saw the following example:\n\nImagine you are looking at a box (square) drawn on a piece of paper. That square and anything else drawn on the paper is in two dimensions. If you draw a ball inside of the square (a circle), it is completely enclosed and cannot be taken out of the square in those two dimensions without intersection with one of the sides of the square.\n\nHowever, if you lift that 2D ball in the third dimension (the one you see as the observer in the experiment), you can make it "fly" above the square walls and put it on the other sides without intersecting the square sides. For you, the ball went above the square walls, but from the 2D point of view of the square and the ball, the ball seemingly phased through the walls because there is no such thing as height.\n\nNow imagine the same thing with a box in 3D and an actual ball. If you put the ball in the box and close the lid, the ball cannot escape the box. However, in the fourth dimension (not time, the actual 4th spatial dimension), you could move the ball out of the box by pulling it in this new dimension and for us 3D observers it would seem like the ball phased through the box walls.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '6zum2y',
'query': 'i understand 4th dimensional space. but what exactly is 5th dimensional space? does it exist outside time and space?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
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'title': 'Game Boy family',
'section': 'Section::::Game Paks.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Black cartridges (Also known as class B or Dual Mode) are compatible with all Game Boy systems, excluding Game Boy Micro. Although the games on these cartridges are programmed in color, they can still be played in monochrome on Game Boy, Game Boy Pocket, Game Boy Light and Super Game Boy (and its Japanese follow-up). Examples of black-cartridge games are "", "Pokémon Gold" and "Silver" (however, the actual colors of these three cartridges are yellow, gold, and silver, respectively). Games such as "Wario Land II" and "" were full-color re-releases of gray-cartridge games but with additional content only available on the Game Boy Color. Some black cartridges have Super Game Boy enhancements. Even some games had built-in features similar to what the later clear cartridges did, like rumble features ("Pokémon Pinball") and infrared receiver ("Robopon Sun, Star, and Moon Versions").\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '661116',
'title': 'Essentials (PlayStation)',
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'passage_text': "PlayStation and PlayStation 2 platinum game discs do not feature any of the original game disc's design, it is replaced with a simple silver design, which, along with the copyright notices around the edges, feature the game's name in the center surrounded by a black outline. PlayStation Portable platinum games use the original games disc design whilst PlayStation 3 platinum games use the original disc design with a platinum design on the disc.\n",
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'title': 'Game Boy family',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Grey cartridges (Also known as class A) are compatible with all Game Boy systems, excluding Game Boy Micro. All original Game Boy games are of this type. Some of these cartridges are in alternative colors, such as red or blue for "Pokémon Red" and "Blue", and yellow for the "Donkey Kong Land" series. The games on these cartridges are programmed in black and white; the Game Boy Color and later systems provide selectable color palettes for them. Some grey cartridges that were released between 1994 and 1998 have Super Game Boy enhancements. Even fewer grey cartridges were released with built-in features that made them protrude from the slot, but included the notch to be compatible with the original Game Boy (notably the "Game Boy Camera")\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21849',
'title': 'Nintendo 64',
'section': 'Section::::Technical specifications.:Color variants.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Most Nintendo 64 game cartridges are gray in color, but some games have a colored cartridge. Fourteen games have black cartridges, and other colors (such as yellow, blue, red, gold and green) were each used for six or fewer games. Several games, such as "", were released both in standard gray and in colored, limited edition versions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15799912',
'title': 'GameCube controller',
'section': 'Section::::Versions.:Colors/designs.:Standard editions.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The GameCube controller was sold in several different colors over the console\'s lifespan. Standard colors included "Indigo" (dark navy blue), "Jet Black", and "Platinum" (Silver), which were bundled with their respective colored GameCube consoles and sold separately in many countries. Other standard colors sold separately included "Spice" (Orange), "Indigo/Clear" (Indigo top with a clear translucent bottom), "Emerald Blue" (Turquoise), and White; the latter two were only available in Japan.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23964',
'title': 'PlayStation (console)',
'section': 'Section::::Functionality.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The GUI for the PS one and PlayStation differ depending on the firmware version: the original PlayStation GUI had a dark blue background with rainbow graffiti used as buttons, while the early PAL PlayStation and PS one GUI had a grey blocked background with 2 icons in the middle (these were different on each version). If the CD lid is closed with a game inside at any time while in the menu, the game will start.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1904601',
'title': "White's illusion",
'section': 'Section::::Belongingness.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': 'The discs on the left appear dark and the ones on the right appear light, this is because of the two displays. In the display on the left, the dark area on the left seemingly belongs to the discs, and the discs are obscured by the light mist. On the right side, the same dark areas are interpreted as belonging to the dark mist. In the meanwhile, the white parts are seen as the color of the discs. Therefore, our perception of the lightness of the discs is significantly influenced by the display, which is the mist in this case (Anderson & Winawer, 2005).\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do some PlayStation one game discs have a blue coloring while others are black?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['They just look cooler and made it easier to identify counterfeits. I very much doubt the PS2 can identify disc color.',
"I don't remember those being blue, but some ps2 ones were. IIRC it was the earlier discs [before they were proper DVDs that were blue](_URL_0_)? Like some release games - only one I remember for definite was Tekken Tag Tournament",
"ITT: Everyone talking about the PS2 instead of the PS1 (or PSX). This issue was discussed in a previous ELI5 that I will link below.\n\n_URL_1_\n\n\n\n*Real answer:\nSony thought that coating the discs in a black film would make piracy more difficult. There was a twofold (one of which an erroneous assumption) reason for this: One, that coating discs after burning them in a black transparent film was very difficult to nearly impossible to do outside of a manufacturer/factory and this would let a buyer know immediately if a disc was counterfeit or not. Black; made in the factory, silver; a burned disc.\nThe geniuses at Sony also thought that it would make CD ripping more difficult and that the black coating would somehow interfere with the ripping process... Which was stupidly never the case and obviously did not prevent ripping of any kind. I've read online that back in the day\xa0some\xa0CD drives had issues ripping a PS1 disc, but nothing I can verify or say with surety.\n[/r/retrogaming](_URL_0_)\xa0may be of more help and give more accurate information, but I know I'm pretty on with the reasoning. Long time gamer and PS1 collector and this was pretty common knowledge upon the original Playstation's release. The explanation for the black coating was covered by gaming magazines of the time.\n*",
'Former Sony employee here. I worked in the Replication factories where PS1, PS2 and PS3 games were made.\n\nPS1 games are constructed like CD\'s. One thick Polycarbonate wafer is injection molded with data on the label side. That side is metalized then a protective coating is spun over the metalization. Then the label applied.\n\nPS2 games are constructed like DVD\'s. Two thinner wafers are injection molded with data on one side, then metalized and adhered to each other, data sides in. The label is applied on the "B" side wafer.\n\nPS3 games are constructed like Blu-ray discs. One thin wafer is injection molded with data on one side then metalized. Additional layers are spun-coat then stamped and metalized on top, and a final protective layer is spun on the data side and the label is applied on that side as well. A protective hard coating is then applied to the read side.\n\nThe polycarbonate used in PS1 discs is just dyed a very, very dark blue that looks black. Since the wavelength of the laser diode in a CDROM drive is 780nm (near infrared), the signal isn\'t attenuated by the dye. It serves no purpose other than to look different from other discs. In fact, Sony piloted a program for music CD\'s that used the same resin and a novel printing method on the label side to simulate the appearance of a vinyl album. They played in normal CD players with no issues.\n\nThe polycarbonate used in PS2 discs was again just dyed blue, slightly less dark than the PS1. It again serves no purpose other than to differentiate the discs from PS1 and other discs. The wavelength of a DVD-ROM drive is 650nm (red) so again no signal interference occurs.\n\nThe copy protection method used in PS1 and PS2 discs do not rely on the dye; rumors to the contrary are false.\n\nSince the PS3 uses Blu-ray technology, with a 405nm wavelength (violet) Sony couldn\'t dye the polycarbonate and instead left it clear.\n\nThank you for coming to my Ted talk.'],
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'query_id': 'f0qp4x',
'query': 'why do some playstation one game discs have a blue coloring while others are black?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2858633',
'title': 'Expressed emotion',
'section': 'Section::::Low expressed emotion.\n',
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'passage_text': "High or low expressed emotion makes the patient feel trapped, out of control and dependent upon others. The patient may feel like an outsider because of the excessive attention received. In bipolar patients relapse from manic to depressed can be triggered by a family member's comments. Expressed emotion affects everyone in the home, raising the stress level for everyone. This is bad for the patient's recovery and for the family as a whole. The behavior of everyone around the patient influences the patient to relapse or progress with their illness. Criticism of the patient is hard to stop once it has started.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19477293',
'title': 'Biology of depression',
'section': 'Section::::Emotional processing and neural circuits.:Emotional Bias.\n',
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'passage_text': 'People with MDD show a number of biases in emotional processing, such as a tendency to rate happy faces more negatively, and a tendency to allocate more attentional resources to sad expressions. Depressed people also have impaired recognition of happy, angry, disgusted, fearful and surprised, but not sad faces. Functional neuroimaging has demonstrated hyperactivity of various brain regions in response to negative emotional stimuli, and hypoactivity in response to positive stimuli. One meta analysis reported that depressed subjects showed decreased activity in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and increased activity in the amygdala in response to negative stimuli. Another meta analysis reported elevated hippocampus and thalamus activity in a subgroup of depressed subjects who were medication naive, not elderly, and had no comorbidities. The therapeutic lag of antidepressants has been suggested to be a result of antidepressants modifying emotional processing leading to mood changes. This is supported by the observation that both acute and subchronic SSRI administration increases response to positive faces. Antidepressant treatment appears to reverse mood congruent biases in limbic, prefrontal, and fusiform areas. dlPFC response is enhanced and amygdala response is attenuated during processing of negative emotions, the former or which is thought to reflect increased top down regulation. The fusiform gyrus and other visual processing areas respond more strongly to positive stimuli with antidepressant treatment, which is thought to reflect the a positive processing bias. These effects do not appear to be unique to serotonergic or noradrenergic antidepressants, but also occur in other forms of treatment such as deep brain stimulation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '234798',
'title': 'Grief',
'section': 'Section::::Physiological and neurological processes.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In those not so emotionally affected by reminders of their loss, studies of fMRI scans have been used to conclude that there is a high functional connectivity between the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and amygdala activity, suggesting that the former regulates activity in the latter. In those people who had greater intensity of sadness, there was a low functional connection between the rostal anterior cingulate cortex and amygdala activity, suggesting a lack of regulation of the former part of the brain upon the latter.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2737156',
'title': 'Emotional lability',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Potential triggers of emotional lability may be: excessive tiredness, stress or anxiety, over-stimulated senses (too much noise, being in large crowds, etc.), being around others exhibiting strong emotions, very sad or funny situations (such as jokes, movies, certain stories or books), death of a loved one, or other situations that elicit stress or strong emotions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '234796',
'title': 'Sadness',
'section': 'Section::::Neuroanatomy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'According to the "American Journal of Psychiatry", sadness has been found to be associated with "increases in bilateral activity within the vicinity of the middle and posterior temporal cortex, lateral cerebellum, cerebellar vermis, midbrain, putamen, and caudate." Jose V. Pardo has his M.D and Ph.D and leads a research program in cognitive neuroscience. Using positron emission tomography (PET) Pardo and his colleagues were able to provoke sadness among seven normal men and women by asking them to think about sad things. They observed increased brain activity in the bilateral inferior and orbitofrontal cortex. In a study that induced sadness in subjects by showing emotional film clips, the feeling was correlated with significant increases in regional brain activity, especially in the prefrontal cortex, in the region called Brodmann\'s area 9, and the thalamus. A significant increase in activity was also observed in the bilateral anterior temporal structures.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29558261',
'title': 'Emotional lateralization',
'section': 'Section::::Evidence of lateralization.:Behavioral differences and cortical activation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
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'passage_text': "Depression or having previously been depressed probably is due to altered brain structure or alters brain structure. Patients who have been depressed or are depressed show more activation to negative stimuli in emotion. When negative stimuli were presented to patients' right hemispheres, the patients were significantly more accurate and quicker to respond to the stimuli. The data in this study shows that psychological disorders are correlated with increased lateralization.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8248531',
'title': 'Emotional and behavioral disorders',
'section': 'Section::::Effect on cognition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
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'passage_text': 'Emotional disorders can also alter the way people regulate their emotions. Joormann and Gotlib (2010) conducted a study with depressed or, previously depressed individuals to test this. They found that, when compared to individuals who have never had a depressive episode, previously and currently depressed individuals tended to use maladaptive emotion regulation strategies (such as rumination or brooding) more. They also found that when depressed individuals displayed cognitive inhibition (slowing of response to a variable that had been previously ignored) when asked to describe a negative word (ignored variable was a positive word), they were less likely to ruminate or brood. When they displayed cognitive inhibition when asked to describe a positive word (ignored variable was a negative word), they were more likely reflect.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What makes us emotionaly numb when we are depressed?',
'selftext': 'And how does it come back?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Emotional numbness is one of the key markers in the first step of diagnosing things like major depression, but also PTSD and depersonalization disorders and they sometimes have different causes. \nWith depression, it's often heavily influenced by the imbalance of chemicals in your body and brain like serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine, and oxytocin to name a few. These levels become so low that you lose the pleasure and excitement reactions to things that usually make you happy and instead, you don't feel anything. That's why you're usually asked the 'have you lost interest in things that you usually enjoy doing' when being seen for mental health. There are a ton of ways to help yourself and get professional help to work through depression and treat it until you're symptom free, so don't give up.\n\nIn cases of PTSD and the like, it's more commonly a coping mechanism. The feelings from the associated trauma and its triggers are so intense that your brain decides that it's in its best interest to not address that feeling in order to survive. This isn't a bad thing! Often at the time the initial trauma occured, if your brain has triggered this kind of dissociation, it was a necessary coping mechanism to protect you and your mental health. If you are still experiencing symptoms of PTSD once the trauma is over, therapy is important to help teach your brain that it's okay to use other, more appropriate ways to deal with day to day emotions. \n\n\n\nAs for your question about how it comes back, that depends on the cause. You can certainly do some things yourself to try to jump start your happy chemicals, like doing light cardio every day for a few weeks, getting enough sunlight, taking a multivitamin- all things that are essential to helping you maintain a healthy cycle of production for these chemicals. \nIf you are still struggling after a few weeks of this OR experiencing worsening symptoms like panic attacks, severe lethargy, hostility, having suicidal thoughts, get in to see your doctor. Our brain and our genetic make up is entirely unique, so sometimes we will have trouble balancing our chemicals. To expound, because of that uniqueness, it will likely take a few or even more than a few different tries to find the right medication for you. Not only do they all act a little different, but there are many different classifications of these medications that specialize in specific chemicals and receptors in your brain, so an SSRI which mainly deals with serotonin reuptake will not perform the same function as an SNRI which mainly deals with norepinephrine reuptake, to only mention a few catergories. The most effective treatment in most cases is therapy and medication when needed. \n\n\nHope this helped. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9ayc01',
'query': 'what makes us emotionaly numb when we are depressed?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '12305127',
'title': 'Evolutionary history of life',
'section': 'Section::::Origins of life on Earth.:Independent emergence on Earth.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': "Research on how life might have emerged from non-living chemicals focuses on three possible starting points: self-replication, an organism's ability to produce offspring that are very similar to itself; metabolism, its ability to feed and repair itself; and external cell membranes, which allow food to enter and waste products to leave, but exclude unwanted substances. Research on abiogenesis still has a long way to go, since theoretical and empirical approaches are only beginning to make contact with each other.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28253247',
'title': "13 Things That Don't Make Sense",
'section': 'Section::::Chapter 5.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': "Life. This chapters describes efforts to define life and how it emerged from inanimate matter (Abiogenesis) and even recreate Artificial life including: the Miller–Urey experiment by chemists Stanley Miller and Harold Urey at the University of Chicago in 1953 to spark life into a mixture of chemicals by using an electrical charge; Steen Rasmussen's work at the Los Alamos National Laboratory to implant primitive DNA, Peptide nucleic acid, into soap molecules and heat them up; and the work of the Institute for Complex Adaptive Matter at the University of California.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37826297',
'title': 'Biotic ethics',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'These issues raise basic ethical questions. How far can we change, and still preserve, life and humanness? May we modify the DNA and proteins that are central to biology? May we create hardy man/machine cyborgs, or will these threaten to replace organic life? How much life should we construct in space? In general, biotic ethics may approve these developments if they help to propagate life. This ethical guidance may be in fact vital when advancing technology makes human designs self-fulfilling. Life can then survive only if the will to survive is itself always propagated.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3954',
'title': 'Biochemistry',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'It was once generally believed that life and its materials had some essential property or substance (often referred to as the "vital principle") distinct from any found in non-living matter, and it was thought that only living beings could produce the molecules of life. Then, in 1828, Friedrich Wöhler published a paper on the synthesis of urea, proving that organic compounds can be created artificially. Since then, biochemistry has advanced, especially since the mid-20th century, with the development of new techniques such as chromatography, X-ray diffraction, dual polarisation interferometry, NMR spectroscopy, radioisotopic labeling, electron microscopy, and molecular dynamics simulations. These techniques allowed for the discovery and detailed analysis of many molecules and metabolic pathways of the cell, such as glycolysis and the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle), and led to an understanding of biochemistry on a molecular level. Philip Randle is well known for his discovery in diabetes research is possibly the glucose-fatty acid cycle in 1963.He confirmed that fatty acids reduce oxidation of sugar by the muscle. High fat oxidation was responsible for the insulin resistance.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '827792',
'title': 'Rare Earth hypothesis',
'section': 'Section::::Criticism.:The hypothesis appears anthropocentric.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 91,
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'passage_text': 'The hypothesis concludes, more or less, that complex life is rare because it can evolve only on the surface of an Earth-like planet or on a suitable satellite of a planet. Some biologists, such as Jack Cohen, believe this assumption too restrictive and unimaginative; they see it as a form of circular reasoning.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37826297',
'title': 'Biotic ethics',
'section': 'Section::::Applications of biotic ethics.:How far can we transform, but still preserve, humanity and life?\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'However, biotic ethics cannot permit replacing biological life by robots, even if more hardy and intelligent than humans. By biotic ethics, eliminating organic life for any reason is the ultimate evil. Robots may be useful, but control should remain with biological brains with a vested self-interest to propagate organic gene/protein life.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34908824',
'title': 'Science of Life Studies 24/7',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Science of Life Studies 24/7 meaning.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 45,
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'passage_text': "'Science of Life' comes from the concept that if every child could be scientifically shown the challenges and possibilities they would face in life and also shown their true self, they will be able to prepare and develop all the skills needed to live a great life. 'Life' constitutes all the time (24 hours a day, 7 days a week), and is represented now. Not the future, or after life only.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What scientifically stops us from creating life?',
'selftext': "We know what we are made of but what stops life from starting when we put the necessary ingredients together? Edit: I'm not talking about creating another human. But just a small single celled form of life.",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['We can\'t put them together from scratch yet. Close, but not quite. \n\nAlso, life is a dangerous thing...there\'s the "wipe out all other life on Earth" possibility to deal with.',
"We've replaced the genetic material in simple cells with a synthetic genome and fired them back up.\n\nAll that's really limiting us from building complete cells from scratch is the fabrication of complex cell components. Biological systems are capable of extremely fine chemical assembly that we can't replicate in a lab mechanically.\n\nWe can use other cells to build the parts we want, but that's not quite the same.\n\nFor more complex life you have to deal with more sophisticated genetic code and layers of gene regulation that we don't fully understand yet.",
"We are trying, but it is *fucking hard*. It's not like we can precisely manipulate individual atoms and molecules as if they were Lego bricks.",
"Because we simply cannot craft matter at the molecular level as we please.\n\nThe basic molecules needed for life are astronomically complex. And nature itself did not create them overnight. They slowly evolved from simpler structures over time. Life did not just spark into existence, it was conceived by a long sequence of very lucky developments.\n\nThe DNA itself is composed of proteins, which are themselves composed of amino acids, which are still quite complex and varied. And we can't just link atoms together like Lego blocks.\n\nIf that was that easy, our planet would have had more than one life outburst. Instead, all known life on planet can be traced back to a single event.\n",
'"Creating life" in this context would refer to a very simple life-form. One of the most important steps for this is creating a lipid bi-layer of some sort, which is what most likely happened when the first lifeforms on earth came to be. Luckily this happens relatively easy, when molecules that have a hydrophobic and hydrophilic part clump together, as this creates a semi-permeable membrane that is able to selectively let through certain molecules (think food and oxygen), and creates a stable environment for the cell-to-be. This is the same thing that happens as when soap bubbles form.\n\nThe next important step is taking in amino acids, which are the molecules that form DNA. It has already been proven that these amino acids can form in something we call "primordial soup" when electricity is applied (thunder for example). With a bit of luck, a very simple functional strand of DNA is formed, and with even more luck, the formed DNA is functional enough to have it start simple metabolism and reproduction. \n\nThe difficulty in creating this ourselves (and the answer to your question) is the sheer number of times this has to happen before we get lucky enough that something functional forms. Life being created is incredibly improbable, but given enough time (hundreds of millions of years), the process happens so often, life might actually form.\n\nI need to add that i left out a lot of stuff and loads of it is slightly incorrect for the sake of simplicity, but the general idea is correct. ',
"By some definitions, we already have. We can create 100% artificial DNA, use it to replace the DNA in a single celled organism, and get a new, novel lifeform that uses that synthetic DNA.\n\nWhat we can't do is create everything from scratch, we still need a natural organism to kick start it. The question is when does that become creating life? If I use one lifeform to create something completely new and difference, does that count?",
"Mostly because a lot of the critical parts are so incredibly small and delicate. We don't have tools to build something like that."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '60pa6z',
'query': 'what scientifically stops us from creating life?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '29434178',
'title': 'Whispers: The Voices of Paranoia',
'section': 'Section::::Paranoia.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Paranoia is a belief system heavily influenced by fear. This extreme fear mostly becomes so strong that it leads to delusion or irrationality. The paranoid thought usually consists of someone or something plotting against him or her. Paranoia can be caused by simple fears, exposure to/experience of trauma, etc. The "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders", fourth edition (DSM-IV), the US manual of the mental health professional lists these as symptoms of paranoia:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13030638',
'title': 'Cognitive module',
'section': 'Section::::Psychological disorders – cognitive modules run amok.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': 'Paranoia: Being suspicious of fellow human beings is a trait to safeguard against perceived, secret plots against us, a basic human cognitive module useful for survival. But in some people, this turns into unreasonable suspiciousness where there is in reality no plotting against one. Such behaviour is by psychiatrists labeled as "paranoid schizophrenia" or in milder forms as "paranoid personality disorder". These disorders thus occur when the suspiciousness cognitive module is triggered too often and too strongly for triggers that would not trigger this module in normal people.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24515',
'title': 'Paranoia',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
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'passage_text': "A common symptom of paranoia is the attribution bias. These individuals typically have a biased perception of reality, often exhibiting more hostile beliefs. A paranoid person may view someone else's accidental behavior as though it is with intent or threatening.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24515',
'title': 'Paranoia',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Paranoia is an instinct or thought process believed to be heavily influenced by anxiety or fear, often to the point of delusion and irrationality. Paranoid thinking typically includes persecutory, or beliefs of conspiracy concerning a perceived threat towards oneself (e.g. the American colloquial phrase, ""Everyone is out to get me""). Paranoia is distinct from phobias, which also involve irrational fear, but usually no blame. Making false accusations and the general distrust of other people also frequently accompany paranoia. For example, an incident most people would view as an accident or coincidence, a paranoid person might believe was intentional. Paranoia is a central symptom of psychosis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2099506',
'title': 'Paranoid-schizoid and depressive positions',
'section': 'Section::::Paranoid-schizoid position.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'Paranoid refers to the central paranoid anxiety, the fear of invasive malevolence. This is experienced as coming from the outside, but ultimately derives from the projection out of the death instinct. Paranoid anxiety can be understood in terms of anxiety about imminent annihilation and derives from a sense of the destructive or death instinct of the child. In this position before the secure internalisation of a good object to protect the ego, the immature ego deals with its anxiety by splitting off bad feelings and projecting them out. However, this causes paranoia. Schizoid refers to the central defense mechanism: splitting, the vigilant separation of the good object from the bad object.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24515',
'title': 'Paranoia',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'Due to the suspicious and troublesome personality traits of paranoia, it is unlikely that someone with paranoia will thrive in interpersonal relationships. Most commonly paranoid individuals tend to be of a single status. According to some research there is a hierarchy for paranoia. The least common types of paranoia at the very top of the hierarchy would be those involving more serious threats. Social anxiety is at the bottom of this hierarchy as the most frequently exhibited level of paranoia.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '87867',
'title': 'Paranoid schizophrenia',
'section': 'Section::::Misconceptions.:Paranoia vs. paranoid schizophrenia.\n',
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'passage_text': "While paranoia is an inherent symptom of paranoid schizophrenia, not everyone who experiences it has paranoid schizophrenia. Paranoia may be symptomatic of other conditions such as paranoid personality disorder, delusional disorder, Alzheimer's Disease, or Parkinson's Disease. An individual may also experience paranoia due to drug use, a sleep deficit, or even the environment. Treatment for paranoia is not always the same as treatment for paranoid schizophrenia. While patients with paranoid schizophrenia are almost always advised to take prescription medication, paranoia is treated in a myriad of ways depending on the severity and origination. \xa0\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does one get paranoid at times? In other words, are there receptors for paranoia in the body?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The endocrine system regulates your flight or fight response, releasing various chemicals that attach to your receptors and make you feel scared.\n\nParanoia is a reaction to fear, such as is anger.\nIf there is no immediate threat, your brain is going to rationalize your fear.\n\nIt's why we get pissed when someone pulls out in front of us, or laugh when we get a jumpscare. It's our brain rationalizing fear into something we can process consciously.\n\nBoo!\n\nYou could have anxiety or something, but cannabis will also cause random paranoia even when you haven't smoked it in a while.\n\nGood luck."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8e513b',
'query': 'why does one get paranoid at times? in other words, are there receptors for paranoia in the body?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '989858',
'title': 'Streaming television',
'section': 'Section::::Profits and costs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
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'passage_text': 'With the advent of broadband Internet connections, multiple streaming providers have come onto the market in the last couple of years. The main providers are Netflix, Hulu and Amazon. Some of these providers such as Hulu advertise and charge a monthly fee. Other such as Netflix and Amazon charge users a monthly fee and have no commercials. Netflix is the largest provider; it has over 43 million members and its membership numbers are growing. The rise of internet TV has resulted in cable companies losing customers to a new kind of customer called "cord cutters". Cord cutters are consumers who are cancelling their cable TV or satellite TV subscriptions and choosing instead to stream TV shows, movies and other content via the Internet. Cord cutters are forming communities. With the increasing availability of video sharing websites (e.g., YouTube) and streaming services, there is an alternative to cable and satellite television subscriptions. Cord cutters tend to be younger people.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '234163',
'title': 'Product bundling',
'section': 'Section::::Internet bundles.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
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'passage_text': 'Streaming company Netflix offers different bundles, claims to have the largest content along with original programming, and offers downloading for offline viewing. Amazon provides on-Demand Movie Streaming, as well as Hulu. Sling TV offers up to 50 channels, HBO Now, Philo TV, Pluto TV, FuboTV, and Twitch.tv (subsidiary of Amazon) also offer TV programming. YouTube TV ties with PlayStation Vue as the most expensive streaming video and Apple TV plans to add movies. Most of these companies offer different prices as bundles or packages. Roku and Sony Crackle offer free TV with advertisements.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4994998',
'title': 'Free (ISP)',
'section': 'Section::::Corporate affairs.:Profitability.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 77,
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'passage_text': "Because of bandwidth cost, only a subset of the TV services is offered to bundled subscribers; while unbundled subscribers can access value-added services such as VOD and Subscription VOD. These services' revenues are constantly increasing.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5805813',
'title': 'Cable television in the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Cable television fees and programming lineups.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 53,
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'passage_text': 'In addition to the basic cable packages, all systems offer premium channel add-on packages offering either just one premium network (for example, HBO) or several premium networks for one price (for example, HBO and Showtime together). Finally, most cable systems offer pay-per-view channels where users can watch individual movies, live events, sports and other programs for an additional fee for single viewing at a scheduled time (this is generally the main place where pornographic content airs on American cable). Some cable systems have begun to offer on-demand programming, where customers can select programs from a list of offerings including recent releases of movies, concerts, sports, first-run television shows and specials and start the program whenever they wish, as if they were watching a DVD or a VHS tape (although some on demand services, generally those offered by broadcast networks, restrict the ability to fast forward through a program). Some of the offerings have a cost similar to renting a movie at a video store while others are free. On-demand content has slowly been replacing traditional pay-per-view for pre-recorded content; pay-per-view remains popular for live combat sports events (boxing, mixed martial arts and professional wrestling).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '158546',
'title': 'Media of the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Internet.:Online streaming.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
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'passage_text': 'Nowadays, online streaming makes it possible to watch everything from live news and sports to classic movies to modern TV favorites in their own time, on any device. Some of online streaming service providers are Netflix, Hulu Plus, Amazon Video and YouTube. Over-the-top subscription services that mirrored cable and TV Everywhere services began emerging in the mid-2010s. In 2015, Dish Network and Sony respectively launched Sling TV and PlayStation Vue, cable-style online and mobile streaming services priced at lower monthly rates than packages offered by traditional pay television system operators.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5805813',
'title': 'Cable television in the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Programming.:Basic cable.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
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'passage_text': 'Cable television programming is often divided between basic and premium television. Basic cable networks are generally transmitted without any encryption or other scrambling methods and thus anyone connected to the cable television system can receive the basic channel. Basic cable networks receive at least some funding through "per-subscriber fees," fees paid by the cable television systems for the right to include the television network in its channel lineup. Most (though not all) basic cable networks also include advertising to supplement the fees, since their programming costs are not usually covered by per-subscriber fees alone.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1885384',
'title': 'Telenet (Belgium)',
'section': 'Section::::Television.:Cable television.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
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'passage_text': 'Since 2012-2013 cable customers need not pay an extra subscription to receive digital TV, but they must purchase or rent a set-top box in order to view the digital TV channels and to use the interactive services based on the Multimedia Home Platform.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How is Netflix cheaper than cable without ads while cable has them? Shouldn't it be the other way around ?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Netflix is about the same price per month as a premium cable station like HBO or Showtime. So, I am not sure why you think it's substantially cheaper.\n\nIf you are comparing Netflix to cable service as a whole, remember that the cable bill includes getting the content to your house. Netflix doesn't cover that.",
"When cable TV was first introduced, the main selling point (wait...PAY?? For TV??!!) was that it didn't have commercials. Guess how long that lasted. Give Netflix another decade or so.",
"Because Netflix uses the internet to deliver content, and you pay for internet service separately. All together the price isn't all that different",
'While it is true that you pay for delivery as part of your cable bill...\n\nCable has (to some extent) a "monopoly" on certain types of content, especially live sports and news. They charge more because some people are willing to pay, partly because of lack of options (for that type of content). \n\nCable companies are also constantly criticized and sometimes sued for unfair or unclear fee structures, including stuff like equipment rental fees being overcharged or billed incorrectly. \n\nYes, there are concrete reasons why cable may be more expensive to deliver to you. But a lot of it comes down to business practices. Netflix wants to continue getting your money because you\'re happy with their product and the value it offers. Cable companies want to get as much money as possible from you per-month and they\'re willing to have people leave their service if it means they can continue price-gouging their loyal customers. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6kbhfu',
'query': "how is netflix cheaper than cable without ads while cable has them? shouldn't it be the other way around ?",
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '18294507',
'title': 'Guitar picking',
'section': 'Section::::Other techniques.:Tapping.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Tapping is a guitar playing technique, where a string is fretted and set into vibration as part of a single motion of being pushed onto the fretboard, as opposed to the standard technique being fretted with one hand and picked with the other. It is similar to the technique of hammer-ons and pull-offs, but used in an extended way compared to them: hammer-ons would be performed by only the fretting hand, and in conjunction with conventionally picked notes; whereas tapping passages involve both hands and consist of only tapped, hammered and pulled notes. Tapping is used exclusively by some players (such as Stanley Jordan) and on some instruments, such as the Chapman Stick.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '223496',
'title': 'Tapping',
'section': 'Section::::Techniques.:Two-handed tapping.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The main disadvantage to tapping is reduced range of timbre, and in fact it is common to use a compressor effect to make notes more similar in volume. As tapping produces a "clean tone" effect, and since the first note usually sounds the loudest (unwanted in some music like jazz), dynamics are a main concern with this technique, though Stanley Jordan and many Stick players are successful in this genre. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '223496',
'title': 'Tapping',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Tapping is a guitar playing technique where a string is fretted and set into vibration as part of a single motion of being tapped onto the fretboard, with either hand, as opposed to the standard technique of fretting with one hand and picking with the other. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4642030',
'title': 'Tapboard',
'section': "Section::::Francis Dunnery's Tapboard.:Design.\n",
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'passage_text': 'As with a number of other tapping instruments (such as the harpejji and the StarrBoard), the Tapboard is designed to be played on the lap, on a table or on a table-style stand, in much the same position as a pedal steel or lap steel guitar. The playing style involves the use of all ten fingers (and thumbs) in a pianistic style, with the resulting sound being similar to that of a Chapman Stick. Dunnery has commented "it\'s a very rhythmic instrument. And you can always see exactly what you\'re doing, you can work the patterns out. The things you do are totally different from what you can do on a guitar. You can hit two notes together at either end of the fretboard, you can stagger notes, like you\'re playing a piano, and play \'impossible\' scales."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '223496',
'title': 'Tapping',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'While tapping is most commonly observed on electric guitar, it may apply to almost any string instrument, and several instruments have been created specifically to use the method. The Bunker Touch-Guitar (developed by Dave Bunker in 1958) is designed for the technique, but with an elbow rest to hold the right arm in the conventional guitar position. The Chapman Stick (developed in the early 1970s by Emmett Chapman) is an instrument designed primarily for tapping, and is based on the "Free Hands" two-handed tapping method invented by Chapman in 1969 where each hand approaches the fretboard with the fingers aligned parallel to the frets. The Hamatar, Mobius Megatar, Box Guitar, and Solene instruments were designed for the same method. The NS/Stick and Warr Guitar are also built for tapping, though not exclusively. The harpejji is a tapping instrument which is played on a stand, like a keyboard, with fingers typically parallel to the strings rather than perpendicular. All of these instruments use string tensions less than a standard guitar, and low action to increase the strings\' sensitivity to lighter tapping.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '223496',
'title': 'Tapping',
'section': 'Section::::Techniques.:Two-handed tapping.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': "Tapping can be used to play polyphonic and counterpoint music on a guitar, making available eight (and even nine) fingers as stops. For example, the right hand may fret the treble melody while the left hand plays an accompaniment. Therefore, it is possible to produce music written for a keyboard instrument, such as J.S. Bach's Two-part Inventions.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1118055',
'title': 'Self-tapping screw',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 387,
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'passage_text': 'For hard substrates such as metal or hard plastics, the self-tapping ability is often created by cutting a gap in the continuity of the thread on the screw, generating a flute and cutting edge similar to those on a tap. Thus, whereas a regular machine screw cannot tap its own hole in a metal substrate, a self-tapping one can (within reasonable limits of substrate hardness and depth).\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does tapping wood and tapping metal produce different sounds?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["you know when you put a ruler on the edge of a table and push it down and let it go and it makes that woioioioinggggg sound? And if you vary the length of it off the table, the sound changes and the speed at which the end of the ruler goes up and back down changes? This is the natural frequency of the ruler when it is that length of the table and thus produces a certain sound. \n\nNow certain materials also will have a natural frequency such as wooden or metal tables and that's why they make different sounds. They make different frequencies because they also will only take in set amounts of energies.",
'Sound is basically caused by our eardrums reacting to different frequency vibrations, and our brain interpreting the vibrations as sounds. Different frequencies will cause different sounds, because the vibrations are different.\n\nDeeper sounds are caused by lower/shorter frequencies/vibrations, while higher sounds are caused by higher/longer frequencies/vibrations.\n\nThe reason those objects make different sounds will be due to a lot of things, but mostly due to being made of different elements, and having different densities. Both objects cause different types of vibrations, so you hear different sounds.',
'Hey, one that I can answer. Nice. \n\nWood and metal are very different materials. Compared to metal, wood is very soft and has loads of super tiny cracks and holes, all of which affect the sound that is made on contact. \n\nMetal tends to "ring" when struck. This is because metal objects (especially those meant for beating noises out of) have a very rigid structure, and are very hard. This means that hitting the metal object causes the strike to spread theough the entire object in the form of vibrations, in a far different way than with wood. \n\nI feel like I was rambling a bit. May come revise this later.',
'The short answer is because metals are much springier and thus will vibrate for longer. This has two effects: The sound lasts for longer, so you get ringing, rather than the "clop" of wood. Metals also allow for production of higher pitched/ higher frequency sounds, so the specific frequencies that make up the sound produced when striking metal will have a lot more high frequency waves in it. \n\n\nWhy metal supports high frequency sound generation when wood doesn\'t comes down to differences in molecular structure. The same metallic bonds that give wood its properties of ductility (can be stretched into a wire) and malleability (can be flattened into a sheet) give it it\'s acoustic, or sound properties. \n\n\nWhy objects produce the characteristic sound they do is a really deep well to plumb, that involves some math, physics, and chemistry. If this sounds interesting to you, start reading up on metallic bonding vs. polymers, normal modes and natural frequencies, frequency spectrum and Fourier transforms, resonance, and phonons.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'bi00fk',
'query': 'why does tapping wood and tapping metal produce different sounds?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '426404',
'title': 'Night terror',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'The universal feature of night terrors is inconsolability, very similar to that of a panic attack. During night terror bouts, people are usually described as "bolting upright" with their eyes wide open and a look of fear and panic on their faces. They will often scream. Furthermore, they will usually sweat, exhibit rapid breathing, and have a rapid heart rate (autonomic signs). In some cases, individuals are likely to have even more elaborate motor activity, such as a thrashing of limbs—which may include punching, swinging, or fleeing motions. There is a sense that the individuals are trying to protect themselves and/or escape from a possible threat of bodily injury. Although people may seem to be awake during a night terror, they will appear confused, be inconsolable and/or unresponsive to attempts to communicate with them, and may not recognize others familiar to them. Occasionally, when a person with a night terror is awakened, they will lash out at the one awakening them, which can be dangerous to that individual. Most people who experience this do not remember the incident the next day, although brief dream images or hallucinations may occur and be recalled. Sleepwalking is also common during night terror bouts, as sleepwalking and night terrors are different manifestations of the same parasomnia.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '205363',
'title': 'Snoring',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 407,
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'passage_text': 'Snoring is known to cause sleep deprivation to snorers and those around them, as well as daytime drowsiness, irritability, lack of focus and decreased libido. It has also been suggested that it can cause significant psychological and social damage to sufferers. Multiple studies reveal a positive correlation between loud snoring and risk of heart attack (about +34% chance) and stroke (about +67% chance).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17295821',
'title': 'Middle-of-the-night insomnia',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 294,
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'passage_text': 'The disrupted sleep patterns caused by middle-of-the-night insomnia make many sufferers of the condition complain of fatigue the following day. Excessive daytime sleepiness is reported nearly two times higher by individuals with nocturnal awakenings than by people who sleep through the night.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '426404',
'title': 'Night terror',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 377,
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'passage_text': 'Night terrors tend to happen during periods of arousal from delta sleep, also known as slow-wave sleep. Delta sleep occurs most often during the first half of a sleep cycle, which indicates that people with more delta sleep activity are more prone to night terrors. However, they can also occur during daytime naps. Night terrors can often be mistaken for confusional arousal.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '426404',
'title': 'Night terror',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Though the symptoms of night terrors in adolescents and adults are similar, their causes, prognoses, and treatments are qualitatively different. There is some evidence that suggests that night terrors can occur if the sufferer does not eat a proper diet, does not get the appropriate amount or quality of sleep (e.g., because of sleep apnea), or is enduring stressful events. Adults who have experienced sexual abuse are more likely to receive a diagnosis of sleep disorders, including night terrors. Overall, though, adult night terrors are much less common and often respond best to treatments that rectify causes of poor quality or quantity of sleep.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20556798',
'title': 'Myocardial infarction',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Other.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 514,
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'passage_text': 'The risk of having a myocardial infarction increases with older age, low physical activity, and low socioeconomic status. Heart attacks appear to occur more commonly in the morning hours, especially between 6AM and noon. Evidence suggests that heart attacks are at least three times more likely to occur in the morning than in the late evening. Shift work is also associated with a higher risk of MI. And one analysis has found an increase in heart attacks immediately following the start of daylight saving time.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '426404',
'title': 'Night terror',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.:Differential diagnosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 443,
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'passage_text': 'We have to distinguish night terrors from nightmares. In fact, in nightmares there are almost never vocalization or agitation, and if there are any, they are less strong in comparison to night terrors. In addition, nightmares appear ordinarily during REM sleep in contrast to night terrors, which occur in NREM sleep. Finally, individuals with nightmares can wake up completely and easily and have clear and detailed memories of their dreams.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does heartburn at night cause nightmares and a racing heart?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['I\'m no Dr but I am a chronic sufferer of acid reflux, especially at night. I have never experienced this. It may be psychosomatic. I used to experience muscle spasms and stinging feelings in my back as a child and they were always accompanied by dreams of bee stings. I\'ve experienced these feelings while awake and always assumed the dreams were my brain "making sense" of the information it was receiving. The brain likes to fill in blanks, even if it\'s wrong.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7wfkk5',
'query': 'why does heartburn at night cause nightmares and a racing heart?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '47677332',
'title': 'ACL injuries in the Australian Football League',
'section': 'Section::::Prevention.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 1009,
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'passage_text': 'The risk of injuring the ACL is very high for an athlete, as most professionals say it is worrying how common the injury is becoming. As there is no real way to stop an ACL injury from occurring, there can be ways to lower the risk. Once an athlete does an ACL injury it is extremely difficult to be able to come back to football, it even creates a higher risk of a second ACL injury after having the first reconstructed. This is why it is vitally important for an AFL player to build strong muscles and bones to benefit them in their career. Small doses of training can help prevent ACL injuries, as athletes will not over train leaving their body fatigued and sore. The small doses of training only have to include, strength, balance, plyo- metric or agility to gain some prevention from the injury. It is also important to talk to the coach or training staff to inform them of what you can and cannot do. Some things in life are preventable, but injuries such as ACL injuries are just too hard to prevent.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3185593',
'title': 'Splenic injury',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 389,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "In minor injuries with little bleeding, there may be abdominal pain, tenderness in the epigastrium and pain in the left flank. Often there is a sharp pain in the left shoulder, known as Kehr's sign. In larger injuries with more extensive bleeding, signs of hypovolemic shock are most prominent. This might include a rapid pulse, low blood pressure, rapid breathing, paleness, and anxiety.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3300318',
'title': 'Alone in the Dark (2008 video game)',
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 300,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "If the player takes damage, open wounds appear on Edward's outfit. The player must use a medical spray or, if the wounds are too deep, use bandages to heal themselves. If Edward takes too much damage, the screen will flash red, and a heartbeat sound will be heard indicating that he is bleeding out.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2455474',
'title': 'Anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction',
'section': 'Section::::Types of grafts.:Autograft.:Hamstring tendon.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 519,
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'passage_text': 'The main surgical wound is over the upper proximal tibia, which prevents the typical pain experienced when kneeling after surgery. The wound is typically smaller than that of a patellar ligament graft, and so causes less post-operative pain. Another option first described in 2004, a minimally invasive technique for harvesting from the back of the knee, is faster, produces a significantly smaller wound, avoids the complications of graft harvesting from the anterior incision, and decreases the risk of nerve injury.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7325566',
'title': 'Unhappy triad',
'section': 'Section::::Component injuries.:Medial collateral ligament.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 41,
'end_character': 290,
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'passage_text': 'The most common symptom following an MCL injury is pain directly over the ligament. Swelling over the torn ligament may appear, and bruising and generalized joint swelling are common 1 to 2 days after the injury. In more severe injuries, patients may complain that the knee feels unstable.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37549699',
'title': 'Free flap breast reconstruction',
'section': 'Section::::Recovery.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 167,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 167,
'end_character': 219,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Medication may be prescribed post-surgery to relieve pain and drains may be placed at the surgical wound to remove fluids. A support bra or elastic bandage is often recommended to decrease swelling and support healing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5811552',
'title': 'Anterior cruciate ligament injury',
'section': 'Section::::Prognosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 65,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 65,
'end_character': 461,
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'passage_text': 'Long term complications of ACL injury include early onset arthritis of the knee and/or re-tearing the ligament. Factors that increase risk of arthritis include severity of the initial injury, injury to other structures in the knee, and level of activity following treatment. Not repairing tears to the ACL can sometimes cause damage to the cartilage inside the knee because with the torn ACL, the tibia and femur bone are more likely to rub against each other.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does putting a Band-aid on a minor wound cause it to hurt slightly less, even if it’s not open and bleeding?',
'selftext': 'Is it cushioning? Is it protection from drafts? Placebo effect?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It stops the skin stretching die to the numerous microtears in the skin created the resulting wound. You may not be able to see it but the skin becomes more stretchy and delicate as a result of this. By having a bandaid you keep the wound in place and stop friction and movement which are things which cause pain.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8x2eln',
'query': 'why does putting a band-aid on a minor wound cause it to hurt slightly less, even if it’s not open and bleeding?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '6477130',
'title': 'Tympanal organ',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 752,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Tympanal organs occur in just about any part of the insect: the thorax, the base of the wing, the abdomen, the legs, etc., depending on the group of insects. The structures are thought to have evolved independently many times. As a result, their position and structures are often used to help determine the taxonomy of the species. For example, all members of the Geometridae share distinctive paired abdominal tympanal organs that open towards the front side of the first abdominal segment. Within the organ, particular structures vary in shape and are used to indicate shared ancestry of subfamilies. In other families of Lepidoptera having abdominal tympanal organs, the opening may be in a different orientation and the structures differ in shape.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12269001',
'title': 'Insect physiology',
'section': 'Section::::Muscular system.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 471,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The muscular system of insects ranges from a few hundred muscles to a few thousand. Unlike vertebrates that have both smooth and striated muscles, insects have only striated muscles. Muscle cells are amassed into muscle fibers and then into the functional unit, the muscle. Muscles are attached to the body wall, with attachment fibers running through the cuticle and to the epicuticle, where they can move different parts of the body including appendages such as wings.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24104729',
'title': 'Insect morphology',
'section': 'Section::::Anatomy summary.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 714,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Insects, like all arthropods, have no interior skeleton; instead, they have an exoskeleton, a hard outer layer made mostly of chitin which protects and supports the body. The insect body is divided into three parts: the head, thorax, and abdomen. The head is specialized for sensory input and food intake; the thorax, which is the anchor point for the legs and wings (if present), is specialized for locomotion; and the abdomen for digestion, respiration, excretion, and reproduction. Although the general function of the three body regions is the same across all insect species, there are major differences in basic structure, with wings, legs, antennae, and mouthparts being highly variable from group to group.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24104729',
'title': 'Insect morphology',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 595,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'There is enormous variation in body structure amongst insect species. Individuals can range from 0.3\xa0mm (fairyflies) to 30\xa0cm across (great owlet moth); have no eyes or many; well-developed wings or none; and legs modified for running, jumping, swimming, or even digging. These modifications allow insects to occupy almost every ecological niche on the planet, except the deep ocean and the Antarctic. This article describes the basic insect body and some of the major variations of the different body parts; in the process it defines many of the technical terms used to describe insect bodies.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27609',
'title': 'Skeleton',
'section': 'Section::::Types of skeletons.:Exoskeleton.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 334,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The exoskeleton of insects is not only a form of protection, but also serves as a surface for muscle attachment, as a watertight protection against drying, and as a sense organ to interact with the environment. The shell of mollusks also performs all of the same functions, except that in most cases it does not contain sense organs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1748421',
'title': 'Simple eye in invertebrates',
'section': 'Section::::Simple eyes in arthropods.:Dorsal ocelli.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 408,
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'passage_text': 'Dorsal ocelli are light-sensitive organs found on the dorsal (top-most) surface or frontal surface of the head of many insects, e.g. Hymenoptera (bees, ants, wasps, sawflies), Diptera (flies), Odonata (dragonflies, damselflies) and Orthoptera (grasshoppers, locusts). The ocelli coexist with the compound eyes; thus, most insects possess two anatomically separate and functionally different visual pathways.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2594',
'title': 'Ant',
'section': 'Section::::Morphology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 813,
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'passage_text': 'Like other insects, ants have an exoskeleton, an external covering that provides a protective casing around the body and a point of attachment for muscles, in contrast to the internal skeletons of humans and other vertebrates. Insects do not have lungs; oxygen and other gases, such as carbon dioxide, pass through their exoskeleton via tiny valves called spiracles. Insects also lack closed blood vessels; instead, they have a long, thin, perforated tube along the top of the body (called the "dorsal aorta") that functions like a heart, and pumps haemolymph toward the head, thus driving the circulation of the internal fluids. The nervous system consists of a ventral nerve cord that runs the length of the body, with several ganglia and branches along the way reaching into the extremities of the appendages.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Do insects have the same sort of internal organs as us?',
'selftext': 'Do they have brains and digestive systems etc? I can’t imagine them having a tiny little stomach or heart or anything, so how does it work?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['No, they do not. They have analogous systems, but they can vary wildly in function. For example, the respiratory system of most insects is trachea, not lungs; they do not have a pump that hauls air to and fro, they absorb oxygen by diffusion.\n\nOnly vertebrates have truly the same organs as us, because they evolved from the same ancestors as us. Frogs, snakes, birds, cats and dogs and humans all come from the same primitive ancient lungfish which already had familiar internal organs. The arthropods split much earlier, at the worm stage that had barely any organs at all, and evolved independently.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'c0xwge',
'query': 'do insects have the same sort of internal organs as us?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1720640',
'title': 'Molecular ecology',
'section': 'Section::::Phylogenies.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 53,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 53,
'end_character': 552,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Phylogenies confer important historical processes that shape current distributions of genes and species. When two species become isolated from each other they retain some of the same ancestral alleles also known as allele sharing. Alleles can be shared because of lineage sorting and hybridization. Lineage sorting is driven by genetic drift and must occur before alleles become species specific. Some of these alleles over time will simply be lost, or they may proliferate. Hybridization leads to introgression of alleles from one species to another.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1984187',
'title': 'Biomineralization',
'section': 'Section::::Evolution.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 265,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Far from being a rare trait that evolved a few times and remained stagnant, biomineralization pathways in fact evolved many times and are still evolving rapidly today; even within a single genus it is possible to detect great variation within a single gene family.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '403627',
'title': 'Genetic diversity',
'section': 'Section::::Evolutionary importance of Genetic Diversity.:Adaptation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 1206,
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'passage_text': 'Variation in the populations gene pool allows natural selection to act upon traits that allow the population to adapt to changing environments. Selection for or against a trait can occur with changing environment – resulting in an increase in genetic diversity (if a new mutation is selected for and maintained) or a decrease in genetic diversity (if a disadvantageous allele is selected against). Hence, genetic diversity plays an important role in the survival and adaptability of a species. The capability of the population to adapt to the changing environment will depend on the presence of the necessary genetic diversity The more genetic diversity a population has, the more likelihood the population will be able to adapt and survive. Conversely, the vulnerability of a population to changes, such as climate change or novel diseases will increase with reduction in genetic diversity. For example, the inability of koalas to adapt to fight Chlamydia and the koala retrovirus (KoRV) has been linked to the koala’s low genetic diversity. This low genetic diversity also has geneticists concerned for the koalas ability to adapt to climate change and human-induced environmental changes in the future.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25614',
'title': 'Race (human categorization)',
'section': 'Section::::Modern scholarship.:Biological classification.:Genetically differentiated populations.:Clines and clusters in genetic variation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 61,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 61,
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'passage_text': 'Recent studies of human genetic clustering have included a debate over how genetic variation is organized, with clusters and clines as the main possible orderings. argued for smooth, clinal genetic variation in ancestral populations even in regions previously considered racially homogeneous, with the apparent gaps turning out to be artifacts of sampling techniques. disputed this and offered an analysis of the Human Genetic Diversity Panel showing that there were small discontinuities in the smooth genetic variation for ancestral populations at the location of geographic barriers such as the Sahara, the Oceans, and the Himalayas. Nonetheless, stated that their findings “should not be taken as evidence of our support of any particular concept of biological race... Genetic differences among human populations derive mainly from gradations in allele frequencies rather than from distinctive \'diagnostic\' genotypes." Using a sample of 40 populations distributed roughly evenly across the Earth\'s land surface, found that "genetic diversity is distributed in a more clinal pattern when more geographically intermediate populations are sampled."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15993881',
'title': '1000 Genomes Project',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 550,
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'passage_text': 'Since the completion of the Human Genome Project, advances in human population genetics and comparative genomics have made it possible to gain increasing insight into the nature of genetic diversity. However, we are just beginning to understand how processes like the random sampling of gametes, structural variations (insertions/deletions (indels), copy number variations (CNV), and retroelements), single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and natural selection have shaped the level and pattern of variation within species and also between species.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '403627',
'title': 'Genetic diversity',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Genetic diversity serves as a way for populations to adapt to changing environments. With more variation, it is more likely that some individuals in a population will possess variations of alleles that are suited for the environment. Those individuals are more likely to survive to produce offspring bearing that allele. The population will continue for more generations because of the success of these individuals.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25692022',
'title': 'Human ethology',
'section': 'Section::::Diversity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 37,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Genetic diversity serves as a way for populations to adapt to changing environments. With more variation, it is more likely that some individuals in a population will possess variations of alleles that are suited for the environment. Those individuals are more likely to survive to produce offspring bearing that allele. The population will continue for more generations because of the success of these individuals.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does gene diversity develop if we all came from common ancestors?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Mutations. Genes change. Your genes aren't exactly duplicated from your parents. The differences are slight, but given many generations they really do build up.",
"Just to add onto the other answers, a slight mutation rate is actually built into us. It's *possible* to make proteins (DNA polymerases) that are more accurate at replicating our DNA, but we don't actually have them because some amount of diversity is good.\n\nFor a real-life example, the influenza virus has a relatively inaccurate polymerase, which causes lots more mutations, which is why it's hard to make a perfect flu vaccine."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'fn2lst',
'query': 'how does gene diversity develop if we all came from common ancestors?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '89547',
'title': 'Water vapor',
'section': 'Section::::Properties.:Respiration and breathing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 41,
'end_character': 228,
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'passage_text': 'This can have an effect on respiration. In very warm air (35\xa0°C) the proportion of water vapor is large enough to give rise to the stuffiness that can be experienced in humid jungle conditions or in poorly ventilated buildings.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '77485',
'title': 'Altitude sickness',
'section': 'Section::::Prevention.:Other methods.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 56,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 56,
'end_character': 262,
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'passage_text': 'Increased water intake may also help in acclimatization to replace the fluids lost through heavier breathing in the thin, dry air found at altitude, although consuming excessive quantities ("over-hydration") has no benefits and may cause dangerous hyponatremia.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5888087',
'title': 'Thoracic wall',
'section': 'Section::::Function.:Diving reflex.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "When not breathing for long and dangerous periods of time in cold water, a person's body undergoes great temporary changes to try to prevent death. It achieves this through the activation of the mammalian diving reflex, which has 3 main properties. Other than Bradycardia and Peripheral vasoconstriction, there is a blood shift which occurs only during very deep dives that affects the thoracic cavity (a chamber of the body protected by the thoracic wall.) When this happens, organ and circulatory walls allow plasma/water to pass freely throughout the thoracic cavity, so its pressure stays constant and the organs aren't crushed. In this stage, the lungs' alveoli fill up with blood plasma, which is reabsorbed when the organism leaves the pressurized environment. This stage of the diving reflex has been observed in humans (such as world champion freediver Martin Štěpánek) during extremely deep (over 90 metres or 300\xa0ft) free dives.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '146879',
'title': 'Hypothermia',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Water immersion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 39,
'end_character': 552,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Heat is lost much more quickly in water than in air. Thus, water temperatures that would be quite reasonable as outdoor air temperatures can lead to hypothermia in survivors, although this is not usually the direct clinical cause of death for those who are not rescued. A water temperature of can lead to death in as little as one hour, and water temperatures near freezing can cause death in as little as 15 minutes. A notable example of this occurred during the sinking of the "Titanic", when most people who entered the water died in 15–30 minutes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3802867',
'title': 'Inert gas asphyxiation',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 481,
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'passage_text': 'According to the U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board, in humans, "breathing an oxygen deficient atmosphere can have serious and immediate effects, including unconsciousness after only one or two breaths. The exposed person has no warning and cannot sense that the oxygen level is too low." In the US, at least 80 people died due to accidental nitrogen asphyxiation between 1992 and 2002. Hazards with inert gases and the risks of asphyxiation are well established.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '305649',
'title': 'Oceanic dolphin',
'section': 'Section::::Biology.:Anatomy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 260,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Breathing involves expelling stale air from the blowhole, forming an upward, steamy spout, followed by inhaling fresh air into the lungs; a spout only occurs when the warm air from the lungs meets the cold external air, so it may only form in colder climates.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '219367',
'title': 'Drowning',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.:Cold water immersion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 67,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 67,
'end_character': 515,
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'passage_text': "Heat transfers very well into water, and body heat is therefore lost extremely quickly in water compared to air, even in merely 'cool' swimming waters around 70F (~20C). A water temperature of can lead to death in as little as one hour, and water temperatures hovering at freezing can lead to death in as little as 15 minutes. This is because cold water can have other lethal effects on the body, so hypothermia is not usually a reason for drowning or the clinical cause of death for those who drown in cold water.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'if You were to breathe in extremely humid air, for long periods of time, would you eventually ‘drown’?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['You could potentially, if your lungs were colder than the ambient temperature, which would allow the water vapor to condense down back into a liquid form rapidly enough to prevent the lungs from expelling them through normal processes. It could also occur under different atmospheric pressures than are generally found on Earth.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'ea45ts',
'query': 'if you were to breathe in extremely humid air, for long periods of time, would you eventually ‘drown’?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '6207',
'title': 'Electric current',
'section': 'Section::::Electromagnetism.:Electromagnetic induction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 43,
'end_character': 224,
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'passage_text': 'Magnetic fields can also be used to make electric currents. When a changing magnetic field is applied to a conductor, an electromotive force (EMF) is induced, which starts an electric current, when there is a suitable path.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1388228',
'title': 'Electromagnetic forming',
'section': 'Section::::Explanation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': "A rapidly changing magnetic field induces a circulating electric current within a nearby conductor through electromagnetic induction. The induced current creates a corresponding magnetic field around the conductor (see Pinch (plasma physics)). Because of Lenz's Law, the magnetic fields created within the conductor and work coil strongly repel each other.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12146395',
'title': 'Proximity effect (electromagnetism)',
'section': 'Section::::Explanation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'A changing magnetic field will influence the distribution of an electric current flowing within an electrical conductor, by electromagnetic induction. When an alternating current (AC) flows through a conductor, it creates an associated alternating magnetic field around it. The alternating magnetic field induces eddy currents in adjacent conductors, altering the overall distribution of current flowing through them. The result is that the current is concentrated in the areas of the conductor farthest away from nearby conductors carrying current in the same direction.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9735',
'title': 'Electromagnetic field',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'end_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': "The field can be viewed as the combination of an electric field and a magnetic field. The electric field is produced by stationary charges, and the magnetic field by moving charges (currents); these two are often described as the sources of the field. The way in which charges and currents interact with the electromagnetic field is described by Maxwell's equations and the Lorentz force law. The force created by the electric field is much stronger than the force created by the magnetic field.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19737',
'title': "Maxwell's equations",
'section': "Section::::Conceptual descriptions.:Ampère's law with Maxwell's addition.\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'Ampère\'s law with Maxwell\'s addition states that magnetic fields can be generated in two ways: by electric current (this was the original "Ampère\'s law") and by changing electric fields (this was "Maxwell\'s addition", which he called displacement current). In integral form, the magnetic field induced around any closed loop is proportional to the electric current plus displacement current (proportional to the rate of change of electric flux) through the enclosed surface.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36563',
'title': 'Magnetic field',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'A magnetic field is a vector field that describes the magnetic influence of electric charges in relative motion and magnetized materials. The effects of magnetic fields are commonly seen in permanent magnets, which pull on magnetic materials (such as iron) and attract or repel other magnets. Magnetic fields surround and are created by magnetized material and by moving electric charges (electric currents) such as those used in electromagnets. They exert forces on nearby moving electrical charges and torques on nearby magnets. In addition, a magnetic field that varies with location exerts a force on magnetic materials. Both the strength and direction of a magnetic field vary with location. As such, it is described mathematically as a vector field.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '570662',
'title': 'Wireless power transfer',
'section': 'Section::::Field regions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 756,
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'passage_text': 'Electric and magnetic fields are created by charged particles in matter such as electrons. A stationary charge creates an electrostatic field in the space around it. A steady current of charges (direct current, DC) creates a static magnetic field around it. The above fields contain energy, but cannot carry power because they are static. However time-varying fields can carry power. Accelerating electric charges, such as are found in an alternating current (AC) of electrons in a wire, create time-varying electric and magnetic fields in the space around them. These fields can exert oscillating forces on the electrons in a receiving "antenna", causing them to move back and forth. These represent alternating current which can be used to power a load.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does an electric current produce a magnetic field?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The short super unsatisfactory answer is that it just does.\n\nThe longer answer is that what we define as a charge is actually a disturbance in the electric field, which is part of the electromagnetic field. A moving charge creates a disturbance in both the electric and magnetic field. The two phenomenons are intertwined. So its less that a current creates a magnetic field and more that a current and a disturbance in the magnetic field are part of the same thing. Its like asking why the crest of a sin wave creates a trough. They are intertwined to the point of one not being able to exist without the other. ',
"It's one of the fundamental laws of the universe. An electric current is the movement of charged particles. A charged particle creates an electric field. A changing electric field creates a magnetic field. So the moving charges are causing the electric field to change, and therefore a magnetic field is created.\n\nThe reverse is also true. A changing magnetic field causes a change in the electric field, which causes the charged particle to move - inducing current.",
"You are asking a very involved question. Moreover, it can be answered in several different but equivalent ways. All of the answers I see below are referencing Maxwell's Equations, which is a reasonable approach. However, they don't explain *why* the magnetic field is created - they only provide the method for calculating its direction and strength.\n\nWithout going into the details (because as I said it's very involved), I would direct you to study the relativistic phenomenon of length contraction. Length contraction is the direct physical cause of magnetic fields, and without it they would not exist.\n\nTo put it very bluntly, magnetic fields are actually electric fields under the influence of relativistic length contraction. That's why only moving charges produce magnetic fields.\n\nHope that helps.",
'You ever see a question and just KNOW the answer will make your brain hurt? This is one of those. \n\nAlso, anything about quantum mechanics or orbital physics. Get too far away from human sized, and stuff just acts WEIRD. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9al734',
'query': 'how does an electric current produce a magnetic field?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3042009',
'title': 'Sound Blaster X-Fi',
'section': 'Section::::X-Fi features.:Mixer.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 37,
'end_character': 297,
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'passage_text': 'There are multiple volume adjustments for different inputs and outputs on the system. The master volume affects all of these settings. The default and recommended value is 50% for all sources, which actually equates to a 0\xa0dB amplification (none), while a 100% value causes a 16\xa0dB amplification.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1100733',
'title': 'VU meter',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 612,
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'passage_text': 'A volume unit (VU) meter or standard volume indicator (SVI) is a device displaying a representation of the signal level in audio equipment. The original design was proposed in the 1940 IRE paper, "A New Standard Volume Indicator and Reference Level", written by experts from CBS, NBC, and Bell Telephone Laboratories. The Acoustical Society of America then standardized it in 1942 (ANSI C16.5-1942) for use in telephone installation and radio broadcast stations. Consumer audio equipment often features VU meters, both for utility purposes (e.g. in recording equipment) and for aesthetics (in playback devices).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41003',
'title': 'DBm',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 235,
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'passage_text': 'Since it is referenced to the watt, it is an absolute unit, used when measuring absolute power. By comparison, the decibel (dB) is a dimensionless unit, used for quantifying the ratio between two values, such as signal-to-noise ratio.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8410',
'title': 'Decibel',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Electronics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 74,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 74,
'end_character': 540,
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'passage_text': 'In electronics, the decibel is often used to express power or amplitude ratios (as for gains) in preference to arithmetic ratios or percentages. One advantage is that the total decibel gain of a series of components (such as amplifiers and attenuators) can be calculated simply by summing the decibel gains of the individual components. Similarly, in telecommunications, decibels denote signal gain or loss from a transmitter to a receiver through some medium (free space, waveguide, coaxial cable, fiber optics, etc.) using a link budget.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8410',
'title': 'Decibel',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'In the International System of Quantities, the decibel is defined as a unit of measurement for quantities of type level or level difference, which are defined as the logarithm of the ratio of power- or field-type quantities.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8410',
'title': 'Decibel',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'The decibel (symbol: dB) is a unit of measurement used to express the ratio of one value of a power or field quantity to another on a logarithmic scale, the logarithmic quantity being called the power level or field level, respectively. It can be used to express a change in value (e.g., +1\xa0dB or −1\xa0dB) or an absolute value. In the latter case, it expresses the ratio of a value to a fixed reference value; when used in this way, a suffix that indicates the reference value is often appended to the decibel symbol. For example, if the reference value is 1\xa0volt, then the suffix is "V" (e.g., "20\xa0dBV"), and if the reference value is one milliwatt, then the suffix is "m" (e.g., "20\xa0dBm").\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2470544',
'title': 'Standard cubic feet per minute',
'section': 'Section::::Cubic feet per minute.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 746,
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'passage_text': 'Cubic feet per minute (CFM) is an often confusing term because it has no single definition that applies to all instances. Gases are compressible, which means that a figure in cubic feet per minute cannot necessarily be compared with another figure when it comes the mass of the gas. To further confuse the issue, a centrifugal fan is a constant CFM device or a constant volume device. This means that, provided the fan speed remains constant, a centrifugal fan will pump a constant volume of air. This is not the same as pumping a constant mass of air. Again, the fan will pump the same volume, though not mass, at any other air density. This means that the air velocity in a system is the same even though mass flow rate through the fan is not.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why do appliance's volumes (eg. TV, radio) use an arbitrary 1 to X value instead of basing the value on decibels?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["High-end stereos for audiophiles, or studio monitors, typically do use decibels.\n\nThe problem with decibels is that either you'd have relative loudness - where 0 is the maximum and anything softer is a negative number - or you'd have absolute loudness, in which case headphones would only go up to some small number and your stereo would go up to some other number. It'd be confusing for most people either way.",
"If you run your signal through different amplifiers and speakers, the db markings become meaningless. The arbitrary numbers make more sense. \n\nPlus db isn't a linear thing relative to how you hear and experience loudness and the controls themselves are non linear. So to accurately mark off db levels might result in unevenly spaced markings.",
"Because dB measure relative loudness and work on a logarithmic scale. Try getting your average consumer to understand what that is and how it works. It's time consuming and completely unnecessary for setting a desired volume on a TV or radio. It's much simpler and easier to use for consumers to just have linear number going from 0 or 1 to whatever.",
'Because if they used dB, the vast majority of consumers don\'t really know what decibels are and would be confused by 0 being maximum volume. Typical users only care about "louder" and "quieter" and are perfectly happy with arbitrary volume scales.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'ezocfs',
'query': "why do appliance's volumes (eg. tv, radio) use an arbitrary 1 to x value instead of basing the value on decibels?",
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '52136',
'title': 'Citrus',
'section': 'Section::::Description.:Acidity indicators.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
'end_character': 618,
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'passage_text': 'The Moroccan professor Henri Chapot discovered that the acidity in the more common citrons or lemons is indicated by red on the inner coat of seeds specifically on the chalazal spot, violet pigmentation on the outer side of the flower blossom, and by the new buds that are reddish-purplish. The acid-free varieties of citrus are completely lacking the red color in all the mentioned spots. This designation was cited by Herbert John Webber and Leon Dexter Batchelor, the editors of the fundamental treatise on citrus, namely The Citrus Industry, which was published by the University of California, Riverside in 1967.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4430416',
'title': 'Zest (ingredient)',
'section': 'Section::::Preparation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 239,
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'passage_text': 'The white portion of the peel under the zest (pith, albedo or mesocarp) may be unpleasantly bitter and is generally avoided by limiting the peeling depth. Some citrus fruits have so little white mesocarp that their peel can be used whole.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12862518',
'title': 'Oleuropein',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 246,
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'passage_text': 'Because of its bitter taste, oleuropein must be completely removed or decomposed to make olives edible. During processing of bitter and inedible green olives for consumption as table olives, oleuropein is removed from olives by immersion in lye.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13521586',
'title': 'Preserved lemon',
'section': 'Section::::Roles of minerals, macronutrients, acids, and antioxidants in fermentation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 612,
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'passage_text': 'A common macronutrient used in curing is salt, which increases the osmolarity of the liquid to inhibit the growth of certain classes of microorganisms. This effect creates a difficult environment for those bacteria to survive in and allows the growth of salt-tolerant microbes. Salt also helps extend shelf life. The juice from the lemon is acidic and contains citric acid that helps lower the pH, which additionally restricts microbes that can cause spoilage and disease. For preservation of lemons, the use of antioxidants as a food additive is used to prevent lipid peroxidation and the fading of food color.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7596506',
'title': 'Ponderosa lemon',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 207,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Ponderosa lemon is less cold hardy than a true lemon. It bears medium to large fruit that have a thick and bumpy rind. The fruits are seedy, and while they look similar to a citron, they taste like a lemon.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '469300',
'title': 'Citrus production',
'section': 'Section::::Citrus greening disease in Florida.:Symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Symptoms of citrus greening are numerous, and can be varied in citrus trees. A tree will develop yellow shoots instead of the expected deep green colors. The disease presents itself on the leaves by giving an asymmetrical blotchy-mottle appearance. This is the key diagnosing characteristic of citrus greening. On affected limbs, fruit tend to be lopsided. The fruit will also never ripen and have a sour taste, making them unmarketable for both juice and fresh fruit productions. In later stages of infection the tree will suffer from heavy leaf drop, high percentages of fruit drop, and deep twig die back. A greening positive citrus tree’s canopies will be airy due to the defoliation the disease causes. After a tree becomes infected with citrus greening it becomes uneconomical and may die within 2–5 years.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21299730',
'title': 'Lemon',
'section': 'Section::::Horticulture.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
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'passage_text': 'Lemons need a minimum temperature of around , so they are not hardy year-round in temperate climates, but become hardier as they mature. Citrus require minimal pruning by trimming overcrowded branches, with the tallest branch cut back to encourage bushy growth. Throughout summer, pinching back tips of the most vigorous growth assures more abundant canopy development. As mature plants may produce unwanted, fast-growing shoots called ‘water shoots,’ these are removed from the main branches at the bottom or middle of the plant.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why do lemons sometimes become all green and moldy, while other times they become rock-hard when you forget to eat/use them?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Depends on the environment. It's the same as why some bread will just go hard and stale while other will grow moldy.\n\nA good experiment is getting a new pack of sliced bread and taking the first slice with some gloves on and putting it into a new bag. Then take another slice with bare hands and touch it all over before putting it into a bag. After a couple days to a week, you'll find the one you took out with gloves on to be mostly fine if stale. While the one you didn't use gloves for, will likely have mold all over.",
'If the fruit/food/meat dries out faster than bacteria/mold/fungus can replicate, then you just end up with a dried up husk or jerky. No matter the food, once the moisture content is low enough nothing will grow on it.\n\nSo that usually means items in areas of high airflow will end up in the hard state, whereas those in enclosed spaces or humid areas will end up in the spoiled/rotted state.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'eqm5bf',
'query': 'why do lemons sometimes become all green and moldy, while other times they become rock-hard when you forget to eat/use them?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '416849',
'title': '2002 United States steel tariff',
'section': 'Section::::The tariff.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The temporary tariffs of 8–30% were originally scheduled to remain in effect until 2005. They were imposed to give U.S. steel makers protection from what a U.S. probe determined was a detrimental surge in steel imports. More than 30 steel makers had declared bankruptcy in recent years. Steel producers had originally sought up to a 40% tariff. Canada and Mexico were exempt from the tariffs because of penalties the United States would face under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Additionally, some developing countries such as Argentina, Thailand, and Turkey were also exempt. The typical steel tariff at the time was usually between zero and one percent, making the 8–30% rates seem exceptionally high. These rates, though, are comparable to the standard permanent U.S. tariff rates on many kinds of clothes and shoes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52506620',
'title': 'Economic policy of Donald Trump',
'section': 'Section::::Trade.:Tariffs.:Steel and aluminum.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 225,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 225,
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'passage_text': 'Large steel consumers, such as U.S. car manufacturers, Ford, Chrysler and General Motors saw even larger drops in share prices. On April 30, 2018, Trump announced that the steel and aluminum tariffs on American allies would be deferred. One month later, the Administration implemented the tariffs on the European Union, Canada and Mexico. The EU, Canada and Mexico immediately announced they would retaliate. Mexico retaliated on June 5, 2018 with tariffs ranging between 15% and 25% on $3 billion in American goods. Canada also retaliated on June 29, 2018 by imposing tariffs ranging from 10% to 25% on $12.6 billion in American goods, effective July 1. Through May 2018, American steel prices increased about 40% since the Trump administration announced its tariff plans the preceding March, while prices in Europe and China remained relatively stable. By June 2018, the price for hot-rolled band, one of the most common types of steel, was 52% higher in America than in Western Europe and 73% higher than in China.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '598743',
'title': 'Economic history of Canada',
'section': 'Section::::The Great Depression.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 81,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 81,
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'passage_text': "In May 1930, US raised the tariff with the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act. Canada retaliated by imposing new tariffs on 16 products that accounted altogether for around 30% of U.S. exports to Canada. Following Britain's lead, Canada then forged closer economic links with the British Empire via the British Empire Economic Conference of 1932.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38426412',
'title': 'Boat building industry in Ontario',
'section': 'Section::::Present day industry.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 281,
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'passage_text': 'In 2018, after the United States imposed stiff tariffs on imports of steel and aluminum, Canada retaliated by placing a 10% tariff on the import of watercraft from the United States. This had a negative effect on companies which, like Legend, import American boats and boat parts.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5199',
'title': 'Canada–United States relations',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Canadian autonomy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
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'end_paragraph_id': 47,
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'passage_text': 'Relations with the United States were cordial until 1930, when Canada vehemently protested the new Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act by which the U.S. raised tariffs (taxes) on products imported from Canada. Canada retaliated with higher tariffs of its own against American products, and moved toward more trade within the British Commonwealth. U.S.–Canadian trade fell 75% as the Great Depression dragged both countries down.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '522287',
'title': 'Great Depression in Canada',
'section': 'Section::::World trade.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 542,
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'passage_text': 'Canada was hurt badly because of its reliance on base commodities, whose prices fell by over 50%, and because of the importance of international trade. In the 1920s about 25% of the Canadian Gross National Product was derived from exports. The first reaction of the U.S. was to raise tariffs via the "Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act", passed into law June 17, 1930. This hurt the Canadian economy more than most other countries in the world, and Canada retaliated by raising its own rates on American exports and by switching business to the Empire.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22050',
'title': 'North American Free Trade Agreement',
'section': 'Section::::Impact.:Canada.:Historical context.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 878,
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'passage_text': 'In 2008, Canadian exports to the United States and Mexico were at $381.3 billion, with imports at $245.1 billion. According to a 2004 article by University of Toronto economist Daniel Trefler, NAFTA produced a significant net benefit to Canada in 2003, with long-term productivity increasing by up to 15 percent in industries that experienced the deepest tariff cuts. While the contraction of low-productivity plants reduced employment (up to 12 percent of existing positions), these job losses lasted less than a decade; overall, unemployment in Canada has fallen since the passage of the act. Commenting on this trade-off, Trefler said that the critical question in trade policy is to understand "how freer trade can be implemented in an industrialized economy in a way that recognizes both the long-run gains and the short-term adjustment costs borne by workers and others".\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'The tariff war in 2002 and how the proposed 25% tariff for steel imports from Canada will hurt the US economy',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['This is argued every day with many viewpoints. This is ELI5. \n\nIf the leaders of a country want their industries to grow they impose tariffs, taxes on imported goods. That helps local companies produce these goods which means locals have jobs. Seems good.\n\nNow imagine taking this further. You want your town to have industry and locals to have jobs. Suppose the town could actually impose tariffs on all goods brought in. Tax the milk, the bread, everything. Now supposedly local people have jobs. But there is no dairy in town so you are just paying higher taxes. The local bakery owner is a drunk and does not bake good bread. But he is protected by the tariff and can continue drinking and baking bad bread.\n\nFurther the other towns, or countries, reacted to these tariffs by imposing and raising their own. Suddenly your producers have no market.\n\nFree traders say we do best with no tariffs. If something can be made very cheaply elsewhere, then imported, then we pay low prices. We specialize. They specialize. Prices for everyone are as low as possible.',
'In an open market whoever can spend the least amount of money per unit of goods produced has the competitive edge and can sell their goods at a lower price than someone else. The consumer gets the lowest price possible.\n\nNow if you introduce tariffs you are increasing the cost per unit of international goods which causes your domestic goods to be more favourable. Now the domestic goods are cheaper than the international ones. Problem is the overall cost of the goods to the consumers rise as well. \n\nSo sure you can make a few new jobs domestically but at a higher cost to everyone who consumes the goods.\n\nNow of course since it’s ELI5 that’s the simplistic case looking at only one commodity, in the real world the response to tariffs is usually more tariffs and embargos. That is, if the USA threatens to put tariffs on Canadian steel then Canadians can in return put tariffs on American products and buy less of them (or stop altogether). \n\nSo by trying to help the steel industry and create a few jobs the overall result hurts the steel consumers (essentially everyone) and overflows into potentially many other industries which rely on reciprocal trade agreements to sell their products.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '81dxx9',
'query': 'the tariff war in 2002 and how the proposed 25% tariff for steel imports from canada will hurt the us economy',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '854294',
'title': 'DNA repair',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanisms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 49,
'end_character': 631,
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'passage_text': "Cells cannot function if DNA damage corrupts the integrity and accessibility of essential information in the genome (but cells remain superficially functional when non-essential genes are missing or damaged). Depending on the type of damage inflicted on the DNA's double helical structure, a variety of repair strategies have evolved to restore lost information. If possible, cells use the unmodified complementary strand of the DNA or the sister chromatid as a template to recover the original information. Without access to a template, cells use an error-prone recovery mechanism known as translesion synthesis as a last resort.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12010723',
'title': 'Raëlian beliefs and practices',
'section': 'Section::::Advocacy.:Cloning of humans.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 56,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 56,
'end_character': 512,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "In the final stages of development, hitherto unknown information contained within undamaged DNA would be enough to bring others back from the dead including their memories and personality. This would be done by taking a small sample from someone's body and preserving it at the time when the level of the brain's efficiency and knowledge is highest. On the day of death, a cell would be taken from the sample for the cloning to take place, and the memories and personality would be restored to their peak level.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '54888',
'title': 'Telomere',
'section': 'Section::::Nature and function.:Structure, function and evolutionary biology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 1325,
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'passage_text': 'While replicating DNA, the eukaryotic DNA replication enzymes (the DNA polymerase protein complex) cannot replicate the sequences present at the ends of the chromosomes (or more precisely the chromatid fibres). Hence, these sequences and the information they carry may get lost. This is the reason telomeres are so important in context of successful cell division: They "cap" the end-sequences and themselves get lost in the process of DNA replication. But the cell has an enzyme called telomerase, which carries out the task of adding repetitive nucleotide sequences to the ends of the DNA. Telomerase, thus, "replenishes" the telomere "cap" of the DNA. In most multicellular eukaryotic organisms, telomerase is active only in germ cells, some types of stem cells such as embryonic stem cells, and certain white blood cells. Telomerase can be reactivated and telomeres reset back to an embryonic state by somatic cell nuclear transfer. The steady shortening of telomeres with each replication in somatic (body) cells may have a role in senescence and in the prevention of cancer. This is because the telomeres act as a sort of time-delay "fuse", eventually running out after a certain number of cell divisions and resulting in the eventual loss of vital genetic information from the cell\'s chromosome with future divisions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '54176',
'title': 'Human body',
'section': 'Section::::Composition.:Cells.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 493,
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'passage_text': 'Cells in the body function because of DNA. DNA sits within the nucleus of a cell. Here, parts of DNA are copied and sent to the body of the cell via RNA. The RNA is then used to create proteins which form the basis for cells, their activity, and their products. Proteins dictate cell function and gene expression, a cell is able to self-regulate by the amount of proteins produced. However, not all cells have DNA – some cells such as mature red blood cells lose their nucleus as they mature.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20975731',
'title': 'Lamprey',
'section': 'Section::::Use in research.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 89,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 89,
'end_character': 425,
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'passage_text': 'They are also capable of full functional recovery after complete spinal cord transection. Another trait is the ability to delete several genes from their somatic cell lineages, about 20% of their DNA, which are vital during development of the embryo, but which in humans can cause problems such as cancer later in life, after they have served their purpose. How the genes destined for deletion are targeted is not yet known.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14753801',
'title': 'ERCC6',
'section': 'Section::::Function.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 408,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'DNA can be damaged by ultraviolet radiation, toxins, radioactive substances, and reactive biochemical intermediates like free radicals. The ERCC6 protein is involved in repairing the genome when specific genes undergoing transcription (dubbed "active genes") are inoperative; as such, CSB serves as a transcription-coupled excision repair protein, being one of the fundamental enzymes in active gene repair.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17062920',
'title': 'DNA damage theory of aging',
'section': 'Section::::Age-associated accumulation of DNA damage and decline in gene expression.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 434,
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'passage_text': 'In tissues composed of non- or infrequently replicating cells, DNA damage can accumulate with age and lead either to loss of cells, or, in surviving cells, loss of gene expression. Accumulated DNA damage is usually measured directly. Numerous studies of this type have indicated that oxidative damage to DNA is particularly important. The loss of expression of specific genes can be detected at both the mRNA level and protein level.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If DNA contains informations about our whole body, why can we not regenerate certain body parts if they gets removed?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['IKEA instructions do not equal a finished IKEA cabinet :) similarly, if you build the cabinet you no longer have the materials to build another one, even though you still have the instructions. You need more materials (which, for humans, basically boils down to stem cells). \n\nThis isn’t perfectly 1 to 1, though. Most of the genetic information that our bodies utilize is for the internal processes on the cellular level to ensure that things run smoothly and you stay alive. The most marked development that we make, which is in the womb, is only possible because of the highly malleable nature of stem cells. Those stem cells change into different cells once we’re born and are spread all over our respective internal systems, thus limiting their uses. \n\nWhat I can’t answer, though, is why humans are unable to regenerate while other animals can. It’s definitely something that researchers are investigating, but there is no real concrete answer yet. The Darwinian explanation is that over the millions of years that those animals developed, evolution by natural selection ‘selected’ for traits that are most beneficial for that species’ survival. Evidently, humans did not need significant regeneration to survive! ',
"Big question under debate. There's evidence, though, that we do have the capability (ish). [Couple](_URL_1_) of [refs](_URL_0_), but there are lots out there with some googling.\n\n The genetic switches are just turned off, or we're missing a couple genes. Probably because at some point during a time of limited resources if there was a serious injury to the individual it made more sense (in terms of natural selection) to let the individual die rather than waste a bunch of resources on something as expensive as regrowing a limb. Better for the population to save local resources for individuals not missing a leg.\n\nIf we don't go as extreme as dying and instead assume that the regeneration is for smaller body parts, it would still be incredibly taxing and energetically expensive (need lots of food, minerals, etc.) to regrow that body part. If it was something non-essential like a finger, again at a time of limited resources, then it might be an advantage to dedicate what little food you have on more essential body functions then regeneration of a ring finger.\n\nThe 'why' is of course just speculation.",
"The DNA contains instructions as to how to create a baby from a single cell, by telling what cells to specialise in. However those instructions don't work once the assembly has been completed. To reassemble a whole limb say it would take a lot of energy and time as it would have to be slowly assembled from the remaining stump. During this time the limb would not help you survive and due to the drain on resources would actually reduced your survival chances. Therefore in an evolutionary sense it isn't worth it, if you survived the injury that caused it you can survive without it.",
'Building the human body like an automated car production line. We just haven’t worked out how to force our DNA blue print to “repeat that one part” again. \nEven though every cell carries the blue print for our whole body we haven’t worked out how to activate certain strings of information to generate specific proteins or body parts. \n\n',
'Simple answer: DNA knows how to *build* a body and does not know how to *repair* a body. Building consists of complicated steps involved in making organs/limbs etc. Most likely, if you need to repair an arm, you need to grow it and attach it. But it will not have the same biometric Identifications like fingerprints or vein locations (_URL_0_).',
"at each time during development the body is at an unique configuration it won't ever see again. the DNA instruction produces the configuration and depends on it to progress. there are no instructions to recreate these configurations once the development is completed. ",
'The body knows how to build a body because when the zygote is formed it is known to be a totipotency cell (has the potential of becoming different things (liver cells, muscle cells, forming the baby)) \nThis is what are known as stem cells, they are various kinds of them (totipotent, pluripotent, multipotent, oligopotent, multipotent) \nThey have the potential of differentiate into other cells to build what is needed in the place is needed. There is a lot of research to investigating stem cells and how to undifferentiate already defined cells and to bring them to a state of stem cell and redirecting them to a damaged area of the body. \nThe famous dolly sheep (cloning experiment) actually was not only to prove you can clone something (technically is not even a clone) but it showed that one single cell has all the genetic material necessary to form a complete organisms when conditions given. \nThis genetic material is turned on/off depending on to where the cell has differentiate. \nIf you have a cut in your finger, your body does fix it, but it doesnt form a liver or a kidney it rebuilds skin cells, due to the environment around it. \nIt really is a very long topic, with a lot of information and can discuss a lot of it but basically because it might take a whole deal of energy to do so and the body doesn’t have the resources to do so. ',
"The simple answer is, we can, but a wound would have to be left open for months to let this happen, and thus we would die of infection.\n\nLong ago, our wounds evolved to close quickly to avoid blood loss and infection.\n\nIf you are being eaten by a tiger, it's better to close a wound and run away than sit with the tiger for three months and wait for your fingers to regrow.\n\nDoctors are currently working with a substance (our bodies produce naturally) called extracellular matrix which acts as a scaffold for exactly this type of regeneration. Currently, the technology is used to help racehorses and prize animals regenerate severely damaged ligaments. Fingertips in humans have been regenerated, but the technology is just newly discovered. I will post more...",
'DNA contains all the instructions, and every cell has the full set of these instructions. However, only small sections of this large instruction book are "expressed" in each cell type - and turned into proteins and cellular machinery - the rest of it is inactive. This is part of the reason why certain cell types cannot just turn into other cell types. \n\nNow, this isn\'t the only reason why we can\'t regenerate body parts - much of that we are still trying to figure out. Some animals can, and by studying them we hope to learn more about how that happens. \n\nSource: Scientist',
"Edit: my answer is more advanced than ELI5, but is necessary due to the complexity of the topic!\n\nI think I can chime in here. \n\nThe short answer: We don't know.\nThe long answer (ELI10): Ongoing research has studied the effects of the immune system on the ability to regenerate limbs. Interestingly enough, there is an inverse relationship between degree of complexity of the immune system and the ability to regenerate. Lizards, for example, have primitive immune systems and are able to regrow tails. Ours are quite advanced which results in the formation of scar tissue instead.\n\nTo answer in a more academic way, the immune system constitutes something called macrophages, which help with many many aspects of immunity. As they relate to this topic, M1 (macrophage type 1) are initially present in wounds and help cause the typical inflammation and pain associated with an injury. As the healing continues, there is a shift called 'macrophage polarization' that causes M2 (macrophage type 2) to be present. These release anti-inflammatory cytokines like IL-10 and help promote wound healing and repair. \n\nUltimately, research has been shown that the macrophage polarization step has been hugely important in understanding the ability to regenerate. Neonatal mice are able to regenerate heart tissue, whereas adult mice produce scar tissue. There is a period of time where growing mice undergo significant changes in their immune system and researchers believe this transition is what causes the loss of regeneration. Current research is trying to figure out if we, humans, can regenerate if we can figure out a way to take advantage of the benefits of M1 and M2 phases without suffering from the loss of regenerative abilities.\n\nGraduate student in the biological sciences."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '83u38z',
'query': 'if dna contains informations about our whole body, why can we not regenerate certain body parts if they gets removed?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1986702',
'title': 'Pattern coin',
'section': 'Section::::Early United States patterns.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'After the Declaration of Independence was signed on July 4, 1776, discussion arose over what sort of currency should be adopted in the United States. At the time, people in North America relied upon a mixture of foreign coins, none of which were struck to a consistent standard, making day to day financial transactions difficult. In 1783, Congress resolved to create a mint, tasking Superintendent of Finance Robert Morris with developing a plan for a system of coinage. The first coins struck by the United States – the Nova Constellatio patterns – were made to illustrate this plan.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1978363',
'title': 'History of the United States dollar',
'section': 'Section::::Early history.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 241,
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'passage_text': "With the enactment of the National Banking Act of 1863during the American Civil Warand its later versions that taxed states' bonds and currency out of existence, the dollar became the sole currency of the United States and remains so today.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '73161',
'title': 'Seigniorage',
'section': 'Section::::International circulation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
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'passage_text': 'American currency has been circulating globally for most of the 20th century, and the amount of currency in circulation increased several-fold during World War II. Large-scale printing of the United States one hundred-dollar bill began when the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991; production quadrupled, with the first trillion-dollar printing of the bill. At the end of 2008, U.S. currency in public circulation amounted to $824 billion and 76 percent of the currency supply was in the form of $100 bills (twenty $100 bills per U.S. citizen). The amount of U.S. currency circulating abroad is controversial. According to Porter and Judson, 53 to 67 percent was overseas during the mid-1990s. Feige estimates that about 40 percent is abroad. In a New York Federal Reserve publication, Goldberg writes that "about 65 percent ($580 billion) of all banknotes are in circulation outside of the country". These figures are largely contradicted by Federal Reserve Board of Governors Flow of Funds statistics, which indicate that $313 billion (36.7 percent) of U.S. currency was held abroad at the end of March 2009. Feige calculates that since 1964, "the cumulative seigniorage earnings accruing to the U.S. by virtue of the currency held by foreigners amounted to $167–$185 billion and over the past two decades seigniorage revenues from foreigners have averaged $6–$7 billion dollars per year".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5588',
'title': 'Economy of Cuba',
'section': 'Section::::Sectors.:Currencies.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 84,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 84,
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'passage_text': 'In 1994 the possession and use of US dollars was legalised, and by 2004 the US dollar was in widespread use in the country. To capture the hard currency flowing into the island through tourism and remittances – estimated at $500–800 million annually – the government set up state-run "dollar stores" throughout Cuba that sold "luxury" food, household and clothing items, compared with basic necessities, which could be bought using national pesos. As such, the standard of living diverged between those who had access to dollars and those without. Jobs that could earn dollar salaries or tips from foreign businesses and tourists became highly desirable. It was common to meet doctors, engineers, scientists and other professionals working in restaurants or as taxicab drivers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1978363',
'title': 'History of the United States dollar',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The history of the United States Dollar refers to more than 240 years since the Continental Congress of the United States authorized the issuance of Continental Currency in 1775. On April 2, 1792, the United States Congress created the United States dollar as the country\'s standard unit of money. The term "dollar" had already been in common usage since the colonial period when it referred to eight-real coin (Spanish dollar) used by the Spanish throughout New Spain.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '309769',
'title': 'Spanish dollar',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Etymology of "dollar".\n',
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'passage_text': 'They also circulated throughout the English colonies during the 17th and early 18th centuries. From New Netherland (New York) the lion dollar spread to all thirteen colonies in the west. English speakers began to apply the word "dollar" also to the Spanish peso or "piece of eight" by 1581, which was also widely used in the British North American colonies at the time of the American Revolution, hence adopted as the name and weight of the US monetary unit in the late 18th century.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10819',
'title': 'Federal Reserve',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Central banking in the United States, 1791–1913.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 139,
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'passage_text': 'The first attempt at a national currency was during the American Revolutionary War. In 1775, the Continental Congress, as well as the states, began issuing paper currency, calling the bills "Continentals". The Continentals were backed only by future tax revenue, and were used to help finance the Revolutionary War. Overprinting, as well as British counterfeiting, caused the value of the Continental to diminish quickly. This experience with paper money led the United States to strip the power to issue Bills of Credit (paper money) from a draft of the new Constitution on August 16, 1787, as well as banning such issuance by the various states, and limiting the states\' ability to make anything but gold or silver coin legal tender on August 28.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How did the United States first distribute and get people to use the dollar?',
'selftext': 'Something that really confuses me is the beginning of US currency. I understand that it was at some point distributed but how? Who did they decide to give the first dollars to? And more importantly, how did they get people to start using this currency rather than to continue trading goods for services or using coins? I guess my main confusion/need for clarification is the transition from no dollar - > to where we are today.',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Early dollars were silver coins. Minting coins was just creating a standardized amount of silver to simplify using it as a commodity.\n\nMore generally, governments promote the use of their currency by requiring that tax and court-ordered debts be paid in it. If you have to pay your taxes in dollars and you don't have enough, you find a way to buy dollars in exchange for whatever it is that you currently have and the government will be ready to sell those to you should it come to that.",
'States were issuing their own currencies and some were still using British money until the Articles of Confederation, establishing an official currency, went into effect in March 1781. The US government asked for help establishing a financial system but noone came through. Richard Price (Wales) was too busy with his sheep, and Americans representing the new country in Europe were asked to scout for finance people to help; nothing came of their efforts.\n\nRobert Morris, Jr. was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, and one of the financiers of the Army of the Revolution. Morris was also the first (and only) Superintendent of Finance of the United States - precursor to the Sec\'y of the Treasury. Insisting that the Federal Government give him broad powers to act on his own, he used his own money and borrowed from friends (and finally France) to make his own "bank". That was the beginning of the US Government\'s bank. We call them "cents" because Morris instituted the use of the decimal system for the Dollar. The Department of the Treasury is spawn of that original undertaking, after Morris refused a position (he wanted to be the first Senator from Pennsylvania) and told Washington to make Alexander Hamilton the Secretary of the new Department.',
"I don't know about the early times but when Nixon took the us off the gold standard they began the era of the petrondollar, Kissinger I think made a deal with the Saudis that they would only take the US dollar to buy oil. That made the US dollar the reserve currency of the world and the reason their sanctions against other countries so effective. In the last few weeks though the Chinese have announced they are going to introduce the gold based yuan that they want to use to purchase oil, which may threaten the US dollar as the reserve currency. I think this could be a huge deal and may cause gold prices to skyrocket, or more likely the US dollar to plunge. It's actually pretty interesting, I've been reading a lot about it lately on some alt websites like zero hedge, silver doctors, wolf street , SARS rocks, daily reckoning. Trying to figure it out for myself to make sure I am in a position to profit from it."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '6zulb9',
'query': 'how did the united states first distribute and get people to use the dollar?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '6161093',
'title': 'Tape ball',
'section': 'Section::::Innovation.\n',
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'passage_text': "In informal games, either a rubber ball or tennis ball is used as an alternative. The rubber ball is not suitable for the variety of surfaces made use of in informal games; it is too bouncy on cement and concrete and barely bounces at all on grass or soil. An unmodified tennis ball is light, but it is incapable of gaining sufficient speed. By covering a tennis ball with electrical tape, the ball's weight and traction are increased, which in turn leads to greater bounce and speed. A tape ball can also be used to mimic a seaming cricket ball by adding an extra layer of tape around the circumference like a seam, the sides can be roughened to mimic conventional swing of a cricket ball. The tape ball is thus a sound compromise between safety and sincerity to the sport.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11007434',
'title': 'Ball boy',
'section': 'Section::::Tennis.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Due to the nature of the sport, quick retrieval of loose balls and delivery of the game balls to the servers are necessary for quick play in tennis. In professional tournaments, every court will have a trained squad of ball boys/girls with positionings and movements designed for maximum efficiency, while also not interfering with active play. As well as dealing with the game balls, ball boys/girls may also provide the players with other assistance, such as the delivery of towels and drinks.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38298668',
'title': 'Table tennis in the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Approved Equipment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'A comprehensive list of all the approved equipment that can be used during official tournaments and matches are given. A few pieces of equipment are Butterfly, Cornilleau, Joola, Paddle Palace, and Zero Pong. \xa0The paddles and balls must be inspected at the beginning of a match to prevent any cheating or foul play. \xa0The tables are cleaned after every match to ensure that play carries on as fluidly as possible. \xa0The balls are wiped to remove any dust to keep them as clean as possible to ensure perfect bounces. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '465529',
'title': 'Cricket ball',
'section': 'Section::::Alternatives to cricket balls.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
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'passage_text': 'Many casual players use a tennis ball wrapped in layers of some type of adhesive tape (often electrical tape), which makes the relatively soft tennis ball harder and smoother. This is commonly referred to as a tape ball. A common variant is to tape only half the tennis ball, to provide two different sides and make it easy to bowl with prodigious amounts of swing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19412732',
'title': 'Electronic line judge',
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'passage_text': 'An electronic line judge is a device used in tennis to automatically detect where a ball has landed on the court. Attempts to revolutionize tennis officiating and the judging of calls in the sport began in the early 1970s and has resulted in the design, development and prototyping of several computerized, electronic line-judge devices. The methods have been based upon the use of pressure sensors, sensors to detect magnetized or electrically conductive tennis balls, infrared laser beams, and most recently video cameras.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29837595',
'title': "2015 FIFA Women's World Cup",
'section': 'Section::::Venues.:Innovations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
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'passage_text': "The tournament introduced goal-line technology with the Hawk-Eye system by which it is possible to show on the stadium screen if the ball was in or not. It was also the first World Cup for either men or women to be played on artificial turf, with all matches played on such surfaces. There were some initial concerns (please see below) over a possible increased risk of injuries from playing on artificial turf, but a legal challenge suggesting matches should be played on grass as in similar men's tournaments was dropped in January 2015.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10084433',
'title': 'Multiball system',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Traditionally, professional football matches employ the use of a single ball, and when the ball leaves the field of play, the game pauses until the ball is returned. According to the Laws of the Game, the ball may be changed on the "authority of the referee" if it "bursts or becomes defective," though typically it will also be replaced if kicked out of the stadium. However, a new system was introduced by some football leagues and associations to increase the number of match balls used per game. In the multiball system, a number of match balls, often seven, are held by ball boys around the edge of the pitch. When one ball leaves the field of play, the nearest ball boy will release another ball to a player, allowing the game to resume immediately. The system is currently used for UEFA European club tournaments, international competitions and the FIFA World Cup. Home teams are free to choose whether to use the system in the English Football League Championship, though the referee may discontinue the system during a match.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How does the technology that sees if tennis balls are in or out work, and how come it hasn't completely replaced linesmen?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It uses camera images. The exact location and specifications of the camera, tennis balls, field lines are known. Then by analyzing the size and location of the ball on the different camera images, they can determine its actual location. \n\nWhy hasn't it replaced linesmen? First of all it's extremely expensive to set up, so in the near future it's never going to be a universal system. Secondly I'm not sure if it's possible to have it activated in real-time, to call immediately when a ball is out. Given that in football goalline technology seems to work that way, it looks possible, but I don't know the details. Finally tradition is very important in tennis, which could hold back some possible advancements. ",
'I know more about this than a lay-person should, but that\'s perhaps because I\'m considering starting a business in this area. On this, you can AAMA - I know quite a bit.\n\nI also know this is _way_ more info than you actually care about, and nobody is going to care about this, but I enjoy talking about it, so, here goes:\n\nThe system you\'re talking about in tennis is called [Hawk-Eye](_URL_1_) and the first time I saw it in use was during a cricket match being shown in the UK where the broadcaster had brought it in to understand very subtle decisions almost impossible to judge by eye (cricket has a rule called "LBW" which in particular, is hard to get right sometimes by sight), and it quickly got engrained into the top tier of the game.\n\nThere are other systems as well. Ever wondered how "they know" your favourite soccer player has run 18.2km this game? That\'s almost certainly from the [ChryonHego](_URL_2_) Tracab system.\n\nWhen it comes to pass completion, shots on goal, etc. that data is probably coming from another system called Opta. That relies on a mixture of camera tracking and human event classification (they have people at games saying "that frame was a pass, that frame was an attempt at goal, etc."\n\nIn Rugby the players are often wearing positional tracking devices that also track heart rate and letting coaches know how players are performing in real-time. I believe NFL does this too. Basketball has a mixture of systems, and in cricket, they have even more toys (I\'ll come back to that). \n\nYou are probably also aware that in motorsports, the objective has become "a driver moving as large a collection of sensors as possible around a track as quickly as possible", because the more sensors you have, the better you are at managing the data, the more likely you are to win. Hilariously, just this weekend, one F1 team has shown that their [positional analysis is easy to fool and can lead to stupid decisions](_URL_0_).\n\nThe positional tracking systems all have similar concepts: film something, then analyse each frame. In the case of Tracab and Opta, they\'re happy with 25 frames per second, the same as most broadcast TV systems. I would argue it\'s a little too low for accuracy.\n\nHawk-Eye is a much higher frame rate (500-1000 frames per second) that should aid with the accuracy. Each frame is broken down in terms of object recognition: here are the lines, here\'s the ball. Now look at the relationship between them and produce a data frame. The data frame will have x, y, z co-ordinates of a ball in relation to a line or some other aspect you care about, and can be fed into a piece of software that can call "foul" or "goal" or whatever you need.\n\nNow, why has it not all replaced officials? It\'s obviously already used to augment officials. In some tennis competitions you can actually hear Hawk-Eye make a noise on fouls that is effectively taking the place of a linesman. In EPL games, goal line technology using something like Hawk-Eye (not ChyronHego, I believe), is used to let a referee know the ball just crossed the line in case it\'s not obvious to them.\n\nFor some scenarios then, it is being used to replace linesmen. There are three reasons it hasn\'t yet succeeded in removing them completely, I think.\n\nFirstly: cost. It\'s not cheap. There are a lot of problems they have to take into account in getting this far. Wind, light, shadows, floodlights causing multiple shadows, they all need to be dealt with. That has led to R & D costs being quite significant.\n\nThey are proprietary systems that cost a fortune to develop, and it\'s a bit of a closed-shop monopoly. Setup requires a fair bit of work and there is normally a team of people running it behind the scenes at each game where this technology is deployed.\n\nThat cost is not a problem with the top tier, but the top tier of every sport normally knows its future lies in lower rungs and "grass roots" forms of the game. It\'s important that even the second division (where these systems can\'t be used), look and feel like the top tier. And ideally, it should be possible to play the game on a Sunday afternoon down your local park without it seeming to be futile.\n\nHuman judges aid with that. They signal "you can do this". The sports in which that\'s not possible (F1), still have alternatives, and there are some measurement systems (timing, speed, etc.) that are accessible to teens with a desire to soup up their Corolla.\n\nSecondly: not all in-game events can be tracked using these systems. Hawk-Eye can track a ball near a line being foul or not, but it can\'t easily tell whether a player\'s foot is over the line it should not be when serving, for example. \n\nEven in cricket where Hawk-Eye first made its reputation, detection of foul balls (when a bowler steps over a line) has to still be done by umpires and video review. Whether the ball hit a bat or not is done by audio detection (snick-o-meter), and heat-sensitive camera (as the ball brushes the bat, the friction warms it up enough to show as white hot on an appropriate camera). The technology isn\'t quite there yet to make it possible for these events to be done through camera analysis alone.\n\nThirdly: accuracy. It\'s pretty damned good in some scenarios but less so in others. I competed in the Manchester City hackday in July 2016 (was in the winning team, too) where we got access to Tracab and Opta raw data from some historical games. In some of those frames we were seeing the football travelling - according to their systems - at 1,500m/s - which is about Mach 5. It clearly didn\'t actually do that (I mean, I think Yaya Toure is _great_, but he\'s not _that_ good), so where did the error creep in? \n\nThat casts doubt, and to my mind, just enough to not allow it to be determining the outcomes of games on which millions of pounds and entries in history books are determined.\n\nHawk-Eye\'s higher frame rate is likely to make it much more accurate, so you can see it making more inroads into official calls. It makes most sense in contexts of positional review (cricket, tennis, goals in soccer), and ideally in phased-play games where there is a lot of stop-start and reviews can be done without disrupting play.\n\nTennis lends itself to all this perfectly, so the only honest answer I can give you as to why it\'s not everywhere is quite simply cost and the fact some in-game events can\'t be done through hawkeye so they need the official anyway. They\'ll defer to humans allow Hawk-Eye on review where it has the time to churn the data rather than in real-time.',
"A lot of sports value tradition over technology so its important to still have people on the field saying yes or no. MLB didn't even allow instant replay until 2008 which was decades after it became prominent in other sports and that delay was detrimental to the game. But lots of people opposed it because arguing with the umpire over differences in opinion is fundamental to the culture of baseball. If you scrap the humans, then there is no one to argue with and it diminishes some of the excitement of the game. Tennis is somewhat the same and the drama is a lot lower if there is a computer making the calls. ",
"To add on p7r's magnificient response, the availability is really dependant on the costs and the situation. Currently in tennis, not every big tournament has the system implemented on each and every court. The system is used as a way to contest referees and linesmen calls and not systematically call every single ball inbounds or not. The whole rallies aren't probably saved for data storage purposes, but impact points can be used on broadcast to show statistics (such as where the services landed all-match), and if the system has a 99.9% accuracy mark, there's less likely to be a lot of wrong calls upon using it 1000 times rather than 100000 times.\n\nAlso the cameras are obviously situated 360° around, to be as accurate as possible in spotting whether there is a space as small as half of a millimeter between where the ball landed and the line (which is basically the whole point, to see if the ball and line have a contact). Many cameras are essential because you wouldn't want the player's body to stand in the way of your only camera.\n\nFinally, even if the human eye isn't as accurate as the machine, a linesman wouldn't have system errors or accidentally lose a file. While it's not common, I've witnessed tennis matches where the replay wouldn't be available for numerous reasons, so the game cannot be dependant uniquely on that system for now. Also, a human response is much quicker, and the players love to keep the flow going in a high intensity game."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6wbc3k',
'query': "how does the technology that sees if tennis balls are in or out work, and how come it hasn't completely replaced linesmen?",
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '51108',
'title': 'Poison',
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'passage_text': 'In biology, poisons are substances that cause death, injury or harm to organisms, usually by chemical reaction or other activity on the molecular scale, when an organism absorbs a sufficient quantity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '51108',
'title': 'Poison',
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'passage_text': 'The term "poison" is often used colloquially to describe any harmful substance—particularly corrosive substances, carcinogens, mutagens, teratogens and harmful pollutants, and to exaggerate the dangers of chemicals. Paracelsus (1493–1541), the father of toxicology, once wrote: "Everything is poison, there is poison in everything. Only the dose makes a thing not a poison"\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8736435',
'title': 'The dose makes the poison',
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'passage_text': '"The dose makes the poison" () is an adage intended to indicate a basic principle of toxicology. It is credited to Paracelsus who expressed the classic toxicology maxim "All things are poison, and nothing is without poison, the dosage alone makes it so a thing is not a poison." This is often condensed to: "The dose makes the poison" or in Latin, . It means that a substance can produce the harmful effect associated with its toxic properties only if it reaches a susceptible biological system within the body in a high enough concentration (i.e., dose).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '51108',
'title': 'Poison',
'section': 'Section::::Terminology.\n',
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'passage_text': 'All living things produce substances to protect them from getting eaten, so the term "poison" is usually only used for substances which are poisonous to humans, while substances that mainly are poisonous to a common pathogen to the organism and humans are considered antibiotics. Bacteria are for example a common adversary for Penicillium chrysogenum mold and humans, and since the mold\'s poison only targets bacteria humans may use it for getting rid of bacteria in their bodies. Human antimicrobial peptides which are toxic to viruses, fungi, bacteria and cancerous cells are considered a part of the immune system.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34582364',
'title': 'Poison (Wooding novel)',
'section': 'Section::::Plot.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Poison is the story of a rebellious human teenager living in the swamp town of Gull with her father, stepmother, and her baby sister Azalea. She struggles against the oppression in her life, particularly with her strained relationship with her Stepmother, Snapdragon. Her only friend in Gull is the old traveler, Fleet, who tells her tales of the old wars and phaeries and maintains that Poison has some of the “Old Blood” in her. On Soulswatch Eve, Poison’s baby sister is taken and replaced with a Changeling. After consulting with Fleet, Poison sets out from Gull to rescue her sister from the Phaerie Lord. She pays the Wraith-Catcher Bram to take her to Shieldtown to seek out the creature Lamprey, whom Fleet has referred her to. Once in Shieldtown Poison encounters a young woman heading back to Gull, and asks her to relay a message to her parents. After proving herself to Lamprey, Poison is sent to the home of the Bone Witch.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34582364',
'title': 'Poison (Wooding novel)',
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'passage_text': 'Poison (2003) is a young adult English-language fantasy novel written by Chris Wooding, published in 2003. It is a highly metafictional novel which follows the adventures of a young (sixteen-year-old) female protagonist named Poison as she attempts to rescue her sister from the Phaerie Realm. It contains many intertextual references particularly to mythology, fairy tales and secondary world fantasy (i.e. a story about a world in which magic works without any connection to the "real" world) characteristics.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '51108',
'title': 'Poison',
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'passage_text': 'Some poisons are also toxins, which is any poison produced by animals, vegetables or bacteria, such as the bacterial proteins that cause tetanus and botulism. A distinction between the two terms is not always observed, even among scientists. The derivative forms "toxic" and "poisonous" are synonymous. Animal poisons delivered subcutaneously (e.g., by sting or bite) are also called "venom". In normal usage, a poisonous organism is one that is harmful to consume, but a venomous organism uses venom to kill its prey or defend itself while still alive. A single organism can be both poisonous and venomous, but that is rare.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is poison?',
'selftext': "Why does bug spray not kill humans? Why can some animals endure things that would kill humans? Does gasoline or bleach or overdose of medication kill you by the same mechanism as cyanide or strychnine or the 'vegetable alkaloids' from old murder mystery books?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Really, a poison is something that will harm or kill you if taken into your body in an amount you\'re likely to encounter. Technically, water or caffeine (or anything) will kill you if you take enough of it, so that\'s why I added the "in an amount you\'re likely to encounter" part of it. \n\nSince your body is really just a very complicated series of chemical reactions all going on, there are lots and lots of ways to throw a wrench into things and, well, kill you. cyanide or carbon monoxide, for example, bind incredibly strongly to your blood cells and prevent them from carrying oxygen to your cells, starving them of energy.\n\nStrychnine binds to receptors on neurons that normally are for neurotransmitters. In particular, it causes your neurons to be triggered to go off more easily, which causes muscle spasms and death by asphyxiation.',
'A poison is a substance that causes negative physiological effects in an organism. The effects can be disruptice, harmful or even deadly. What makes something poisonous to an organism depends on the substance, the dose and the underlying physiology if the organism.\n\nFor example Grapes are harmless to humans but in cats, they will cause kidney failure.'],
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'query_id': '60xctc',
'query': 'what is poison?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '21631471',
'title': 'Display lag',
'section': 'Section::::Game mode.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Many televisions, scalers and other consumer-display devices now offer what is often called a "game mode" in which the extensive preprocessing responsible for additional lag is specifically sacrificed to decrease, but not eliminate, latency. While typically intended for videogame consoles, this feature is also useful for other interactive applications. Similar options have long been available on home audio hardware and modems for the same reason. Connection through VGA cable or component should eliminate perceivable input lag on many TVs even if they already have a game mode. Advanced post-processing is non existent on analog connection and the signal traverses without delay.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16622047',
'title': 'List of Sega arcade system boards',
'section': 'Section::::Sega NAOMI series.:Sega NAOMI.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Some titles can be loaded up using a netboot Dimm which makes it easier to distribute games over to Naomi & Naomi 2 systems. It required a Windows computer to transfer over the game. Recently, the Raspberry Pi could also be used with the net dimm with PiForceTools. After the game has been received from the local network it will be loaded into ram which it would be run from. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '239098',
'title': 'BitTorrent',
'section': 'Section::::Adoption.:Software.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Many software games, especially those whose large size makes them difficult to host due to bandwidth limits, extremely frequent downloads, and unpredictable changes in network traffic, will distribute instead a specialized, stripped down bittorrent client with enough functionality to download the game from the other running clients and the primary server (which is maintained in case not enough peers are available).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11507946',
'title': 'Streaming data',
'section': 'Section::::Impacted industries.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
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'passage_text': 'Furthermore data streaming also has an impact on the Game Streaming industry. Game streaming is caused by the considerable growth of cloud computing, which allow gamers to access a greater variety of games without having to own expensive hardware. Cloud computing operates as an enabler to the development of game streaming, where hardware and content is accessed from the cloud, leading to a change in offering greater flexibility in content distribution. Game streaming allowed by cloud technology will drive changes in the gaming industry, where it is the hardware configuration of machines in the cloud that will be the developers, cost and time will be reduced to develop a greater ability of user reach around the world.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20646089',
'title': 'Lag',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': 'While a single-player game maintains the main game state on the local machine, an online game requires it to be maintained on a central server in order to avoid inconsistencies between individual clients. As such, the client has no direct control over the central game state and may only send change requests to the server, and can only update the local game state by receiving updates from the server. This need to communicate causes a delay between the clients and the server, and is the fundamental cause behind lag. While there may be numerous underlying reasons for why a player experiences lag, they can be summarized as insufficient hardware in either the client or the server, or a poor connection between the client and server.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '516115',
'title': 'Digital Light Processing',
'section': 'Section::::Manufacturers and marketplace.:Cons.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Response time in video games may be affected by upscaling lag. While all HDTVs have some lag when upscaling lower resolution input to their native resolution, DLPs are commonly reported to have longer delays. Newer consoles that have HD output signals do not have this problem as long as they are connected with HD-capable cables.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '96971',
'title': 'DirectDraw',
'section': 'Section::::Replacement.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Concurrent with the deprecation of DirectDraw was the deterioration of Windows compatibility with old games that relied on this old API, with Command & Conquer, Warcraft 2, and Theme Hospital among those affected. In newer Windows versions, some games will refuse to run under a 32-bit bit depth, others showing a black screen or glitching when switched out. Re-implementation of DDraw is, as a result, vital to many communities still hosting these games. Commonly used replacements include:\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does game streaming service (GeForce Now, Stadia) have little to no lag, while traditional remote desktops (Chrome Remote Desktop, Microsoft Remote Desktop etc) having significant lags?',
'selftext': 'Just tried out GeForce Now and amused by its little latency. But when I tried a traditional remote desktop (Phone to PC in a local network, so should eliminate the internet bandwidth problem), the lag is more significant than GeForce Now. I wonder is it the underlying technology is different?',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Whatever remote desktop program you\'re running has to render *and then* encode the video feed of the desktop on the computer that you\'re connecting to. The encoding takes a little bit of time. That little bit of time, combined with the fact that most remote desktop programs are just really quickly slapped together without any optimization means that you get a bit of lag.\n\nGeForce Now and Google Stadia are optimized to the point that they\'ve gotten rid of the lag involved in encoding the source video. One of the likely ways that they\'ve done that is by running the server on a custom operating system or drivers that is set up to render video into an encoded format for streaming - essentially encoding the video for "free" from a computation standpoint rather than requiring a second process to do it.'],
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'query': 'how does game streaming service (geforce now, stadia) have little to no lag, while traditional remote desktops (chrome remote desktop, microsoft remote desktop etc) having significant lags?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '153023',
'title': 'Protectionism',
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'passage_text': 'There is a consensus among economists that protectionism has a negative effect on economic growth and economic welfare, while free trade, deregulation, and the reduction of trade barriers has a significantly positive effect on economic growth. Some scholars have implicated protectionism as the cause of some economic crises, most notably the Great Depression. However, although trade liberalization can sometimes result in large and unequally distributed losses and gains, and can, in the short run, cause significant economic dislocation of workers in import-competing sectors, free trade has advantages of lowering costs of goods and services for both producers and consumers.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '59212',
'title': 'Free trade',
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'passage_text': 'There is a broad consensus among economists that protectionism has a negative effect on economic growth and economic welfare while free trade and the reduction of trade barriers has a positive effect on economic growth. However, liberalization of trade can cause significant and unequally distributed losses, and the economic dislocation of workers in import-competing sectors.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '153023',
'title': 'Protectionism',
'section': 'Section::::Impact.\n',
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'passage_text': 'There is a broad consensus among economists that protectionism has a negative effect on economic growth and economic welfare, while free trade and the reduction of trade barriers has a positive effect on economic growth.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '153023',
'title': 'Protectionism',
'section': 'Section::::Impact.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Protectionism is frequently criticized by economists as harming the people it is meant to help. Mainstream economists instead support free trade. The principle of comparative advantage shows that the gains from free trade outweigh any losses as free trade creates more jobs than it destroys because it allows countries to specialize in the production of goods and services in which they have a comparative advantage. Protectionism results in deadweight loss; this loss to overall welfare gives no-one any benefit, unlike in a free market, where there is no such total loss. According to economist Stephen P. Magee, the benefits of free trade outweigh the losses by as much as 100 to 1.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '146719',
'title': 'Subsidy',
'section': 'Section::::Economic effects.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Subsidies targeted at goods in one country, by lowering the price of those goods, make them more competitive against foreign goods, thereby reducing foreign competition. As a result, many developing countries cannot engage in foreign trade, and receive lower prices for their products in the global market. This is considered protectionism: a government policy to erect trade barriers in order to protect domestic industries. The problem with protectionism arises when industries are selected for nationalistic reasons (Infant-Industry), rather than to gain a comparative advantage. The market distortion, and reduction in social welfare, is the logic behind the World Bank policy for the removal of subsidies in developing countries.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '153023',
'title': 'Protectionism',
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'passage_text': 'Protectionism is the economic policy of restricting imports from other countries through methods such as tariffs on imported goods, import quotas, and a variety of other government regulations. Proponents claim that protectionist policies shield the producers, businesses, and workers of the import-competing sector in the country from foreign competitors. However, they also reduce trade and adversely affect consumers in general (by raising the cost of imported goods), and harm the producers and workers in export sectors, both in the country implementing protectionist policies and in the countries protected against.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '441395',
'title': 'Trade barrier',
'section': 'Section::::Impacts of trade barriers on business.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Trade barriers are often criticized for the effect they have on the developing world. Because rich-country players call most of the shots and set trade policies, goods such as crops that developing countries are best at producing still face high barriers. Trade barriers such as taxes on food imports or subsidies for farmers in developed economies lead to overproduction and dumping on world markets, thus lowering prices and hurting poor-country farmers. Tariffs also tend to be anti-poor, with low rates for raw commodities and high rates for labor-intensive processed goods. The Commitment to Development Index measures the effect that rich country trade policies actually have on the developing world.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does country get richer through protectionism?',
'selftext': "How this process work? All the 1st world countries were using protectionism at the beginning and only later started to allow free market from what I see. Would it be a disaster for economy if some country let's say from former Eastern Bloc started to use protectionism and why?",
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["So the idea is that protectionism keeps profits inside your own country. I buy a car from Ford for $20,000, they spent $15,000 to make it, so they earn 5,000 in profit, and because they're an American company, that profit stays in America. I buy a car from Volkswagen for $20,000, they spent 15 to make it, so they earn 5,000 in profit, and that profit goes to Germany, because they're a German company. That sucks for America and is great for Germany.\n\nProtectionism could prevent this by putting tariffs on VW cars. VW cars would be more expensive, therefore I'd naturally buy a Ford instead, keeping the profits inside the US. This helps grow American companies too. \n\nLet's pretend Ford was an upstart company that just started making cars. For the first few years their cars will be shoddy and more expensive, because the company doesn't have experience and they need to pay off all the debt they acquired starting the company in the first place. Well no one's gonna buy these shoddy expensive cars when there's cheaper high-quality foreign cars they could buy. But if the government slaps a tariff on foreign cars, then American consumers *have* to buy the shoddy more expensive cars. This grows the American company into a mature company that can produce cheap and high-quality cars just like Germany. Then we can remove the tariff and have a free market again.\n\nNow, all of this is the *ideal* scenario for protectionism. Sometimes it works like this but sometimes it doesn't and actually makes everything worse.\n\nThe first big problem with protectionism is *retaliation*. Go back to our previous example about the auto tariff. Germany's not just gonna lie down and take it. They're gonna slap a tariff on *our* products in retaliation. They'll put a tariff on American avocados from California. Oh no! Now most of the avocado companies are out of a business. They were an export-oriented business. So we may have done a favor for the American auto business, but we've done a disservice to the American avocado business. This tit-for-tat can theoretically go on indefinitely, to the common ruin of all. You won't import anything (good), but you won't be able to export anything either (very bad).\n\nThe second problem is that any sort of cap on the free market like a tariff is essentially a brake on economic efficiency. You're intentionally hobbling yourself. If you put a tariff on foreign cars to force Americans to buy more expensive American cars, well those Americans are that much poorer now. They spent a few extra thousand on a more expensive car, and they now don't have that money to spend on other stuff. This is a deadweight loss to the consumer. Overall and in the long run, these losses *can* be canceled out by the boons protectionism provides to domestic industry which may trickle down to all as high-wage factory jobs or investor dividends or whatever, but in the short run it hurts.\n\nSo you ask, would it be a disaster if some country from the former Eastern Bloc started to use protectionism. The answer, unsatisfying as it is, is that it depends. For a country like Russia, it would probably be a disaster. Russia is already highly industrialized and would benefit by getting their factories churning again and producing goods for export. Getting into a tariff tit-for-tat for them would be a disaster as they're already a heavily import-reliant economy. Romania was not quite as industrialized, so maybe they could benefit from some protectionism helping them grow their industrial base before they transition to a free-trade economy. ",
"If you're a relatively poor country, you like free trade, because you can use the cheapness of everything in your country as a competitive advantage.\n\nIf you're a developed country, free trade turns out to be a race to the bottom that destroys your middle class. Because if your wages are above what it would cost to get the work done in poor countries, you lose jobs until people in your country are poor too.\n\nAnd then your politicians tell people everything is just peachy, which really pisses them off but there's nothing they can do about it, until finally somebody with orange hair rises to the top by promising to put your country first.\n\nWhich involves building economic tariff walls, and literal brick-and-mortar walls, both of which put you in direct conflict with the greatest wall-building civilization the world has ever known. Will these policies help? I think the tariffs might (literal walls, I'm pretty sure, became obsolete when we researched the Rifling tech a couple hundred turns ago). But everyone who seems to know more than I do about these issues says it will just make things worse. I agree tariffs always make the world as a whole poorer by throwing a bit of extra sand in the gears of the economic machine. But that's a worthwhile trade-off if it means you can get your middle class back, which is a very important part of stabilizing your society.\n"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query': 'how does country get richer through protectionism?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '180583',
'title': 'Dymaxion map',
'section': 'Section::::Properties.\n',
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'passage_text': 'More unusually, the Dymaxion map does not have any "right way up". Fuller argued that in the universe there is no "up" and "down", or "north" and "south": only "in" and "out". Gravitational forces of the stars and planets created "in", meaning "towards the gravitational center", and "out", meaning "away from the gravitational center". He attributed the north-up-superior/south-down-inferior presentation of most other world maps to cultural bias.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5473867',
'title': 'Near side of the Moon',
'section': 'Section::::Orientation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'West and east on the Moon are where you would expect them, when standing on the Moon. But when we, on Earth, see the Moon in the sky, then the east–west direction is just reversed. When specifying coordinates on the Moon it should therefore always be mentioned whether geographic (or rather selenographic) coordinates are used or astronomical coordinates.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7783',
'title': 'Coriolis force',
'section': 'Section::::Applied to the Earth.:Intuitive explanation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'When viewed from a stationary point in space directly above the north pole, any land feature in the Northern Hemisphere turns anticlockwise—and, fixing our gaze on that location, any other location in that hemisphere rotates around it the same way. The traced ground path of a freely moving body in ballistic flight traveling from one point to another therefore bends the opposite way, clockwise, which is conventionally labeled as "right," where it will be if the direction of motion is considered "ahead," and "down" is defined naturally.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56478',
'title': 'North',
'section': 'Section::::Mapping.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- On any rotating astronomical object, "north" often denotes the side appearing to rotate counter-clockwise when viewed from afar along the axis of rotation. However, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) defines the geographic north pole of a planet or any of its satellites in the Solar System as the planetary pole that is in the same celestial hemisphere, relative to the invariable plane of the Solar System, as Earth\'s north pole. This means some objects, such as Uranus, rotate in the retrograde direction: when seen from the IAU north, the spin is clockwise.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48384',
'title': 'Equatorial coordinate system',
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'passage_text': 'The origin at the center of Earth means the coordinates are "geocentric", that is, as seen from the centre of Earth as if it were transparent. The fundamental plane and the primary direction mean that the coordinate system, while aligned with Earth\'s equator and pole, does not rotate with the Earth, but remains relatively fixed against the background stars. A right-handed convention means that coordinates increase northward from and eastward around the fundamental plane.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26962',
'title': 'Special relativity',
'section': 'Section::::Consequences derived from the Lorentz transformation.:Lorentz transformation of velocities.\n',
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'passage_text': 'There is nothing special about the "x" direction in the standard configuration. The above formalism applies to any direction; and three orthogonal directions allow dealing with all directions in space by decomposing the velocity vectors to their components in these directions. See Velocity-addition formula for details.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '979306',
'title': 'Orbital station-keeping',
'section': 'Section::::Station-keeping in geostationary orbit.\n',
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'passage_text': 'To extend the life-time of ageing geostationary spacecraft with little fuel left one sometimes discontinues the North-South control only continuing with the East-West control. As seen from an observer on the rotating Earth the spacecraft will then move North-South with a period of 24 hours. When this North-South movement gets too large a steerable antenna is needed to track the spacecraft. An example of this is Artemis.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do direction work in space because north,east,west and south are bonded to earth? How does a spacecraft guide itself in the unending space?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Just like on earth n,w,e,s are meaningless without a reference. The same will apply to space. \n\nSince things move in space you will need to use coordinates relative to some set objects. Say certain stars. We havent really begun space exploration to really hammer out a good system but we do use angles and distance that are relative to earth.',
'Directions only work with a reference point (even on earth - the reference point could be the geographic or magnetic poles)\n\nSo in space, a traveller would need reference points - possibly using the center of the galaxy or distant galaxies as reference points. Of course it wouldn\'t be called N, S, E, W because there are 6 "cardinal directions". \n\nFor travel within the solar system, the sun would be a reasonable reference point perhaps along with a few distant stars.',
'Ooh, I know this one. It\'s called a [gimbal](_URL_2_). The concept is used in [inertial navigation sysyems](_URL_0_). Basically, 3 gimbals provide your 3D reference (xyz) to orient yourself. The gimbals will always be spinning in the exact same orientation in space no matter how a spaceship flips and spins. There\'s a scene in apollo 13 where they talk about [gimbal lock](_URL_1_), meaning they\'re losing their ability to orient themselves because one of the gimbals is close to being "trapped" or "caught up" with another gimbal, losing orientation in that axis. [Here\'s](_URL_4_) a short video explaining it.\n\nEdit: ~~Imagine two of the gimbals represent the xy-plane and its parallel with the Earth\'s orbital plane around the sun. You can read the gimbals to tell you if you\'re pointing "above" Earth\'s plane of orbit or "below" Earth\'s plane of orbit (assuming the North pole points "up" for us northern hemisphere dwellers).~~ I\'m guessing, I shouldn\'t do that. \n\nMore science related to gyroscopes and the relevant phenomenon with demonstrations you can see [here](_URL_3_). See also 35:35 for another demo.\n\nEdit: Silly me. Walter Lewin specifically talks about it in this video at 43:50. Watch that.\n\nEdit: I\'m an idiot. I\'m talking about the gimbals like they\'re spinning. They\'re just the rings free to rotate and allow the central gyroscope to spin and maintain its initial position. Don\'t trust everything anyone says.',
"Currently we map objects in the sky using polar coordinates. Two angles and a distance. \n\nUsually we use Earth as the centre point (in fact the viewers position on earth) and we work out the angle the object is from the centre line of the sky (that we define) and then the angle off the horizon. \n\nThis is declination and right ascension. \n\nIt doesn't make much sense for an interstellar space ship to use earth as the centre point. So we might use the centre of the galaxy. Then define 0 degrees as the line through the sun. \n\nSo the solar system would be at 0°,0°,25kly\n\nChanging direction would also likely use angles. Similar to how boats do it. Change angle a by x° and angle b by y°. \n\nI don't know how actual space craft do it but there it's precedent in fiction with star trek. At the end of an episode the captain might command the helm to set a course 120 mark 43. That's your two angles relative to something (the ship, the galactic plane or something)",
'When away from the earth, stars serve as a suitable reference point. The north star is still in the same direction, even in space, and other stars become easier to use because you are no longer on the surface of a rotating sphere. Essentially, in space every star can be the north star.',
'Spacecraft are able to determine their position and orientation through a combination of on board sensors (like star sensors) and off board trackers (like radar). Beyond that, it is typical to describe their position and velocity as an orbit. These orbits can be described using a few variables that indicate the size, orientation, and direction of the orbit. These are called "Keplerian Elements." \n\nSo, for example if you wanted to convey information about a satellite above the Earth, you wouldn\'t say "It\'s 500Km above the ground, moving 7km/s in the Northwest direction" but you could say, "The satellite\'s orbit has a semimajor axis of 6800km, with an eccentricity of .01, inclination of 23 degrees..."\n\nOf course, there are other ways of keeping track of and describing these, but that\'s one of the most basic ways.',
"Play [Kerbal Space Program](_URL_1_). Here is a helpful xkcd to help understand why it will help.\n\n [_URL_2_](_URL_2_) \n\nAlso why you won't be ready for that NASA position. \n\n [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)",
'They would use the very stars in the sky as a way to find where they need to be... they would also use constellations to see where they are for a reference.. maybe even gravitational pull this is an excellent question',
'As an add-on to D1Foley\'s comment, check out Quill18\'s "Kerbal Space Program for Complete Beginners" series on youtube. He covers this stuff and does a preeeeeetty good job of it.',
"Aerospace engineer here! \n\nThe short answer is basically however you want it to!\n\nThe long answer is something called frames of reference. \n\nA frame of reference, or reference frame, is how you determine your position and orientation relative to another object. On Earth we tend to use down as the direction earth is pulling us, up as the opposite and then north/south/east/west for planar (side to side, forward-back) directions. In space however, there is no absolute frame of reference.\n\n You could be x miles from the earth and y miles from something else. (This also effects velocity but we won't go into that unless someone asks).\n\nSo which reference frame do you use? Whichever one works best. Some times the math is easier if you use earth as a reference frame, sometimes it's easier if you use the sun.",
'I actually work in the space industry, so I feel qualified to answer this. As other commenters have alluded to, there are two parts to this question: reference frame and navigation.\nIn science and engineering, when describing motion you need a base coordinate frame. To start, you need a fixed reference point and direction to base the coordinate frame on. The typical reference is the vernal equinox, which is an imaginary line pointing towards a distant star called Vega. For our purposes, the position of Vega is fixed, so it makes a good reference. From there we can build our axes, but this will depend on the physics involved.\n\nFor a low-earth orbit spacecraft we use the Earth-Centered Inertial frame (ECI), which has an origin at the center of the earth, x axis pointed towards vernal equinox, z-axis pointed through the north pole, and y axis perpendicular to both x and z.\n\nA base reference frame should be "inertial," or non-rotating and non-accelerating, in order to make the physics work out. For an interplanetary spacecraft, the ECI frame is NOT inertial, because it is fixed on the earth which is accelerating around the sun. In this case we define a different frame: sun-centered. In this case the origin is at the center of the sun, X-axis pointed towards vernal equinox, z axis perpendicular to the ecliptic (plane that Earth\'s orbit makes around the sun), and y axis perpendicular to X and Z.\n\nNow, for navigation: we use devices called Inertial Measuring Units, or IMUs, to constantly measure acceleration and rotation. Think of them as fancy accelerometers and gyroscopes like you have in your phone. If we know where we start, and we keep track of all the accelerations, we can figure out where we end up. The previously described reference frames give us the language to describe this (in terms of X, Y, and Z coordinates). We can improve knowledge of our position with dead reckoning, where we CHECK our distance and speed with radar measurements. If we send a signal to a spacecraft and it takes 20 minutes for that signal to get back to us, then by knowing the speed of light we can say exactly how far it has travelled, which makes the estimate we got from the IMU more accurate.\n\nEDIT: I think forget what I said about Vega. The X axis is defined by the mean vernal equinox, which is when the southern and Northern hemispheres receive the same amount of light (around March 21st). At this point, you can draw a straight line from the sun though the center of the earth and that line will intersect Earth\'s equator. Because of this, it is by definition perpendicular to the north pole.',
'Earth based directions (North/South/East/West/Up/Down) don\'t work, so we create a new "frame of reference". \n\nA frame of reference is a way of looking at and measuring things. Walking around your neighborhood, you use N/S/E/W, but if you were walking on a huge cruise ship sailing through the ocean, you would use Fore/Aft/Port/Starboard, no matter which direction the boat was pointed. We would say we are moving towards the port side, even if the boat is moving west, so Pot is actually south. We would say we\'re walking towards the Port side at 1.6 km/hour (1 miles/hour), even if the boat is moving forward through the ocean at 32 km/hour (20 mile/hour). \n\nIn the same way, we can create different frames of reference for outer space. One frame of reference when you are orbiting close to earth, another when you are far from earth and orbiting the Sun, another when getting close to the moon / Mars, etc... \n\nA great and fun way to experience this is to play Kerbal Space Program.',
"Astronautical engineer here.\n\nSpacecraft are equipped with a subsystem called Attitude Determination and Control System.\n\nThis subsystem can contain various tools including Star Trackers, Horizon Sensors, and Sun Sensors for navigation.\n\nThere are lots of stars in space, and a lot of them are so far away that they appear fixed, i.e. they do not seem to move.\n\nA star tracker is basically a camera that scans the space for star patterns. Then it compares the image with the database to estimate its orientation.\n\nSun sensors find the Sun (obviously) and are generally used for solar panel pointing etc. Horizon sensors use infrared to find orientation based on the planet's horizon line.\n\nThis is the navigation part. For control, there are reaction wheels, magnetorquers, reaction control thrusters, and more. RWs spin to generate a moment in the desired axis, so there are mostly 3 of them. Magnetorquers use magnetic field of the planet to change orientation. RTCs are small thrusters that are placed on large spacecraft to perform small correction/orientation maneuvers.",
'Space probes visiting planets, comets, and the like replace "north" and "south" with stars. They are programmed with star maps in their nav computer, and if they get bumped by a space rock or something they can turn on their camera and watch the distant stars, looking for matches against their database. This is also useful to help ground control know whether the probe followed it\'s flight-path correctly in normal flight. \n\n\nA probe that REALLY gets smacked will probably tumble too fast to re-align itself, but at that point you are also looking at damage that will prevent it from functioning properly so it\'s moot.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nSpace probes can also use interial sensors, a bit like your phone does (this is also how the first airplane autopilots worked, btw), and can use the radio signal from Earth to determine its distance and speed. Some more general info here: [_URL_0_](_URL_0_) \n\n & #x200B;\n\nA story about Juno (A Jupiter probe) using star charts: [_URL_1_](_URL_1_) \n\n & #x200B;\n\nIn the future, deep space probes to other systems may use pulsars to navigate.',
'The best part of this question is the number of folks is the aerospace and astronautical field that are willing to chime in.\n\nThanks to all of you, I learnt more than I expected to. Much appreciated.',
"I will explain this using a game of dodge ball. Image you are playing dodge ball, and all you know is where the balls are. If have enough time I am sure you find where and where you are. However, you are the only player try to throw your ball A, to hit other ball B. This a difficult task even when ball B is sitting still. Now image trying to hit ball while a game of dodge ball is being played. Now you need to know where Ball B is going to be in the future. Also, you located other another ball C that being played with. Now you must throw from ball A to hit ball B, all from ball C. In addition you have to account for all of the other balls in the game. The last thing you need to account for is that ball A moves much slower than the rest of the balls. Also, you just barely hit B ball make you don't die on impact. This would be a good to think about travel inside of the galaxy. Traveling Outside of the galaxy would be like throwing to hit another ball that is being used in other game several miles away.\n\nNow unlike dodge ball we know where the stars are, going to be, and we can easily tell stars apart from one another. This means we can tell where we are based off the stars, are going to be, and what time it is.\n\nWhat does this mean is terms of space navigation. You need to know where the other stars are where, how you moving compared to them, how fast you are moving, and what time it is. Also, you may run it a piece of dust ruining all of the math you have before hand.\n\nRight now it is doing lot of math that you do before hand, and then adjust as you get closer. However, for something that can go from any give star to another any other star would have a power computer on the ship do the math every time. You can now see no rushing to leave the solar system.\n\nSo in short its a lot of math get near the star that you hope get you close enough to the star that gravity pulls in the system, and then you steer toward the planet you want go to.",
'Easy, the enemy\'s gate is "down". I\'m not a space engineer of any sort, but I can at least talk about the math that\'s helpful here (linear algebra).\n\nWhen you are walking around, you can talk about how things are *in front/behind* of you, *to the (right/left) side* of you, or *above/below* you. If you want to be clever, you can mix the descriptions too: "enemy ship at 2 o\'clock!" means something is mostly to your right, but also a bit in front of you.\n\nWhen you\'re talking to someone else that isn\'t facing the same direction, you can\'t just use the forward/right descriptions anymore, so you have to pick something both of you understand. A nice one is to align to the Earth with North/East/South/West. Or, if you know what direction they\'re facing, you may choose to use their perspective instead ("turn right on Maple, then turn left on Jefferson...").\n\nTo give directions, you only need to define the three basic directions "up", "right", and "forward" and go from there. The third can be derived from the first two, so really you just need two of them. Usually you use some sort of reference point(s), maybe a star or a planet or your own spaceship, whatever.\n\nELI25 note: a set of *n* directions for an n-dimensional coordinate space is called a *basis* space, and requires *n* orthogonal vectors. Converting from one basis to another is very easy with linear algebra. With as few as three points that aren\'t all on the same line (e.g., center of the sun, North Pole of the sun, some other star) you can create a full basis because of the neat property that the cross product of two vectors is always orthogonal to both input vectors.',
"For deep space travel, we would use blinking stars (pulsars).\n\nNot all stars blink, but some of them do. And all the stars that blink, blink slower or faster, but the slow ones always blink slow, and the fast ones always blink fast, but each star that blinks - blinks at its own special speed.\n\nNow if you're on a space ship, you can watch how fast the stars blink and if you're moving closer to it, it will look like it's blinking faster, like when a fire truck is driving towards you and its siren sounds faster. But if you're flying away from it, then it will seem to blink slower, like a fire truck driving away from you and its siren sounds slower, even though the star is still blinking at the same speed. (Doppler effect)\n\nWe know how fast some of the stars are blinking because we've been able to watch them here on Earth, but if we get to fly farther than them, we'll have to find new blinking stars and add them to our map. And if we go even farther than that, we might need to figure out a new way of figuring out where we are.",
"Like all good questions, it depends! \n\n\nIf you are close to the Earth, you use the Earth as reference. You say how far away from the surface and how close to the equator and prime meridian you are. From three measurements that are not in the same direction, you can exactly specify your position. A common tool for this is the ECEF, or Earth Centered Earth Fixed, reference frame. These are coordinates that look at where you are in reference to the Earth as if the Earth never moves. The center is at the center of the earth, the x axis comes out at where the prime meridian meets the equator, the y axis comes out on the equator at 90 longitude and the z axis runs through the poles. This is very handy for looking at satellite positions and figuring out where they are over the Earth.\n\nThat reference isn't that useful if your looking at stuff orbiting the sun. It would look like your position would be constantly changing since the Earth rotates but from your perspective as a satellite you move very little. These objects generally are described using the ICRF, or International Celestial Reference Frame, which is centered at the center of gravitational pull in the solar system. It turns out, as massive as the sun is, it isn't everything in the solar system. The center of mass between Jupiter and the sun is just about on the surface of the sun, rather than deep within it, and Jupiter has by far the biggest mass other than the sun. So we use the point that basically everything orbits in the solar system. Again we use similar references as ECEF to determine a good x-y-z coordinate.\n\nOther star systems and astronomical objects get reference frames as well. We have a reference frame for the Galaxy, for the local galactic cluster, for stars and black holes and everything! Generally you try to find the axis of rotation, like the north and south like for the Earth but on the object, and then something along the equator. Since it's tough to go looking at these objects, we usually pick the line pointing directly at the Earth (or closest to it) and the line perpendicular to both the rotation axis and the Earth line. As long as with three different measurements that aren't in the same direction, you can perfectly specify any point in space",
"A space force is more similar to the navy than the air force. Don't think of a spacecraft like a jet plane; think of it like a submarine - they travel in relation to themselves as the reference plane (down angle, port, etc) and less in relation to nsew coordinates."],
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'query_id': 'f7ew9k',
'query': 'how do direction work in space because north,east,west and south are bonded to earth? how does a spacecraft guide itself in the unending space?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
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'title': 'Vehicular ad-hoc network',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Platooning, which allows vehicles to closely (down to a few inches) follow a leading vehicle by wirelessly receiving acceleration and steering information, thus forming electronically coupled "road trains".\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '173363',
'title': 'Platoon (automobile)',
'section': 'Section::::Automated highway system.:Principle.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In one scheme, the roadway has magnetized stainless-steel spikes driven one meter apart in its center. The car senses the spikes to measure its speed and locate the center of the lane. Furthermore, the spikes can have either magnetic north or magnetic south facing up. The roadway thus provides small amounts of digital data describing interchanges, recommended speeds, etc.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21519849',
'title': 'Florence–Rome high-speed railway',
'section': 'Section::::Route.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The line has a largely straight path with a maximum slope of eight per thousand, no level crossings or intersections of any kind and the centre of tracks four metres apart to counteract the dynamic effects created by trains passing each other. Communication with drivers consists of an adaptation of the Italian RS4 Codici train protection system with in-cabin repetition of signals using nine codes and earth to train telephone communication. The minimum radius of curves is 3,000 meters, enabling an operating speed of 250\xa0km/h. Connections between the two tracks in both directions every 16.2 kilometers allow trains to use either track in either direction or for all operations to operate on a single track if necessary.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2706016',
'title': 'Linienzugbeeinflussung',
'section': 'Section::::Vehicle equipment.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- "Odometry": The vehicle speed and distance traveled is measured on two independent channels by two pulse generators mounted on different axles. Each is linked to a separate micro-controller based unit used to correct any inaccuracies. The central logic polls the two units as well as an accelerometer,compares the values and checks for plausibility.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '636702',
'title': 'Metrication in the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Current use.:Transportation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Another common unit of speed is meters per second (m/s), used especially for lifts and cable cars. Odometers are permitted to record miles or kilometers, but must be clearly labeled as to which unit they record.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41129107',
'title': 'Network length (transport)',
'section': 'Section::::Route length.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'In a measurement of route length, each route is counted only once, regardless of how many lines pass over it, and regardless of whether it is single track or multi track, single carriageway or dual carriageway.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11214626',
'title': 'Cant deficiency',
'section': 'Section::::Forces.:Example.\n',
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'passage_text': 'On routes that carry freight traffic in cars with the maximum allowed axle loads it will be desirable to set superelevations so that the balancing speed of each curve is close to the speed at which most such traffic runs. This is to lessen the tendency of heavy wheel loads to crush the head of either rail.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do those cables they string across the road measure your vehicle speed?',
'selftext': 'You know those cables they lay across the road to measure vehicle speed? How do those work? Is it accurate? What is the data used for?',
'category': 'Physics',
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'answers': ["if I am thinking about the same cables you are thinking about they aren't used to measure speed they're used to count how many cars are going across the road they use it to know how much maintenance or if they need to expand the road to handle more traffic.",
'Usually they are more using it for traffic flow data, before altering a traffic pattern or timing traffic lights, or construction',
"They don't track vehicle speed, the count how many cars pass over them.\n\nThe data is used to figure out how much traffic is going over a particular road to identify traffic patterns, determine light timings, which roads to prioritize repairs, etc",
"They are a known distance apart, so it's simple to calculate your speed based on the time it takes for your wheel to run over the 1st and then the 2nd cable.\n\nHowever their primary purpose is for traffic counting."],
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'query_id': 'bskk1k',
'query': 'how do those cables they string across the road measure your vehicle speed?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
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'passage_text': 'The scrotum is an anatomical male reproductive structure that consists of a suspended dual-chambered sack of skin and smooth muscle that is present in most terrestrial male mammals and located under the penis. One testis is typically lower than the other to avoid compression in the event of impact. The perineal raphe is a small, vertical, slightly raised ridge of scrotal skin under which is found the scrotal septum. It appears as a thin longitudinal line that runs front to back over the entire scrotum. The scrotum contains the external spermatic fascia, testes, epididymis, and ductus deferens. It is a distention of the perineum and carries some abdominal tissues into its cavity including the testicular artery, testicular vein, and pampiniform plexus. In humans and some other mammals, the scrotum becomes covered with pubic hair at puberty. The scrotum will usually tighten during penile erection and when exposed to cold temperature.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1827682',
'title': 'Male reproductive system',
'section': 'Section::::External genital organs.:Scrotum.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The scrotum is a pouch-like structure that hangs behind the penis. It holds and protects the testicles. It also contains numerous nerves and blood vessels. During times of lower temperatures, the Cremaster muscle contracts and pulls the scrotum closer to the body, while the Dartos muscle gives it a wrinkled appearance; when the temperature increases, the Cremaster and Dartos muscles relax to bring down the scrotum away from the body and remove the wrinkles respectively.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '67193',
'title': 'Testicle',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.:Appearance.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Males have two testicles of similar size contained within the scrotum, which is an extension of the abdominal wall. Scrotal asymmetry is not unusual: one testicle extends farther down into the scrotum than the other due to differences in the anatomy of the vasculature.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '398932',
'title': 'Meninges',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.:Leptomeninges.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The arachnoid and pia mater together are sometimes called the "leptomeninges", literally "thin meninges" ( leptos - thin). Acute meningococcal meningitis can lead to an exudate within the leptomeninges along the surface of the brain. Because the arachnoid is connected to the pia by cob-web like strands, it is structurally continuous with the pia, hence the name pia-arachnoid or leptomeninges. They are responsible for the production of beta-trace protein (prostaglandin D2 synthase), a major cerebrospinal fluid protein.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18423',
'title': 'Labia majora',
'section': 'Section::::Embryology.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The scrotum and labia majora develop to have both similarities and crucial differences. Like the scrotum, labia majora after puberty may become of a darker color than the skin outside them, and, similarly, also grow pubic hair on their external surface (the female genitals on accompanying photos are shaved to show their structure clearer). But, during sexual differentiation of the foetus, labioscrotal folds in the males normally fuse longitudinally in the middle, forming a sack for male gonads (testicles) to descend into it from the pelvis, while in the females these folds normally do not fuse, forming the two labia majora and the pudendal cleft between them. Female gonads (ovaries) do not descend from the pelvis, thus the structure of labia majora may seem simpler (just fatty tissue covered with skin) and of lesser significance for functioning of the female body as a whole than the scrotum with testicles for males. The ridge or groove remaining of the fusion can be traced on the scrotum.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50773588',
'title': 'Neoteny in humans',
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'passage_text': 'Neoteny of the human body is indicated by glabrousness (hairless body). Neoteny of the genitals is marked by the absence of a baculum (penis bone); the presence of a hymen; and the forward-facing vagina. Neoteny in humans is further indicated by the limbs and body posture, with the limbs proportionately short compared to torso length; longer leg than arm length; the structure of the foot; and the upright stance.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12665663',
'title': 'Development of the reproductive system',
'section': 'Section::::External genitalia.:Male.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The labioscrotal folds extend around between the pelvic portion and the anus, and form a scrotal area. During the changes associated with the descent of the testes this scrotal area is drawn out to form the scrotal sacs. The penis is developed from the phallus.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is scrotal skin so different from other skin?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
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'answers': ["Because it has a very particular job that other skin doesn't.\n\nYour testicles have to be kept at a certain temperature, one that's lower than the rest of your body. So your scrotum needs to be able to adapt to temperature and then respond by raising or lowering the testicles, becoming thicker, or thinner and shrinking or expanding.\n\nSo basically because your balls need to stay cool/warm."],
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'query_id': 'bhd2dr',
'query': 'why is scrotal skin so different from other skin?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '175596',
'title': 'Animal testing',
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'passage_text': 'It is estimated that the annual use of vertebrate animals—from zebrafish to non-human primates—ranges from tens to more than 100 million. In the European Union, vertebrate species represent 93% of animals used in research, and 11.5 million animals were used there in 2011. By one estimate the number of mice and rats used in the United States alone in 2001 was 80 million. Mice, rats, fish, amphibians and reptiles together account for over 85% of research animals.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19827221',
'title': 'Arthropod',
'section': 'Section::::Description.:Diversity 1.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Estimates of the number of arthropod species vary between 1,170,000 and 5 to 10\xa0million and account for over 80 per cent of all known living animal species. The number of species remains difficult to determine. This is due to the census modeling assumptions projected onto other regions in order to scale up from counts at specific locations applied to the whole world. A study in 1992 estimated that there were 500,000 species of animals and plants in Costa Rica alone, of which 365,000 were arthropods.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Mammals of Borneo',
'section': 'Section::::Introduction.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The high diversity and endemicity of mammals is related to the many niches found in the tropical rain forest of Borneo and past Pleistocene events within the Sundaland region. During interglacial and post-glacial periods, there was migration of animal from the Asian mainland into Borneo and into Sulawesi via the Philippines. Due to lack of favourable habitats and small founder population, some species of animals have become extinct and others have radiated into endemic species. For example, in Holocene times, ancient pangolin ("Manis palaeojavanica"), panther ("Panthera" sp) and tapir ("Tapirus indicus") became locally extinct in Borneo. Of the 57 mammal species that were identified from archaeological remains in the Niah Caves, Sarawak, 13 were bats. Four of these were megachiropterans, "Pteropus vampyrus", "Rousettus amplexicaudatus", "Rousettus" sp and "Eonycteris spelaea", all of which remain extant species in Borneo and Peninsular Malaysia. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Forest zone',
'section': 'Section::::Flora, fauna and conservation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The fauna includes many endemic mammal species, most of which are now highly endangered because of deforestation. The most famous is the pygmy hippopotamus ("Hexaprotodon liberiensis"), whilst the royal antelope ("Neotragus pygmaeus") is one of the smallest hoofed mammals in the world and is remarkable for its ability to leap up to ten times its body size.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3383',
'title': 'Brazil',
'section': 'Section::::Geography.:Biodiversity and environment.\n',
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'passage_text': "Larger mammals include carnivores pumas, jaguars, ocelots, rare bush dogs, and foxes, and herbivores peccaries, tapirs, anteaters, sloths, opossums, and armadillos. Deer are plentiful in the south, and many species of New World monkeys are found in the northern rain forests. Concern for the environment has grown in response to global interest in environmental issues. Brazil's Amazon Basin is home to an extremely diverse array of fish species, including the red-bellied piranha. Despite its reputation as a ferocious freshwater fish, the red-bellied piranha is actually a generally timid scavenger.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11357768',
'title': 'List of mammals of the Philippines',
'section': 'Section::::Subclass: Theria.:Infraclass: Eutheria.:Order: Rodentia (rodents).\n',
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'passage_text': 'Rodents make up the largest order of mammals, with over 40% of mammalian species. They have two incisors in the upper and lower jaw which grow continually and must be kept short by gnawing. Most rodents are small though the capybara can weigh up to . As of 2014, 86 native species occur in the Philippines, most endemic to the archipelago. One discovered fossil species has been extinct since the Pleistocene Epoch. The number of species is speculated to rise more because of the high endemic concentration on the islands, which were mostly isolated from Mainland Asia in prehistoric times. There are also three introduced species of rodents in the archipelago; the most common introduced rodents: the house mouse, black rat, and the brown rat, which are considered worldwide pests.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '1592410',
'title': 'Willandra Lakes Region',
'section': 'Section::::Description.:Fauna.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Twenty species of mammals are currently recorded at Willandra, of which bats are the most diverse group. There are some 40 species of reptiles and amphibians. There are 137 recorded species of bird life including parrots, cockatoos and finches.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is there seemingly only 5000 species of mammals on Earth yet seemingly endless minute variations in insects/birds/reptiles etc?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Smaller reproduction times and lifespans means you can have more generations and a higher rate of mutation. ',
"Mammals are the most recent biological class to come along. We haven't had the time to develop as many mutations which might be beneficial enough to branch off into nearly as many variants",
"Bird and reptile species aren't that much more numerous than mammals at around 10,000 each compared to insects at up to a million.\n\nReasons that there are so many more insect than vertebrate species are their size and complexity. Vertebrates are for larger and more complex and need far more space to live. They can also move around much more so they can choose to live in an area that is more suitable for them and allows for the increased necessities that come with greater complexity. This means there is less separation of groups that might diverge from one another to form different species. Insects on the other hand can travel far less and must instead become very specialized to the local environment they live in causing greater diversity in species.",
'* TL;DR: Insects had an ecological and evolutive edge over other animals. Their ability to fly let them invade the land before any other animal could. They had lots of resources available, letting them specialise, thus generating several groups and species.\n\n---\n\nAlthough the other explanations offer some valid points, they don\'t quite hit the nail. There are roughly [5300 living mammal species](_URL_7_), [18k bird species](_URL_2_), and [10k reptile species](_URL_10_) (without considering birds). On the other hand [insects are estimated to be around 5.5M](_URL_6_). Before diving deeper into the reasons why there\'s way more insect species than all other animal groups combined, I would like to point out that the concept of species isn\'t equally defined for each living group. So, the parameters used to define an insect species are different to those used to define a mammal species to those used to define a plant or bacterial species. I\'ll focus on comparing insects against mammals.\n\n#1. Insects are old, mammals are young\n\nFirst we need to have some historical context. When did insects and mammals appear? According to the available fossil record, insects appeared around the [Devonian period](_URL_1_), around 419.2 - 358.9 millions years ago (Mya). Mammals appeared on the [Late Triassic](_URL_0_), 251.2 - 201.3 Mya. That means that insects have been existing roughly 200 million years more than mammals; almost twice as much!\n\nIf we assume new species appear at the same rate among both groups, that difference would account by itself as the main reason why there\'s more insect species than mammal species. But, there\'s only about [4 000 species of fish](_URL_8_). If time was the only factor, we should have more fish species than insect species. **Time itself can\'t explain such diversity**.\n\n#2. Insects reproduce faster than mammals\n\nThe next factor we should consider is that insects reproduce more frequently than mammals. Most insects reach sexual maturity within weeks and in a few months they have already reproduced at least once. On the other hand, mammals take more time to reach sexual maturity, from a few months to some years.\n\nLet\'s try a hypothesis! Let\'s assume insects and mammals appeared at the same time, they have the same rate at which new species appear but they differ in generation time: Insects have more generations per year than mammals. In this case we would expect insects to have an edge and after a while they would end up with more species than mammals. To spice things up, let\'s bring a third group into the race: Plankton.\n\nThese unicellular organisms reproduce even faster than insects. They take a few hours to some day to reproduce. If our hypothesis is true, we should have more plankton species. But that\'s not the case. [An estimate made in 1991](_URL_4_) said there were roughly 4 000 species of plankton in the ocean. Even if we double that number to 8 000 to compensate for land plankton, we would be far from the estimated 5.5 million species of insects. Just like it happened before, **generation time can\'t explain the tremendous richness of insect species**.\n\n#3. Adaptive radiation\n\nLife began in the ocean. For millions and millions of years only water bodies could sustain life. After millions of years the first organisms were able to inhabit land but they weren\'t animals, they were fungi and plants. For even more and more years the land was untouched by animals, fungi and plants could thrive with ease without any predators. That\'s when insects invaded. Winged insects were the first animal group to successfully inhabit the land, during the [Carboniferous](_URL_5_) (356-299 Mya).\n\nWhen insects arrived to the land it was paradise for them: The abundance of fungi and plants meant they have plenty of food to consume and the absence of other animals meant they didn\'t have any competition. Thus, they were able to thrive. Here\'s where the major evolutive event on the insect group happened.\n\nEvery once in a while the conditions align for a particular group to thrive exponentially. Having plenty of food and not having any predators or competition were the conditions that let insects to develop lots of species. When there\'s lots of resources you can give yourself the luxury to be picky. Insects began to specialise. Some only ate fungi. Some only ate leaves. Some only ate leaves of a few species of plants. Some only ate the seeds of a singular plant species. Some began to consume other insects. Some only consumed the insects that only ate seeds. Some ate a little bit of everything. Those "available resource slots" are known as "niches". When there\'s lots of available niche slots, [species radiation](_URL_3_) happens.\n\nInsects had the land for themselves for a long time. They have the time to develop several groups with several species. They spread all over the world in fantastic fashion. The ability to fly played an important role in this domination of land. Being able to fly made them harder to consume by the predators that eventually appeared on land, let them move around easily from resource patch to resource patch and so on.\n\n4. What about mammals?\n\nWhen mammals appeared most ecological niches were "already taken". Reptiles and other animal groups already were consuming other animals all over the place, all types of plants, a little bit of both, etc. When they came into existence land and sea were already taken. It wasn\'t until the [Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction](_URL_9_) that mammals had the chance to occupy the niches left behind by the dominant group at the time: The dinosaurs.\n\nCompared to the adaptive radiation of insects when they invaded land, the mammal radiation when dinosaurs disappeared isn\'t as successful.\n\n#Conclusion\n\nSometimes the conditions are perfect for a group to thrive and generate lots of species. For insects it was the invasion of land when no other animal group have done it what enabled them to diversify tremendously. On the other hand, animals were only able to diversify a little after dinosaurs disappeared but they didn\'t have as much liberty as insects had when their radiation even happened.'],
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'query': 'why is there seemingly only 5000 species of mammals on earth yet seemingly endless minute variations in insects/birds/reptiles etc?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '24383048',
'title': 'Cherenkov radiation',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Particle physics experiments.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Cherenkov radiation is commonly used in experimental particle physics for particle identification. One could measure (or put limits on) the velocity of an electrically charged elementary particle by the properties of the Cherenkov light it emits in a certain medium. If the momentum of the particle is measured independently, one could compute the mass of the particle by its momentum and velocity (see four-momentum), and hence identify the particle.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27486376',
'title': 'Ionized-air glow',
'section': 'Section::::Occurrence.:Ionized air glow vs Cherenkov radiation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Cherenkov radiation is produced by charged particles which are traveling through a dielectric substance at a speed greater than the speed of light in that medium. The only types of charged particle radiation produced in the process of a criticality accident (fission reactions) are alpha particles, beta particles, positrons (which all come from the radioactive decay of unstable daughter products of the fission reaction) and energetic ions which are the daughter products themselves. Of these, only beta particles have sufficient penetrating power to travel more than a few centimeters in air. Since air is a very low density material, its index of refraction (around "n"=1.0002926) differs very little from that of a vacuum ("n"=1) and consequently the speed of light in air is only about 0.03% slower than its speed in a vacuum. Therefore, a beta particle emitted from decaying fission products would need to have a velocity greater than 99.97% "c" in order to produce Cherenkov radiation. Because the energy of beta particles produced during nuclear decay do not exceed energies of about 20 MeV (20.6 MeV for B is likely the most energetic with 17.9 MeV for Na being the next highest energy beta emitter) and the energy needed for a beta particle to attain 99.97% c is 21.1 MeV formula_1, the possibility of Cherenkov radiation produced in air via a fission criticality or a radioactive decay is virtually eliminated.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2575969',
'title': 'ALICE experiment',
'section': 'Section::::The ALICE detectors.:Particle identification with ALICE.:High Momentum Particle Identification Detector.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Cherenkov radiation is a shock wave resulting from charged particles moving through a material faster than the velocity of light in that material. The radiation propagates with a characteristic angle with respect to the particle track, which depends on the particle velocity. Cherenkov detectors make use of this effect and in general consist of two main elements: a radiator in which Cherenkov radiation is produced and a photon detector. Ring imaging Cherenkov (RICH) detectors resolve the ring-shaped image of the focused Cherenkov radiation, enabling a measurement of the Cherenkov angle and thus the particle velocity. This in turn is sufficient to determine the mass of the charged particle.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2178474',
'title': 'Particle identification',
'section': 'Section::::Charged particles.:Cherenkov detectors.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Cherenkov radiation is emitted by a charged particle when it passes through a material with a speed greater than c/n, where n is the index of refraction of the material. The angle of the photons with respect to the charged particle direction depends on velocity. A number of Cherenkov detector geometries have been used.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24383048',
'title': 'Cherenkov radiation',
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'passage_text': 'Cherenkov radiation (IPA: /tʃɛrɛnˈkɔv/, Russian: чeрeнкова) is electromagnetic radiation emitted when a charged particle (such as an electron) passes through a dielectric medium at a speed greater than the phase velocity of light in that medium. The characteristic blue glow of an underwater nuclear reactor is due to Cherenkov radiation. It is named for Soviet physicist Pavel Cherenkov, who shared the 1958 Nobel Prize in Physics for its discovery.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41814278',
'title': 'High Altitude Water Cherenkov Experiment',
'section': 'Section::::Principle of operation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'Cherenkov radiation occurs when charged particles travel through a medium at a speed faster than the speed of light in that medium. High-energy gamma rays, upon striking the upper atmosphere, can create positron-electron pairs that move at great speeds. The residual effect of these particles traveling through the atmosphere can result in a cascading shower of particles and photons that are aimed towards the surface at predictable angles.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24383048',
'title': 'Cherenkov radiation',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Nuclear reactors.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
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'passage_text': 'Cherenkov radiation is used to detect high-energy charged particles. In pool-type nuclear reactors, beta particles (high-energy electrons) are released as the fission products decay. The glow continues after the chain reaction stops, dimming as the shorter-lived products decay. Similarly, Cherenkov radiation can characterize the remaining radioactivity of spent fuel rods. This phenomenon is used to verify the presence of spent nuclear fuel in spent fuel pools for nuclear safeguards purposes.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'what is Cherenkov Radiation?',
'selftext': "I saw the nuclear reactor gif earlier and I've e heard of and seen CR on the internet before. What is it and why does it happen? Ps. Sorry if this is a reposted question, I couldn't find a previous discussion on the topic.",
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['In a nutshell, it’s like a sonic boom, but instead of going faster than sound, it goes faster than light. Instead of going BOOM, it’s a flash of light/radiation. Nothing goes faster than light in a vacuum. However, through a medium like water, light slows down so some subatomic particles can go faster than it. Usually, they’re trying to find neutrinos when you’re talking about Cherenkov Radiation. Since neutrinos don’t really interact with anything, what they do is fill a huge room with water and light detectors. Then they wait and hope one of the quadrillions of neutrinos passing through the room interact with the water causing a brief flash (Cherenkov Radiation)'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '6kdtdt',
'query': 'what is cherenkov radiation?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '54000061',
'title': 'Neurogastronomy',
'section': 'Section::::Decision making.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Although the consumption of spicy food can cause pain, people in many cultures ascribe a high hedonic value to it. Psychologist Paul Rozin puts forth the idea of "benign masochism", a learned tendency that overrides the typically aversive stimuli because of the risk-taking or thrill-seeking associated with overcoming pain.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40941170',
'title': 'Off-flavour',
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'passage_text': 'Off-flavours or off-flavors (see spelling differences) are taints in food products caused by the presence of undesirable compounds. They can originate in raw materials, from chemical changes during food processing and storage, and from micro-organisms. Off-flavours are a recurring issue in drinking water supply and many food products.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25003876',
'title': 'Pungency',
'section': 'Section::::Terminology.\n',
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'passage_text': 'For instance, a pumpkin pie can be both hot (out of the oven) and spicy (due to the common inclusion of spices such as cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice, mace, and cloves), but it is not "pungent". (A food critic may nevertheless use the word "piquant" to describe such a pie, especially if it is exceptionally well-seasoned.) Conversely, pure capsaicin is pungent, yet it is not naturally accompanied by a hot temperature or spices.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2443818',
'title': 'Gingerol',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Cooking ginger transforms gingerol via a reverse aldol reaction into zingerone, which is less pungent and has a spicy-sweet aroma. When ginger is dried or mildly heated, gingerol undergoes a dehydration reaction forming shogaols, which are about twice as pungent as gingerol. This explains why dried ginger is more pungent than fresh ginger.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1028618',
'title': 'Flambé',
'section': 'Section::::Effects on taste.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'Whether or not there is a change in flavor as result of flambéing is unclear. Some claim that because the flame is above the food, and since hot gases rise, it cannot significantly affect the flavor. Indeed, experimental work shows that most people cannot tell the difference. That said, in an informal taste test conducted by the "Los Angeles Times" of two batches of caramelized apples (one flambéed and one simmered), one tester declared the "flambéed dish was for adults, the other for kids". Others, however, dispute this and quote celebrated French chefs who claim that flambéing is strictly a show-biz aspect of restaurant business that ruins food but is done to create an impressive visual presentation at a dramatic point in the preparation of a meal.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27535150',
'title': 'Warmed-over flavor',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Warmed-over flavor is an unpleasant characteristic usually associated with meat which has been cooked and then refrigerated. The deterioration of meat flavor is most noticeable upon reheating. As cooking and subsequent refrigeration is the case with most convenience foods containing meat, it is a significant challenge to the processed food industry. The flavor is variously described as "rancid," "stale," and like "cardboard," and even compared to "damp dog hair." Warmed-over flavor is caused by the oxidative decomposition of lipids (fatty substances) in the meat into chemicals (short-chain aldehydes or ketones) which have an unpleasant taste or odor. This decomposition process begins after cooking or processing and is aided by the release of naturally occurring iron in the meat.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26897',
'title': 'Spice',
'section': 'Section::::Handling spices.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 59,
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'passage_text': 'Some flavor elements in spices are soluble in water; many are soluble in oil or fat. As a general rule, the flavors from a spice take time to infuse into the food so spices are added early in preparation. This contrasts to herbs which are usually added late in preparation.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'is there a reason spicy things become less spicy after being refrigerated?',
'selftext': 'was eating leftover wings and became curious',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Cold numbs your taste buds. So it's not less spicy your mouth just doesn't register the capsaicin like it would if the wings were hot."],
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'query_id': 'a5y24v',
'query': 'is there a reason spicy things become less spicy after being refrigerated?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '862898',
'title': 'Absolute space and time',
'section': 'Section::::General relativity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
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'passage_text': "Special relativity eliminates absolute time (although Gödel and others suspect absolute time may be valid for some forms of general relativity) and general relativity further reduces the physical scope of absolute space and time through the concept of geodesics. There appears to be absolute space in relation to the distant stars because the local geodesics eventually channel information from these stars, but it is not necessary to invoke absolute space with respect to any system's physics, as its local geodesics are sufficient to describe its spacetime.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '301670',
'title': 'Anti-de Sitter space',
'section': 'Section::::Non-technical explanation.:Spacetime in general relativity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'Some of the differences between the familiar Newtonian equation of gravity and the predictions of general relativity flow from the fact that gravity in general relativity bends both time and space, not just space. In normal circumstances, gravity bends time so slightly that the differences between Newtonian gravity and general relativity are detectable only with precise instruments.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27667',
'title': 'Space',
'section': 'Section::::Philosophy of space.:Einstein.\n',
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'passage_text': "Subsequently, Einstein worked on a general theory of relativity, which is a theory of how gravity interacts with spacetime. Instead of viewing gravity as a force field acting in spacetime, Einstein suggested that it modifies the geometric structure of spacetime itself. According to the general theory, time goes more slowly at places with lower gravitational potentials and rays of light bend in the presence of a gravitational field. Scientists have studied the behaviour of binary pulsars, confirming the predictions of Einstein's theories, and non-Euclidean geometry is usually used to describe spacetime.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30694430',
'title': 'Criticism of the theory of relativity',
'section': 'Section::::Relativity hype and popular criticism.:Accusations of plagiarism and priority discussions.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Menyhért Palágyi (1901) developed a philosophical "space-time" model in which time plays the role of an imaginary fourth dimension. Palágyi\'s model was only a reformulation of Newtonian physics, and had no connection to electromagnetic theory, the relativity principle, or to the constancy of the speed of light.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '301670',
'title': 'Anti-de Sitter space',
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'passage_text': "Einstein's general theory of relativity places space and time on equal footing, so that one considers the geometry of a unified spacetime instead of considering space and time separately. The cases of spacetime of constant curvature are de Sitter space (positive), Minkowski space (zero), and anti-de Sitter space (negative). As such, they are exact solutions of Einstein's field equations for an empty universe with a positive, zero, or negative cosmological constant, respectively.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48640371',
'title': 'Felix Pirani',
'section': 'Section::::Scientific work.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In 1972 Pirani, Jürgen Ehlers and Alfred Schild showed that the space-time geometry of general relativity can be constructed from simple measuring processes with light beams and free-falling particles.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '862898',
'title': 'Absolute space and time',
'section': 'Section::::Differing views.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Historically, there have been differing views on the concept of absolute space and time. Gottfried Leibniz was of the opinion that space made no sense except as the relative location of bodies, and time made no sense except as the relative movement of bodies. George Berkeley suggested that, lacking any point of reference, a sphere in an otherwise empty universe could not be conceived to rotate, and a pair of spheres could be conceived to rotate relative to one another, but not to rotate about their center of gravity, an example later raised by Albert Einstein in his development of general relativity.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'I dont understand spacetime and its relevance with gravity,please...',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['To understand the answer to this question, we first have to understand what curved spacetime is, and how it relates to falling objects. \n\nSpacetime is a four dimensional object. Three of these dimensions are spatial, and one is temporal. In classical mechanics, space and time are the stage on which things move: they are static, constant, unchanging. In relativity, however, spacetime is dynamic. It interacts with the objects that move through it, and time and space are not strictly separate. \n\nAs gravity is modeled through the curvature of spacetime instead of a force, an object under the influence of gravity is force-free. Thus, an object does not undergo acceleration through gravity. We call such an object free falling, and its path through spacetime a [*geodesic*](_URL_1_). You can imagine geodesics as a straight lines on a curved surface. \n\nFor example, all the lines on [this sphere](_URL_0_) are geodesics, as they are straight lines on the surface. If you were an ant on the surface of a sphere, and you started walking straight ahead without turning left or right, you would follow one such "geodesic", or straight line. \n\n\nTwo free falling objects in their respective gravitational fields follow such geodesics, as they are both falling freely. Hence, both objects are force free. \n\nOur intuition says, that two force-free objects should not experience relative acceleration, right? If one object moves at v*_1_* and another object moves at v*_2_*, their relative velocity should be constant and given by v=v*_2_*-v*_1_*. \n\nThis result holds true for flat spacetime. In curved spacetime, however, things get more complicated. \n\nConsider [this](_URL_2_) example: Imagine two objects that are moving along the lines perpendicular to the equator. They start out parallel, and move in a straight line upwards. Despite the fact that neither of them is turning, the two objects that started out moving along parallel lines will meet at the north pole.\n\nThis implies, that relative acceleration between free bodies is possible in curved geometries.\n\nThis fact is expressed mathematically by the [Geodesic Deviation Equation](_URL_1__deviation). \n\nTo come back to your example: despite the fact that both objects (the falling object and earth) are force-free, they experience relative acceleration due to the fact that earth\'s gravitational field curves spacetime. \n\n'],
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'query_id': '9awld1',
'query': 'i dont understand spacetime and its relevance with gravity, eli5 please...',
'query_type': 'Physics',
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'title': "Snell's window",
'section': 'Section::::Image formation.\n',
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'passage_text': "Under ideal conditions, an observer looking up at the water surface from underneath sees a perfectly circular image of the entire above-water hemisphere—from horizon to horizon. Due to refraction at the air/water boundary, Snell's window compresses a 180° angle of view above water to a 97° angle of view below water, similar to the effect of a fisheye lens. The brightness of this image falls off to nothing at the circumference/horizon because more of the incident light at low grazing angles is reflected rather than refracted (see Fresnel equations). Refraction is very sensitive to any irregularities in the flatness of the surface (such as ripples or waves), which will cause local distortions or complete disintegration of the image. Turbidity in the water will veil the image behind a cloud of scattered light.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18374',
'title': 'Lake Eyre',
'section': 'Section::::Yacht club.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
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'passage_text': 'When the lake is full, a notable phenomenon is that around midday the surface can often become very flat. The surface then reflects the sky in a way that leaves both the horizon and water surface virtually impossible to see. The commodore of the Lake Eyre Yacht Club has stated that sailing during this time has the appearance of sailing in the sky.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '233636',
'title': 'Spherical Earth',
'section': 'Section::::Effects and empirical evidence.:Observation of the stars at altitude.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'On a perfectly spherical Earth, flat terrain or ocean, when viewed from the surface, blocks exactly half the sky - a hemisphere of 180°. Moving away from the surface of the Earth means that the ground blocks less and less of the sky. For example, when viewed from the Moon, the Earth blocks only a small portion of the sky, because it is so distant. This phenomenon of geometry means that when viewed from a high mountain, flat ground or ocean blocks less than 180° of the sky. The rate of change in the angle blocked by the sky as altitude increases is different for a disc than a sphere, and values observed show that the Earth is locally convex. (The angles blocked would also be different for a mountain close to the edge of a flat Earth compared to a mountain in the middle of a flat Earth, and this is not observed.) In theory, measurements of this type from all around the Earth would confirm that it is a complete sphere (as opposed to some other shape with convex areas) though actually taking all those measurements would be very expensive.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1276437',
'title': 'Soil mechanics',
'section': 'Section::::Effective stress and capillarity: hydrostatic conditions.:Pore water pressure.:Capillary action.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 102,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 102,
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'passage_text': 'Due to surface tension, water will rise up in a small capillary tube above a free surface of water. Likewise, water will rise up above the water table into the small pore spaces around the soil particles. In fact the soil may be completely saturated for some distance above the water table. Above the height of capillary saturation, the soil may be wet but the water content will decrease with elevation. If the water in the capillary zone is not moving, the water pressure obeys the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium, formula_89, but note that formula_93, is negative above the water table. Hence, hydrostatic water pressures are negative above the water table. The thickness of the zone of capillary saturation depends on the pore size, but typically, the heights vary between a centimeter or so for coarse sand to tens of meters for a silt or clay. In fact the pore space of soil is a uniform fractal e.g. a set of uniformly distributed D-dimensional fractals of average linear size L. For the clay soil it has been found that L=0.15\xa0mm and D=2.7.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '233636',
'title': 'Spherical Earth',
'section': 'Section::::Effects and empirical evidence.:Visibility of distant objects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 496,
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'passage_text': 'On a completely flat Earth with no visual interference (such as trees, hills, or atmospheric haze) the ground itself would never obscure distant objects; one would be able to see all the way to the edge of the surface. A spherical surface has a horizon which is closer when viewed from a lower altitude. In theory, a person standing on the surface with eyes above the ground can see the ground up to about away, but a person at the top of the Eiffel Tower at can see the ground up to about away.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30426',
'title': 'Total internal reflection',
'section': 'Section::::Everyday examples.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
'end_character': 981,
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'passage_text': 'A similar effect can be observed by opening one\'s eyes while swimming just below the water\'s surface. If the water is calm, the surface outside the critical angle (measured from the vertical) appears mirror-like, reflecting objects below. The region above the water cannot be seen except overhead, where the hemispherical field of view is compressed into a conical field known as "Snell\'s\xa0window", whose angular diameter is twice the critical angle (cf.\xa0Fig.6). The field of view above the water is theoretically 180° across, but seems less because as we look closer to the horizon, the vertical dimension is more strongly compressed by the refraction; e.g., by Eq.(), for air-to-water incident angles of 90°, 80°, and 70°, the corresponding angles of refraction are 48.6° ("θ" in Fig.6), 47.6°, and 44.8°, indicating that the image of a point 20° above the horizon is 3.8° from the edge of Snell\'s window while the image of a point 10° above the horizon is only 1° from the edge.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48386',
'title': 'Horizontal coordinate system',
'section': 'Section::::General observations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 569,
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'passage_text': 'Note that the above considerations are strictly speaking true for the "geometric" horizon only. That is, the horizon as it would appear for an observer at sea level on a perfectly smooth Earth without an atmosphere. In practice, the "apparent" horizon has a slight negative altitude due to the curvature of Earth, the value of which gets more negative as the observer ascends higher above sea level. In addition, atmospheric refraction causes celestial objects very close to the horizon to appear about half a degree higher than they would if there were no atmosphere.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does water on the horizon look as if it is above ground level when it is flat?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["You're not used to seeing such an uninterrupted expanse (to the horizon). \n\nThe water lays at eye level, essentially.\n\nA flat desert would look the same.",
'Check out what a [Fata Morgana](_URL_1_) is.\n\n[And here is the great Werner Herzog showing some video of this effect](_URL_0_).',
"This is a common optical illusion and it's not just water but any flat open space. When you stick a straw in a glass of water have you noticed that it seems to be bent at a different angle in the water than in the air? This is because the speed of light is faster in air than water and the light is bent at the interface between the two where they meet. This refraction of light at boundary layers (where 2 things of different densities or optical properties meet) causes light to bend in a way similar to a lens. \n\nWhen you're looking at something close to the ground but far away, all of the air between you and that distant object is bending the light due to differences in density in the air caused by differences in temperature close to the surface. Sometimes when conditions are just right, it's actually possible to see beyond the horizon as the light gets bent beyond line of sight."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'f8pc48',
'query': 'why does water on the horizon look as if it is above ground level when it is flat?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '20683',
'title': 'Machine code',
'section': 'Section::::Programs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': "A computer program is a list of instructions that can be executed by a central processing unit. A program's execution is done in order for the CPU that is executing it to solve a specific problem and thus accomplish a specific result. While simple processors are able to execute instructions one after another, superscalar processors are capable of executing a variety of different instructions at once.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2234333',
'title': 'Data (computing)',
'section': 'Section::::Characteristics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'Fundamentally, computers follow a sequence of instructions they are given in the form of data. A set of instructions to perform a given task (or tasks) is called a "program". In the nominal case, the program, as executed by the computer, will consist of binary machine code. The elements of storage manipulated by the program, but not actually executed by the CPU, are also data. Program instructions, and the data that the program manipulates, are both stored in exactly the same way. Therefore, it is possible for computer programs to operate on other computer programs, by manipulating their programmatic data.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15072',
'title': 'Instruction register',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Some of the complicated processors use a pipeline of instruction registers where each stage of the pipeline does part of the decoding, preparation or execution and then passes it to the next stage for its step. Modern processors can even do some of the steps out of order as decoding on several instructions is done in parallel.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43809380',
'title': 'Multiclet',
'section': 'Section::::Technical concept.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 757,
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'passage_text': 'As opposed to the traditional multi-core processor architecture each individual cell in the microprocessor can communicate with each other, without the need to store intermediate results in memory registers. This removes the concept of assembly language instructions with sequential dependence, in favor of realizing a high level programming language directly on the computer hardware. The smallest indivisible unit is a set of instructions described in the triadic language. Each triad can describe an operation between references to other triads, rather than references to the current contents in memory registers. The result of the sequence of triads is evaluated when selected, e.g. when an operation to write the result to a memory register is issued.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '145162',
'title': 'Parallel computing',
'section': 'Section::::Types of parallelism.:Instruction-level parallelism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 53,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 53,
'end_character': 555,
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'passage_text': 'A computer program is, in essence, a stream of instructions executed by a processor. Without instruction-level parallelism, a processor can only issue less than one instruction per clock cycle (). These processors are known as "subscalar" processors. These instructions can be re-ordered and combined into groups which are then executed in parallel without changing the result of the program. This is known as instruction-level parallelism. Advances in instruction-level parallelism dominated computer architecture from the mid-1980s until the mid-1990s.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '945803',
'title': 'Cilk',
'section': 'Section::::Language features.:Task parallelism: spawn and sync.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
'end_character': 919,
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'passage_text': 'When the code is executed on a "multiprocessor" machine, however, execution proceeds differently. One processor starts the execution of ; when it reaches line 8, however, the keyword modifying the call to tells the processor that it can safely give the job to a second processor: this second processor can create a frame for , execute its code, and store its result in \'s frame when it finishes; the first processor continues executing the code of at the same time. A processor is not obligated to assign a spawned procedure elsewhere; if the machine only has two processors and the second is still busy on when the processor executing gets to the procedure call, the first processor will suspend and execute itself, as it would if it were the only processor. Of course, if another processor is available, then it will be called into service, and all three processors would be executing separate frames simultaneously.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '505218',
'title': 'Register machine',
'section': 'Section::::Historical development of the register machine model.:Elgot–Robinson (1964) and the problem of the RASP without indirect addressing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 61,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'A RASP or random-access stored-program machine begins as a counter machine with its "program of instruction" placed in its "registers". Analogous to, but independent of, the finite state machine\'s "Instruction Register", at least one of the registers (nicknamed the "program counter" (PC)) and one or more "temporary" registers maintain a record of, and operate on, the current instruction\'s number. The finite state machine\'s TABLE of instructions is responsible for (i) fetching the current "program" instruction from the proper register, (ii) parsing the "program" instruction, (iii) fetching operands specified by the "program " instruction, and (iv) executing the "program" instruction.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'how does a computer program arrange transistors to run a program? In other words, if transistors are so small, how can a computer ever know how to create the circuit required to run a program?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['A computer does not "arrange transistors". They aren\'t moved around to form circuits to run programs, they already are in the required configuration within the CPU. The CPU is manufactured that way with everything already in place as needed.\n\nComputer programs simply interact with the CPU as it is designed to perform their tasks. It is a matter of writing the program in such a way as to interact with the CPU in a desired way, and for that the size of the transistors is irrelevant.',
"Computer programs do not arrange transistors. They are fixed in place. Computer programs are simply a list of instructions which the cpu knows how to interpret and sends current down the correct transistors. Think of it as dominos lined in complicated patterns. You don't need to rearrange the dominos for each pattern, all you need is to be told which domino to push.",
"You're kind of putting the cart before the horse... The transistors are arranged in a way that the programs can interact with them.\n\nTo put it simply, the program says.\n\n1. Add memory block 1A to memory block 2A\n2. If the result is greater than 42, then add result to memory block 1B.\n3. If 1B divided by two has no remainder, then go to step 5, else go to step 4.\n4. *Some other instructions that do stuff.*\n5. *Some other instructions that do things.*\n\nAll of that is done by the programs instructions triggering a chain reaction in the CPU. Sort of like a Rube Goldberg machine, except the outcomes can be different based on the instructions given to the CPU.\n\nAnother way to think of it is that the CPU is just a really advanced calculator. Programs punch in numbers and the CPU gives the programs results; Except the CPU does way more than just basic math."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'dctj31',
'query': 'how does a computer program arrange transistors to run a program? in other words, if transistors are so small, how can a computer ever know how to create the circuit required to run a program?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '207091',
'title': 'Sand art and play',
'section': 'Section::::Construction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'Sand grains will always stick together unless the sand is reasonably fine. While dry sand is loose, wet sand is adherent if the proper amounts of sand and water are used in the mixture. The reason for this is that water forms little "bridges" between the grains of sand when it is damp due to the forces of surface tension.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29171632',
'title': 'Marine habitats',
'section': 'Section::::Coastal.:Sandy shores.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 50,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 50,
'end_character': 742,
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'passage_text': 'Sand is a sediment made from small grains or particles with diameters between about 60\xa0µm and 2\xa0mm. Mud (see mudflats below) is a sediment made from particles finer than sand. This small particle size means that mud particles tend to stick together, whereas sand particles do not. Mud is not easily shifted by waves and currents, and when it dries out, cakes into a solid. By contrast, sand is easily shifted by waves and currents, and when sand dries out it can be blown in the wind, accumulating into shifting sand dunes. Beyond the high tide mark, if the beach is low-lying, the wind can form rolling hills of sand dunes. Small dunes shift and reshape under the influence of the wind while larger dunes stabilise the sand with vegetation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '817771',
'title': 'Dilatant',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 336,
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'passage_text': 'This can readily be seen with a mixture of cornstarch and water (sometimes called oobleck), which acts in counterintuitive ways when struck or thrown against a surface. Sand that is completely soaked with water also behaves as a dilatant material. This is the reason why when walking on wet sand, a dry area appears directly underfoot.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '184101',
'title': 'Singing sand',
'section': 'Section::::On the beach.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 950,
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'passage_text': 'On some beaches around the world, dry sand will make a singing, squeaking, whistling, or screaming sound if a person scuffs or shuffles their feet with sufficient force. The phenomenon is not completely understood scientifically, but it has been found that quartz sand will do this if the grains are very well-rounded and highly spherical. It is believed by some that the sand grains must be of similar size, so the sand must be well sorted by the actions of wind and waves, and that the grains should be close to spherical and have dust-, pollution-, and organic-matter-free surfaces. The "singing" sound is then believed to be produced by shear, as each layer of sand grains slides over the layer beneath it. The similarity in size, the uniformity, and the cleanness means that grains move up and down in unison over the layer of grains below them. Even small amounts of pollution on the sand grains reduce the friction enough to silence the sand.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34418869',
'title': 'Foredune',
'section': 'Section::::Parabolic dunes in Northern California.:Wind.:Sediment transport.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 784,
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'passage_text': 'Sand granules are transported in three ways: suspension, saltation, and creep. Suspended grains are fine granules that can easily be picked up by wind and carried for variable distances. Most visitors to coastal beach environments can attest to having sand blown in their face or leaving with a gritty feeling on their skin. This is due to fine sediment suspended in the moisture rich air. When suspended sediment is returned to the ground, granules physically impact the grounded grains. Due to physics principles, the grounded grains are receiving energy from the once suspended sediment. This impact leads to the dislodgement of grounded grains or creep of coarser grains. Saltation is the movement of grains being picked up by the wind and dropped in a cycling repetitive motion.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60217543',
'title': 'Sandpit',
'section': 'Section::::Physical description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 534,
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'passage_text': 'They sometimes also have lids to cover the sand when not in use, so that passing animals cannot contaminate the sand by urinating or defecating in it. Having lids also prevents the sand in outdoor sandpits from getting wet when it rains, although some dampness is often desirable as it helps the sand hold together. Prefabricated sandpits may also be used indoors, especially in day care facilities. Materials other than sand are also often used, such as oatmeal, which are necessarily non-toxic and light enough to easily vacuum up.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3968641',
'title': 'Nickelodeon Toys',
'section': 'Section::::Compounds.:Mattel (1992–2006).:Sqand.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 38,
'end_character': 723,
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'passage_text': 'Sqand, or "Magic sand", begins as ordinary sand, but is dyed and coated in a hydrophobic substance. This allows each particle to stay dry in water, so that underwater the sand appears not to have the same properties that any other sand has while wet: its cohesive force was greater than its adhesive force to water, so it preferred to stick together in surrealistically tall forms, rather than spread out as expected. When taken out of water Squand immediately returned to normal looking, dry sand. Mattel sold it off quickly. Originally marketed in 1991, it was later sold off, being re-branded without Nickelodeon trademarks today; first by RoseArt in 1995, and again being renamed "Aqua Sand", mainly directed at girls.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why does sand stick to everything even though it doesn't feel sticky?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Sand sticks to things in many ways just like flour does. Flour particles aren\'t sticky at all (while dry), but small enough to be caught in tangles of fabric fibers, attracted by even the slightest charges, or "grabbed" by microscopic droplets of water or oil (and the human body is literally covered with oil-drop and water-drop emitting organelles: sweat glands and sebaceous glands). Flour is many times smaller, so more sticks of course, but at the size level of a grain of sand a human body is covered in a rough shag of fibers, and sticky oil and water films.\n\nNone of these hold on very tightly, but tight enough to resist gravity and most movement, so the sand doesn\'t just fall off when you stand up. Brushing the area is more forceful, and tends to knock off every grain of sand hit - but again, sand is so small it can "hide" in the fabric or get missed by a rough hand brushing.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7rjwqg',
'query': "why does sand stick to everything even though it doesn't feel sticky?",
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '7367038',
'title': 'Vacuum packing',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Vacuum packing is a method of packaging that removes air from the package prior to sealing. This method involves (manually or automatically) placing items in a plastic film package, removing air from inside, and sealing the package. Shrink film is sometimes used to have a tight fit to the contents.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10834',
'title': 'Food preservation',
'section': 'Section::::Modern industrial techniques.:Vacuum packing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 50,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 50,
'end_character': 411,
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'passage_text': 'Vacuum-packing stores food in a vacuum environment, usually in an air-tight bag or bottle. The vacuum environment strips bacteria of oxygen needed for survival. Vacuum-packing is commonly used for storing nuts to reduce loss of flavor from oxidization. A major drawback to vacuum packaging, at the consumer level, is that vacuum sealing can deform contents and rob certain foods, such as cheese, of its flavor.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58017',
'title': 'Microwave oven',
'section': 'Section::::Hazards.:High temperatures.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 78,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 78,
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'passage_text': 'Closed containers, such as eggs, can explode when heated in a microwave oven due to the increased pressure from steam. Intact fresh egg yolks outside the shell will also explode, as a result of superheating. Insulating plastic foams of all types generally contain closed air pockets, and are generally not recommended for use in a microwave, as the air pockets explode and the foam (which can be toxic if consumed) may melt. Not all plastics are microwave-safe, and some plastics absorb microwaves to the point that they may become dangerously hot.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '143689',
'title': 'Vacuum flask',
'section': 'Section::::Design.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 783,
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'passage_text': "The vacuum flask consists of two vessels, one placed within the other and joined at the neck. The gap between the two vessels is partially evacuated of air, creating a partial-vacuum which reduces heat conduction or convection. Heat transfer by thermal radiation may be minimized by silvering flask surfaces facing the gap but can become problematic if the flask's contents or surroundings are very hot; hence vacuum flasks usually hold contents below the boiling point of water. Most heat transfer occurs through the neck and opening of the flask, where there is no vacuum. Vacuum flasks are usually made of metal, borosilicate glass, foam or plastic and have their opening stoppered with cork or polyethylene plastic. Vacuum flasks are often used as insulated shipping containers.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '157616',
'title': 'Composite material',
'section': 'Section::::Fabrication methods.:Vacuum bag moulding.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 105,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 105,
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'passage_text': 'When using a tube shaped bag, the ends of the bag are sealed and the air is drawn out of the bag through a nipple using a vacuum pump. As a result, uniform pressure approaching one atmosphere is applied to the surfaces of the object inside the bag, holding parts together while the adhesive cures. The entire bag may be placed in a temperature-controlled oven, oil bath or water bath and gently heated to accelerate curing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52991',
'title': 'Pressure cooking',
'section': 'Section::::Operation.:Bringing to pressure (stove top pressure cookers).:Removal of air.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 78,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 78,
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'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Before the pressure cooker lid is sealed airtight, the internal air has to be mostly replaced by steam. Steam has a much higher specific heat than air, and the presence of steam rather than air inside the pressure cooker is how it is able to transfer sufficient heat into the parts of the food that are not submerged in liquid, such as a pot roast. If the lid is sealed before enough air has been removed, not enough heat can be transferred to the food, and food may be undercooked; the presence of air would make the food cook more like it is in an oven than a pressure cooker. To remove the air, steam is vented for several minutes to replace the volume of air inside the cooker. This is why a pressure cooker takes about 10 minutes to reach pressure. For pressure cookers with a weight, the weight is placed over the steam vent pipe while steam is being emitted to ensure the air inside has escaped. The newer generation pressure cookers, which have no weights, automatically expel air from inside for several minutes before a coloured pop-up indicator pin rises to seal the lid airtight; pressure then builds in the now airtight cooker. If the pressure cooker is already hot or a stovetop pressure cooker is placed on a very strong heat source, such as induction on too high a setting, the lid can seal airtight too quickly before the air inside has been removed. In these situations, a slightly lower heat setting can be used to allow the water to boil slower in order to vent the air.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '157616',
'title': 'Composite material',
'section': 'Section::::Fabrication methods.:Vacuum bag moulding.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 104,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 104,
'end_character': 338,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A vacuum bag is a bag made of strong rubber-coated fabric or a polymer film used to compress the part during cure or hardening. In some applications the bag encloses the entire material, or in other applications a mold is used to form one face of the laminate with the bag being a single layer to seal to the outer edge of the mold face.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do containers form a vacuum when being heated in the microwave with their lid on? Bowls with cling wrap do the same.',
'selftext': 'To me the air and contents inside are heating up and therefore should expand and build pressure. But after the microwave stops, the plastic container starts to collapse in.',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['This depends on the design of the lid. A normal lid or plastic wrap is not able to contain much pressure but are able to contain vacuum. So when the contents of the container heats up the container will be pressurized with steam. However the lid will let the steam out so the pressure will not build up. So when the microwave stops and the contents start to cool the steam start condensing creating a vacuum. The lid will then seal and may start collapsing.',
'Because the microwaves excite the water, causing it to expand as steam, leading to pressure in sealed containers, some steam seeps out, then when the microwaves stop, the water loses the extra energy and begins to cool which causes a retraction in the air. If you had a very well sealed container(like an egg or something), it would explode which is why most microwavable foods say to cut a slit or vent somehow, to allow the steam to flow out easier. ',
"Please don't ever microwave cling wrap. And, if you have the money, swap out plastic containers for glass ones. \n\n[That shit is toxic. ](_URL_0_)"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6cm4gi',
'query': 'why do containers form a vacuum when being heated in the microwave with their lid on? bowls with cling wrap do the same.',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '25236992',
'title': 'Mexican handcrafts and folk art',
'section': 'Section::::Types of folk arts and crafts in Mexico.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 42,
'end_character': 605,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Paper is both made and used to make crafts in Mexico. Paper-making is a skill that goes back to pre-Hispanic times. The bark of two trees are primarily used, that of the morus or mulberry family for white paper and that of the ficus or fig family for darker varieties. Traditionally, the bark was cut and scraped by men, but the making the paper itself was done by women. The process begins by washing the bark, then boiling it with ashes. It is then rinsed and beaten until the fibers knit together, then dried in the sun. Banderolas, or cut-paper banners, are hung in the streets for special occasions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1861843',
'title': 'Charles Fenerty',
'section': 'Section::::Invention of paper from wood pulp.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 546,
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'passage_text': 'Fenerty had learned that trees have fibres too, through discussions with the naturalist Titus Smith. At the age of 17 (in c.1838) he began his experiments of making paper from wood. By 1844, he had perfected the process (including bleaching the pulp to a white colour). In a letter written by a family member circa 1915 it is mentioned that Charles Fenerty had shown a crude sample of his paper to a friend named Charles Hamilton in 1840 (a relative of his future wife), though the family member in question would have been around 8 at the time.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '215844',
'title': 'Pulp (paper)',
'section': 'Section::::Wood pulp.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 429,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Wood and other plant materials used to make pulp contain three main components (apart from water): cellulose fibers (desired for papermaking), lignin (a three-dimensional polymer that binds the cellulose fibres together) and hemicelluloses, (shorter branched carbohydrate polymers). The aim of pulping is to break down the bulk structure of the fibre source, be it chips, stems or other plant parts, into the constituent fibres.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2341454',
'title': 'Pulp mill',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 429,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Wood and other plant materials used to make pulp contain three main components (apart from water): cellulose fibres (desired for papermaking), lignin (a three-dimensional polymer that binds the cellulose fibres together) and hemicelluloses, (shorter branched carbohydrate polymers). The aim of pulping is to break down the bulk structure of the fibre source, be it chips, stems or other plant parts, into the constituent fibres.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2348548',
'title': 'Cardboard box',
'section': 'Section::::Terminology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 248,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Paper is thin material mainly used for writing upon, printing upon, or for packaging. It is produced by pressing together moist fibers, typically cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags, or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18952693',
'title': 'Plant stem',
'section': 'Section::::Economic importance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 56,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 56,
'end_character': 799,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Wood is used in thousands of ways, e.g. buildings, furniture, boats, airplanes, wagons, car parts, musical instruments, sports equipment, railroad ties, utility poles, fence posts, pilings, toothpicks, matches, plywood, coffins, shingles, barrel staves, toys, tool handles, picture frames, veneer, charcoal and firewood. Wood pulp is widely used to make paper, paperboard, cellulose sponges, cellophane and some important plastics and textiles, such as cellulose acetate and rayon. Bamboo stems also have hundreds of uses, including paper, buildings, furniture, boats, musical instruments, fishing poles, water pipes, plant stakes, and scaffolding. Trunks of palm trees and tree ferns are often used for building. Stems of Reed are an important building material for use in thatching in some areas.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1848891',
'title': 'Paper craft',
'section': 'Section::::Paper pulp painting.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 257,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Images built using colored paper pulp are a form of paper art that started in the 20th century. Chuck Close, Lynn Sures are among contemporary artist developing this medium. Paper pulp craft is widely used in rural India for making kitchen utility baskets.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do we make paper out of trees?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Paper mills liquify the pulp of the tree and turn it into thin slices. Paper reverts to its pulpy state when it gets wet.',
"Trees and plants are very fibrous. We take trees, grind them onto a pulp, spread it very thinly through fine mesh, and then compress it and dry it (sometimes with heat and sometimes without. This affects the texture of the finished paper).\n\nI mean, in theory. We also add binders and chemicals and stuff to make modern paper. But of you tear paper (especially thicker, art papers), you can [see]( _URL_0_) how the fibers make up the paper. \n\nWith modern paper, all the fibers are aligned due to how they are pressed through mesh screens. This gives paper a sort of grain, similar to how wood and fabric has a grain. It can be very important to determine the grain of the paper for certain crafts or uses, like book binding. If you can't see the grain in your paper (in some rustic papers, you can visibly see the fibers), the easiest way to test it is to soak the paper in water. The warping and wrinkling forms with the paper grain. You can also test by tearing it. The paper will tear in a straight direction with the grain, but will tear crookedly and unevenly across the grain. \n\nPaper is fun."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'd6lgy7',
'query': 'how do we make paper out of trees?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '339535',
'title': 'Current account',
'section': 'Section::::Reducing current account deficits.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 435,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The currency exchange rate exerts a significant influence on the trade balance, and by extension, on the current account. An overvalued currency makes imports cheaper and exports less competitive, thereby widening the current account deficit (or narrowing the surplus). An undervalued currency, on the other hand, boosts exports and makes imports more expensive, thus increasing the current account surplus (or narrowing the deficit).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7235622',
'title': 'Quantitative easing',
'section': 'Section::::Risks and side-effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 52,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 52,
'end_character': 336,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'QE benefits debtors, since the interest rate has fallen, meaning there is less money to be repaid. However, it directly harms creditors as they earn less money from lower interest rates. Devaluation of a currency also directly harms importers and consumers, as the cost of imported goods is inflated by the devaluation of the currency.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1531457',
'title': 'Resource curse',
'section': 'Section::::Economic effects.:Revenue volatility.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 1024,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Susceptibility to this volatility can be increased where governments choose to borrow heavily in foreign currency. Real exchange rate increases, through capital inflows or the "Dutch disease" can make this appear an attractive option by lowering the cost of interest payments on the foreign debt, and they may be considered more creditworthy due to the existence of natural resources. If the resource prices fall, however, the governments\' capacity to meet debt repayments will be reduced. For example, many oil-rich countries like Nigeria and Venezuela saw rapid expansions of their debt burdens during the 1970s oil boom; however, when oil prices fell in the 1980s, bankers stopped lending to them and many of them fell into arrears, triggering penalty interest charges that made their debts grow even more. As Venezuelan oil minister and OPEC co-founder Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonzo presciently warned in 1976: "Ten years from now, twenty years from now, you will see, oil will bring us ruin... It is the devil\'s excrement."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5258706',
'title': 'Currency appreciation and depreciation',
'section': 'Section::::Economic effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 331,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A depreciation of the home currency has the opposite effects. Thus, depreciation of a currency tends to increase a country’s balance of trade (exports minus imports) by improving the competitiveness of domestic goods in foreign markets while making foreign goods less competitive in the domestic market by becoming more expensive.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '683611',
'title': 'Dishoarding',
'section': 'Section::::Interest Rates.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 810,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In general, when interest rates are lowered, more people are able to borrow more money. As well as there being less of an incentive for people to keep money that they were hoarded before due to their being more of a financial yield. This results in consumers dishoarding money that was previously hoarded. This causes an economy to grow and inflation to increase. The opposite effect takes place when interest rates are increased; as there is more incentive for consumers to hoard their money due to the financial gain, which leads to less spending. Resulting in an economy slowing and inflation decreasing. Central banks make these decisions according to different factors of an economy. This mainly being the inflation rate, although the impact upon economic growth and unemployment must also be considered.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1103799',
'title': 'Distribution of wealth',
'section': 'Section::::Wealth concentration.:Economic conditions.:Correlation between being rich and earning more.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 79,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 79,
'end_character': 356,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Because these mechanisms are non-exclusive, it is possible for all three explanations to work together for a compounding effect, increasing wealth concentration even further. Obstacles to restoring wage growth might have more to do with the broader dysfunction of a dollar dominated system particular to the US than with the role of the extremely wealthy.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '54143900',
'title': 'Economics of bitcoin',
'section': 'Section::::Price and volatility.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 455,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Attempting to explain the high volatility, a group of Japanese scholars stated that there is no stabilization mechanism. The Bitcoin Foundation contends that high volatility is due to insufficient liquidity, while a "Forbes" journalist claims that it is related to the uncertainty of its long-term value, and the high volatility of a startup currency makes sense, "because people are still experimenting with the currency to figure out how useful it is."\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What are the benefits and drawbacks of having an overvalued or undervalued currency?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Overvalued- It's easier to buy imported stuff cos they're cheaper than your domestic stuff. Even though your currency is worth more, theirs is worth the same, so their prices will decrease from your perspective. On the downside, your domestic market suffers, and so do your country's exports, because they are costly relative to the world market. \n\nUndervalued- Pretty much the opposite. Imports become costlier, and your domestic market thrives. Your exports also thrive because they become cheaper to other countries. On the downside, other countries don't take kindly to you dumping your cheap exports (like China does) and you could face embargos and stuff. \n\nObviously this isn't a comprehensive overview, but it goes through the essentials. ",
'Overvalued currency can also lead to trade deficits where we import more then export. At the same time, there maybe capital inflow. Some economists see this as demand stimulus for the foreign country. \n\nUndervalued can lead to trade surpluses where we export more and import less. China uses this model because it tends to create jobs. Some criticize this policy because it distorts domestic prices and investment decisions. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5oe8lw',
'query': 'what are the benefits and drawbacks of having an overvalued or undervalued currency?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '166810',
'title': 'Rigor mortis',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 341,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Rigor mortis (Latin: "rigor" "stiffness", "mortis" "of death"), or postmortem rigidity, is the third stage of death. It is one of the recognizable signs of death, characterized by stiffening of the limbs of the corpse caused by chemical changes in the muscles postmortem. In humans, rigor mortis can occur as soon as four hours after death.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6190347',
'title': 'Cadaveric spasm',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 398,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Cadaveric spasm, also known as postmortem spasm, instantaneous rigor, cataleptic rigidity, or instantaneous rigidity, is a rare form of muscular stiffening that occurs at the moment of death and persists into the period of rigor mortis. Cadaveric spasm can be distinguished from rigor mortis as the former is a stronger stiffening of the muscles that cannot be easily undone, as rigor mortis can. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '166810',
'title': 'Rigor mortis',
'section': 'Section::::Physical changes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 325,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Rigor mortis then spreads to the other muscles, including the internal organs, within the next four to six hours. The onset of rigor mortis is affected by the individual's age, sex, physical condition, and muscular build. Rigor mortis may not be perceivable in many infant and child corpses due to their smaller muscle mass.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6190347',
'title': 'Cadaveric spasm',
'section': 'Section::::Physiological mechanism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 228,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'When this process occurs on a larger scale, the stiffening associated with rigor mortis can occur. It mainly occurs during high ATP use. Sometimes, cadaveric spasms can be associated with erotic asphyxiation resulting in death.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '249961',
'title': 'Lactic acidosis',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 60,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 60,
'end_character': 439,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Lactic acidosis is also a consequence of the processes causing "rigor mortis". In the absence of oxygen, tissue in the muscles of the deceased carry out anaerobic metabolism using muscle glycogen as the energy source, causing acidification. With depletion of muscle glycogen, the loss of ATP causes the muscles to grow stiff, as the actin-myosin bonds cannot be released. (Rigor is later resolved by enzymatic breakdown of the myofibers.)\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '166810',
'title': 'Rigor mortis',
'section': 'Section::::Physical changes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 448,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'At the time of death, a condition called "primary flaccidity" occurs. Following this, the muscles stiffen in rigor mortis. All muscles in the body are affected. Starting between two and six hours following death, rigor mortis begins with the eyelids, neck, and jaw. The sequence may be due to different lactic acid levels among different muscles, which is directly related to the difference in glycogen levels and different types of muscle fibers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '286191',
'title': 'Torticollis',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Acquired torticollis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 327,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Noncongenital muscular torticollis may result from scarring or disease of cervical vertebrae, adenitis, tonsillitis, rheumatism, enlarged cervical glands, retropharyngeal abscess, or cerebellar tumors. It may be spasmodic (clonic) or permanent (tonic). The latter type may be due to Pott's Disease (tuberculosis of the spine).\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does rigor mortis make bodies stiff?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It has to do with the way your muscles work. The muscles have fibers that extend and contract using the energy of ATP molecules. Those fibers are mainly made up of actin and myosin. They slide along each other to make the movement. But the way it actually works is that ATP breaks the connections between those fibers to allow them to move in the first place. It's a third molecule, that I can't remember the name of, that actually does the pushing and pulling. With no ATP, after death, the actin and myosin fibers are locked together."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5t68vm',
'query': 'why does rigor mortis make bodies stiff?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '19283589',
'title': 'Urinal (health care)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 213,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Generally, patients who are able to are encouraged to walk to the toilet or use a bedside commode as opposed to a urinal. The prolonged use of a urinal has been shown to lead to constipation or trouble urinating.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38098048',
'title': 'Functional incontinence',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 283,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Functional incontinence is a form of urinary incontinence in which a person is usually aware of the need to urinate, but for one or more physical or mental reasons they are unable to get to a bathroom. The loss of urine can vary, from small leakages to full emptying of the bladder.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42137175',
'title': 'Open defecation',
'section': 'Section::::Reasons.:Uncomfortable or unsafe toilet.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 30,
'end_character': 345,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Too many people using a toilet: This is especially true in case of shared or public toilets. If too many people want to use a toilet at the same time, then some people may go outside to defecate instead of waiting. In some cases, people might not be able to wait due to diarrhea (or result of an Irritable Bowel Syndrome emergency).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28032864',
'title': 'Squatting position',
'section': 'Section::::Female urination position.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 65,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 65,
'end_character': 350,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'When not urinating into a toilet, squatting is the easiest way for a female to direct the urine stream (although many women find that they can do so standing up). If done this way, the urine will go forward. Some females use one or both hands to focus the direction of the urine stream, which is more easily achieved while in the squatting position.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11059398',
'title': 'Adult diaper',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Health care.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 506,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'People with medical conditions which cause them to experience urinary or fecal incontinence often require diapers or similar products because they are unable to control their bladders or bowels. People who are bedridden or in wheelchairs, including those with good bowel and bladder control, may also wear diapers because they are unable to access the toilet independently. Those with cognitive impairment, such as dementia, may require diapers because they may not recognize their need to reach a toilet.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7560516',
'title': 'Islamic toilet etiquette',
'section': 'Section::::Rules.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 264,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "While on the toilet, one must remain silent. Talking, answering greetings, or greeting others is strongly discouraged. When defecating together, two men cannot converse, nor look at each other's genitals. Eating any food while on the toilet is strictly forbidden.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19283589',
'title': 'Urinal (health care)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 255,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A urinal is a bottle for urination. It is most frequently used in health care for patients who find it impossible or difficult to get out of bed during sleep. Urinals allow the patient who has cognition and movement of their arms to toilet independently.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How come when one really needs to go pee, they're completely okay when in any other room, but as soon as they reach the bathroom to relieve themselves, they almost pee their pants?",
'selftext': 'This never made sense to me, and whenever I try to come up with some definitive scientific answer, I never can!',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Classical Conditioning. If you ring a bell and then give a dog treat, and continously repeat this process until its engrained in the dog’s brain, then the next time you ring the bell, the dog will automatically salivate. Same with us and bathrooms. We see a bathroom, and then our brains automatically prepare for us to pee through years of conditioning.',
'Habituation can explain part of it, but the brain has a very complex interaction with our urinary system, and there are multiple, highly complex and not-well-understood inputs into the area which decides when our bladder empties.\n\nFirst, some anatomy. Our bladder leads to a tube called the urethra, which is where pee exits. The urethra has two sphincters (like valves, that block flow), which are called internal and external. The external sphincter we can control voluntarily, just by willing it. That\'s how you hold on when you\'re rushing to the bathroom. The internal sphincter is under involuntary control, it relaxes when our brain says "time to wee", no matter what we want. Finally, there\'s another muscle involved, which squeezes the bladder. We\'ll call it the bladder muscle (more proper name is detrusor).\n\nSo, when the brain decides to urinate, it squeezes the bladder muscle and relaxes the internal sphincter. If you agree with the decision, you relax your external sphincter and pee comes out.\n\nThe \'brain\'s\' decision to pee is based on a number of things, including sex (remember, most mammals pee to indicate fertility / mating status!), and very importantly danger / threat. That\'s why you can\'t pee when somebody\'s watching you, because as an animal you wouldn\'t ever do that -- it\'s a great way to get eaten!\n\nYour bathroom is safe, it\'s familiar, and your brain has become accustomed to noticing that and the automatic part of peeing (bladder squeeze and internal release) both happen automatically. You\'re still doing the external squeeze, so you can hold it until the toilet and then ... external release and pee!'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'az0izr',
'query': "how come when one really needs to go pee, they're completely okay when in any other room, but as soon as they reach the bathroom to relieve themselves, they almost pee their pants?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '11286',
'title': 'Fruitarianism',
'section': 'Section::::Nutrition.:Nutritional effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Although fruits provide a source of carbohydrates, they have very little protein, and because protein cannot be stored in the body as fat and carbohydrates can, fruitarians need to be careful that they consume enough protein each day. When the body does not take in enough protein, it misses out on amino acids, which are essential to making body proteins which support the growth and maintenance of body tissues. Consuming high levels of fruit also poses a risk to those who are diabetic or pre-diabetic, due to the negative effect that the large amounts of sugar in fruits has on blood sugar levels. These high levels of sugar means that fruitarians are at high risk for tooth decay. Another concern that fruitarianism presents is that because fruit is easily digested, the body burns through meals quickly, and is hungry again soon after eating. A side effect of the digestibility is that the body will defecate more frequently.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10646',
'title': 'Food',
'section': 'Section::::Food sources.:Plants.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 515,
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'passage_text': "Seeds of plants are a good source of food for animals, including humans, because they contain the nutrients necessary for the plant's initial growth, including many healthful fats, such as omega fats. In fact, the majority of food consumed by human beings are seed-based foods. Edible seeds include cereals (corn, wheat, rice, et cetera), legumes (beans, peas, lentils, et cetera), and nuts. Oilseeds are often pressed to produce rich oils - sunflower, flaxseed, rapeseed (including canola oil), sesame, et cetera.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6984635',
'title': 'Seed predation',
'section': 'Section::::Seeds and their defenses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 360,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Plant seeds are important sources of nutrition for animals across most ecosystems. Seeds contain food storage organs (e.g., endosperm) that provide nutrients to the developing plant embryo (cotyledon). This makes seeds an attractive food source for animals because they are a highly concentrated and localized nutrient source in relation to other plant parts.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1437371',
'title': 'Fatty acid metabolism',
'section': 'Section::::Dietary sources of fatty acids, their digestion, absorption, transport in the blood and storage.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 42,
'end_character': 345,
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'passage_text': 'A significant proportion of the fatty acids in the body are obtained from the diet, in the form of triglycerides of either animal or plant origin. The fatty acids in the fats obtained from land animals tend to be saturated, whereas the fatty acids in the triglycerides of fish and plants are often polyunsaturated and therefore present as oils.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10843',
'title': 'Fruit',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate seeds. Edible fruits, in particular, have propagated with the movements of humans and animals in a symbiotic relationship as a means for seed dispersal and nutrition; in fact, humans and many animals have become dependent on fruits as a source of food. Accordingly, fruits account for a substantial fraction of the world's agricultural output, and some (such as the apple and the pomegranate) have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10646',
'title': 'Food',
'section': 'Section::::Food sources.:Plants.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 479,
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'passage_text': 'Fruits are the ripened ovaries of plants, including the seeds within. Many plants and animals have coevolved such that the fruits of the former are an attractive food source to the latter, because animals that eat the fruits may excrete the seeds some distance away. Fruits, therefore, make up a significant part of the diets of most cultures. Some botanical fruits, such as tomatoes, pumpkins, and eggplants, are eaten as vegetables. (For more information, see list of fruits.)\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31748166',
'title': 'Berberis aristata',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 265,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The fruits of the species are eaten by people living in areas where the plant is found, often as a dessert. They are juicy and contain plenty of sugars and other useful nutrients that supplement their diet. The roots can also be used for making an alcoholic drink.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'I know why animals/humans store fat, but how and why do plants that grow fatty fruits collect and store fat (avocado, coconut, olives, etc)?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['I believe sometimes a fruits/seeds will contain nutrients for making new plants/trees. The growing plant will find it easier to find sustenance\n\nI also believe that sometimes it is to trick animals into eating the seeds and pooping them out far from the original tree.\nBut I am not a scientist'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'a7it01',
'query': 'i know why animals/humans store fat, but how and why do plants that grow fatty fruits collect and store fat (avocado, coconut, olives, etc)?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '29031926',
'title': 'Mobile phone recycling',
'section': 'Section::::Recycling.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 514,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "A cell phone's shelf life is only about 24 months for the average user. This means that newer cell phone models are constantly put up on the market to replace older ones. This is as a result of the rapid progression of technology in the mobile industry. According to Matt Ployhar of Intel, the industry is rapidly evolving, possibly even at “Moore's law pace or faster.” This means that newer cell phone models are continually on the rise of consumerism and more outdated models are likely to end up in landfills.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12840924',
'title': 'Internet in the Philippines',
'section': 'Section::::Statistics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 216,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- There was still much room for growth for those aged 30+ – less than one quarter of consumers aged in their 30s (24%) access the Internet, 13% of consumers in their 40s, and just 4% of consumers aged 50+.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43099588',
'title': 'Mobile workspace',
'section': 'Section::::Business Need.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 839,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'According to recent research, combined shipments of devices including PCs, tablets, ultramobiles and mobile phones are projected to reach 2.5 billion units in 2014, a 7.6 percent increase from 2013. This trend, which is expected to continue to grow, is being driven by users who utilize more than one device. In fact, today the average user has 3+ different devices that they use for work purposes on a daily basis. These mobile devices entering the enterprise has led to over 60% of information workers working outside of a traditional office. While the shift to mobility seems to be growing, it is causing problems for both the end user and IT department. End users don’t feel they are equipped to work outside of the office and IT is forced to manage the security risks presented by data and applications leaving the corporate network.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34007488',
'title': 'Digital divide in the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Means of connectivity.:Infrastructure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 46,
'end_character': 229,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Age is negatively related to incidence of owning a device: 1% of 18–34 year olds, 3% of 35–46 year olds, 8% of 47–56 year olds, 20% of 66–74 year olds, and 43% of 75 year olds and older own none of the previously listed devices.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40612303',
'title': 'IBeacon',
'section': 'Section::::Power consumption.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 334,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'older phones tend to draw more battery in the vicinity of iBeacons, while the newer phones can be more efficient in the same environment. In addition to the time spent by the phone scanning, number of scans and number of beacons in the vicinity are also significant factors for battery drain, as pointed out by the Aislelabs report. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48413384',
'title': 'Internet Matters',
'section': 'Section::::Published Research.:Pace of Change (2015).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 373,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Internet Matters commissioned Childwise to carry out a UK-wide study to explore the use and understanding of technology among children aged 7–17, and parents of children this age. The research revealed an increasing gap between parents and children online with the fact that children spent significantly longer online, with girls using smartphone on average 4 hours a day.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1974008',
'title': 'Nokia 3230',
'section': 'Section::::Known issues.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 227,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "In common with many phones of this type, the battery life is not as much as you would expect on older models of phones. Less than 2 days is typical whereas older 'mono screen' phones can often manage a week between recharging.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do devices such as phones take such little time to get to around 80%, and then take ages for the last 20%?',
'selftext': "I'm gonna assume this is a result of the rate of charge of the capacitors of the device, as they're an exponential curve.. but I don't know for sure.. because that's a capacitor and they're using batteries.. right? As a side note, if you only charged it to 80% would it last as long as if you were to charge it to 100%, run it down to 80% and time from there? Or is it less, because it didn't reach the full charge or something.",
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The charge stored in a battery when supplied by a constant voltage is exponential, depending on the type. \n\nELI5: you’re at a public pool on a 105° degree day that only lets people in 1 at a time. They are gonna fill that pool up until they’re shoulder to shoulder, but each person goes to a random open spot in the pool. When the pool has no one in it, people enter from wherever and they can find their spot quickly. The more full the pool gets, the more time it takes for each person to find their designated spot. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'amghw3',
'query': 'why do devices such as phones take such little time to get to around 80%, and then take ages for the last 20%?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '60283999',
'title': 'Mitochondrial theory of ageing',
'section': 'Section::::Evidence.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 35,
'end_character': 392,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Mice with reduced expression of the mitochondrial antioxidant, [[SOD2]], accumulated oxidative damage and developed [[cancer]], but did not live longer than normal life. Overexpression of antioxidants reduced cellular stress, but did not increase mouse life span. The [[naked mole-rat]], which lives 10-times longer than normal mice, has been shown to have higher levels of oxidative damage.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1974769',
'title': 'Behavioral sink',
'section': 'Section::::The experiments.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 516,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Following his earlier experiments with rats, in 1972 Calhoun would later create his "Mortality-Inhibiting Environment for Mice": a 101-inch square cage for mice with food and water replenished to support any increase in population, which took his experimental approach to its limits. In his most famous experiment in the series, "Universe 25", population peaked at 2,200 mice and thereafter exhibited a variety of abnormal, often destructive behaviors. By the 600th day, the population was on its way to extinction.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1922349',
'title': 'To a Mouse',
'section': 'Section::::In other media.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 389,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In Douglas Adams\'s "Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy" series, mice are the physical protrusions into our dimension of a race of hyperintelligent pan-dimensional beings who commissioned construction of the Earth to find the Question to the Ultimate Answer of Life, the Universe, and Everything. When their plans go wrong they lament that "the best laid plans of mice" don\'t always work out.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '62810',
'title': 'Reelin',
'section': 'Section::::Discovery.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 457,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Mutant mice have provided insight into the underlying molecular mechanisms of the development of the central nervous system. Useful spontaneous mutations were first identified by scientists who were interested in motor behavior, and it proved relatively easy to screen littermates for mice that showed difficulties moving around the cage. A number of such mice were found and given descriptive names such as reeler, weaver, lurcher, nervous, and staggerer.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2540680',
'title': 'Klotho (biology)',
'section': 'Section::::Function.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 361,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Although the vast majority of research has been based on lack of Klotho, it was demonstrated that an overexpression of Klotho in mice might extend their average life span between 19% and 31% compared to normal mice. In addition, variations in the Klotho gene (SNP Rs9536314) are associated with both life extension and increased cognition in human populations.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5620705',
'title': 'Bone morphogenetic protein 4',
'section': 'Section::::Protein structure.:Inhibition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 272,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'It is important to note that mice in which BMP4 was inactivated usually died during gastrulation. It is thought that inactivation of human BMP4 would likely have the same effect. However, mutations which are subtle in humans could also have subtle effects phenotypically.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10971837',
'title': 'Mannose 6-phosphate receptor',
'section': 'Section::::Function.:Knockout mice studies.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 645,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Mice lacking the CI-MPR die at day 15 of gestation due to cardiac hyperplasia. The mice suffer from abnormal growth because they are unable to regulate the levels of free IGF-II (insulin-like growth factor type II). Death of the mice can be prevented if the IGF-II allele is also knocked out. Further analysis of the embryos also showed that they display defects in the targeting of lysosomal enzymes as they have an increased level of phosphorylated lysosomal enzymes in their amniotic fluid. Approximately 70% of lysosomal enzymes are secreted in the absence of the CI-MPR – this suggests that the CD-MPR is unable to compensate for its loss.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why did all the mice die in the Mouse Utopia Experiment, as opposed to reaching a stable population',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["_URL_0_\n\nIgnore my previous comment if anyone read it, I was very incorrect.\n\nBasically the tl;Dr for OP's question is that overpopulation conditions in animals (such as rats and mice) with social order of some kind results in disorientation in individuals there in, and causes pathological behavior changes ranging from mild deviations from what would be called normal such as self-isolation and failure of maternal instinxts, to severe and extreme deviations such as cannibalism and unprovoked aggression.",
'Because of the social and psychology effects that was engraved into the rats. Even those who survived exhibited the same traits.\n\nThe death of the rats is caused by several factors, but all of them lead to the declining future generations. Inability to raised the youngs, fewer births, social behavior, and unsimilar traits to the original rats ultimately sealed their fate.',
"His whole experiment had a poor study design, so it can't really be considered science, and we can't draw any conclusions from it."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'e8f6th',
'query': 'why did all the mice die in the mouse utopia experiment, as opposed to reaching a stable population',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '15475369',
'title': 'Philosophy of healthcare',
'section': 'Section::::Birth and death.:Birth and living.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 39,
'end_character': 533,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "The process of preserving and maintaining one's health throughout life is a matter of grave concern. At some point in every person's life, his or her health is going to decline regardless of all measures taken to prevent such a collapse. Coping with this inevitable decline can prove quite problematic for some people. For Enlightenment philosopher René Descartes, the depressing and gerontological implications of aging pushed him to believe in the prospects of immortality through a wholesome faith in the possibilities of reason.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '564488',
'title': 'Altered Carbon',
'section': 'Section::::Premise.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 645,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'While most people can afford to get resleeved at the end of their lives, they are unable to update their bodies and most go through the full aging process each time, which discourages most from resleeving more than once or twice. So while normal people can live indefinitely in theory, most choose not to. Only the wealthy are able to acquire replacement bodies on a continual basis. The long-lived are called Meths, a reference to the Biblical figure Methuselah. The very rich are also able to keep copies of their minds in remote storage, which they update regularly. This ensures that even if their stack is destroyed, they can be resleeved.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1619384',
'title': 'Louise Michel',
'section': 'Section::::Political theory.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
'end_character': 448,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': '"It is indeed time that this old world die since no one is safe any longer... We can no longer live like our Stone Age ancestors, nor as in the past century, since the series of inventions, since the discoveries of science have brought the certainty that all production will increase a hundredfold when these innovations will be used for the general good, instead of letting just a handful of vultures help themselves in order to starve the rest."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '49270812',
'title': 'Stephen Berger',
'section': 'Section::::Quotes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 43,
'end_character': 358,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': '"(…) we refuse to face the issues related to the last 180 days of life. Often the terminally ill are kept alive through major interventions, and the process of dying is prolonged unnecessarily. We are not dealing with the needs of the dying, but the assumptions and needs of the living. That is not fair. It is also wrong morally, and massively expensive." \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23593383',
'title': 'The Resistance (novel)',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 541,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In the year 2040, scientists create Longevity, a drug which prevents death but does not halt the aging process. People continue to have children although there are no longer any deaths, and this quickly leads to over population. As a result, in the year 2080, the Declaration is introduced. This is a document which must be signed before an individual is allowed to take Longevity, and in doing so they agree not to have any children. There are exceptions to this. For example, wealthy politicians may take the drug and still have children.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '196206',
'title': 'Longevity',
'section': 'Section::::Change over time.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 33,
'end_character': 954,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In preindustrial times, deaths at young and middle age were more common than they are today. This is not due to genetics, but because of environmental factors such as disease, accidents, and malnutrition, especially since the former were not generally treatable with pre-20th-century medicine. Deaths from childbirth were common for women, and many children did not live past infancy. In addition, most people who did attain old age were likely to die quickly from the above-mentioned untreatable health problems. Despite this, there are many examples of pre-20th-century individuals attaining lifespans of 85 years or greater, including Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Cato the Elder, Thomas Hobbes, Eric of Pomerania, Christopher Polhem, and Michelangelo. This was also true for poorer people like peasants or laborers. Genealogists will almost certainly find ancestors living to their 70s, 80s and even 90s several hundred years ago.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14182874',
'title': 'Schuette–Nesbitt formula',
'section': 'Section::::An application in actuarial science.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 46,
'end_character': 305,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Problem: Suppose there are persons aged with remaining random (but independent) lifetimes . Suppose the group signs a life insurance contract which pays them after years the amount if exactly persons out of are still alive after years. How high is the expected payout of this insurance contract in years?\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If dying of old age is not an actual cause of death then could one live indefinitely(not immortal) provided they have enough money and a constant supply of vital body parts to replace with?',
'selftext': "I am going to preface this by defining an indefinite life span as being able to avoid all complications that come with age that typically lead to death but one remains vulnerable to physical injury,disease deliberate acts of murder therefore not immortal but at least in theory can live eternally provided they avoid causing all physical harm that can lead to death. Now hypothetically speaking If one was a billionaire for example I can't see why they could not afford to have a doctor on retainer living on the premises,nurses,hospital grade equipment in house,etc in order to meet all their medical needs on a daily basis,monitor changes and respond immediately to minimize health problems and risk of death. The only thing I see that might be a challenge is replacing failed/diseased body parts like kidneys,other organs,and what not since there is a global shortage of organs and other vital parts. To my knowledge these parts are also mostly donated to hospitals for use at their own discretion with long waiting list and not for commercial sale which creates another obstacle in attaining an indefinite life span. However if one could somehow obtain a constant supply of hearts,kidneys,etc(maybe from relatively healthy suicide victims or perhaps artificially grown parts from stem cells) as ghoulish as it sounds could said individual possibly live indefinitely? Is there any purely medical reason why death would be inevitable at some point assuming all variables remain constant and all procedures go according to plan?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["No, you couldn't, and the reason is your DNA. Your DNA has bits of blank information on the end of it that are called telomeres. They act as a buffer to prevent damage to your DNA, because every time your cells reproduce, there is a risk of losing a very small amount of data from the resulting DNA. Think of them like aglets on your shoelaces. The telomeres are there to absorb the damage, leaving the important data in the strands of DNA intact. This can't happen indefinitely, however, because eventually the telomeres will wear away. This is what causes aging. Once the telomeres wear away, any damage that happens to the DNA strands happens to actual, vital data, causing the body to slowly function less and less efficiently, until eventually it simply cannot operate well enough to function anymore. ",
'Not 100 percent sure how AMA rules work but I\'d lie to throw something in her--\n\nI like you\'re question, in high school we talked about something similar to this, at what point do we not become who we are. If we replace every organ one by one as they fail, at what number do we become not human? Is it the brain? Or is everything but the brain still considered "a living human"\n\n',
"You don't die of old age because your body parts need replacing, you die of old age because your body stops replacing them. Keeping your body in shape with transplants isn't a viable method as many tissues have to be replaced quite regularly. The only way you could live indefinitely is if you could figure out why your body stops repairing itself and fix the problem."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '6e3nbh',
'query': 'if dying of old age is not an actual cause of death then could one live indefinitely(not immortal) provided they have enough money and a constant supply of vital body parts to replace with?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '70157',
'title': 'Recycling',
'section': 'Section::::Recycling codes.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Plastic products are printed with numbers 1–7 depending on the type of resin. Type 1 (polyethylene terephthalate) is commonly found in soft drink and water bottles. Type 2 (high-density polyethylene) is found in most hard plastics such as milk jugs, laundry detergent bottles, and some dishware. Type 3 (polyvinyl chloride) includes items such as shampoo bottles, shower curtains, hula hoops, credit cards, wire jacketing, medical equipment, siding, and piping. Type 4 (low-density polyethylene) is found in shopping bags, squeezable bottles, tote bags, clothing, furniture, and carpet. Type 5 is polypropylene and makes up syrup bottles, straws, Tupperware, and some automotive parts. Type 6 is polystyrene and makes up meat trays, egg cartons, clamshell containers, and compact disc cases. Type 7 includes all other plastics such as bulletproof materials, 3- and 5-gallon water bottles, cell phone and tablet frames, safety goggles and sunglasses. Having a recycling code or the chasing arrows logo on a material is not an automatic indicator that a material is recyclable but rather an explanation of what the material is. Types 1 and 2 are the most commonly recycled.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '26145195',
'title': 'Plastic',
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'passage_text': 'Plastics are typically organic polymers of high molecular mass and often contain other substances. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals, however, an array of variants are made from renewable materials such as polylactic acid from corn or cellulosics from cotton linters.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '19622',
'title': 'Materials science',
'section': 'Section::::In industry.:Polymers.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The dividing lines between the various types of plastics is not based on material but rather on their properties and applications. For example, polyethylene (PE) is a cheap, low friction polymer commonly used to make disposable bags for shopping and trash, and is considered a commodity plastic, whereas medium-density polyethylene (MDPE) is used for underground gas and water pipes, and another variety called ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) is an engineering plastic which is used extensively as the glide rails for industrial equipment and the low-friction socket in implanted hip joints.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '464779',
'title': 'Building material',
'section': 'Section::::Man-made substances.:Plastics.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The term "plastics" covers a range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic condensation or polymerization products that can be molded or extruded into objects, films, or fibers. Their name is derived from the fact that in their semi-liquid state they are malleable, or have the property of plasticity. Plastics vary immensely in heat tolerance, hardness, and resiliency. Combined with this adaptability, the general uniformity of composition and lightness of plastics ensures their use in almost all industrial applications today. High performance plastics such as ETFE have become an ideal building material due to its high abrasion resistance and chemical inertness. Notable buildings that feature it include: the Beijing National Aquatics Center and the Eden Project biomes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6300466',
'title': 'Plasticulture',
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'passage_text': 'Polyethylene (PE) is the plastic film used by the majority of growers because of its affordability, flexibility and easy manufacturing. It comes in a variety of thicknesses, such as a low density form (LDPE) as well as a linear low density form (LLDPE). These can be modified by addition of certain elements to the plastic that give it properties beneficial to plant growth such as reduced water loss, UV stabilization to cool soil and prevent insects, elimination of photosynthetically active radiation to prevent weed growth, IR opacity, antidrip/antifog, and fluorescence.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '77385',
'title': 'Polyethylene',
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'passage_text': 'Polyethylene or polythene (abbreviated PE; IUPAC name polyethene or poly(methylene)) is the most common plastic. , over 100 million tonnes of polyethylene resins are produced annually, accounting for 34% of the total plastics market. Its primary use is in packaging (plastic bags, plastic films, geomembranes, containers including bottles, etc.). Many kinds of polyethylene are known, with most having the chemical formula (CH). PE is usually a mixture of similar polymers of ethylene with various values of "n". Polyethylene is a thermoplastic; however, it can become a thermoset plastic when modified (such as cross-linked polyethylene).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '49264006',
'title': 'Transfer molding',
'section': 'Section::::Materials.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
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'passage_text': 'Materials used for the plastic are often polyurethanes or epoxy resins. Both of these are soft and malleable before curing, becoming much harder after setting. Materials used for fibers vary extensively, although common choices are carbon or Kevlar fibers, as well as organic fibers, such as hemp.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What classifies something as a plastic and how can the same type of plastic (e.g polyester) be used from slick, waterproof shirts to fluffy blankets?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Plastics are synthetic or partly synthetic polymeric materials. (Basically materials made from enormously big molecules, compared to other materials.) \n\nAs to why is there a wide range of plastics. Simply because we spent the last century with trying to make new kinds of plastics that could be applied in different situations. Our technology has evolved so much, that we can now make plastics how we want them. \n\nTheir properties are mainly controlled by the actually plastic, so PET (PETP) will act completely differently than Teflon. (PTFE) This is caused by them being made from different macromollecules. You can then adjust the properties of plastics by additives, you could make them more heat resistant, you could change their density, you could make them more durable, you could make them conduct electricity better... Pretty much anything. \n\nI'm not sure how well did I explain it as English isn't my native language and this is hard to explain to someone who doesn't work or study in the the field even in my native language. But fell free to ask more questions. \n\nAlso polyesters are category of plastics that PET falls into. They don't have that wide use as you stated, but they can still get pretty useful, not only to make bottles. \n\nBut the wide range of uses is possible thanks to the additives I wrote about above. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '6j3isn',
'query': 'what classifies something as a plastic and how can the same type of plastic (e.g polyester) be used from slick, waterproof shirts to fluffy blankets?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '61328143',
'title': 'Performance and Modelling of AC Transmission',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A transmission line is a set of electrical conductors carrying an electrical signal from one place to another. Coaxial cable and twisted pair cable are examples. Transmission line is capable of transmitting electrical power from one place to another. In many electric circuits, the length of the wires connecting the components can for the most part be ignored. That is, the voltage on the wire at a given time can be assumed to be the same at all points. However, when the voltage changes in a time interval comparable to the time it takes for the signal to travel down the wire, the length becomes important and the wire must be treated as a transmission line. Stated another way, the length of the wire is important when the signal includes frequency components with corresponding wavelengths comparable to or less than the length of the wire. So far transmission lines are categorized and defined in many ways. Few approaches of modeling have also being done by different methods. Most of them are mathematical and assumed circuit based models.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24454437',
'title': 'Metamaterial antenna',
'section': 'Section::::Transmission line models.:Conventional transmission lines.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A transmission line is the material medium or structure that forms all or part of a path from one place to another for directing the transmission of energy, such as electromagnetic waves or electric power transmission. Types of transmission line include wires, coaxial cables, dielectric slabs, striplines, optical fibers, electric power lines and waveguides.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '156700',
'title': 'Communication channel',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Communicating data from one location to another requires some form of pathway or medium. These pathways, called communication channels, use two types of media: cable (twisted-pair wire, cable, and fiber-optic cable) and broadcast (microwave, satellite, radio, and infrared). Cable or wire line media use physical wires of cables to transmit data and information. Twisted-pair wire and coaxial cables are made of copper, and fiber-optic cable is made of glass.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '521510',
'title': 'Resonator',
'section': 'Section::::Electromagnetic.:Transmission line resonators.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Transmission lines are structures that allow broadband transmission of electromagnetic waves, e.g. at radio or microwave frequencies. Abrupt change of impedance (e.g. open or short) in a transmission line causes reflection of the transmitted signal. Two such reflectors on a transmission line evoke standing waves between them and thus act as a one-dimensional resonator, with the resonance frequencies determined by their distance and the effective dielectric constant of the transmission line.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41811',
'title': 'Transmission line',
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'passage_text': 'In radio-frequency engineering, a transmission line is a specialized cable or other structure designed to conduct alternating current of radio frequency, that is, currents with a frequency high enough that their wave nature must be taken into account. Transmission lines are used for purposes such as connecting radio transmitters and receivers with their antennas (they are then called feed lines or feeders), distributing cable television signals, trunklines routing calls between telephone switching centres, computer network connections and high speed computer data buses.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '194114',
'title': 'Serial communication',
'section': 'Section::::Cables.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Practically all long-distance communication transmits data one bit at a time, rather than in parallel, because it reduces the cost of the cable. The cables that carry this data (other than "the" serial cable) and the computer ports they plug into are usually referred to with a more specific name, to reduce confusion.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46982',
'title': 'Transmission system',
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'passage_text': 'Also, transmission system is the medium through which data is transmitted from one point to another. Examples of common transmission systems people use everyday are: the internet, mobile network, cordless cables, etc.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How is the wired transmission of data different than the wired transmission of electricity/power in terms of the physical properties of what is actually "sent" down the line?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Transmitting electricity in order to power homes/devices can be done as either Alternating Current (AC) or Direct Current (DC). DC means the electricity only flows one way. AC means it quickly switches direction, usually 50 or 60 times per second depending on the country.\n\nAC is typically used for widescale power distribution because it\'s more efficient over long distances and when converting to higher or lower voltages. Many home appliances use AC where possible to match this, the less converting you do to electricity, the more efficiently you can use it. Whereas DC is used for modern electronic devices, because many electronic components need a constant direct supply of electricity and are difficult, expensive or impossible to design to support alternating current. Basically, DC is used when the effort of converting AC to DC is less than the effort of using components that support AC.\n\nSo ignoring AC, let\'s say we want to compare a wire transmitting 5 Volts of DC power, vs a wire transmitting data at 5 Volts. **In terms of physical properties, there\'s no difference.** Both are sending electrons down the wire, a material that is good at conducting electricity. What\'s different is that where the power line is a constant stream of about 5V, the data line will switch between about 5V (high voltage) and about 0V (low voltage). The border where you cross between high and low voltage is determined by the design specifications of the circuit, for various reasons it may not be exactly 0V.\n\nSomewhere in the circuit there will be a clock that will tell the data receiving component when to measure the signal on the data line. If the signal is close to 5V, it\'s a "1". If it\'s close to 0V, it\'s a "0". Do this thousands of times a second and you can transmit lots of ones and zeroes, which is computer data. Now you can begin to see one reason why components use DC - if you took a measurement while your 5V AC was switching direction, you might read a low voltage instead.',
'Wired electricity is sent as an alternating current. 50 or 60 times per second the direction of the current will change but otherwise it is a steady, constant signal.\n\nWired data is sent as a unidirectional signal that can be encoded in multiple ways. The simplest way is that the existence of a signal is a 1 and the absence of a signal is 0. So, when I want to send a 1 then I apply voltage to the line and when I want to send a 0 I remove that voltage.\n\nThere are more sophisticated methods that involve a carrier signal that is modulated to encode data. This involves having a simple sine wave that is adjusted in one way or another to represent the data. For example, I could change the frequency or the amplitude (or both) of the sine wave to represent data.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'avvsbp',
'query': 'how is the wired transmission of data different than the wired transmission of electricity/power in terms of the physical properties of what is actually "sent" down the line?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '30608304',
'title': "Children's feet",
'section': 'Section::::Gait.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'Children’s motor development generally follows the pattern of sitting (around 6 months), crawling (around 9 months) and walking (around 10–16 months), with high normal variability in the ages at which various milestones are reached.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3188174',
'title': 'Early childhood',
'section': 'Section::::Physical development.:Gross motor skills.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The period of the most rapid development of motor behaviors is between 2 and 6 years (also known as the preschool years). Skills that appear are basic locomotor, ball-handling, fine eye–hand coordination, walking leads to running, jumping, hopping, galloping, and skipping, climbing evolves from creeping.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9627698',
'title': 'Child development',
'section': 'Section::::Aspects.:Motor.:Speed and pattern.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The speed of motor development is rapid in early life, as many of the reflexes of the newborn alter or disappear within the first year, and slows later. Like physical growth, motor development shows predictable patterns of cephalocaudal (head to foot) and proximodistal (torso to extremities) development, with movements at the head and in the more central areas coming under control before those of the lower part of the body or the hands and feet. Types of movement develop in stage-like sequences; for example, locomotion at 6–8 months involves creeping on all fours, then proceeds to pulling to stand, "cruising" while holding on to an object, walking while holding an adult\'s hand, and finally walking independently. Older children continue the sequence by walking sideways or backward, galloping, hopping, skipping with one foot and walking with the other, and finally skipping. By middle childhood and adolescence, new motor skills are acquired by instruction or observation rather than in a predictable sequence. There are executive functions of the brain (working memory, timing measure of inhibition and switching) which are important to motor skills. Critiques to the order of Executive Functioning leads to Motor Skills, suggesting Motor Skills can support Executive Functioning in the brain.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1247250',
'title': 'Childhood development of fine motor skills',
'section': 'Section::::Self-care skills.\n',
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'passage_text': 'As children refine their motor skills, they are able to help themselves by completing daily activities independently. For example, children between the ages of 2 and 3 are able to put on and take off simplistic articles of clothing. They are able to manipulate clothing with zippers, use spoons, string together beads with large holes, and open doors with doorknobs. When children are between the ages of 3 and 4, they are able to manipulate clothing with larger buttons, use scissors to cut paper, and are able to copy simple lined shapes using a pencil. At 4 to 5 years of age, children are able to dress and undress themselves without assistance. They are also able to manipulate a fork, and have gained the dexterity to cut around shapes with a pair of scissors. And by age 6, a child is able to cut softer foods with a knife and is able to tie their own shoes. Because all children develop at their own rate, the ages given are not an exact timeline.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '232386',
'title': 'Motor skill',
'section': 'Section::::Development.\n',
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'passage_text': "In children, a critical period for the acquisition of motor skills is preschool years (ages 3–5), as fundamental neuroanatomic structure shows significant development, elaboration, and myelination over the course of this period. Many factors contribute to the rate that children develop their motor skills. Unless afflicted with a severe disability, children are expected to develop a wide range of basic movement abilities and motor skills. Motor development progresses in seven stages throughout an individual's life: reflexive, rudimentary, fundamental, sports skill, growth and refinement, peak performance, and regression. Development is age-related but is not age dependent. In regard to age, it is seen that typical developments are expected to attain gross motor skills used for postural control and vertical mobility by 5 years of age.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4620141',
'title': 'Gross motor skill',
'section': 'Section::::Infancy development.\n',
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'passage_text': "It has been observed by scientists that motor skills generally develop from the center to the body outward and head to tail. Babies need to practice their skills; therefore they will grow and strengthen better. They need space and time to explore in their environment and use their muscles. “Tummy-time” is a good example of this. At first they are only able to lay their belly on the floor but by around two months they start to gain muscle to raise their head and chest off the ground. Some are also able to go on their elbows. They will also start to kick and bend their legs while lying there, this helps to prepare for crawling. By four months they are able to start to control their head and hold it steady while sitting up. Rolling from belly to back movements is started. At about five months the baby will start to wiggle their limbs to strengthen crawling muscles. Infants can start to sit up by themselves and put some weight on their legs as they hold onto something for support by six months. As they enter their first-year caregivers needs to be more active. The babies will want to get into everything so the house needs to become ‘baby proofed’. Babies are able to start to reach and play with their toys too. It is said that the use of baby walkers or devices that help to hold the baby upright are said to delay the process of walking. Research has been found that it delays developing the core torso strength, which can lead to different issues down in their future. Around ten months they should be able to stand on their own. Throughout their years of life different motor skills are formed. (Oswalt) With regards to the gait pattern, study shows that infant at 12 months old exhibit larger mediolateral motion, which may be caused by weak muscle strength and lack of stability. They also show a synchronized use of hip and shoulder while they are walking, which is different from a mature gait pattern performed by adults. The ankles didn't move as much among 12-month infants as compared to that of adults performing a mature walking.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '53687225',
'title': 'Kindergarten readiness',
'section': 'Section::::Motor and Sensory Development.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Developmental milestones for gross motor development include learning to skip, catching a ball, jumping over small objects, and walking down stairs using alternate feet and a handrail. The peak period of development for motor skills occurs from birth to age five. As such, children entering kindergarten can walk, run, jump, and climb and are developing control of their bodies.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why does it take babies such a long time to learn basic motor skills compared to animals that are able to do it close within a month or even as soon as they're born?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The human brain is amazingly complicated, more so than that of pretty much any other land critter. In order for that to work, we need big heads. The problem with this is that the human pelvis is too narrow to squeeze out a baby if the baby's head were much bigger than it is, so the brain is less developed at birth for humans than for other primates. Less development in the brain means human babies need longer to learn everything they need to grow up and be successful humans. Language is literally a huge part of our brains, and it takes a long time to sort out, never mind walking on two legs besides that.",
"Humans suck at giving birth. We have really large heads to house our brains, and really small hips. Because of this, humans babies have to come out relatively early in development. If we waited until they where developed enough to have strong motor skills they wouldn't fit through the birth canal and would likely kill the mother during birth. ",
'Because we walk upright we have a different hip-structure than most other creatures. Our hips are much narrower.\n\nAnd because we have larger brains We require larger skulls which in turn would require wider hips to come out fully formed.\n\nInstead, we come out partially mature with soft skulls and lacking motor controls. These instead develop over time.\n\nIt is a compromise of upright stature and intelligence.',
'Babies cannot walk because their nervous system is not mature enough. Axons(imagine them like long tails of neurons) connect the brain with the spine and then with the muscles. In order for axons to work and carry the information of movement they need to be covered with myelin, which works as a protection and makes the info travel faster. The myelination process takes time.',
"Compared to other placental mammals, our babies are born very premature. While one theory is head size vs pelvis, another theory about the timing of birth is that the mother's body just can't metabolically continue to sustain *two* oversized brains (twins are often born earlier). \n\nSo, while newborns do have the reflexes necessary to walk, resources were so intensely focused on brain growth that they don't have the muscle to act upon those reflexes. ",
'The other explanations cover the biggest and most important answer but I\'ll add one more critical factor: humans are a social animal that have the ability through herd protection, tool use, and intelligence to actually ALLOW us to look after a baby for its first few years. So a part of the answer is "because we can survive it."\n\nThere\'s different strategies for giving birth to helpless babies with survival rates that are enough to keep the species going. Many mammals, particularly rodents find a hiding spot for their large litters of small babies. Marsupials have an equivalent to a "second womb" that allows the baby to stay safe and nurtured even after birth. Many birds split nest-sitting duties with gathering food until the fledglings are old enough.\n\nBut with humans, we establish a social support network that allows a parent or surrogate parent to look after newly born helpless kids instead of devoting 100% of their time doing other stuff that\'s necessary for survival. And this approach to role specialization was good enough for our ancestors to have enough surviving kids so we could thrive.',
"Because our babies don't die if they can't walk within a week. We carry them around and look after them.\n\nIf a wild animal baby can't walk within a week, it gets eaten and therefore doesn't reproduce. So the only lineage that survives is the one with babies that are born running basically.",
"So an equivalent would be birds? They are hatched defenceless and have to be looked after. (I can't think of any mammalian equivalent). ",
'This is what you would call precocious young (ability beyond years) vs. articial young (slow developing)\n\nI have a test on this tomorrow. ',
'Found this:\n\n > **Why are babies so immature?**\n\n > Adult-like locomotor patterns come much earlier for many species. For example, a newborn horse walks within hours of birth. There are two factors to consider. One is that humans are an “altritial” species, meaning that we are relatively poorly developed at the time of birth. As described in detail above, a newborn’s spinal cord and brain are not ready for walking. Second, the human two-legged pattern of locomotion is particularly complex — balancing would be much easier if we had four feet on the ground. Walking feels simple, natural, and thought-free. It’s not. Programming this remarkable capacity into our nervous system takes a particular level of development followed by years of trial-and-error learning.\n\n[source](_URL_0_)',
'There are a lot of comments explaining the basic motor aspect of development and framing it as a pelvis size to baby head issue. This is one older theory that does not stand up as well as another newer one (I’ve posted about it elsewhere on the thread but I’ll post it again). \n\nHuman babies are born developmentally premature for one main physiologic reason. There may be other non-physiological benefits (ie the socialization and language development during infancy that other primates do not devote energy towards). \n\nIt has less to do with pelvis size and more to do with the baby needing more energy (to grow its brain). While it’s true that babies heads would struggle to fit through the birth canal, there are other primates who have the same issue despite having relatively much smaller brains. This evidence may suggest that another factor besides size is at play. If you look at energy expenditures of the fetus, it happens to be that birth occurs at the moment they require more energy than they are getting via the placenta. They are essentially hungry for breast milk. This mechanism may be how birth is regulated in all mammals, but I only learned it in the context of human evolution. \n\nNow, there are two types of genes which are battling against each other: one to ensure the baby is small enough to be safely birthed, and one to ensure the baby is big and strong. Either the mother or father pass on one of these types, and there are common genetic diseases related to the malfunction of their expression. These would be Prader Willi (father gene turned off) or Angelman (mother gene turned off) syndromes. \n\nEdit: I’ve got a few minutes of free time, so I just wanted to expand on the last part: Prader Willi is characterized by children who have insatiable hunger. They lack their father’s gene (either being turned off or by having two copies of mom’s). This makes sense in the context of “genetic birth wars”; the mother gene wants the baby to be birthed sooner, so the fetus needs to feel hungry sooner. Angelman is not characterized by any hunger/satiety issues, but I’m not sure what this says about the genetic battle between Mom and Dad. ',
"No one else seems to have brought this up yet, so I thought I'd point out that there's a massive difference in what's considered 'basic' between humans and other animals. Walking on two legs is *hard* compared to walking on four. The kind of fine motor control you see babies learn in the two years of their life - grasping, rotating etc - is about as good as some species of primates get. Even aside from humans being born essentially premature, there's just so much more to learn about fundamental movement, and those fundamentals let us move on to incredible things. ",
"Human babies develop 'half baked' and with a much less widely established brain. Think of it as the difference between a tiny computer like an Arduino or raspberry pi compared to a graphing calculator. Because there aren't a whole lot of built in functions on the Arduino, it can be much more versatile. The calculator on the other hand has very specific but rigid capabilities.\n\nThe key difference, though, is that the Arduino needs to be programmed. The graphing calculator may be programmed in simple ways, but doesn't hold a candle to the Arduino. But programming the Arduino takes time, and effort.\n\nBy developing without automatic (instinctive) capabilities, humans have to learn to control their own bodies explicitly, and have to learn on their own how to walk, and talk, and move their hands... But because the controls aren't 'set in stone', it opens the controller up to a much more diverse set of capabilities.",
'compared to many mammals, we are underdeveloped at birth. one of the major things that happens through the first year of life is that the branches of our nervous system become myelinated and thus under our control. myelination occurs in different directions -- cephalo-caudal and proximal-distal (i.e. from head to toe and from the centre outward). as myelination progresses, we develop control over our limbs, and then we start to refine our co-ordination. ',
"In order for humans to walk upright we have developed much narrower hips than our prehuman ancestors. As a result, death in childbirth has been a huge factor in premature death in humans ever since. As a result, natural selection has led to humans being born much earlier in to pregnancy than they otherwise would be since smaller babies at birth are more likely to survive, as is the mother. Hence human babies are extremely underdeveloped at birth compared to other animals. It's a really interesting result of natural selection that such a seemingly major disadvantage was selected for due to something as seemingly minor as hip width. ",
'Harari in Sapiens also says that Human kids are born premature when compared to other species, and they develop out of womb more than them. That could be a reason?',
"I learned that in Animal Science from my agronomy studies.\nThe animals you are talking about are mostly preys. They have to kow how to walk/run pretty early in case they need to flee if there is a predator. \nPredators (like wolves, humans, ...) usually don't need to learn this as soon.\nThere is also what we call parental care. Litters exist because survival of the fittest and those babies don't receive that much parental care so they have to know how to be autonome very fast. However, for other species they will have one baby per pregnancy because the parental care is superior. Parents will be around much longer to protect and teach their younglings. So, this offspring might develop slowly.\n\nHumans are a mix of both from what I can remember.\n",
'my theory is, because we are the Alpha Predator,we are not being hunted therefore our babies do not need to learn how to walk right away and run. so instead those resources are put into a better brain/body development, and because they are helpless you endup learning how to take care of them even better and start getting smarter to help them develop further and add generations of this and you eventually endup with entire buildings and or centers with hundreds of people dedicated to their development and protection from all kinds of danger. \n\nour dumb babies forced us to be smarter.\nwe carry them so they can carry our society. ',
"Humans are omnivores, but also strong predators. Our main hunting ability, unlike claws or talons, come from our massive brains, which takes a lot of fat to both create, sustain, and then grow. These brains are heavy though, resulting in some wacky evolutionary adaptions (our women can barely run compared to the male sex, simply because their hips are so widely spaced to allow enough room for these large heads to pass through the birth canal) . \n\nNow predators commonly prey on the old, the sick, and the defenseless. Prey animals are born and can immediately run, because guess what, if they just sat there like a lump for two+ years and relied on their parents to bring them vegetation, they just weren't going to make it matey. Something was going to find them, and then eat them alive. Cue screaming.\n\nMeanwhile many predators have the luxury of developing slowly. They have a social structure that supports hunting for the young. Either pack hunting, or the female hunts typically (I can't think or a single example where the male typically does all the hunting besides humans, but I could be wrong). This gives the predator youngling time to grow these evolutionary expensive adaptive mechanisms or traits that allow it to hunt down and kill fully grown, incredibly fast prey animals. \n\nTl;dr\nBrains take a lot of juice, since they are the humanities main survival and hunting weapon. They are big, heavy, and take a lot of fat. You will never see a baby kill a creature, simply because these gigantic globes that are a 1/3 the size of their bodies pin them to the bed most the time. If prey animals don't run, they die. ",
'Babies are dumb. Esp human babies. They cant catch, they cant throw, they cant file taxes, not even a 1040 EZ. I mean, its like 5 lines to fill out, one of which is your name! UGH \nNo but seriously, There are 2 things , and both are realated to the brain. \n1. humans have the one of the biggest brains per size of all mammals. Thats hard to get out of the pelvis. to do this, the most of the other bones in the baby are done forming when they are born EXCEPT the skull. The skull stays flexible because the babies brain will grow immensely during the first few years of living outside the womb. After its done most of its growing, the skull gets hard. If you have ever heard of protecting a babies "soft spot on their head" that is exactly what is happeing. \n2. Since the humans need such a big brain, but it cant get through the birth canal with one, it has to grow OUTSIDE the womb. It spends most of its energy growing that brain and developing during the first few years to have a bigger brain later. This puts a cost however, as some innate qualities like you said (running, jumping, eyes, etc) are not quite able to be in there before the baby is born. ',
"Human beings have lots of afferent and few internuncial neural structures: we have the [highest association cortex (thinking) ratio to sensory cortext (motor)](_URL_0_). \n\nSo we have a brain-power trade-off. Human babies are born with the biology to begin thinking intelligently and learn, acquire language, and thus have the kind of unique sociality that human's display. That comes at the expense of motor function biology.",
"The simple answer is that humans are born with underdeveloped brains relative to other animals. What you might also be wondering is, why are humans born with underdeveloped brains? \n\nThe answer to this is a little more complicated and, to be clear, there is not one single fully-accepted explanation. Two major competing theories are (1) the obstetric dilemma and (2) the energetics, gestation, growth hypothesis. Here's a snippet from a slide that I present to my class (Intro Psyc) on these two theories:\n\n(1) Obstetric dilemma: Human birth canal very narrow because of bipedalism (i.e., as proto-humans transitioned to walking on two legs, this severely narrowed the birth canal); birth canal is too narrow to accommodate brain (and head) development of infant past approximately 40 weeks gestation (i.e., 9-months into pregnancy). In short, brain underdevelopment mostly about female anatomy (size of birth canal).\n\n(2) Energetics, gestation, growth hypothesis: Fetal development requires increasingly large amounts of energy (from mom) to support; mom’s safe limit (i.e., the amount of energy she can provide baby without putting her [and baby's] health in serious jeopardy) reached at approximately 40 weeks; going into labor at 40 weeks basically saves the life of mom and baby, but at the cost of an underdeveloped brain. Post-birth development supported by energy-rich and efficiently produced breastmilk. In short, brain underdevelopment mostly about fetal energy requirements.\n\nBoth theories have evidence for and against them. My hunch is that they're probably both playing a role in babies' underdeveloped brains.\n\n",
'Your question had been answered (wish I got here sooner to give my two cents), but I want to recommend the book "Sapiens" to you. Talks about this topic and many more like it and it\'s nothing short of awesome.',
"The evolution of our brain happened too quickly. And the female body didn't get enough time to adapt to a larger head. So babies started coming out with heads that could fit through the birth canal. And now the female body has adapted to birthing babies with underdeveloped brains, which now develop outside the body.",
'Humans are huge. To be born able to walk, talk, and be fully ready to be a normal human being would like the mother. Imagine giving birth to a 2 year old. So, babies are born prematurely. As mammals, the mother takes care of the babies until they are ready. Eventually the father began to help to defend the family, as humans weren’t the strongest or fastest. We are the smartest. So, with a lot of smart people, we rose to the top. With a strong family, it doesn’t matter if the child is born prematurely because everyone protects each other. Over time we became more advanced on this concept by making gender roles, females would stay home with the child as she can feed him and she is valuable and the man hunts for food. Then, we began planting food and so on. Humans are so fucking smart I feel so patriotic now.',
"A lot of the other answers here are missing some of the most important stuff, so here goes. Based on some anthropology and biology courses I took in University, it boils down to this:\nThe more important learning is to an organism, the longer their childhood tends to be, the fewer instincts they have, and the more dependency they have when young. Humans are born with very few instincts beyond the most primitive ones needed for survival (e.g. suckling for milk). Other animals rely on learning and culture and social structures, but none come close to the extent that humans rely on these.\n\nA baby deer is able to walk right after being born because it is really, really important that it be mobile from the start. Deer depend on hiding and running away, and aren't particularly smart or fierce. Humans, however, rely on their brains to get by, and the development of that brain is more important than anything else, but it takes *time* since the knowledge needs to be learned. Also, a lot of the motor skills we develop are also quite complex compared to what other animals rely on as well (most animals use limbs quite well, but humans do a lot of stuff with fingers, and consider the number of joints in your hand compared to the rest of the arm to consider the implications of how much muscle coordination is required - something that also requires time to learn).\n\nIn utero humans aren't really developing their motor skills, but they are capable of listening to conversations (not following them, but the beginning of learning language starts with listening and identifying speakers and tone and that sort of thing), and all of this is in the name to fast-track the capacity to learn from other humans. The motor skills newborns do develop involve learning - putting stuff in the hand, putting that stuff in the mouth (i.e. study it), and most early mobility is also in the service of curiosity (crawl over to object, put object in hand, put object in mouth).\n\nLearning is the most important skill for human survival, the purpose of childhood is for learning, the reason childhood goes on for as long as it does is because there is a lot of important learning to be done, and we are engineered to maximize learning more than anything else, even things that are basic survival needs for other organisms.",
"Humans have been under evolutionary pressure to have bigger brains for a long time now. This has resulted in babies being born with as large a brain, and head, as is possible. Any larger, and the risk of death to mothers giving birth would become too high. But evolution has found another way for humans to have larger brains: be born somewhat immaturely. As a result, the babies are born with immature brains that continue to grow after they're born. These brains are less ready to take on the tasks of independent (post-womb) life immediately after birth than those of other animals.",
'When we evolved to walk upright, our pelvic bones tilted, further narrowing the birth canal and those that survived had babies earlier. 9 months is premature but we compensate for having helpless infants by putting them in our clothing/houses.',
"IIRC humans are born undeveloped because the baby's head can only grow to a certain size for it to fit through the mother's birth canal.\nI think the head and shoulder are the widest parts.\n",
"The comedy of man starts like this\nOur brains are way too big for our mothers' hips\nAnd so nature, she divines this alternative\nWe emerge half-formed and hope that whoever greets us on the other end\nIs kind enough to fill us in\nAnd, babies, that's pretty much how it's been ever since",
"Human baby's are born earlier in their development compared to other animals. I forgot why though sorry."],
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'query': "why does it take babies such a long time to learn basic motor skills compared to animals that are able to do it close within a month or even as soon as they're born?",
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'title': 'Army and Air Force Exchange Service',
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'passage_text': 'In 2018, the Exchange generated $386 million in earnings. Of this, Exchange shoppers contributed $223 million to installation quality-of-life programs including child development and fitness centers. In the past 10 years, the Exchange has distributed more than $2.3 billion to fund quality-of-life improvements.\n',
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'passage_text': "The store was initially a self-funded business together with seed funding from angel investors from UK, US and Germany. On May 13, 2011, its' customers pioneered a new type of payment will able to pay their purchase using 7-Connect (7-11’s e-commerce payment system). the store also partnered with Coins.ph (company), a bitcoin exchange company, to allow purchases using bitcoin.\n",
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'passage_text': "Under Shull's leadership, the Exchange has more closely aligned itself with private-sector competitors by tightening cost controls, reducing its number of employees, and introducing top brands such as Disney and Michael Kors. The Exchange has also improved its E-commerce operation at ShopMyExchange.com, establishing shipping centers inside brick-and-mortar stores to reduce shipping costs and increase delivery speeds. In 2018, the Exchange continued to perform well, reporting $386 million in earnings, $223 million of which was reinvested into installation Quality-of-Life programs.\n",
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'title': 'New York Mercantile Exchange',
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'passage_text': "The New York Mercantile Exchange handles billions of dollars' worth of energy carriers, metals, and other commodities being bought and sold on the trading floor and the overnight electronic trading computer systems for future delivery. The prices quoted for transactions on the exchange are the basis for prices that people pay for various commodities throughout the world.\n",
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'passage_text': "In a study conducted in 2000 by Lehman Brothers, it was found that, on average, large M&A deals cause the domestic currency of the target corporation to appreciate by 1% relative to the acquirer's local currency. Until 2018, around 280.472 cross-border deals have been conducted, which cumulates to a total value of almost 24,069 bil. USD.\n",
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'title': 'Magic: The Gathering Online',
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'passage_text': 'Due to the ease of trading away unwanted or extra cards, transaction costs on "Magic Online" are very low. While in real-life, the money gained by finding a better price at a different store might not make up for the expense in checking the other store (gas, time, effort, etc.), it\'s simple and quick to search for other values of a card you\'d like to buy or sell online. This ensures competition where all prices move quickly towards the market price.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The online sale of goods and services in the United States accounted for an annual total of $283\xa0billion transactions from the start of 3rd quarter 2013 to the end of 2nd quarter 2014 (adjusted for seasonal variation). VCs are increasing as a percentage of these transactions. The Bitcoin exchange company Coinbase offers a payment service that allows merchants to receive Bitcoin and then automatically exchange the Bitcoin into fiat currency. The speed of this exchange helps merchants to avoid the volatility of Bitcoin. In September 2014, eBay announced that its payment processor Braintree will be accepting Bitcoin. As of November 2014, the market capitalization of Bitcoin is just below $5 billion, but has reached historic highs close to $14 billion. The growth of Internet use and the virtual world is also increasing. World Internet use increased from 15.8% in 2005 to 38.1% in 2013.\n',
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'title': 'How do the currency exchange store gain profit?',
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'answers': ['Take a cut of the traded amount. \nTrade in a dollar for 2 pounds and they might take a 20 p cut leaving you with 1.80',
"You have 5 cookies. \n\n\nYou want 2 muffins. \n\n\nEvery one knows that 1 muffin = 2 cookies. \n\n\nI tell you that I'll trade you two muffins for 5 cookies. You tell me the muffins are worth 2 cookies.\n\n\nI explain the 5th cookie is the fee for trading.\n\n\nEssentially this means that currency exchange places are not doing the real conversion, they ask for a little more than what your desired currency is worth."],
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'title': 'Sexual cannibalism',
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'passage_text': 'In some species of spiders, such as "Agelenopsis aperta", the male induces a passive state in the female prior to copulation It has been hypothesized that the cause of this "quiescent" state is the male\'s massaging of the female\'s abdomen, following male vibratory signals on the web. The female enters a passive state, and the male\'s risk of facing cannibalism is reduced. This state is most likely induced as a result of a male volatile pheromone. The chemical structure of the pheromone utilized by the male "A. aperta" is currently unknown; however, physical contact is not necessary for the induced passive state. Eunuch males, or males with partially or fully removed palps, are unable to induce the passive state on females from a distance, but can induce quiescence upon physical contact with the female; this suggests that the pheromone produced is potentially related to sperm production, since the male inserts sperm from his pedipalps, structures which are removed in eunuchs. This adaptation has most likely evolved in response to the overly aggressive nature of female spiders.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '21714575',
'title': 'Centruroides bicolor',
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'passage_text': "Prior to mating, members of this species engage in a courtship dance that can last for several minutes and sometimes an entire day or more. As part of this ritual the scorpions repeatedly raise and cross their tails, push and pull at one another, and then separate. Eventually, after a series of contractions, the male produces an off-white spermatophore, which contains sperm and hardens on contact with air. After this packet of sperm is introduced to the female's genital opening she becomes aggressive towards her mate and sometimes devours him in an episode of sexual cannibalism.\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '8894581',
'title': 'Sexual cannibalism',
'section': 'Section::::Costs and benefits for males.:Genital mutilation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Before or after copulating with females, certain males of spider species in the superfamily Araneoidea become half or full eunuchs with one or both of their pedipalps (male genitals) severed. This behavior is often seen in sexually cannibalistic spiders, causing them to exhibit the "eunuch phenomenon". Due to the chance that they may be eaten during or after copulation, male spiders use genital mutilation to increase their chances of successful mating. The male can increase his chances of paternity if the female\'s copulatory organs are blocked, which decreases sperm competition and her chances of mating with other males. In one study, females with mating plugs had a 75% less chance of re-mating. Additionally, if a male successfully severs his pedipalp within the female copulatory duct the pedipalp can not only serve as a plug but can continue to release sperm to the female spermathacae, again increasing the male\'s chances of paternity. This is referred to as "remote copulation". Occasionally (in 12% of cases in a 2012 study on Nephilidae spiders) palp severance is only partial due to copulation interruption by sexual cannibalism. Partial palp severance can result in a successful mating plug but not to the extent of full palp severance.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '2116156',
'title': 'Pharaoh ant',
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'passage_text': 'Pharaoh ant copulation, like that of many social insects, is harmful to the female. The penis valve contains sharp teeth, which latch onto a thick, soft cuticular layer in the female. This method of copulation too has an evolutionary basis. The teeth ensure sex lasts long enough for sufficient sperm transfer. Also, the pain caused to the female may, in some ways, lessen her desire to mate again.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1791545',
'title': 'Southern house spider',
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'passage_text': "The southern house spider mating ritual is a lengthy (over an hour) and elaborate process with long periods during which neither the male nor the female moves considerably. When the wandering male encounters a female's web, there may be an initial confrontation where each scares the other. Upon recovering, the male then constructs a large web around the female's crevice. When this web is complete, the male pulls on its strands continuously to draw the female out of her hole, which may take several minutes. Following her emergence, each spider will tap at the other in an effort to grasp the other by the forelegs, with the male remaining suspended in his web.\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '27546',
'title': 'Sexual intercourse',
'section': 'Section::::Other animals.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In zoology, "copulation" often means the process in which a male introduces sperm into the female\'s body, especially directly into her reproductive tract. Spiders have separate male and female sexes. Before mating and copulation, the male spider spins a small web and ejaculates on to it. He then stores the sperm in reservoirs on his large pedipalps, from which he transfers sperm to the female\'s genitals. The females can store sperm indefinitely.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '43952715',
'title': 'Belonogaster petiolata',
'section': 'Section::::Reproduction.:Copulation.\n',
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'passage_text': "Mating occurs when a male wasp approaches a female, and the two undergo mutual or unilateral antennation, where the pair touches each other's antennae or the male probes the female's thorax and abdomen with his antennae. Then, the male mounts the female and begins to establish genital contact by touching the female's abdomen with his own. Copulation only lasts about five seconds.\n",
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'title': 'Why are mating rituals, such as Octopuses ripping off a tentacle or a praying mantis eating the males head, passed down? Do they just learn it by instinct?',
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'category': 'Biology',
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'answers': ["First, your examples are not mating *rituals*. They are mating behaviours.\n\nOctopus rips off ~~tentacle~~ arm, because that arm (called *hectocotylus*) is actually an autonomous female-seeking semen carrier (yes, octopuses are *that* freaking weird/awesome). Praying mantis female simply would eat anyone, and male have chance to mate by presenting something to stuff her mouth (or is that what spiders do?). Sometimes they get away before female finishes her meal, sometimes not. And its all good for babies, anyway - male's genes are already accounted for, so it doesn't matter what happens to him afterwards.\n\nNow, by mating rituals they mean specific instinctive behaviour used for choosing mating partner but not leading directly to mating. Usually it is some form of dancing, fighting other males (either actually fighting or by ~~rap battles~~ contests of songs, bright feathers and such. Male mantis presenting food for female is a ritual, too.\n\nAs for why they do this from evolution viewpoint - AFAIK this still considered unsolved. There are several theories on [sexual selection](_URL_0_). One, handicap theory, says that male that can spend resources on otherwise useless things like ~~jewelry~~ bright feathers (more visible to predators) is more able at survival. Still, I heard there are some problems with this theory.",
"Insects eating each other as a result of mating behaviours is fairly rare. It does occasionally happen in Mantids, as you mentioned, as with spiders. Even then, natural occurrences (not in captivity) are rare. \n\nWhen they do occur however, it has been shown to be linked (in spiders at least) to the initial personality of the female - if she's a angry fucker and has a size advantage, the male is at serious risk. If they're more evenly matched it often occurs without incident. This personality factor matters for tarantulas too - from what I know of breeding them, the more aggressive and jumpy spiders are harder to breed, specifically because of risk to the male (amongst other things). \n\nAs for the evolutionary why, it probably has a lot to do with the fact that post mating, your genes really dont matter much. If you're only going to breed one to two times, it's very very hard for any evolutionary pressure to occur on post mating problems. Problems might appear, like a tendency toward getting cancer, but even if it kills every animal in the group it doesn't matter because they've already wed. If you get better odds for your offspring by offering yourself up as an hors d'oeuvre, thats more evolutionary meaningful than any remaining aspect of life. \n\nSpiders rarely eat the male, but tarantulas (male) do die very soon after reaching their maximum age, whilst the females continue to live for many years/decades to come. This has the effect of massively skewing the male/female balance of mature spiders in a local population, which benefits the species. More odds of the male encountering a female spider, more odds of males getting have two chances at making baby spiders. It could have something to do with this as well - artificial one child policy for optimal gender control",
'I\'m not sure about the whole octopus tentacle tearing, and I think it\'s better to consider the praying mantis eating the head of it\'s male mate an act of survival rather than a mating ritual.\n\nHowever, there are mating rituals such as dances that can certainly seem odd...\n\nTo understand what is happening, one must consider things from the perspective of genes.\n\nGenes don\'t think or feel, but it\'s a handy tool to think of the gene as a greedy thing that wants to survive and spread. In reality, it doesn\'t care about anything. It\'s just that all the genes that don\'t survive and spread tend to die off and cease to be around, and when the gene is gone, it can\'t induce traits in a species.\n\nThe genes of the female praying mantis "want" to do anything that ensures they propagate and survive better. To the female\'s genes, the male is a ticket to reproduction. There is some value in keeping the male alive so that it can enable the female\'s genes to pass to another generation....\nHowever, as soon as the male has served its use to the female genes, it is no longer helpful to keep it alive. The male is a food source for the female, and so once the male serves its reproductive purpose, it is fair game for eating in order to ensure that the female has enough energy to continue to serve its genes in the task of reproduction.\n\nWhy would the male ever put it\'s self in a situation of such certain death? Because to the male\'s genes, it doesn\'t care about what happens to the male after firtilization. There is no use in a male mantis that doesn\'t mate to save it\'s skin. The genes prefer that the mantis dies to make babies than to live, not make babies and die eventually anyway.\n\nBasically, everything about life on earth is defined by this basic principle of things evolving to perform whatever tasks best enable life to propagate, by random creation of new genes through mutation, and selection of the most effective genes by elimination of less effecive ones.\n\n# Mating rituals\n\nMating rituals are normally the result of what is called "sexual selection". In sexual selection, an individual, normally a female, will be careful to select it\'s mates because the female has to invest a lot of time and energy into producing offspring, so care must be taken to ensure that the the male she mates with; as donor of 50 percent of her children\'s genes; provides the healthiest genes available so as to increase the chances of survival of her own genes within those offspring.\n\nSo females in many species often tend to observe males to make sure they are fit and capable before mating with them, as weak, unhealthy or injured males are more likely to create children that are weak, unhealthy, or likely to injure themselves.\n\nAnd males therefore evolve behaviors to exhibit their healthiness and even evolve decietful activity to increase their chances, and this arms-race between females trying to figure out how good a mate a male is and males contantly trying to appear to be good mates even if they aren\'t leads to some quite complex behavior.\n\nA lot of the time we don\'t even know exactly why they do what they do, but sexual selection for the sake of getting a survival advantage is our best guess.\n\nMaybe birds do some dances to show off their ability to move: a skill injured birds are lacking in...\nMaybe parrots mimic the sounds of other things as mating calls because it shows off some form of intelligence helpful to survival?\n\nBut we can probably bet that if performing these complex rituals takes a lot of energy, but doesn\'t lead to any survival advantage for the genes, the animals wouldn\'t evolve them.\n\n# How the heck do animals know how to do it?\n\nGenes. While mating rituals can certainly incorporate elements learned by experience; such as parrots learning different calls, they tend to be dominated by instinctual behavior.\n\nThis is behavior that an animal will perform even if it is never shown how to.\n\nThe only way to explain how the animal knows to do this behavior is that it is the result of some sort of fixed pattern put into the brain during development by genes. Certain stimuli lead the brain to perform certain actions leading to certain behaviors.\n\nFor instance, you eat a food, it produces a unique taste, and you somehow know that the taste is good and you for some reason want to eat more. You never had to have it explained to you that this food has this taste and you should eat things that taste like this because you need food to live. Your brain just automatically creates the positive reinforcement mechanism without being taught because your genes know roughly what good food tastes like. You don\'t have to teach kids to like candy. They like candy because candy tastes sweet and sweet is the taste of sugar and sugar is full of energy.\nYou don\'t need to be taught that keeping your energy levels high is good so you should eat sugar because your genes already encoded the want to consume sugar in your brain.\n\nDo humans have mating rituals? There\'s a question! Do we only like to dance to a catchy tune because it allowed our hunter-gatherer ancestors to assess each other\'s ability to move?\n\n\n\n\n'],
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'query': 'why are mating rituals, such as octopuses ripping off a tentacle or a praying mantis eating the males head, passed down? do they just learn it by instinct?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '19572217',
'title': 'Influenza',
'section': 'Section::::Epidemiology.:Seasonal variations.\n',
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'passage_text': 'An alternative hypothesis to explain seasonality in influenza infections is an effect of vitamin D levels on immunity to the virus. This idea was first proposed by Robert Edgar Hope-Simpson in 1965. He proposed that the cause of influenza epidemics during winter may be connected to seasonal fluctuations of vitamin D, which is produced in the skin under the influence of solar (or artificial) UV radiation. This could explain why influenza occurs mostly in winter and during the tropical rainy season, when people stay indoors, away from the sun, and their vitamin D levels fall.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '19572217',
'title': 'Influenza',
'section': 'Section::::Epidemiology.:Seasonal variations.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Influenza reaches peak prevalence in winter, and because the Northern and Southern Hemispheres have winter at different times of the year, there are actually two different flu seasons each year. This is why the World Health Organization (assisted by the National Influenza Centers) makes recommendations for two different vaccine formulations every year; one for the Northern, and one for the Southern Hemisphere.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41249242',
'title': 'Flutrack',
'section': 'Section::::Feasibility of monitoring influenza.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Influenza, or flu, is a viral infection that affects mainly the throat, nose, bronchi and occasionally lungs. It is considered one of the most common human infectious diseases. Seasonal influenza epidemics are a major public health concern, causing tens of millions of respiratory illnesses and 250,000 to 500,000 deaths worldwide each year. Early detection of disease activity, when followed by a rapid response, can reduce the impact of both seasonal and pandemic influenza.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '92693',
'title': 'Common cold',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.:Weather.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The apparent seasonality may also be due to social factors, such as people spending more time indoors, near infected people, and specifically children at school. There is some controversy over the role of low body temperature as a risk factor for the common cold; the majority of the evidence suggests that it may result in greater susceptibility to infection.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19572217',
'title': 'Influenza',
'section': 'Section::::Epidemiology.:Seasonal variations.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A long-standing puzzle has been why outbreaks of the flu occur seasonally rather than uniformly throughout the year. One possible explanation is that, because people are indoors more often during the winter, they are in close contact more often, and this promotes transmission from person to person. Increased travel due to the Northern Hemisphere winter holiday season may also play a role. Another factor is that cold temperatures lead to drier air, which may dehydrate mucus particles. Dry particles are lighter and can thus remain airborne for a longer period. The virus also survives longer on surfaces at colder temperatures and aerosol transmission of the virus is highest in cold environments (less than 5°C) with low relative humidity. The lower air humidity in winter seems to be the main cause of seasonal influenza transmission in temperate regions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23021790',
'title': '2009 flu pandemic in Argentina',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The World Health Organization (WHO) and the Argentine health authorities expressed their concern from the beginning of the outbreak, that the imminent arrival of the southern winter could cause "more serious" effects in the southern hemisphere than those caused in Mexico, and could lead to a rebound of the epidemic around the world. The flu or "influenza" is mainly a seasonal disease that becomes most prevalent in winter.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '92693',
'title': 'Common cold',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.:Weather.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The traditional theory is that a cold can be "caught" by prolonged exposure to cold weather such as rain or winter conditions, which is how the disease got its name. Some of the viruses that cause the common colds are seasonal, occurring more frequently during cold or wet weather. The reason for the seasonality has not been conclusively determined. Possible explanations may include cold temperature-induced changes in the respiratory system, decreased immune response, and low humidity causing an increase in viral transmission rates, perhaps due to dry air allowing small viral droplets to disperse farther and stay in the air longer.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How is it that some illnesses like influenza or the common cold are considered “seasonal”?',
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'answers': ['1) During the winter, people spend more time indoors with the windows sealed, so they are more likely to breathe the same air as someone who has the flu and thus contract the virus (3).\n2) Days are shorter during the winter, and lack of sunlight leads to \xa0low levels of vitamin D and melatonin, both of which require sunlight for their generation. This compromises our immune systems, which in turn decreases ability to fight the virus (3).\n3) The influenza virus may survive better in colder, drier climates, and therefore be able to infect more people (3).\n\n_URL_0_',
"In addition to the viral attributes like resistance to cold, there's some very real human effects at work to boot. In the US anyway, the school year starts in late summer/fall, bringing tons of children in close confined quarters with on another. Those kids bring whatever they're exposed to home. The people at home bring it whenever they go(work, other schools, etc). Combine that with the very travel heavy US holidays (Thanksgiving, Christmas), and you have a ton of ways to spread infections. \n\nAnecdotally, I get sick every year after I go up to visit family. Damn kids.",
'The illnesses have a sort of coating that protects them, but are more effective in certain weather, thus more people get that illness in the season/weather where these illnesses can survive the trip between hosts safely.'],
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'query_id': 'eq8dgm',
'query': 'how is it that some illnesses like influenza or the common cold are considered “seasonal”?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '14518602',
'title': 'Viola adunca',
'section': 'Section::::Consumption by humans.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The leaves and flowers are edible, and can be eaten in salads, as potherbs, or brewed as tea. These plant parts are high in vitamins A and C. However, the rhizomes, fruit, and seeds are poisonous to humans and can cause upset stomach, intestinal problems, respiratory and circulatory depression.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1594759',
'title': 'Leaf vegetable',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Nearly one thousand species of plants with edible leaves are known. Leaf vegetables most often come from short-lived herbaceous plants, such as lettuce and spinach. Woody plants of various species also provide edible leaves.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18973622',
'title': 'Leaf',
'section': 'Section::::Ecology.:Interactions with other organisms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 107,
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'passage_text': 'Although not as nutritious as other organs such as fruit, leaves provide a food source for many organisms. The leaf is a vital source of energy production for the plant, and plants have evolved protection against animals that consume leaves, such as tannins, chemicals which hinder the digestion of proteins and have an unpleasant taste. Animals that are specialized to eat leaves are known as folivores.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40478884',
'title': 'Claytonia caroliniana',
'section': 'Section::::Description.:Uses.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The plant is edible but its usability is limited due to difficulty harvesting and the small quantities each plant produces. Its tuberous roots are edible and rich in starch and can be cooked or eaten raw . The leaves can be eaten as well. The tuberous roots are eaten by eastern chipmunks and white-footed mice.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2254387',
'title': 'Edible plant stem',
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'passage_text': 'Edible plant stems are one part of plants that are eaten by humans. Most plants are made up of stems, roots, leaves, flowers, and produce fruits containing seeds. Humans most commonly eat the seeds (e.g. maize, wheat), fruit (e.g. tomato, avocado, banana), flowers (e.g. broccoli), leaves (e.g. lettuce, spinach, and cabbage), roots (e.g. carrots, beets), and stems (e.g. asparagus, ginger) of many plants. There are also a few edible petioles (also known as leaf stems) such as celery or rhubarb.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16161772',
'title': 'Oxalis triangularis',
'section': 'Section::::Cultivation.:Usage.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The leaves are eaten raw or cooked and have an acidic taste due to their oxalic acid content. Leaves and flowers can be used as a decoration for salads. When consuming larger amounts of leaves, the oxalic acid can cause discomfort. The rhizomes are eaten raw or cooked and have a sweet taste.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '983130',
'title': 'Sudan plated lizard',
'section': 'Section::::As pets.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Plated lizards are usually docile and they tame quickly with regular handling. Being omnivores they enjoy eating live crickets and other insects and small amounts of chopped fruits and vegetables such as kale, carrots, mango and strawberries. Citrus fruit (e.g. orange) and other acidic fruits should be avoided as this can cause stomach ulcers and digestion problems. Some also treat their plated lizards with the occasional small pinkie mouse, depending on the size of the individual.\n',
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'title': 'Why can we eat some leaves (Salad, basil, mint...) And not all like herbivores ?',
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'answers': ['Eating leaves is not the same across all leaf eaters. For example, Koala Bears and Cows are both herbivores, but Koala Bears can eat eucalyptus leaves which cows cannot digest. Getting the same amount of nutrition from grass is done differently from species to species. Rabbits for example, will eat grass and then eat their own droppings to complete the process of getting all the nutrition from the grass, cows have 4 stomachs to process the grass they eat. So to answer your question, we don\'t have the stomach to extract the nutrition from "all leaves" just some of them, we can get around this by cooking a lot of the leaves we cannot consume raw.',
"Foods need enzymes to get broken down so our body can absorb energy and depending on the food type, different enzymes act on them to break down the food particles. Grass has cellulose which can be broken down by an enzyme cellobiase, unfortunately we don't have this enzyme.",
'Plants grow a couple of substances which we can\'t digest, most importantly lignin and cellulose. That\'s what is called "fiber" on nutrition labels. They\'re basically the equivalent of a skeleton in animals, they reinforce the plants and also protect them from damage. And of course from being eaten: When plants first evolved to grow lignin, there were no organisms that could digest them - so all the plants that died in that time slowly turned into coal. Nowadays, some fungi and bacteria can break those fibers down. \n\nProducing a lot of fiber has a big drawback though: It costs a lot of energy to produce. So a tree with a wooden stem might be stronger than a green plant with a soft stem, but the green plant can grow far quicker. Same goes for leaves: Leaves with a lot of fiber are chewy and can only be eaten by animals with specially adapted teeth and digestion system, but they grow slower than soft leaves. \n\nSo what we can eat are generally plants that grow very quickly, such as lettuce, spinach and cabbage, but also a lot of things we consider weeds, such as stinging nettles and dandelion. We can also eat young plants, which have not yet grown a lot of fiber, like sprouts and bamboo shoots.\n\nEdit: There are a lot of things that we can eat, but don\'t because they either don\'t taste good or we don\'t know that they taste good. But our distant ancestors often relied on those plants, they were the first thing that came out of the ground in spring and provided crucial vitamins.'],
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'query': 'why can we eat some leaves (salad, basil, mint...) and not all like herbivores ?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '805912',
'title': 'Delayed onset muscle soreness',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The soreness is felt most strongly 24 to 72 hours after the exercise. It is thought to be caused by eccentric (lengthening) exercise, which causes small-scale damage (microtrauma) to the muscle fibers. After such exercise, the muscle adapts rapidly to prevent muscle damage, and thereby soreness, if the exercise is repeated.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '4360',
'title': 'Bodybuilding',
'section': 'Section::::Muscle growth.:Weight training.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Intensive weight training causes micro-tears to the muscles being trained; this is generally known as microtrauma. These micro-tears in the muscle contribute to the soreness felt after exercise, called delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). It is the repair of these micro-traumas that results in muscle growth. Normally, this soreness becomes most apparent a day or two after a workout. However, as muscles become adapted to the exercises, soreness tends to decrease.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3019206',
'title': 'Meralgia paraesthetica',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The nerve may become painful over a period of time as weight gain makes underwear, belting or the waistband of pants gradually exert higher levels of pressure. Pain may be acute and radiate into the rib cage, and into the groin, thigh, and knee. Alternately, weight loss or aging may remove protective fat layers under the skin, so the nerve can compress against underwear, outer clothing, and—most commonly— by belting. Long periods of standing or leg exercise that increases tension on the inguinal ligament may also cause pressure.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '805912',
'title': 'Delayed onset muscle soreness',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism.:Repeated-bout effect.\n',
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'passage_text': 'As a result of this effect, not only is the soreness reduced, but other indicators of muscle damage, such as swelling, reduced strength and reduced range of motion, are also more quickly recovered from. The effect is mostly, but not wholly, specific to the exercised muscle: experiments have shown that some of the protective effect is also conferred on other muscles.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44574',
'title': 'Weight training',
'section': 'Section::::Safety.:Avoiding pain.\n',
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'passage_text': 'An exercise should be halted if marked or sudden pain is felt, to prevent further injury. However, not all discomfort indicates injury. Weight training exercises are brief but very intense, and many people are unaccustomed to this level of effort. The expression "no pain, no gain" refers to working through the discomfort expected from such vigorous effort, rather than to willfully ignore extreme pain, which may indicate serious soft tissue injuries. The focus must be proper form, not the amount of weight lifted.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '805912',
'title': 'Delayed onset muscle soreness',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The muscle soreness is caused by eccentric exercise, that is, exercise consisting of eccentric (lengthening) contractions of the muscle. Isometric (static) exercise causes much less soreness, and concentric (shortening) exercise causes none.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19723734',
'title': 'Muscle',
'section': 'Section::::Exercise.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Delayed onset muscle soreness is pain or discomfort that may be felt one to three days after exercising and generally subsides two to three days later. Once thought to be caused by lactic acid build-up, a more recent theory is that it is caused by tiny tears in the muscle fibers caused by eccentric contraction, or unaccustomed training levels. Since lactic acid disperses fairly rapidly, it could not explain pain experienced days after exercise.\n',
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'answers': ['Your sore muscles are like a lazy roommate. They whine and complain over the smallest actions. But as soon as they think shit hits the fan, they feel fine and act like they can do anything. Your body does the same, but with some natural painkillers'],
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'query': 'how is it that when you are muscle sore, even moving is a big deal but when lifting again it is fine?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '58067750',
'title': 'Julia Clarke',
'section': 'Section::::Life.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In 2016 she speculated that based on her research she felt it was unlikely that dinosaurs roared. She proposed that it was much more likely that they made noises that were similar to those made by a modern pigeon.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '866031',
'title': 'B.C. (comic strip)',
'section': 'Section::::Cast of characters.:Animals and other non-human characters.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The Dinosaur: big but not too bright—a sort of sauropod with spinal plates like a stegosaurus. Sometimes called Gronk, which is the only sound he makes (although he can talk fluently in recent strips).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23251209',
'title': 'Gravity Storm',
'section': 'Section::::Plot.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A strange sound causes the Marshalls, the Pakuni, and even the dinosaurs to seize up and collapse in the middle of their activities. Although they quickly recover, the sound strikes again, dragging everyone to the ground as though their weight has increased substantially.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17015838',
'title': 'Mesoreodon',
'section': 'Section::::Morphology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': '"Mesoreodon" had ossified vocal cords; the only other animal to have these in modern times is the howler monkey. "Mesoreodon" may have been a "screaming oreodont" using loud noises to intimidate its enemies and rivals.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '166072',
'title': 'Sound barrier',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'The sound barrier may have been first breached by living beings some 150 million years ago. Some paleobiologists report that, based on computer models of their biomechanical capabilities, certain long-tailed dinosaurs such as "Brontosaurus", "Apatosaurus", and "Diplodocus" may have been able to flick their tails at supersonic speeds, creating a cracking sound. This finding is theoretical and disputed by others in the field.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1663525',
'title': 'Jurassic Park (SNES video game)',
'section': 'Section::::Development and release.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'The dinosaurs\' behavior was based on behavior that was featured in the film. Dinosaurs that were not featured in the film were added into the game for variety. A scene featured earlier in the game\'s development depicted Grant being eaten by a "Tyrannosaurus rex", accompanied by the sound of his bones being crushed. Nintendo requested that the bone-crushing sound effect be removed as it was considered too realistic. The game includes inspiration from the novel, including a mission objective to prevent dinosaurs from escaping to the mainland on a supply ship. The game was mastered in surround sound (Dolby Pro Logic), and its music was composed by Jon Dunn.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8583165',
'title': 'Stegosaurus in popular culture',
'section': 'Section::::Other.\n',
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'passage_text': '"Stegosaurus" has long been featured in popular informational books about dinosaurs. This is ostensibly due to its status as being one of the most famous dinosaurs in popular culture. Several older nonfiction books incorrectly stated that "Stegosaurus" had two brains, due to a mistake made by Marsh during the 1800s, in which a bundle of nerves located in the hips was thought to be a "second brain". However, newer informational works have corrected this, and most nonfiction dinosaur books published nowadays correctly state that "Stegosaurus" had only one — albeit tiny — brain, located in its skull, as all other known vertebrates do. "Stegosaurus" has also featured in numerous video games such as "" and "Carnivores". In the latter game, the animal was depicted as an awkward, lumbering reptile, similar to many outdated illustrations, even though the game was released in 1998, at least a decade after the general public recognized "Stegosaurus" and other dinosaurs as active warm-blooded beasts. Players can play as "Stegosaurus" in "Combat of Giants". A stuffed "Stegosaurus" makes an appearance in the video game "Gone Home", nicknamed Steggy.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is it so universally accepted that dinosaurs roared? Is there any way paleontologist know what kind of sounds that actually would have made?',
'selftext': "I'm literally asking for my dinosaur obsessed 5 year old, so I'm actually looking for someone to explain it to me like I'm five.",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["In many cases paleontologists can make an educated guess based on the structure of the bones in the larynx. But most likely, many dinosaurs didn't roar. Many of the bird-like ones probably made noises more reminiscent of chirps or whoops. One way that scientists make these educated guesses is by comparing the fossilized structures of dinosaurs to those of living reptiles (and birds). It is logical to think that if dinosaurs and living reptiles have similarly-shaped larynges (voice boxes) they might make similar noises. You make an adjustment for the increased size in dinosaurs, and boom, sometimes you have a roar. Other times you don't. Again, these are just educated guesses (hypotheses). \n\nThis type of deductive reasoning has been used to generate other hypotheses about dinosaurs that have later been proven true. For example, paleontologists hypothesized long ago that bird-like dinosaurs had bird-like behaviors like building nests and incubating their eggs. Then, in the 90's (?) several fossils of bird-like dinosaurs were discovered in China and a few of them actually showed the adult females sitting on top of their unhatched eggs in the nest. \n\nScience for the win.",
"Paleontologists can use the features, shapes, and dimensions of the nasal cavities and other parts of the skull to determine what kinds of sounds dinosaurs might be able to make. In recent decades, we have found mummified dinosaurs with enough fossilized soft tissue to help with this kind of investigation.\n\nIn the case of cartoons and fairly non-scientific videos, the sounds we hear might be exaggerated in some ways, or even just made up. But more scientifically-grounded shows often do a good job of making sounds match what the scientists think they should be.\n\nLike all science, paleontology is constantly refining its knowledge, so new fossils will no doubt come to light in the future which will continue to improve our understanding of dinosaur sounds. \n\nI'm not a paleontologist, but I love dinosaurs, and have been following the research for most of my 60-odd years. \n\nEdit: A good way to demonstrate this to a 5 year old might be to get a tin whistle, recorder, or kazoo, and show them how covering different holes and blowing into the instrument will make different sounds.",
"Many traits of dinosaurs (skin/feather color, behaviors, noises, etc.) obviously cannot be directly observed from fossils. As an alternative, paleontologists infer these traits by looking at those same things in the closest descendants of these dinosaurs: birds. By observing behaviors of a relatively large bird (say, an ostrich), paleontologists can get as solid of a guess about how a dinosaur sounds as they possibly can. If you've ever heard a large bird, they can actually make very deep and monster-like vocalizations.\n\nAs for if/when a dinosaur roars, that is less clear. Obviously these noises would serve to communicate to others, but I doubt a T-Rex would ever roar just before charging (why would it blow any element of surprise it had with a lengthy scream)",
'The simplest answer is that dinosaurs are large reptiles. And large reptiles can actually roar.\n\nHere is a video of a crocodile growling.\n_URL_0_\n\nAnd another one\n_URL_1_\n\nFun fact, alligator/crocodile roars/growls were actually used for the dinosaur roars in Jurassic Park.',
"Just like the shwing sound that swords make when drawn in films, it has no basis in reality but film makers and the likes always put it in because the idea of the sound is so ingrained into our minds it wouldn't sound right without it. That and it just sounds cool. ",
'Large animal, it makes for good drama in movies if it roars.\n\nAs for how they sounded, various simulations has been made based on skull shapes and so on, but the results are kund of inconclusive (without the lips and tongue, it\'s hard to get a real simulation), but, while roars probably was part of their sound range, various toots, whoops and whistles probably also where.\n\nOne must also remember that "dinosaurs" is a very wide description, spanning over extremely diverse species and an extremely long time. So, for all we know, some may have roared, some may have whistled and some may have communicated through farting and tapdancing.',
'It\'s not, at least not in the sense we normally hear. Dinosaur roars are usually 100% based on what sounds good in the movies. The famous Jurrassic park roar was a combination of baby elephant trumpet, alligator gurgle, and tiger snarl. It\'s got nothing whatsoever to do with what dinosaurs might have sounded like.\n\n_URL_1_\n\nMost dinosaur noises in the movies are similarly totally made up to sound good.\n\nHowever, we do expect that many dinosaurs would have made some sort of noise. Alligators and crocodiles make noise. Birds make noise. Dinosaurs are kind of "in between" the two on the family tree of life. And certain specific dinosaurs, most notably hadrosaurs, had bone structures that were clearly intended to produce loud calls. \n\n_URL_2_\n\nSo your dinosaurs may well have made noise, but it might not be what you are expecting.\n\nPersonally I like to picture the T rex posing on a hill-top, waving it\'s tiny arms frantically as a display, and making a call quite like the [majestic cry of the bald eagle](_URL_0_)',
'I laugh when I go out to my chickens with a treat and they come running and "screaming" at me. I think of the dinosaurs.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6i37f1',
'query': 'why is it so universally accepted that dinosaurs roared? is there any way paleontologist know what kind of sounds that actually would have made?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '66254',
'title': 'Drinking',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Drinking is the act of ingesting water or other liquids into the body through the mouth. Water is required for many physiological processes. Both excessive and inadequate water intake are associated with health problems.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47328766',
'title': 'Beer chemistry',
'section': 'Section::::Ingredients.:Water.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 372,
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'passage_text': 'Water can often play a very important role in the way a beer tastes, as it is the main ingredient. The ion varieties present in water can affect the metabolic pathways of yeast, and thus the metabolites one can taste. For example, calcium and iron are essential in small amounts for yeast to survive, because these metals are usually required cofactors for yeast enzymes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18948043',
'title': 'Alcoholic drink',
'section': 'Section::::Food energy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 37,
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'passage_text': 'Alcoholic drinks are a source of food energy. The USDA uses a figure of per gram of alcohol ( per ml) for calculating food energy. In addition to alcohol, many alcoholic drinks contain carbohydrates. For example, in of 5% ABV beer, along with approximately 18 ml of alcohol (), there are usually 10–15\xa0g of carbohydrates (about ). Excessive daily calorie intake may contribute to an increase in body weight and "beer belly". In addition to the direct effect of its caloric content, alcohol is also known to potentiate the insulin response of the human body to glucose, which, in essence, "instructs" the body to convert consumed carbohydrates into fat and to suppress carbohydrate and fat oxidation. Ethanol is directly processed in the liver to acetyl CoA, the same intermediate product as in glucose metabolism. Because ethanol is mostly metabolized and consumed by the liver, chronic excessive use can lead to fatty liver. This leads to a chronic inflammation of the liver and eventually alcoholic liver disease.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '431814',
'title': 'Pot still',
'section': 'Section::::Method of operation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 526,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The liquid being distilled is a mixture of mainly water and alcohol, along with smaller amounts of other by-products of fermentation (called congeners), such as aldehydes and esters. Alcohol (ethanol) has a normal boiling point of 78.4\xa0°C (173.12\xa0°F), compared with pure water, which boils at 100\xa0°C (212\xa0°F). As alcohol has a lower boiling point, it is more volatile and evaporates at a higher rate than water. Therefore, the concentration of alcohol in the vapour phase above the liquid is higher than in the liquid itself.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3875589',
'title': "Canada's Food Guide",
'section': 'Section::::Food Guide, 2019 edition.:Beverages.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 424,
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'passage_text': "The Guide recommends making water your drink of choice. It is a calorie-free, fat-free, sugar-free thirst quencher that is essential to the body's metabolic functions. Consumption of water should increase with temperature or an individual's physical activity. The Guide also recommends avoiding beverages with added sugar or fat. Caffeinated beverages, fruit juices, and energy drinks should only be consumed in moderation.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39466243',
'title': 'Outline of cuisines',
'section': 'Section::::Components of a cuisine.:Food and drink.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 461,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Drink (beverages) of particular types – drinks are liquids specifically prepared for human consumption. In addition to basic needs, beverages form part of the culture of human society. Although all beverages, including juice, soft drinks, and carbonated drinks, have some form of water in them, water itself is often not classified as a beverage, and the word beverage has been recurrently defined as not referring to water."See List of beverages."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21755880',
'title': 'Spins',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 206,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Mixing alcohol with normal soft drinks, rather than diet drinks delays the dizzying effects of alcohol because the sugary mixture slows the emptying of the stomach, so that drunkenness occurs less rapidly.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'how can something like beer, a liquid, make you more thirsty?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Just because it's a liquid doesn't mean it'll provide you with water.\n\nDrink a bottle of mercury or antifreeze...... actually don't.\n\nBeer is a solution of alcohol and water. While it initially provides you with water, the alcohol triggers your system to use it's water store to flush out the processed alcohol toxin, leaving you with less water than you drank in the beer.",
'Alcohol screws with a hormone called ADH (anti diuretic hormone) which, oddly enough is responsible for stopping your kidneys from removing all of the water from your body and pissing it out. Normally you need like 100ish mL/hr to stay hydrated but with poor ADH it can go up. At the same time, you now have, say 100mL of actual alcohol in you 2-5L of total blood volume screwing with the soluability of all the stuff disolved in the blood. \n\nOn top of that alcohol sticks to the sensory protiens responsible for detecting if you are dehydrated in the aortic arch and kidneys, causing them to send incorrect signals to the brain. \n\nTldr: Alcohol messis with ADH signalling the kidneys to rapidly expell water. Your body senses low water and signals you to drink more. This has little benefit due to the aforementioned kidney floodgates being open. Other stuff also doesnt work as well but ADH is the big one'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '969t38',
'query': 'how can something like beer, a liquid, make you more thirsty?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '229058',
'title': 'Young adult (psychology)',
'section': 'Section::::Health.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 306,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Young/prime adulthood can be considered the healthiest time of life and young adults are generally in good health, subject neither to disease nor the problems of senescence. Strength and physical performance reach their peak from 18–39 years of age. Flexibility may decrease with age throughout adulthood.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '189037',
'title': 'Exercise',
'section': 'Section::::Health effects.:Fitness.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 425,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Individuals can increase fitness following increases in physical activity levels. Increases in muscle size from resistance training is primarily determined by diet and testosterone. This genetic variation in improvement from training is one of the key physiological differences between elite athletes and the larger population. Studies have shown that exercising in middle age leads to better physical ability later in life.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '512662',
'title': 'Cardiovascular disease',
'section': 'Section::::Risk factors.:Age.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
'end_character': 365,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Multiple explanations are proposed to explain why age increases the risk of cardiovascular/heart diseases. One of them relates to serum cholesterol level. In most populations, the serum total cholesterol level increases as age increases. In men, this increase levels off around age 45 to 50 years. In women, the increase continues sharply until age 60 to 65 years.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4360',
'title': 'Bodybuilding',
'section': 'Section::::Muscle growth.:Performance-enhancing substances.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 77,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 77,
'end_character': 568,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Muscle growth is more difficult to achieve in older adults than younger adults because of biological aging, which leads to many metabolic changes detrimental to muscle growth; for instance, by diminishing growth hormone and testosterone levels. Some recent clinical studies have shown that low-dose HGH treatment for adults with HGH deficiency changes the body composition by increasing muscle mass, decreasing fat mass, increasing bone density and muscle strength, improves cardiovascular parameters, and affects the quality of life without significant side effects.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30171',
'title': 'Demographics of Trinidad and Tobago',
'section': 'Section::::Population.:Structure of the population.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 230,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Due to decreasing fertility, the proportion of children below the age of 15 is decreasing, while the proportion of elderly is increasing. The median age has increased from 21.6 in 1980, 24.1 in 1990, 28.1 in 2000 to 32.6 in 2011.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '238789',
'title': 'Gigantism',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 579,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'As a result of the excessive amounts of growth hormone, children achieve heights that are well above normal ranges. The specific age of onset for gigantism varies between patients and gender, but the common age that excessive growth symptoms start to appear has been found to be around 13 years. Other health complications, such as hypertension, may occur in pediatric patients with hyper-secretion of growth hormone. Characteristics more similar to those seen in acromegaly may occur in patients that are closer in age to adolescence since they are nearing growth plate fusion.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2070766',
'title': 'Constitutional growth delay',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 614,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Children with constitutional delay of growth and puberty (CDGP), the most common cause of short stature and pubertal delay in males, typically have slowed linear growth within the first 3 years of life. In this variant of normal growth, linear growth velocity and weight gain slows beginning as young as age 3–6 months, resulting in downward crossing of growth percentiles, which often continues until age 2–3 years. At that time, growth resumes at a normal rate, and these children grow either along the lower growth percentiles or beneath the curve but parallel to it for the remainder of the prepubertal years.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How much does fitness potential decrease with age?',
'selftext': 'For example, if someone was a great runner as a kid, would they be able to reach that point again when they are, say, 18?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Medically I read somewhere it declines by 10% each decade. Most people are never actually fit, or if they ever were they stop putting in the same work the older they get. Also, they don't eat a proper diet to sustain. Proper diet is a huge part of the body being healthy."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '82n2cb',
'query': 'how much does fitness potential decrease with age?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '20177552',
'title': 'Transplantable organs and tissues',
'section': 'Section::::Other cells and tissues.:Ovary.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 68,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 68,
'end_character': 695,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Ovary transplantation, giving rise to successful pregnancies, will result in children who will have the genetic inheritance of the organ donor and not the recipient; it has so far only been carried out on identical twins. Use of an ovarian transplant from a genetically identical donor prevents rejection of the donated organ. This bypasses the need for immune suppressants to maintain the function of the donated ovary, which is not vital for survival. More significantly, many immunosuppressants, such as mycophenolate mofetil, may cause birth defects. Lili Elbe received an ovary transplant in the early 1930s, followed by a uterus transplant, but died shortly thereafter from complications.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12687113',
'title': 'Organ donation in Jewish law',
'section': 'Section::::Types of Organ Transplants and Jewish law.:Artificial organs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 592,
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'passage_text': 'Transplants with artificial organs do not pose any problems in Jewish law (with the exception of artificial heart transplants), as long as the prospects for success are greater than the risks. Therefore, there is no conflict with Jewish law against artificial heart valves, bone parts, joints, and use of dialysis. Artificial heart transplants are not permissible according to Jewish law due to low success rates and the serious medical complications involved. Medical science has not reached the point of being able to use artificial organs or animal organs as protocol for transplantation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7816918',
'title': 'Organlegging',
'section': 'Section::::The organ bank problem.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 417,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Compounding this problem, the high success rate of organ transplants tended to discourage research into other viable medical treatments. As a result, medical research was stagnated to a large extent, focusing primarily on improving transplants and little else. "Repairing" a failing organ (which could presumably fail again later) was considered secondary to the "complete" solution of "replacing" the failing organ.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8784037',
'title': 'Uterus transplantation',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Current status.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 250,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The transplant is intended to be temporary – the recipient will undergo a hysterectomy after one or two successful pregnancies. This is to avoid the need for her to take immunosuppressive drugs for life with a consequent increased risk of infection.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3310752',
'title': 'Lung transplantation',
'section': 'Section::::Risks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 96,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 96,
'end_character': 360,
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'passage_text': "Transplant rejection is a primary concern, both immediately after the surgery and continuing throughout the patient's life. Because the transplanted lung or lungs come from another person, the recipient's immune system will see it as an invader and attempt to neutralize it. Transplant rejection is a serious condition and must be treated as soon as possible.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38028928',
'title': 'Donald Ross (surgeon)',
'section': 'Section::::First heart transplantation in the United Kingdom.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 457,
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'passage_text': 'There had been a surge of media attention around the heart transplantation, but the team had not considered the surgery itself particularly unique or challenging. The greatest issue faced was overcoming rejection of the newly transplanted heart. "We did not feel we had achieved any particular advances in transplantation at that time," Ross has said, "and we stopped after the third transplantation because the problem of rejection had not been overcome."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2629669',
'title': 'Robot-assisted surgery',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Transplant surgery.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 44,
'end_character': 1161,
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'passage_text': 'Transplant surgery (organ transplantation) has been considered as highly technically demanding and virtually unobtainable by means of conventional laparoscopy. For many years, transplant patients were unable to benefit from the advantages of minimally invasive surgery. The development of robotic technology and its associated high-resolution capabilities, three-dimensional visual system, wrist type motion, and fine instruments, gave an opportunity for highly complex procedures to be completed in a minimally invasive fashion. Subsequently, the first fully robotic kidney transplantations were performed in the late 2000s. After the procedure was proven to be feasible and safe, the main emerging challenge was to determine which patients would benefit most from this robotic technique. As a result, recognition of the increasing prevalence of obesity amongst patients with kidney failure on hemodialysis posed a significant problem. Due to the abundantly higher risk of complications after traditional open kidney transplantation, obese patients were frequently denied access to transplantation, which is the premium treatment for end-stage kidney disease.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why do successful transplants fail',
'selftext': 'If someone has a successful lung/ kidney transplant, they are expected to fail after 5-10 years even if they take care of their bodies. Why? Is there anything that can be done to increase this?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['I\'m going to go a bit beyond 5 years old here, but I think you may appreciate it. \n\nOur organs are made of cells, but it\'s important for our cells to communicate with each other but also self identify as being part of a larger whole, because otherwise our bodies immune system will destroy any "foreign" cell. To communicate between cells (and therefore organs) we have tiny little signaling "antennae" called glycoproteins and glycolipids and these have their own unique fingerprint for everyone. \n\nSo the surgery could go right, but the organ could still be rejected by the recipients immune system targeting a "foreign" group of cells.',
'There are SO many variables. For those that have experienced the process, it’s amazing that they happen at all. \nBut, since your asking, the transplant centres can have almost 100% control over the receiver, insuring that they are as healthy as possible. \nAt the other end, there is zero control over the donor. If a person dies and donates, there is no way of knowing a comprehensive medical background. The organs have a “shelf life” and are harvested quickly. The organ is then assigned to a receiver based on rudimentary marching of sine variables. The receiver begins prep to get the organ and while the organ is in transit, it is tested further. If a problem such as disease is detected but is deemed still treatable once in the host, the host is made aware and has final say if they want want the risk. So, they fail because there will always be holes in the system. \nThat’s a nutshell for you.',
'Your body knows (most of the time) what is you and what is not. It tries to defend you from things in you that are not you. Transplants are a constant fight between you and the part you want to be a new part of you. But it is a fight you cannot win in the long run.',
" > Why?\n\nBecause the body is very effective at identifying and attacking foreign objects, organisms, viral agents and other intruders. The only reason transplants are successful in the first place is the discovery of powerful immunosuppressive pharmaceuticals, drugs that cause the immune system to stop working.\n\nHowever, over time the body will still reject the organ even from a relative. Perhaps monozygotic/single egg twins wouldn't have this problem since their DNA is or is almost identical, but I don't know enough about that to make any statement.\n\n > Is there anything that can be done to increase this?\n\nThere is significant research going on into extracting stem cells from the patients themselves and growing organs in a laboratory. This could potentially make the organs as functional as the 'original'.\n\nIn case you don't know, stem cells are a sort of *cell factory* that can divide almost indefinitely - and will adapt to their surroundings to produce the appropriate type of structures. Thus, they can be 'convinced' to make organs that are in near all respects identical to the individual they're extracted from.",
'You are on life long immunosuppresion so that your body doesnt take out your new organ because it doesnt look like the other cells in your body.\n\nMoreoever, because they suppress your immune system you are more prone to dying of infections that normal people can handle.',
"The biggest problem with an organ transplant in the immune system reaction to the organ. Your immune system will identify the new organ as a foreign object and will attack it causing rejection which will destroy the organ.\n\nNow, rejection can be avoided by immunosuppressions medications : They lower the activity of the immune system and thus it will attack less the transplanted organ.\n\nProblem tho is that you can't completely prevent the immune system from attacking the transplant, even with good medication. And immunosupressors can induce long term complications on other organs and increase the overall risk of getting cancer. So usually after a few years, the transplant will start to get rejected.\n\nHowever, everyone is different and some people are luckier than others. While a heart transplant give you an average life expectancy of 9 years, some people have managed to live with a transplanted heart for more than 25 years.",
'In addition to what everyone else has said, sometimes the disease which necessitated the transplant in the first place reoccurs and affects new the organ also.'],
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '4486552',
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'passage_text': "The radio telescope would consist of a lander vehicle that would deploy dipoles across a 300-400 m area. The dipoles, which receive the cosmic radio signals, would be deployed either by a dispenser or by a team of small mobile robots. The South Polar location would ensure permanent sunlight and direct communication with Earth. The telescope lander would also carry geophones, which could listen to meteorite impacts on the Moon's surface.\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '47288651',
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'passage_text': 'Together, the radio telescopes will cover ten times more sky than previous searches and scan the entire 1-to-10\xa0GHz range, the so-called "quiet zone" in the spectrum where radio waves are unobscured by cosmic sources or Earth\'s atmosphere.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1211349',
'title': 'Wow! signal',
'section': 'Section::::Signal measurement.:Time variation.\n',
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'passage_text': "At the time of the observation, the Big Ear radio telescope was only adjustable for altitude (or height above the horizon), and relied instead on the rotation of the Earth to scan across the sky. Given the speed of Earth's rotation and the spatial width of the telescope's observation window, the Big Ear could observe any given point for just 72 seconds. A continuous extraterrestrial signal, therefore, would be expected to register for exactly 72 seconds, and the recorded intensity of such signal would display a gradual increase for the first 36 seconds—peaking at the center of the observation window—and then a gradual decrease as the telescope moved away from it. All these characteristics are present in the Wow! signal.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '61228721',
'title': 'Orgov Radio-Optical Telescope',
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'passage_text': 'The radio telescope has a diameter of . It is hemispherical, and fixed to the ground, with a movable secondary mirror with a diameter of . This provides a useful diameter of . It has a surface accuracy around 70/100 μm, giving an operating wavelength of 30-3mm (10-100GHz), and was originally designed to observe down to 1 mm (300 GHz).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1409379',
'title': 'Gee-H (navigation)',
'section': 'Section::::Development history.:Distance measuring navigation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Determining your location in 2D space requires two measurements of angle or range - two angle measurements, two distance measurements, or one angle and one distance. Early radio navigation was typically based on taking two angle measurements using radio direction finders, but these had limited accuracy on the order of tens of miles. The development of range-based systems had to wait until the invention of accurate time measurement of radio was possible, which came about as a result of the development of radar.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7070301',
'title': 'Telescope',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Radio telescopes.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Unlike an optical telescope, which produces a magnified image of the patch of sky being observed, a traditional radio telescope dish contains a single receiver and records a single time-varying signal characteristic of the observed region; this signal may be sampled at various frequencies. In some newer radio telescope designs, a single dish contains an array of several receivers; this is known as a focal-plane array.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25134163',
'title': 'Whole Earth Blazar Telescope',
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'passage_text': 'This collaboration involves many telescopes observing at optical, near-infrared, and radio (millimetric and centimetric) wavelengths. Thanks to their different geographic location all around the world, the emission variations of the pointed source can be monitored 24 hours a day, with the observing task moving from east to west as the Earth rotates.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If we pointed a radio telescope at Earth from space, what would we see?',
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'answers': ['It depends on what frequency you choose. Unless you stay in the [Water Hole](_URL_0_ ) you only see an opaque ball. There is also a narrow optical band where you can sometimes see some of the surface, but that\'s not a radio telescope.\n\nIn the Water Hole (between 1.42 and 1.67 GHz), you don\'t see much unless something happens to be pointed at you having just passed some satellite. Then you\'d see highly structured data, in a short burst before the planetary rotation sweeps the signal off you. It would be an indicator of technology, but it wouldn\'t tell you much in that short burst, without any context. Just enough that you\'d mark the place "inhabited" on your species\' star charts and go someplace else with your interstellar spaceship.'],
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'query_id': 'baw4qg',
'query': 'if we pointed a radio telescope at earth from space, what would we see?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1121115',
'title': 'Personal Jukebox',
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'passage_text': "Volume is adjusted by a wheel on the unit's right side, using a digital mechanism (it can be turned indefinitely). It also is possible to click or push the wheel, which pauses playback and turns the unit off after about one minute. When the unit is powered off and the wheel is pressed for a few seconds, playback resumes. This also works when the buttons are locked, in case the main controls cannot be easily accessed.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8841749',
'title': 'IPhone',
'section': 'Section::::Hardware.:Screen and input.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Directly above the volume controls is a ring/silent switch that when engaged mutes telephone ringing, alert sounds from new & sent emails, text messages, and other push notifications, camera shutter sounds, Voice Memo sound effects, phone lock/unlock sounds, keyboard clicks, and spoken auto-corrections. This switch does not mute alarm sounds from the Clock application, and in some countries or regions it will not mute the camera shutter or Voice Memo sound effects. All buttons except Home were made of plastic on the original first generation iPhone and metal on all later models. The touchscreen furnishes the remainder of the user interface.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '754192',
'title': 'Amiga A570',
'section': 'Section::::Features.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Audio control knob on the front panel to adjust the volume of the headphones if connected, it did not change the volume out of the rear ports as they are designed to go to an amplified speaker setup which will have their own controls\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3064903',
'title': 'Alsamixer',
'section': 'Section::::Keyboard commands.:General controls.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The and keys control the volume for the currently selected device. You can also use or for the same purpose. Both the left and right signals are affected. To control them independently, use to increase and to decrease the volume on the left channel. increases the volume of the right channel and decreases it.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17388115',
'title': 'Floating ground',
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'passage_text': 'Floating grounds can cause problems with audio equipment using RCA connectors (also called phono connectors). With these common connectors, the signal pin connects before the ground, and 2 pieces of equipment can have a greater difference between their grounds than it takes to saturate the audio input. As a result, plugging or unplugging while powered up can result in very loud noises in speakers. If the ground voltage difference is small, it tends to only cause hum and clicks.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2151241',
'title': 'Ophicleide',
'section': 'Section::::Playing.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The sound produced with no key levers pressed is the nominal pitch of the instrument. If the player presses the lever for this normally open tone hole, that hole is closed and the now-longer air column extends past this hole up to the bell, lowering the pitch by one half step.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3785450',
'title': 'Getrag F23 transmission',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanical Faults.:Rattling / Grinding.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Making a sharp right hand turn will usually stop the noise. While the noise is occurring, in order to distinguish between the two noises, you can press lightly on the clutch pedal without releasing the clutch and the noise will NOT go away or change. As a second diagnostic aid, while the vehicle is making the noise, shift to third gear and the noise will stop.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'When you turn down or up the volume on devices with either a wheel or button, what actually happens that allows it to sound quieter or louder?',
'selftext': '',
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'answers': ['A volume knob or wheel is an example of a device called a *potentiometer*, which is a device that adjusts the voltage going down a wire by increasing or decreasing the electrical resistance.\n\nIf the resistance increases (if you turn the volume knob down), then less voltage makes it to the speaker, the cone vibrates less intensely, and the sound is quieter. The opposite is true if you turn the volume up.',
"A system consists of some signal source (tape player, radio etc), usually a preamp, an amplifier and a speaker.\n\nThe volume control sits between the preamp and the amplifier. The preamp produces a signal that is (generally) about 1 volt. The volume control has a long resistor, with a wiper that makes contact with the resistor at some point along its length. The preamp output is connected to one end of the resistor, and the other end is attached to the 0 volts point ('ground'). The wiper is connected to the input of the main amp, which produces a signal with the voltage and power needed to drive the speaker.\n\nWhen the volume is high, the wiper attaches to the resistor right beside the input. So the full 1volt signal appears at the input of the main amp. When the volume is fully down, it the wiper attaches to the resistor right down at the ground point - there's no voltage there, as it is at 0 volts, so the main amp sees no signal and you get nothing out.\n\nAnywhere between that, the wiper contacts the resistor somewhere along it's length, and so the main amp sees somewhere between the full 1v signal and nothing, controlling the volume.",
'Others have talked about potentiometers but OP asked about a "wheel" (which is not a knob) and a button. The "wheel" is known as an encoder. It\'s a device that has many different positions. The device tracks which position the wheel was at and which position it has moved to. So it knows which direction the user is turning the wheel. If they turn it clockwise, then the system will send a signal to the amplifier to increase the gain (volume). If the user is turning it counter-clockwise then it will send a signal to lower the gain. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nThis is what allows the user to continuously turn the wheel in a given direction. A regular knob has a fixed range and will only turn up to a certain point.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nAs for buttons, it\'s the same idea, there is a button for "up" and button for "down". The system decides to increase the gain or lower the gain simply by which button is pressed. This is why you can have a touch screen with a volume slider . It\'s all digital information.',
"Nowadays the wheel or buttons generate pulses that control a computer that controls the D/A converter that controls the volume of the signal. To get increased dynamics, there can be one D/A converter for the volume and one (much more high resolution) for the signal, multiplied to get the end result, but it's not a given. Also, the equalizer is completely digital, using digital (calculated) filters.",
'Sound travels through your electronic device as a very small electrical current. Think of this current as “flowing” like water. \n\nWhen the volume knob is all the way up, all of the water is allowed to pass through it, but as you turn the knob down, less and less water is allowed through. The amount of “water” coming through = volume.',
'Depends.\n\nOn purely analog devices audio is just an electric signal. When you adjust the gain you are controlling how much electricity you are letting through, like a water tap.\n\nOn digital devices this is more complicated but, generally speaking, when you press the volume buttons you are also controlling how much electricity is being sent to the speakers although not directly. Some code is interpreting your actions on the volume buttons and then this either results in the digital audio signal having less amplitude, or controlling the analog amplifier, or both.',
'See suggested for answers on analog devices. I just wanted to add that some devices save space and material by digitizing the input from a knob or wheel and converting the command to the audio section of a device.\n\nOn a digital wheel that you can keep spinning even when the volume is at 0 or 100, the input process is a two step assignment loop input, with short polling. Placing a finger on the wheel sets the start value (step 1). Then the direction the finger moves sets the positive or negative value (step 2). That value is sent to the audio "tap", telling it to open or close a bit more. The value resets back to zero value of step 1, waiting for another directional input. It repeats that for as long as you\'re tracing that finger along the track wheel.',
'Sound is sound waves, similar to waves in the water.\n\nThe device creates sound by sending electricity to a speaker. The electricity pushes the speaker inwards or outwards, creating a larger or smaller wave, depending on how much electricity you send through.\n\nTo make it quieter, the device simply sends less electricity. This can be done in multiple ways, e.g. changing the amplification in an amplifier circuit, or just taking the sound wave that it is trying to play, and multiplying it by the volume percentage.\n\nA electronically recorded sound wave consists of a series of numbers. Each number says how much power to send to the speaker at a specific time. The is one number for (typically) every 1/44100th of a second. So if you set the volume to 10%, it simply multiplies each number with 10% (= 0.1) to determine how much power to actually send to the speaker.'],
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'query_id': 'cd1mat',
'query': 'when you turn down or up the volume on devices with either a wheel or button, what actually happens that allows it to sound quieter or louder?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '472271',
'title': 'Scrambled eggs',
'section': 'Section::::Preparation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Only eggs are necessary to make scrambled eggs, but salt and pepper are often used, and other ingredients such as water, milk, butter, chives, cream or in some cases crème fraîche or grated cheese may be added. The eggs are cracked into a bowl with some salt and pepper, and the mixture is stirred or whisked: alternatively, the eggs are cracked directly into a hot pan or skillet, and the whites and yolks stirred together as they cook. Ground black pepper is also sometimes used as an ingredient. More consistent and far quicker results are obtained if a small amount of thickener such as cornstarch, potato starch or flour is added; this enables much quicker cooking with reduced risk of overcooking, even when less butter is used.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6720825',
'title': 'Powdered eggs',
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'passage_text': 'Powdered eggs are fully dehydrated eggs. They are made using spray drying in the same way that powdered milk is made. The major advantages of powdered eggs over fresh eggs are the reduced weight per volume of whole egg equivalent and the shelf life. Other advantages include smaller usage of storage space, and lack of need for refrigeration. Powdered eggs can be used without rehydration when baking, and can be rehydrated to make dishes such as scrambled eggs and omelettes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6720825',
'title': 'Powdered eggs',
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'passage_text': 'The modern method of manufacturing powdered eggs was developed in the 1930s by Albert Grant and Co. of the Mile End Road, London. This cake manufacturer was importing liquid egg from China and one of his staff realised that this was 75% water. An experimental freeze-drying plant was built and tried. Then a factory was set up in Singapore to process Chinese egg. As war approached, Grant transferred his dried egg facility to Argentina. The British Government lifted the patent during the war and many other suppliers came into the market notably in the United States. Early importers to the United States included Vic Henningsen Sr. and others in the United Kingdom.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19196010',
'title': 'Egg as food',
'section': 'Section::::Culinary properties.:Preservation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A century egg or hundred-year-old egg is preserved by coating an egg in a mixture of clay, wood ash, salt, lime, and rice straw for several weeks to several months, depending on the method of processing. After the process is completed, the yolk becomes a dark green, cream-like substance with a strong odor of sulfur and ammonia, while the white becomes a dark brown, transparent jelly with a comparatively mild, distinct flavor. The transforming agent in a century egg is its alkaline material, which gradually raises the pH of the egg from approximately 9 to 12 or more. This chemical process breaks down some of the complex, flavorless proteins and fats of the yolk into simpler, flavorful ones, which in some way may be thought of as an "inorganic" version of fermentation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '220709',
'title': 'Coddled egg',
'section': 'Section::::Methods.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The second method is to break the egg in an , porcelain cup or ramekin with a lid, and cook using a bain-marie. The inside of the egg coddler is first buttered in order to flavor the egg and allow it to be removed more easily. A raw egg (sometimes with additional flavorings) is broken into the coddler, which is then placed in a pan of near-boiling water for 7 to 8 minutes to achieve a solid white and yolk.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6720825',
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'passage_text': 'Powdered eggs were used in the United Kingdom during World War II for rationing. Powdered eggs are also known as "dried eggs", and colloquially during the period of rationing in the UK, as "Ersatz eggs". \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34238823',
'title': 'Washi eggs',
'section': 'Section::::Technique.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A Washi egg is made by first blowing the egg to remove its contents. A rectangle of washi paper, large enough to cover the egg is folded in half, and cut nearly to the midline every quarter inch (6\xa0mm) to form a fringe of narrow strips. Each strip is trimmed to a point. The paper is unfolded, rolled around the egg, and glued on, a strip at a time: the strips overlap at the ends of the egg. The egg may then be varnished.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'what is the process used to make powdered eggs?',
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'answers': ["Spray drying is the name of the [process](_URL_0_)\n\nBasically, you splay the liquid (mixed egg in this case) into a fine mist. the mist enters a very hot chamber, causing the moisture to evaporate very quickly, but it doesn't stay long enough to actually cook the material you want to dry. this powder/gas mixture is pushed to a colder area where the powder is collected and the gas is reheated in a cycle."],
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'query_id': 'aezfvx',
'query': 'what is the process used to make powdered eggs?',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '972457',
'title': 'Mass wasting',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Landslide.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A fall, including rockfall and debris fall, occurs where regolith cascades down a slope, but is not of sufficient volume or viscosity to behave as a flow. Falls are promoted in rocks which are characterized by the presence of vertical cracks. Falls can also result from undercutting by running water as well as by waves. They usually occur at very steep slopes such as a cliff face. The rock material may be loosened by earthquakes, rain, plant-root wedging, and expanding ice, among other things. The accumulation of rock material that has fallen and resides at the base of the structure is known as talus.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9597934',
'title': 'Landslide classification',
'section': 'Section::::Types and classification.:Falls.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Description: ""A fall starts with the detachment of soil or rock from a steep slope along a surface on which little or no shear displacement takes place. The material then descends mainly through the air by falling, bouncing, or rolling"" (Varnes, 1996).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2102802',
'title': 'Rockslide',
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'passage_text': 'A rockslide is a type of landslide caused by rock failure in which part of the bedding plane of failure passes through compacted rock and material collapses "en masse" and not in individual blocks. While a landslide occurs when loose dirt or sediment falls down a slope, a rockslide occurs only when solid rocks are transported down slope. The rocks tumble downhill, loosening other rocks on their way and smashing everything in their path. Fast-flowing rock slides or debris slides behave similarly to snow avalanches, and are often referred to as rock avalanches or debris avalanches. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43073646',
'title': 'The Sound of Things Falling',
'section': 'Section::::Synopsis.\n',
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'passage_text': '"The Sound of Things Falling" is the story of a law professor named Antonio Yammara, who narrates the novel. Scenes switch between the 1990s Bogotá (the present), where everything is falling apart as the result of the drug wars, and the past where the drug trade seem interwoven into everyone\'s lives.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1815563',
'title': 'Rockfall',
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'passage_text': 'A rockfall or rock-fall refers to quantities of rock falling freely from a cliff face. The term is also used for collapse of rock from roof or walls of mine or quarry workings. A rockfall is a fragment of rock (a block) detached by sliding, toppling, or falling, that falls along a vertical or sub-vertical cliff, proceeds down slope by bouncing and flying along ballistic trajectories or by rolling on talus or debris slopes,” (Varnes, 1978). Alternatively, a "rockfall is the natural downward motion of a detached block or series of blocks with a small volume involving free falling, bouncing, rolling, and sliding". The mode of failure differs from that of a rockslide.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31039138',
'title': 'Falling-out',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 464,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Falling-out is a culture-bound syndrome primarily reported in the southern United States and the Caribbean. It is described as a constricted consciousness as a psychological response to anxiety and specific stressors. Sudden collapse characterizes episodes of falling-out, whether without warning or preceded by dizziness and a spinning sensation. The individual suffering from symptoms of falling out can usually hear and understand what is going on around them.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '766049',
'title': 'Dramatic structure',
'section': "Section::::Freytag's analysis.:Falling action.\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
'end_character': 271,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'During the falling action, the conflict between the protagonist and the antagonist unravels, with the protagonist winning or losing against the antagonist. The falling action may contain a moment of final suspense, in which the final outcome of the conflict is in doubt.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Things 'randomly' falling over",
'selftext': "Say that you installed a shelf onto your wall and placed books onto it. About an hour later, you're sitting on the couch, minding your own business, when suddenly a book falls off onto the floor. Some might say that the book randomly fell off, but is there anything that determined when that book was going to fall off, such as a shift in energy? If so, is there a way to calculate when a poorly-balanced object falls over? Or is it just chance? I hope I explained this well enough. Thank you in advance for any replies.",
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["There are different forms of stability. Something like a pencil lying on it's side is stable, there is no lower energy state it can fall to. Metastability would be like a pencil standing on end. It's stable in a local sense in that minute disturbances just make it wobble a bit and settle back. Tip it a bit further and it falls over into the low energy state.\n\nSo it's all a matter of how much your book is tipped and how close it was to the tipping point to start with. There are always little random disturbances happening. Vibrations from people walking about in adjacent rooms, air currents, sound vibrations, temperature changes. Maybe it slides a bit against its neigbour over time under the cumulative effects of these to the point that the next one takes it over the edge. When exactly it fell would be unpredictable, but due to definite physical effects not pure luck.",
'Just to add to the scientific answer on stability, there are a lot of things in your house that can introduce disturbances. The furnace or attic fan kicks on, a gust of wind, people walking around in the house, running water through pipes, these can all cause little vibrations through the floor and walls.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '66lbnr',
'query': "things 'randomly' falling over",
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '191723',
'title': 'Ripple tank',
'section': 'Section::::Refraction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 594,
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'passage_text': 'If a sheet of glass is placed in the tank, the depth of water in the tank will be shallower over the glass than elsewhere. The speed of a wave in water depends on the depth, so the ripples slow down as they pass over the glass. This causes the wavelength to decrease. If the junction between the deep and shallow water is at an angle to the wavefront, the waves will refract. In the diagram above, the waves can be seen to bend towards the normal. The normal is shown as a dotted line. The dashed line is the direction that the waves would travel if they had not met the angled piece of glass.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10323066',
'title': 'Spontaneous glass breakage',
'section': 'Section::::Binding in the frame.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 522,
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'passage_text': 'Glass expands and contracts with changes in temperature and deflects due to wind, so almost all modern glass is set on resilient blocks at the bottom and with space for expansion at the sides and top. The gaskets holding the glass in the frame are also usually resilient to cushion the glass against wind buffeting. If no space is provided at the perimeter of the unit, the glass will bind against the frame, causing internal stresses to develop in the glass which can exceed the strength of glass, resulting in breakage.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '191723',
'title': 'Ripple tank',
'section': 'Section::::Refraction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 212,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The sheet of glass needs to be quite thick, with the water over it as shallow as possible. This maximizes the depth difference and so causes a greater velocity difference and therefore greater angle.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6142588',
'title': 'Glass disease',
'section': 'Section::::Chemical composition and decay.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 574,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Exposure of a glass surface to moisture, either in solution or from humidity in the atmosphere, causes chemical reactions to occur on and below the surface of the glass. The exchange of alkali metal ions (from within the glass) and hydrogen ions (from outside) can cause chemical and structural changes to the glass. When alkali metal cations in the near-surface layer are replaced by smaller hydrogen ions, structural differences between the affected surface layer and the unaffected lower layers of glass cause increasing tensile stress, which in turn can cause cracking.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12581',
'title': 'Glass',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.:Behavior of antique glass.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 100,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 100,
'end_character': 1071,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The observation that old windows are sometimes found to be thicker at the bottom than at the top is often offered as supporting evidence for the view that glass flows over a timescale of centuries, the assumption being that the glass has exhibited the liquid property of flowing from one shape to another. This assumption is incorrect, as once solidified, glass stops flowing. The reason for the observation is that in the past, when panes of glass were commonly made by glassblowers, the technique used was to spin molten glass so as to create a round, mostly flat and even plate (the crown glass process, described above). This plate was then cut to fit a window. The pieces were not absolutely flat; the edges of the disk became a different thickness as the glass spun. When installed in a window frame, the glass would be placed with the thicker side down both for the sake of stability and to prevent water accumulating in the lead cames at the bottom of the window. Occasionally, such glass has been found installed with the thicker side at the top, left or right.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20036243',
'title': 'Bert Bolle Barometer',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Australia.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 469,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'At the moment when the water reached its highest possible point in the glass pipe, visitors could witness an interesting physical phenomenon for about a minute. The air pressure above the water had lowered dramatically. Therefore, the evaporation of the water happened so vigorously that the water started to boil spontaneously, although its temperature rarely exceeded 20\xa0°C. This ‘cold boiling’ is contributed to by air bubbles that were formed in the water column. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24027000',
'title': 'Properties of water',
'section': 'Section::::Physical properties.:Polarity and hydrogen bonding.:Cohesion and adhesion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 51,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 51,
'end_character': 252,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Water also has high adhesion properties because of its polar nature. On extremely clean/smooth glass the water may form a thin film because the molecular forces between glass and water molecules (adhesive forces) are stronger than the cohesive forces.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why does the water in a glass seem to rise above the edge?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The \'surface\' above water (or any other liquid) is called a meniscus. Water sticks to things, and to itself. When you see water in a cup "climb" the edge slightly, that is due to the water \'sticking\' to the edge, and bringing more water with it. In many liquids, their sticking together force (cohesion) is stronger than the stick to other things force (adhesion). These liquids do not climb the edges of containers at all.\n\n**Specifically answering you:** When water gets above the edge of the glass slightly, it\'s cohesion is still stronger than gravity. When you add too much water, gravity becomes strong than its cohesion, and down the outside of the glass it goes.\n\n[phone spelling]'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '79a46u',
'query': 'why does the water in a glass seem to rise above the edge?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '18952739',
'title': 'Carnivorous plant',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Carnivorous plants are plants that derive some or most of their nutrients (but not energy) from trapping and consuming animals or protozoans, typically insects and other arthropods. Carnivorous plants have adapted to grow in places where the soil is thin or poor in nutrients, especially nitrogen, such as acidic bogs. Charles Darwin wrote "Insectivorous Plants", the first well-known treatise on carnivorous plants, in 1875.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19828134',
'title': 'Plant',
'section': 'Section::::Ecology.:Ecological relationships.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 84,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 84,
'end_character': 227,
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'passage_text': 'Approximately 630 plants are carnivorous, such as the Venus Flytrap ("Dionaea muscipula") and sundew ("Drosera" species). They trap small animals and digest them to obtain mineral nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34600268',
'title': 'The Carnivorous Plants (1989 book)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': "The Carnivorous Plants is a major work on carnivorous plants by Barrie E. Juniper, Richard J. Robins, and Daniel M. Joel. It was published in 1989 by Academic Press. Much of the book was written by the three authors over an eight-year period at Oxford University's Botany School (later the Department of Plant Sciences).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '243736',
'title': 'Brocchinia reducta',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 380,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'It has been argued that "B. reducta" is not actually carnivorous because the production of digestive enzymes could not be found. However, in 2005 it was shown that the plant produces at least phosphatase and is thus considered a carnivorous plant "in sensu stricto". The enzymes and bacteria digest the trapped insects and thus release the nutrients for absorption by the leaves.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9270823',
'title': 'Protocarnivorous plant',
'section': 'Section::::Degrees of carnivory.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': 'One prevailing idea is that carnivory in plants is not a black and white duality, but rather a spectrum from strict non-carnivorous photoautotrophs (a rose, for example) to fully carnivorous plants with active trapping mechanisms like those of "Dionaea" or "Aldrovanda". However, passive traps are still considered fully carnivorous. Plants that fall between the definitions in the strict carnivorous/non-carnivorous demarcation can be defined as being protocarnivorous.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18952739',
'title': 'Carnivorous plant',
'section': 'Section::::Cultivation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 131,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 131,
'end_character': 752,
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'passage_text': 'Although different species of carnivorous plants have different cultivation requirements in terms of sunlight, humidity, soil moisture, etc., there are commonalities. Most carnivorous plants require rainwater, or water that has been distilled, deionised by reverse osmosis, or acidified to around pH 6.5 using sulfuric acid. Common tap or drinking water contains minerals (particularly calcium salts) that will quickly build up and kill the plant. This is because most carnivorous plants have evolved in nutrient-poor, acidic soils and are consequently extreme calcifuges. They are therefore very sensitive to excessive soil-borne nutrients. Since most of these plants are found in bogs, almost all are very intolerant of drying. There are exceptions:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9270823',
'title': 'Protocarnivorous plant',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'A protocarnivorous plant (sometimes also paracarnivorous, subcarnivorous, or borderline carnivore), according to some definitions, traps and kills insects or other animals but lacks the ability to either directly digest or absorb nutrients from its prey like a carnivorous plant. The morphological adaptations such as sticky trichomes or pitfall traps of protocarnivorous plants parallel the trap structures of confirmed carnivorous plants.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Carnivorous plants',
'selftext': 'How did plants go from gaining nutrients from the ground to being able to produce acids to consume insects and small creatures?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Plants need to extract nutrients from the soil, but some soils are pretty pathetic and just don't provide enough to grow reliably.\n\nAt the other end of the Kingdom of life, bugs are vastly numerous and pretty damn dumb. A good number of them get stuck in flowers or harpooned on thorns or trapped in sap out of sheer stupidity. The plant doesn't do this on purpose, it's an accident. But, plants that are exceptionally treacherous start to accumulate a good number of dead bugs - and their nutrients.\n\nSo these plants find it easier to survive in the bad soils. This starts to produce a selective pressure for the plants to move into worse soil away from other competitors and get really good at accidentally slaying insects.\n\nAfter many generations of this, it's not an accident anymore. The plants with the most devious traps and spines have found a way to live in terrible sandy soils far from other faster growing plants by intentionally killing insects for supplemental nutrition.",
'Most carnivorous plants evolved their adaptations as way of gaining more nitrogen or phosphorus than what the soil would provide. They often occur in wetland areas where the water will constantly wash away any nutrition that would normally be in the soil. Nepenthes (Tropical Pitcher Plants) do not prefer to eat small mammals. They only catch them when the mouse, shrew, or occasional monkey try to fish out the insects and get stuck in the pitcher (which is filled with digestive fluid, that drowns the poor animal). Almost every other species of carnivorous plant is specialized in catching small insects. Some carnivorous species (mostly nepenthes) have even adapted themselves to producing a laxative in their nectar to cause bats and shrews to "feed" them as they eat the nectar. These plants are called "crapivores". If you or anyone else has any questions, I\'ll respond for the next few hours. I grow \\~65 different species of carnivorous plants. \n\n\nBONUS FACT :: Venus Flytraps are misnamed. They commonly eat spiders as their main prey item in outdoor environments due to how close to the ground they grow, and only occasionally catch flies. They should be known as Venus Spidertraps.',
'Pitcher plants are thought to have evolved from plants that have inwardly curved leaves to catch water. Insect could drown in the puddles of water, and many plants can absorb the nutrients through their leaves from those decomposing insects. Evolution then kicks in and those with the best ability to capture insects survive, especially in the nutrient poor soils that most carnivorous plants live in.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'c25mou',
'query': 'carnivorous plants',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '44472220',
'title': 'Food choice of older adults',
'section': 'Section::::Influences on food preference.:By age: younger and older adults.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 498,
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'passage_text': 'These physical changes can explain why someone of an older age might not be getting the nutrition they need. As taste buds change with age, certain foods might not be seen as appetizing. For example, a study done by Dr. Phyllis B. Grzegorcyzk says that as we age, our sense for tasting salty foods goes away slowly. When elderly people in care homes eat often frozen meals that contain large amounts of salt, they will not enjoy it. This could lead to depression, anxiety, or thoughts of suicide. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29265347',
'title': 'Food choice',
'section': 'Section::::Environmental influences.:Food variety.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 474,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "As a given food is increasingly consumed, the hedonic pleasantness of the food's taste, smell, appearance, and texture declines, an effect commonly referred to as sensory-specific satiety. Consequently, increasing the variety of foods available can increase overall food intake. This effect has been observed across both genders and across multiple age groups, although there is some evidence that it may be most pronounced in adolescence and diminished among older adults.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44472220',
'title': 'Food choice of older adults',
'section': 'Section::::Influences on food preference.:By personal health.:Physical health.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 438,
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'passage_text': 'At the 2010 "Providing Healthy and Safe Foods As We Age" conference sponsored by the Institute of Medicine, Dr. Katherine Tucker noted that the elderly are less active and have lower metabolism with a consequent lower need to eat. Also, they tend to have existing diseases and/or take medications that interfere with nutrient absorption. With changing dietary requirements, one study developed a modified food pyramid for adults over 70.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9955675',
'title': 'Cognitive deficit',
'section': 'Section::::Other findings.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 381,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Some studies have indicated that childhood hunger might have a protective effect on cognitive decline. One possible explanation is that the onset of age-related changes in the body can be delayed by calorie restriction. Another possible explanation is the selective survival effect, as the study participants who had a childhood with hunger tend to be the healthiest of their era.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31589792',
'title': 'Criticism of fast food',
'section': 'Section::::Health based criticisms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 600,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'However, the other reasons of over weighting among children might happen while growing, sex development, "hormonal changes," and social interactions. At those moments kids can feel depressed, which may lead to increase or decrease in appetite. In fact, increased hunger may lead to obesity in some cases. “…seasonal effective disorder affects 1.7 – 5.5% of youths ages 9-19 years old based on a community study of over 2,000 youth.". So, That needs to be counted that over gaining among children and adults is not only depended on fast foods\' ingredients, but also on the other psychological reasons\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1466952',
'title': 'Advanced glycation end-product',
'section': 'Section::::Dietary sources.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 662,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Animal-derived foods that are high in fat and protein are generally AGE-rich and are prone to further AGE formation during cooking. However, only low molecular weight AGEs are absorbed through diet, and vegetarians have been found to have higher concentrations of overall AGEs compared to non-vegetarians. Therefore it is unclear whether dietary AGEs contribute to disease and aging, or whether only endogenous AGEs (those produced in the body) matter. This does not free diet from potentially negatively influencing AGE, but implicates dietary AGE may be less important than other aspects of diet that lead to elevated blood sugar levels and formation of AGEs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29979736',
'title': 'Snacking',
'section': 'Section::::Case studies.:Benefits of snacking for older people.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
'end_character': 851,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Claire A. Zizza, Francis A. Tayie, and Mark Lino studied the effects of snacking on older Americans. As humans age, it is known that their energy (kcal) intake decreases. The study says, “Comparisons between 25- and 70-year-olds showed declines of 1,000 to 1,200 kcal/day for men and 600 to 800 kcal/day for women”. Reasons for this decline include physiological changes, a switch in the sensation of thirst and hunger, chronic diseases, a decline in physical functioning, limited resources and social factors, namely widowhood. Healthy older persons’ low intakes of protein, carbohydrate, fat, and total energy were found to be strong predictors of mortality. These low intakes can also cause unwanted weight loss which is related to potential life-threatening physical limitations. This loss of weight can be prevented by instituting a proper diet.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does appetite for food seem to lessen with old age?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Your taste buds reduce and shrink with age. Therefore as you age, food will lose its flavor. If you have to eat, you would want to eat less volume of bland things if you have the option.\n\nAlso, seniors would have a lifetime of accumulated dental issues. If they have missing teeth or ill-fitting dentures, eating can be a annoying or even painful process.',
'One explanation would be is that old folks, on average, move around less than younger people. Many have some kind of disability or disorder that restricts their mobility. Since they don’t move around as much, they don’t expend as much energy, and so they don’t need to eat as many calories to balance it out.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'dsa1dy',
'query': 'why does appetite for food seem to lessen with old age?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2231677',
'title': 'Aerosinusitis',
'section': 'Section::::Presentation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 252,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The pressure difference causes the mucosal lining of the sinuses to become swollen and submucosal bleeding follows with further difficulties ventilating the sinus, especially if the orifices are involved. Ultimately fluid or blood will fill the space.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9639798',
'title': 'Sinus (anatomy)',
'section': 'Section::::Paranasal sinuses.:Sinusitis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 48,
'end_character': 425,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'If one or more of the paired paranasal sinuses or air cavities becomes inflamed, it leads to an infection called sinusitis. The term "sinusitis" means an inflammation of one or more of the sinus cavities. This inflammation causes an increase in internal pressure within these areas. The pressure is often experienced in the cheek area, eyes, nose, on one side of the head (temple areas), and can result in a severe headache.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5186960',
'title': 'Pituitary apoplexy',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 325,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'After an apoplexy, the pressure inside the sella turcica rises, and surrounding structures such as the optic nerve and the contents of the cavernous sinus are compressed. The raised pressure further impairs the blood supply to the pituitary hormone-producing tissue, leading to tissue death due to insufficient blood supply.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '74748',
'title': 'Glaucoma',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 379,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In close/narrow-angle, the iridocorneal angle is completely closed because of forward displacement of the final roll and root of the iris against the cornea, resulting in the inability of the aqueous fluid to flow from the posterior to the anterior chamber and then out of the trabecular network. This accumulation of aqueous humor causes an acute increase in pressure and pain.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '479413',
'title': 'Vasodilation',
'section': 'Section::::Function.:Vasodilation and arterial resistance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 297,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'radius. An increase in either of these physiological components (cardiac output or TPR) causes a rise in the mean arterial pressure. Vasodilation works to decrease TPR and blood pressure through relaxation of smooth muscle cells in the tunica media layer of large arteries and smaller arterioles.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25205682',
'title': 'Periodontal abscess',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 489,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'When pus forms, the pressure increases, with increasing pain, until it spontaneously drains and relieves the pain. When pus drains into the mouth, a bad taste and smell are perceived. Usually drainage occurs via the periodontal pocket, or else the infection may spread as a cellulitis or a purulent odontogenic infection. Local anatomic factors determine the direction of spread (see fascial spaces of the head and neck). There may be systemic upset, with an onset of malaise and pyrexia.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3182604',
'title': 'Cavernous sinus',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical significance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 35,
'end_character': 989,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "The pituitary gland lies between the two paired cavernous sinuses. An abnormally growing pituitary adenoma, sitting on the bony sella turcica, will expand in the direction of least resistance and eventually compress the cavernous sinus. Cavernous sinus syndrome may result from mass effect of these tumors and cause ophthalmoplegia (from compression of the oculomotor nerve, trochlear nerve, and abducens nerve), ophthalmic sensory loss (from compression of the ophthalmic nerve), and maxillary sensory loss (from compression of the maxillary nerve). A complete lesion of the cavernous sinus disrupts CN III, IV, and VI, causing total ophthalmoplegia, usually accompanied by a fixed, dilated pupil. Involvement of CN V (V and variable involvement of V) causes sensory loss in these divisions of the trigeminal nerve. Horner's syndrome can also occur due to involvement of the carotid ocular sympathetics, but may be difficult to appreciate in the setting of a complete third nerve injury.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How exactly does sinus pressure build up when sick and why?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['If an infection reaches your sinuses it will cause inflammation and increased mucous secretion. This increased secretion together with the inflammation can clog the sinuses and thus lead to increased pressure and pain.',
"Imagine your sinuses are a water balloon. When it is empty it is all floppy because there isn't anything pushing on the sides of the balloon, this is a lack of pressure. When you fill the water balloon the water pushes on the insides and gives it a shape from the pressure. \n\nNow when you are sick your sinuses are filling with fluids, and the lining of your sinuses are thickening due to immune cells coming to fight the infection. There is a lot of pressure, but no where to go and this pushes on some nerves that cause an unpleasant feeling."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'drzthi',
'query': 'how exactly does sinus pressure build up when sick and why?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2237801',
'title': 'Short stature',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 353,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Shortness in children and young adults nearly always results from below-average growth in childhood, while shortness in older adults usually results from loss of height due to kyphosis of the spine or collapsed vertebrae from osteoporosis. The most common causes of short stature in childhood are constitutional growth delay or familial short stature. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2237801',
'title': 'Short stature',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 556,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Short stature can also be caused by the bone plates fusing at an earlier age than normal, therefore stunting growth. Normally, the bone age is the same as the biological age but for some people, it is older. For many people with advanced bone ages, they hit a growth spurt early on which propels them to average height but stop growing at an earlier age. However, in some cases, people who are naturally shorter combined with their advanced bone age, end up being even shorter than the height they normally would have been because of their stunted growth.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '179242',
'title': 'Infertility',
'section': 'Section::::Effects.:Psychological.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 250,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Older people with adult children appear to live longer. Why this is the case is unclear and may dependent in part on those who have children adopting a healthier lifestyle, support from children, or the circumstances that led to not having children.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19135653',
'title': 'Gerascophobia',
'section': 'Section::::Symptoms.:Crime target.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 208,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Due to being weaker, lesser able-bodied and slower reaction time, thus lesser able to defend themselves, elderly people are an easier, therefore more common target for criminals such as thievery and robbery.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14130192',
'title': 'Social inequality',
'section': 'Section::::Patterns of inequality.:Age inequality.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 44,
'end_character': 780,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In modern, technologically advanced societies, there is a tendency for both the young and the old to be relatively disadvantaged. However, more recently, in the United States the tendency is for the young to be most disadvantaged. For example, poverty levels in the U.S. have been decreasing among people aged 65 and older since the early 1970s whereas the number of children under 18 in poverty has steadily risen. Sometimes, the elderly have had the opportunity to build their wealth throughout their lives, while younger people have the disadvantage of recently entering into or having not yet entered into the economic sphere. The larger contributor to this, however, is the increase in the number of people over 65 receiving Social Security and Medicare benefits in the U.S.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9014',
'title': 'Developmental psychology',
'section': 'Section::::Life stages of psychological development.:Old age.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 166,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 166,
'end_character': 400,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Physically, older people experience a decline in muscular strength, reaction time, stamina, hearing, distance perception, and the sense of smell. They also are more susceptible to diseases such as cancer and pneumonia due to a weakened immune system. Programs aimed at balance, muscle strength, and mobility have been shown to reduce disability among mildly (but not more severely) disabled elderly.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33970693',
'title': 'Age discrimination in the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Reasons for age discrimination.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 415,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'There are many reasons for the workplace age discrimination. As of the 2010s, people are living longer because of healthier lifestyles and advances in medicine. People are also working longer because there is no mandatory retirement age, economic slowdowns diminish savings, and there has been a decline in defined-benefit retirement plans. Thus, more older people are interested in seeking and holding employment.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why are old people so small and short?',
'selftext': 'They seem to just become shorter and shorter',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Gravity. As people age, their bones start to lose mass, their spine begins to collapse on itself and there's usually less muscle mass. At least that's what my doctor tells me to explain why I'm nearly a half inch shorter than I was 40 years ago.",
"There are two factors at play. \n\n1. As you age, gravity and cell degradation take a toll. [For every decade over the age of 40, you lose about 4/10 of an inch (1 cm) of height](_URL_1_) due to the soft cushioning tissue in your spine compressing. The bones themselves can also shrink if you have osteoporosis.\n\n2. Older generations, up until around the 1970s (in the US), [just did not grow as tall](_URL_0_). This doesn't necessarily apply to all countries (some places, like Egypt, have seen the average adults shrink over the past few decades), but it is a wide general trend across the globe. This simply comes down to better average health and nutrition, since being malnourished, sick, or just having a bad diet as a kid (especially during teenage years) can lead to you not growing as much as you would otherwise. ",
"Old people experience sarcopenia as they age, which is a form of muscle loss. As the get weaker they often develop poor posture. Poor posture along with osteoporosis and degenerating vertebral disks decreases their affective height. Lifting weights can help with all of these factors except maybe disk degeneration. The main factor limiting their height is posture.\n\nBasically they lose muscle, the squishy disks in their spine get worn out, and they're bones get brittle and worn down. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6xf8kl',
'query': 'why are old people so small and short?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '4348923',
'title': 'Falciform ligament',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical significance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 470,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The falciform ligament can become canalised if an individual is suffering from portal hypertension. Due to the increase in venous congestion, blood is pushed down from the liver towards the anterior abdominal wall and if blood pools here, will result in dilatation of veins around the umbilicus. If these veins radiate out from the umbilicus, they can give the appearance of a head (the umbilicus) with hair of snakes (the veins) - this is referred to as caput medusae.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '234819',
'title': 'Venipuncture',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 243,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Blood is most commonly obtained from the superficial veins of the upper limb. The median cubital vein, which lies within the cubital fossa anterior to the elbow, is close to the surface of the skin without many large nerves positioned nearby.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7571557',
'title': 'Myogenic mechanism',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 490,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The smooth muscle of the blood vessels reacts to the stretching of the muscle by opening ion channels, which cause the muscle to depolarize, leading to muscle contraction. This significantly reduces the volume of blood able to pass through the lumen, which reduces blood flow through the blood vessel. Alternatively when the smooth muscle in the blood vessel relaxes, the ion channels close, resulting in vasodilation of the blood vessel; this increases the rate of flow through the lumen.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '641160',
'title': 'Lymphatic vessel',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.:Lymph capillaries.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 746,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Rhythmic contraction of the vessel walls through movements may also help draw fluid into the smallest lymphatic vessels, capillaries. If tissue fluid builds up the tissue will swell; this is called edema. As the circular path through the body\'s system continues, the fluid is then transported to progressively larger lymphatic vessels culminating in the right lymphatic duct (for lymph from the right upper body) and the thoracic duct (for the rest of the body); both ducts "drain" into the circulatory system at the right and left subclavian veins. The system collaborates with white blood cells in lymph nodes to protect the body from being infected by cancer cells, fungi, viruses or bacteria. This is known as a secondary circulatory system.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1550677',
'title': 'Cylinder stress',
'section': 'Section::::Practical effects.:Medicine.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 42,
'end_character': 448,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In the pathology of vascular or gastrointestinal walls, the wall tension represents the muscular tension on the wall of the vessel. As a result of the Law of Laplace, if an aneurysm forms in a blood vessel wall, the radius of the vessel has increased. This means that the inward force on the vessel decreases, and therefore the aneurysm will continue to expand until it ruptures. A similar logic applies to the formation of diverticuli in the gut.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '619442',
'title': 'Venule',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 340,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A venule is a very small blood vessel in the microcirculation that allows blood to return from the capillary beds to drain into the larger blood vessels, the veins. Venules range from 7μm to 1mm in diameter. Veins contain approximately 70% of total blood volume, 25% of which is contained in the venules. Many venules unite to form a vein.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '178769',
'title': 'Intravenous therapy',
'section': 'Section::::Adverse effects.:Embolism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 93,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 93,
'end_character': 438,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'One reason veins are preferred over arteries for intravascular administration is because the flow will pass through the lungs before passing through the body. Air bubbles can leave the blood through the lungs. A patient with a right-to-left shunt is vulnerable to embolism from smaller amounts of air. Fatality by air embolism is rare, although this may be in part because it is so difficult to determine when this is the cause of death.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'When we bend our elbows/knees why don’t our blood vessels flowing, like a hose?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Our arms an legs bend, not fold. When a hose folds it cuts the liquid supply, when it bends the flow is uninterrupted.\n\nThere is too much going on in the limbs with bone, muscle, adamantium, cartilage, etc, to fold.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'f3o98v',
'query': 'when we bend our elbows/knees why don’t our blood vessels flowing, like a hose?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '47862666',
'title': 'Cooking oil',
'section': 'Section::::Types and characteristics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
'end_character': 351,
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'passage_text': 'Cooking oils are composed of various fractions of fatty acids. For the purpose of frying food, oils high in monounsaturated or saturated fats are generally popular, while oils high in polyunsaturated fats are less desirable. High oleic acid oils include almond, macadamia, olive, pecan, pistachio, and high-oleic cultivars of safflower and sunflower.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4207510',
'title': 'Oil',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Cooking.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 437,
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'passage_text': 'Several edible vegetable and animal oils, and also fats, are used for various purposes in cooking and food preparation. In particular, many foods are fried in oil much hotter than boiling water. Oils are also used for flavoring and for modifying the texture of foods (e.g. Stir Fry). Cooking oils are derived either from animal fat, as butter, lard and other types, or plant oils from the olive, maize, sunflower and many other species.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '192331',
'title': 'Vegetable oil',
'section': 'Section::::Uses of triglyceride vegetable oil.:Culinary uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 469,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Oils can be heated to temperatures significantly higher than the boiling point of water, , and used to cook foods (frying). Oils for this purpose must have a high flash point. Such oils include the major cooking oils – soybean, rapeseed, canola, sunflower, safflower, peanut, cottonseed, etc. Tropical oils, such as coconut, palm, and rice bran oils, are particularly valued in Asian cultures for high-temperature cooking, because of their unusually high flash points.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29305062',
'title': 'Enzymatic interesterification',
'section': 'Section::::Food Industry applications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 392,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Fats and oils created by enzymatic interesterification provide several benefits to food manufacturers. These oils provide better health profiles than either palm oil or partially hydrogenated oil because they are trans fat free and lower in saturated fat. The wide plasticity range and more consistent solid fat content create less variability in firmness, which is beneficial in production.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '263487',
'title': 'Trans fat',
'section': 'Section::::Presence in food.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
'end_character': 435,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Partially hydrogenated oils have been used in food for many reasons. Hydrogenation increases product shelf life and decreases refrigeration requirements. Many baked foods require semi-solid fats to suspend solids at room temperature; partially hydrogenated oils have the right consistency to replace animal fats such as butter and lard at lower cost. They are also an inexpensive alternative to other semi-solid oils such as palm oil.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47862666',
'title': 'Cooking oil',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 272,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Cooking oil is plant, animal, or synthetic fat used in frying, baking, and other types of cooking. It is also used in food preparation and flavouring not involving heat, such as salad dressings and bread dips, and in this sense might be more accurately termed edible oil.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44532676',
'title': 'Oilseed press',
'section': 'Section::::Nutritional value of products.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 528,
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'passage_text': 'In addition to the meal, the oil that is procured from oilseed presses possesses nutritive benefits. Oils are naturally energy-dense materials that constitute about 25% of the total caloric intake of the typical individual. Particularly, vegetable oils are composed mainly of unsaturated fats (EUFIC, 2014; Indiana University 2014; Zambiazi et al., 2007), which include the essential omega-3 and -6 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Animal-based fats, in contrast, contain saturated fats, which are linked to cardiovascular disease.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What properties do cooking oils contain that make them beneficial for cooking?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["They should be cheap to produce in large quantities.\n\nThey need to withstand high temperatures without burning (despite what some other user said).\n\nThey must be non-toxic, not including any carcinogenic compounds they form when they're used.",
"To answer this in general terms, oil is used in cooking because it helps increase the rate of heat transfer, makes things less likely to stick to the cooking vessel, and can add extra flavors to the finished products.\n\nNow, when it comes to cooking a specific dish, there are certain things to look at when trying to pick the right oil to use. \n\nWhat kind of temperature are you going to be cooking at? Different types of oil have different smoke points, so you want to use something appropriate. If you're just sweating some veggies, then extra virgin olive oil is fine to use. If you're searing something on high heat, you will want to use something like peanut or avocado oil. \n\nAnother big concern when picking your oil is flavor. Some cooking fats bring a lot of flavor, while others are much more mild. I know I learned that lesson when I subbed evoo for vegetable oil when making brownies one time. Other things like butter or lard are also used for flavor, but could easily be out of place in the wrong dish. \n"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '80duyl',
'query': 'what properties do cooking oils contain that make them beneficial for cooking?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '27900561',
'title': 'Livyatan',
'section': 'Section::::Paleobiology.:Spermaceti organ.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 321,
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'passage_text': 'An alternate theory is that sperm whales, including "Livyatan", can alter the temperature of the wax in the organ to aid in buoyancy. Lowering the temperature increases the density to have it act as a weight for deep-sea diving, and raising the temperature decreases the density to have it pull the whale to the surface.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33777',
'title': 'Whale',
'section': 'Section::::Biology.:Intelligence.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 58,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 58,
'end_character': 419,
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'passage_text': 'Larger whales are also thought, to some degree, to engage in play. The southern right whale, for example, elevates their tail fluke above the water, remaining in the same position for a considerable amount of time. This is known as "sailing". It appears to be a form of play and is most commonly seen off the coast of Argentina and South Africa. Humpback whales, among others, are also known to display this behaviour.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '49735416',
'title': 'Tail sailing',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 419,
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'passage_text': "Tail sailing refers to the action of whales lifting their tails clear of the water for long periods of time. The process is rarely observed by humans, and the precise motivation for this phenomenon is unknown. It is thought that whales either undertake this activity to catch the wind and 'sail' through the water, or as a method to cool down. A third theory suggests that the whale is feeding close to the sea floor. \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '854453',
'title': 'Grazing',
'section': 'Section::::Ecological effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 37,
'end_character': 305,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In marine systems, grazing maintains habitat structure by preventing algal overgrowth, especially in coral reefs. However, climate change can affect the grazing performance of marine animals (e.g. by changing the feeding rates of mesograzers), triggering broad ecological effects as oceans become warmer.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1663537',
'title': 'Allometry',
'section': 'Section::::Allometric scaling in fluid locomotion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 71,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 71,
'end_character': 500,
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'passage_text': 'Traveling long distances and deep dives are a combination of good stamina and also moving an efficient speed and in an efficient way to create laminar flow, reducing drag and turbulence. In sea water as the fluid, it traveling long distances in large mammals, such as whales, is facilitated by their neutral buoyancy and have their mass completely supported by the density of the sea water. On land, animals have to expend a portion of their energy during locomotion to fight the effects of gravity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '301737',
'title': 'Right whale',
'section': 'Section::::Life history and ecology.:Range and habitat.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 41,
'end_character': 755,
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'passage_text': 'The three "Eubalaena" species inhabit three distinct areas of the globe: the North Atlantic in the western Atlantic Ocean, the North Pacific in a band from Japan to Alaska and all areas of the Southern Ocean. The whales can only cope with the moderate temperatures found between 20 and 60 degrees in latitude. The warm equatorial waters form a barrier that prevents mixing between the northern and southern groups with minor exclusions. Although the southern species in particular must travel across open ocean to reach its feeding grounds, the species is not considered to be pelagic. In general, they prefer to stay close to peninsulas and bays and on continental shelves, as these areas offer greater shelter and an abundance of their preferred foods.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '301743',
'title': 'Southern right whale',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 562,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Right whales do not normally cross the warm equatorial waters to connect with the other species and (inter)breed: their thick layers of insulating blubber make it difficult for them to dissipate their internal body heat in tropical waters. However, based on historical records and unconfirmed sightings in modern periods, "E. australis" transits may indeed occur through equatorial waters. Moreover, a stranding of a 21.3 m (71 feet) long right whale at Gajana, northwestern India in November 1944 was reported, however, true identity of this animal is unclear.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do whales regulate their temperature in the vastly different seas they travel?',
'selftext': 'For example, Blue Whales live everywhere from the tropics to the poles. How do they not overheat or freeze? Are they able to regulate the amount of blubber they have in these different areas?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The blood going to vessels in the skin (outside the blubber) is shut off to raise body temperature in the cold, and increased to cool off in the tropics.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'bfg6ex',
'query': 'how do whales regulate their temperature in the vastly different seas they travel?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2144181',
'title': 'Muktinath',
'section': 'Section::::Sri Murthy Mahatmyam.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 213,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'This is probably the only place on Earth where one can find all five elements (fire, water, sky, earth and air) from which all material things in the universe are made, according to Hindu and Buddhist traditions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '102193',
'title': 'Nonmetal',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 395,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Although five times more elements are metals than nonmetals, two of the nonmetals—hydrogen and helium—make up over 99 percent of the observable universe. Another nonmetal, oxygen, makes up almost half of the Earth's crust, oceans, and atmosphere. Living organisms are composed almost entirely of nonmetals: hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen. Nonmetals form many more compounds than metals.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5659',
'title': 'Chemical element',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 313,
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'passage_text': 'Chemical elements constitute all of the ordinary matter of the universe. However astronomical observations suggest that ordinary observable matter makes up only about 15% of the matter in the universe. The remainder is dark matter; the composition of this is unknown, but it is not composed of chemical elements.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3331852',
'title': 'Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks',
'section': 'Section::::Content.:Philosophers.:Anaxagoras.\n',
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'passage_text': 'If the many things that we experience in the world are not mere semblance but do not come from nothing and do not come from one single thing, what is their origin? Since like produces like, the many different things come from many different things. In other words, there are infinitely many different prime substances. Their total is always constant but their arrangements change.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5180',
'title': 'Chemistry',
'section': 'Section::::Modern principles.:Matter.:Molecule.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
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'passage_text': 'However, not all substances or chemical compounds consist of discrete molecules, and indeed most of the solid substances that make up the solid crust, mantle, and core of the Earth are chemical compounds without molecules. These other types of substances, such as ionic compounds and network solids, are organized in such a way as to lack the existence of identifiable molecules "per se". Instead, these substances are discussed in terms of formula units or unit cells as the smallest repeating structure within the substance. Examples of such substances are mineral salts (such as table salt), solids like carbon and diamond, metals, and familiar silica and silicate minerals such as quartz and granite.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42796964',
'title': 'Naturalism (philosophy)',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::2. Nature (the universe or cosmos) consists only of natural elements, that is, of spatio-temporal physical substance—mass–energy. Non-physical or quasi-physical substance, such as information, ideas, values, logic, mathematics, intellect, and other emergent phenomena, either supervene upon the physical or can be reduced to a physical account;\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40874485',
'title': 'Molecules in stars',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
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'passage_text': "Matter is made up by atoms (formed by protons and other subatomic particles). When the environment is right, atoms can join together and form molecules, which give rise to most materials studied in materials science. But certain environments, such as high temperatures, don't allow atoms to form molecules. Stars have very high temperatures, primarily in their interior, and therefore there are few molecules formed in stars. For this reason, a chemist (who studies atoms and molecules) would not have much to study in a star, so stars are better explained by physicists. However, low abundance of molecules in stars is not equated with no molecules at all.\n",
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'title': 'if everything in universe is made of lots different chemical elements, then how on earth exist things like human cell, flesh, neurotransmitter, heart, nucleus, etc?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': [" > like, does dna have structure like say N5H3O8, something like that\n\nOf course. After all, DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. [The wikipedia page has good images for the chemicals making it up.](_URL_0_)\n\nThe key is that chemistry is a bit more complex than it would seem at first. Its not as rigid as x chemical is made of y elements. It goes far more complex, for example, DNA is a molecule called a polymer, which is a long chain of smaller identical or similar chemical segments. Each segment in DNA is called a nucleotide, which encodes some kind of information. As it turns out, chemistry is a bit more mushy and not rigid like you probably learned in chemistry class.\n\nDNA is a chemical but much else of what you listed are bigger structures than just chemicals. The nucleus consists of many chemicals including DNA, other proteins, water, fat molecules, ect. The mitochondria as well consists of many chemicals as well.\n\n > isn't it impossible? how on earth can something exist out of rules of chemistry?\n\nWhy not? The rules of chemistry are sufficiently complicated to allow for complicated beings like us. \n\nEverything in the body consists of parts, which consists of other parts, which once again consist of other parts, until you get down to parts small enough we call molecules. ",
'Dna is just a combination of chemicals. DNA is short for Desoxyribonucleinic acid. DNA is just a combination of 4 different "strands" of chemicals combined into a double helix form which are repeated millions of times in a random order. The order is which these 4 chemical compounds are placed is what we call the dna sequence.\nKind of like how we place words in order to form a book, the order of these compounds are placed into certain orders to form "information".\n\nBut coming back to your original question: yes we are basically all just a bunch of compounds who through sheer luck got into the correct order to form life. Once 1 cell is formed, the hardest part is over, this cell can copy itself into 2 cells and keep splicing to form more. From here on out Evolution takes over.',
'Atoms and molecules are very small. The other things are much bigger, even though they are small. ',
" > Why they don't tell us cell is made of different elements, thus different chemicals? \n\nThe short answer is that it doesn't matter.\n\nIf you were to learn how to paint. You need to learn how to mix colors. But knowing exactly what the paints are made of has no bearing on the subject of painting. Similarly, what you studied is basic biology which aims to teach how things work on a cellular level. Whatever nucleus, dna etc. are made of has no impact on what they're trying to teach. ",
"You need [this](_URL_0_)\n\nThe human body is made up of:\n\n- Water 65% (by weight)\n- Protein 20%\n- Fats 12%\n- Other 3% (things like Hydroxylapatite, Carbohydrates such as glycogen and glucose, DNA, RNA, Dissolved inorganic ions such as sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, phosphate, gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, methanethiol, Ethane and pentane, oxygen free radicals, amino acids, fatty acids, nucleobases, nucleosides, nucleotides, vitamins, cofactors and Free radicals such as superoxide, hydroxyl, and hydroperoxyl)\n\nYou can look up each thing to see its chemical formula. But the most common ones:\n\n- Water is H2O\n- Proteins are very complicated incredibly densely folded long chain molecules made up primarily of Carbon, Hydrogen, Amino groups (NH2) and Carboxyl groups (COOH)\n- fats are hydrocarbons (long chains of hydrogen and carbon) ending in a carboxyl group (COOH). Quite a lot of our fat is triglyceride which is a compound of glycerol (C3H8O3) with three fatty acids (unsaturated: CH3(CH2)XCOOH where X is anything between 6 and 24, saturated has a few carbon double bonds in it and so is almost the same but minus a few of the hydrogens)\n- most of our other molecules are also carbon based but we've got salts (NaCl etc..) and all sorts in there too\n\nThe end result of all this is that a human is (by weight):\n\n- Oxygen 65%\n- Carbon - 18%\n- Hydrogen 10%\n- Nitrogen 3%\n- Calcium 1%\n- Phosphorus 1%\n- another 54 elements put together: 2%"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '9fgszh',
'query': 'if everything in universe is made of lots different chemical elements, then how on earth exist things like human cell, flesh, neurotransmitter, heart, nucleus, etc?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '22053022',
'title': 'Adiposopathy',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': 'It has been known since the 1970s that when fat cells become too big, they may become bloated and dysfunctional, or "sick". It has also been known since the 1940s that if fat gain occurs in the belly or abdominal (visceral) region, that this is another example of sick fat that promotes metabolic diseases. Finally, if fat growth exceeds its blood vessel supply, then the lack of oxygen delivery by the blood may also result in pathologic responses from fat tissue. In summary, it has been known for decades that adverse changes in fat cell and fat tissue anatomy result in sick fat which causes metabolic disease.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21894545',
'title': 'Familial partial lipodystrophy',
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'passage_text': 'As the body is unable to store fat correctly this leads to fat around all the vital organs and in the blood (triglycerides). This results in heart problems, cirrhosis of the liver, lipoatrophic diabetes, and pancreatitis, along with various other complications.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22053022',
'title': 'Adiposopathy',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.:Anatomy.\n',
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'passage_text': 'However, other subcutaneous fat tissues also might contribute to metabolic disease, if the fat cells become too enlarged and "sick." Admittedly, subcutaneous fat cells typically are larger, and capable of storing more fat when needed. However, subcutaneous fat tissue represents the largest proportion of fat tissue in the body, and is the major source of leptin.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '18993882',
'title': 'Overweight',
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'passage_text': 'A healthy body requires a minimum amount of fat for proper functioning of the hormonal, reproductive, and immune systems, as thermal insulation, as shock absorption for sensitive areas, and as energy for future use. But the accumulation of too much storage fat can impair movement, flexibility, and alter the appearance of the body.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '14403502',
'title': 'Catabolysis',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The body has a natural store of fat (also called "adipose tissue") that stores reserve energy. One can still stay alive while the body breaks down the fatty tissue (hence people wasting away from starvation).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1149933',
'title': 'Weight gain',
'section': 'Section::::Effects.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Excess adipose tissue can lead to medical problems; however, a round or large figure does not necessarily imply a medical problem, and is sometimes not primarily caused by adipose tissue. If too much weight is gained, serious health side-effects may follow. A large number of medical conditions have been associated with obesity. Health consequences are categorised as being the result of either increased fat mass (osteoarthritis, obstructive sleep apnea, social stigma) or increased number of fat cells (diabetes, some forms of cancer, cardiovascular disease, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21479285',
'title': 'Urine test strip',
'section': 'Section::::Diseases Identified with a Urine Test Strip.:Carbohydrate metabolism disorders.:Ketone test.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 58,
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'passage_text': 'An increase in fat metabolism can be the result of starvation or malabsorption, the inability to metabolize carbohydrates (as occurs, for example, in diabetes) or due to losses from frequent vomiting.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why does it matter that fat cells don't ever go away when losing weight?",
'selftext': "Apparently fat cells can increase in size and the number of them can go up, but they don't ever go away, even when you lose weight. Why is this a big deal when it comes to losing weight? Sure, the cells may not go away, but don't they still get smaller?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The number of fat cells likely doesn't play a meaningful role in how easy or hard it is to get fat. Usually to add additional fat cells, one has to gain a lot of weight. \n\nThe type of people who become obese do so because they naturally want to and can eat a lot more than an average healthy person. They also do this while not being very active. If somebody loses weight quickly and doesn't maintain their healthy lifestyle, it will naturally be easy for them to get back to where they were. \n\nAnother factor is that if you lose a lot of fat and don't gain a lot of muscle, your caloric requirements will go down. If you go back to 4k calories a day you will gain weight faster.",
"Nutritionist here.\n\nThink of fat cells like empty water balloons kept in a bucket. If the water balloons are empty, they'll be able to get filled with water more quickly as compared to when they are partially or completely filled. Similarly, more the water in the bucket, more water can enter the balloon. Simple physics, right?\n\nApply this logic to fat cells. These cells never disappear or decrease in number. Their size is what changes during weight loss or gain. So, more fat gets available in the body, the faster these adipocytes get bigger in size.\n\nWhat matters is your energy output. If the output is greater than the input, meaning you're exercising and burning more calories than your consuming, you'll lose weight. If the output equals the input, weight remains constant. And if input is more than the output, you will put on weight by providing more fat to the adipocytes. Smaller the adipocytes, faster will their fat uptake happen."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'fb256t',
'query': "why does it matter that fat cells don't ever go away when losing weight?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '343044',
'title': 'Chief operating officer',
'section': 'Section::::Responsibilities and similar titles.:President.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In a similar vein to the COO the title of corporate President as a separate position (as opposed to being combined with a "C-Suite" designation, such as "President and CEO" or "President and COO") is also loosely defined. The President is usually the legally recognized highest rank of corporate officer, ranking above the various Vice Presidents (including Senior Vice President and Executive Vice President), but on its own generally considered subordinate, in practice, to the CEO. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5681',
'title': 'Corporate title',
'section': 'Section::::Variations.:United States.\n',
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'passage_text': 'American companies are generally led by a CEO. In some companies, the CEO also has the title of "president". In other companies, a president is a different person, and the primary duties of the two positions are defined in the company\'s bylaws (or the laws of the governing legal jurisdiction). Many companies also have a CFO, a chief operating officer (COO) and other senior positions such as chief information officer (CIO), chief business officer (CBO), chief marketing officer (CMO), etc. that report to the president and CEO as "senior vice presidents" of the company. The next level, which are not executive positions, is middle management and may be called "vice presidents", "directors" or "managers", depending on the size and required managerial depth of the company.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5681',
'title': 'Corporate title',
'section': 'Section::::Variations.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Within the corporate office or corporate center of a company, some companies have a chairman and chief executive officer (CEO) as the top-ranking executive, while the number two is the president and chief operating officer (COO); other companies have a president and CEO but no official deputy. Typically, senior managers are "higher" than vice presidents, although many times a senior officer may also hold a vice president title, such as executive vice president and chief financial officer (CFO). The board of directors is technically not part of management itself, although its chairman may be considered part of the corporate office if he or she is an executive chairman.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5681',
'title': 'Corporate title',
'section': 'Section::::Senior management.:Specific corporate officer positions.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- President – legally recognized highest "titled" corporate officer, and usually a member of the board of directors. There is much variation; often the CEO also holds the title of president, while in other organizations if there is a separate CEO, the president is then second highest-ranking position. In such a case the president is often the COO and is considered to be more focused upon daily operations compared to the CEO, who is supposed to be the visionary. If the corporate president is not the COO (such as Richard Parsons of Time Warner from 1995–2001), then many division heads report directly to the CEO themselves, with the president taking on special assignments from the CEO.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '40811786',
'title': 'President (corporate title)',
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'passage_text': 'The President is a leader of an organization, company, community, club, trade union, university or other group. The relationship between the president and the Chief Executive Officer varies, depending on the structure of the specific organization. In a similar vein to the Chief Operating Officer, the title of corporate President as a separate position (as opposed to being combined with a "C-Suite" designation, such as "President and Chief Executive Officer" or "President and Chief Operating Officer") is also loosely defined; the President is usually the legally recognized highest rank of corporate officer, ranking above the various Vice Presidents (including Senior Vice President and Executive Vice President), but on its own generally considered subordinate, in practice, to the CEO. The powers of the president vary widely across organizations and such powers come from specific authorization in the bylaws like Robert\'s Rules of Order (e.g. the president can make an "executive decision" only if the bylaws allow for it).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52234',
'title': 'Chief executive officer',
'section': 'Section::::Related positions.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Typically, a CEO has several subordinate executives, each of whom has specific functional responsibilities referred to as senior executives, executive officers or corporate officers. Subordinate executives are given different titles in different organizations, but one common category of subordinate executive, if the CEO is also the president, is the vice-president (VP). An organization may have more than one vice-president, each tasked with a different area of responsibility (e.g., VP of finance, VP of human resources, VP of research and development). Some organizations have subordinate executive officers who also have the word "chief" in their job title, such as chief operating officer (COO), chief financial officer (CFO) and chief technology officer (CTO). The public relations-focused position of chief reputation officer is sometimes included as one such subordinate executive officer, but, as suggested by Anthony Johndrow, CEO of Reputation Economy Advisors, it can also be seen as "simply another way to add emphasis to the role of a modern-day CEO – where they are both the external face of, and the driving force behind, an organisation culture".\n',
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'passage_text': "The chief executive officer (CEO) or just chief executive (CE), is the most senior corporate, executive, or administrative officer in charge of managing an organization especially an independent legal entity such as a company or nonprofit institution. CEOs lead a range of organizations, including public and private corporations, non-profit organizations and even some government organizations (notably Crown corporations). The CEO of a corporation or company typically reports to the board of directors and is charged with maximizing the value of the entity, which may include maximizing the share price, market share, revenues or another element. In the non-profit and government sector, CEOs typically aim at achieving outcomes related to the organization's mission, such as reducing poverty, increasing literacy, etc.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What are the differences between the functions of a President, Chairman, CEO, CFO, and COO in the corporate structure?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
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'answers': ["It completely depends on the company. \n\nChairman typically refers to someone who represents the interests of the board/investors but doesn't oversee the day to day operation or manage the company.\n\nThe CEO is the head of the company and only answers to the board. Their chief role is to make decisions about long and short term strategy across the company. This is why they're paid so highly, they have the highest impact.\n\nCFO overseas the flow of money. Thing of it as accountant in chief. The actual role depends heavily on the business. \n\nCOO depends on the company and the person who fills the role. \n\nThere are other executives too, but it depends on the business and the industry. Every company is run differently, the titles don't mean a whole lot. You need to look at what individuals in the business actually do. ",
'CFO is the Chief Financial Officer, they oversee anything to do with the company\'s finance, accounting, and treasury departments. They\'re also responsible for reporting the company\'s financial progress to the board and shareholders.\n\nCOO is the Chief Operating Officer, they are responsible for the company\'s day-to-day operation. The specific departments and areas this covers will depend highly on the company. \n\nCCO or CMO - Chief Commercial Officer or Chief Marketing Officer, they are responsible for marketing, sales, and public relations. Not all companies have these.\n\nCIO - Chief Information Officer, they are responsible for IT, Information Systems, Network Engineering. As you can imagine, the importance of this role can vary greatly depending on the company (i.e., Applebees versus Google).\n\nCEO - Chief Executive Officer, the boss of all those guys I listed above. The CEO answers only to the board and the shareholders, and is responsible for implementing their vision for the company.\n\nChairman and President are a little more complicated, but it goes somewhat like this:\n\nLet\'s say you own 20% of a large retail chain. As a 20% shareholder for this fictitious company, let\'s say you get two board seats (and there are ten total). This is just to keep the example simple - but there can be any number of board seats representing any number of ownership interest - including none at all. You sit in one yourself, and put someone else you trust to always vote the same way you do in the second seat - but they may not have any ownership of the company like you. During a board meeting someone suggests the company expand to the midwest. You think that\'s a good idea, so you vote for it. Six out of ten vote yes, meaning the company will now begin expansion into the midwest. The Chairman of the board then goes to the CEO and says "We\'ve decided to expand to the midwest. Make it happen". The CEO then becomes responsible for implementing this strategy in the most cost effective way. The CEO first goes to his COO and asks about adding more stores and a bigger operation. Then the CEO goes to the CFO to figure out how to pay for it. The CEO may also go to the CCO to look at marketing strategies, and then back to the CFO for how to pay for the marketing. After all this back and forth - the CEO selects the best ideas from the rest of his team, determines a direction and strategy, and then brings it to the board. You listen to his strategy, but note that dividends will be on hold for a couple years to help pay for the expansion. You don\'t like that, and neither does the rest of the board (because most are shareholders and earn money from these dividends). So you tell the CEO to try again, maybe suggest certain parts of the strategy that can be omitted to preserve dividends, and the process starts all over again. \n\nAlso keep in mind that when the CEO goes to the COO or CFO for information, they likely go to their Vice Presidents who then go to their Directors who then go to their Managers who then go to their Analysts or other staff. Then a series of analyses and information works its way back up the chain to the COO. This is why those positions require someone with so much experience and pay so much. You have to know a lot about how every single branch of the company works in order to get the right information.\n\nEdit: Made some changes based on u/DoctorOddFellow\'s points for better accuracy.',
'The main distinction to be aware of here is the difference between the board of directors and the company employees.\n\nThe board of directors are the people who own the company (because they own lots of shares in it), or people who are elected by the shareholders to sit on the board and represent the shareholders. They are the people who actually own the company, or represent the people who do. As such, their decisions are ultimately the ones that the company follows. For example, Arthur D. Levinson is the Chairman of the Board of Directors for Apple. He represents the interests of Apple\'s shareholders, and gives directions (hence "director") to the company to do stuff.\n\nThe CEO - Chief Executive Officer - is an employee of the company. They may look like they have a lot of power - and they do - but ultimately, they do what the board tells them to do. For example, Tim Cook is the CEO of Apple. His job is to run Apple. He doesn\'t own Apple (except that he owns 0.02% of the shares). He makes a lot of decisions about how Apple operates day to day, but ultimately, he does what Arthur D. Levinson tells him to do. If the Board decides that Apple is going to start selling electric guitars, then it\'s Tim Cook\'s job to build an electric guitar factory, even if he thinks that\'s dumb.\n\nThe other C\\*O positions are also employees who report to the CEO. They have people reporting to them, and so on down the line.\n\nNow, the names depend on what country you\'re in, and on the particular culture of the company in question. President is usually roughly equivalent to CEO, and some companies are run by a person titled "President and Chief Executive Officer".\n\nOh, and to make things more complicated, sometimes the CEO and the Chairman are the same person. Some people think that\'s a good thing, some people think that\'s a bad thing.',
'The CEO is like the captain of a ship. Their job is to manage the running of the ship and its crew, and to navigate the ship where it is supposed to go. \n\nThe Chairman is the head of the Board of Directors, who ultimately are responsible to the shareholders. These people are like the owners of a ship. They are not directly involved in the running of the ship, but as people who have invested their money, they want to know that their ship is in good hands. They don\'t want a captain who will drive the ship onto the rocks or blunder into a war zone.....\n\nSometimes the ship owners know alot about ships and shipping, and may have even done sailing of their own in the past. So they will have very firm ideas on how they want their ships to be run and where they want them to go, and the captain\'s job will be to put their wishes into practise. Other times, the ship owners mightn\'t know much about shipping at all, it\'s a purely financial investment. So the captain might have a lot of freedom to use their own initiative in running and navigating the ship. \n\nIf it is a big ship, then the captain cannot possibly be expected to manage everything by themselves. So they have senior officers in charge of individual parts of the ship; engine room, deck crew, gunnery, navigation, administration, etc.... These people are in charge of their own departments, but need to report to the captain. The COO, CFO, and other \'C titles\' are the equivalent of these senior officers (e.g the COO is like the First Officer who is more "hands on" in the day-to-day running of the ship, and the CFO is the Purser who is responsible for finance and administration). ',
"Besides the definitions that others said, the most important part here is that there is a difference between the people who run the company and the people who own the company. \n\nThe board of directors is the organ that represents the shareholders, the ones who own the company. Their main concern therefore is money. They decide on the purpose and vision of the company. The Chairman of the board leads these discussions. \n\nThe CEO, as the name says, is in charge of execution. He is the one in charge of actually running the business, and accomplishing the vision of the board. Therefore he usually also has a seat in the board. \n\nAll other C*O functions are the chiefs of a specific department: finance (CFO), IT (CIO), Technology (CTO), ... and they report to the CEO. \n\nIn new companies, the founders usually occupy many of these positions. They have a majority share in the board, and in case of a Zuckerberg/Musk they remain CEO for a long time. In the long term the visionair CEOs views usually don't align with the board's anymore, and they may be asked to step down. Over time CEOs usually become CEOs accross multiple companies, sometimes in very different branches. ",
'The management of most corporations starts with a Board of Directors. \n\nThe **Board of Directors** represent the interest of the shareholders and investors. In public companies, **Directors** are elected to the Board by the shareholders. In private companies, the Directors may be appointed by the owners/investors. \n\nThe **Chairman** is the person who presides over the Board of Directors. He or she is typically elected by the other members of the Board, although, again, may be appointed in a privately-held company. \n\nThere are technically two types of Chairman: a **Non-Executive Chairman** and an **Executive Chairman**. A Non-Executive Chairman *only* presides over the Board. An Executive Chairman *both* presides over the Board of Directors *and* has an operational role in the company. The Non-Executive Chairman sort is overwhelmingly more common, however you frequently see the Executive Chairman role in start-ups where the founder holds both the Chairman & CEO title or where you have two co-founders -- one might be CEO and the other might be Executive Chairman. \n\nBoards might also elect a **Vice-Chairman** and it\'s technically possible to be a **Co-Chairman**, i.e. two people sharing the role (although that\'s fairly rare). \n\nThe purpose of the Board of Directors is to represent the interest of the shareholders by hiring (or firing) the CEO, guiding the overall strategy of the corporation, approving the annual budgets, etc. \n\nThe **Chief Executive Officer (CEO)** is the highest ranking executive in the company. He or she is hired by and reports to the Board of Directors. The CEO is responsible for all aspects of the corporation, and all the other executives report to the CEO. \n\nThe **Chief Financial Officer (CFO)** reports to the CEO and is responsible for the financial operations of the company, including budgeting, financing, accounting, etc. \n\nPretty much only the CEO and CFO are required positions that *every* company has.\n\nThere can be many other **C-level executives** (sometimes also called **C-Suite executives**), depending on the company. Some common ones are:\n\n* A **Chief Operating Officer (COO)** reports to the CEO and is responsible for the day-to-day operations of the company. \n\n* A **Chief Information Officer (CIO)** reports to the CEO and is responsible for the information, network, and data systems of the company. These are usually *internal* facing information, network, and data systems to distinguish them from a CTO (see below).\n\n* A **Chief Technology Officer (CTO)** reports to the CEO and is responsible for the creation and management of technology products the company sells or offers. These are usually *external* facing technologies. I.e. while the CIO might maintain the company\'s HR system (which it buys from some other company), the CTO is responsible for building the software product that the company sells. \n\n* A **Chief Marketing Officer (CMO)** reports to the CEO and is responsible for marketing across all the company\'s brands and products. \n\n* A **Chief Revenue Officer (CRO)** reports to the CEO and is responsible for driving revenue for the company, i.e. for sales. \n\n* A **Chief Legal Officer (CLO)** reporst to the CEO and is responsible for all the companies lawyers and legal activity. Frequently paired with the title "General Counsel." \n\nAnd so on and so forth. Besides the CEO and CFO, there\'s really no limit on the types of C-suite level offices that a company can create. What they all have in common is that they report directly to the CEO of the company. \n\nA **President** is an optional role in most companies\' organizational structure. Many times you will see the CEO have this title as well, i.e. "CEO & President, John Doe." \n\nIt\'s possible, and not uncommon, for a company to have a separate CEO and President. In those cases, the President almost always reports to the CEO and takes over some of the responsibilities that would otherwise normally fall on the CEO. \n\nSome times a corporation may have multiple divisions within the company and *each* will have a President that leads it. For example, a single, large multi-national company could still have a single CEO, but *also* have a President of North America, a President of Asia-Pacific, a President of Europe, etc. In this sort of structure, the Presidents are responsible for the company operations in their region. It doesn\'t have to be organized regionally, though. For example, a big media company might have a President of Broadcast Programming, a President of Film Production, a President of Interactive Media, etc. It\'s just another organizational layer. \n\nBelow the C-suite officers and/or President(s), the next layer down is usually one or more layers of **Vice-Presidents**. Depending on the company size there may be multiple layers of Vice-Presidents. When there are multiple layers of VPs they are usually labeled (in descending order) Executive Vice-President, Senior Vice-President, Managing Vice-President, and Vice-President as necessary ... although that layering and naming will vary widely from company to company\n\nBelow Vice-Presidents, you frequently have **Senior Directors** and **Directors** ... though not to be confused with the Directors who sit on the Board of Directors!!! \n\nNote: all of the above is from the perspective of US corporations. Outside of the US, terminology and corporate structure can be very different!\n\n\n\n\n',
"One thing I'd add that most of the other answers didn't mention.\n\n**The CFO is more than just the accountant-in-chief.**\n\nHe or she is responsible for the company's interaction with capital markets. They are responsible for overseeing the operation when the company does an IPO, issues secondary stock offerings, issues bonds or takes on debt financing, performs share buybacks. They have to know the pros and cons of these approaches, which one is best given their company's situation, and be able to handle it smoothly.\n\nThis is why so many large-company CFOs formerly worked at investment banks. It isn't because Goldman Sachs has a top-notch CPA program."],
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'query': 'what are the differences between the functions of a president, chairman, ceo, cfo, and coo in the corporate structure?',
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'passage_text': "Pre-rendered cutscenes are animated and rendered by the game's developers, and take advantage of the full array of techniques of CGI, cel animation or graphic novel-style panel art. Like live-action shoots, pre-rendered cutscenes are often presented in full motion video.\n",
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'passage_text': 'Cutscenes often feature "on the fly" rendering, using the gameplay graphics to create scripted events. Cutscenes can also be pre-rendered computer graphics streamed from a video file. Pre-made videos used in video games (either during cutscenes or during the gameplay itself) are referred to as "full motion videos" or "FMVs". Cutscenes can also appear in other forms, such as a series of images or as plain text and audio.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '40051481',
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'passage_text': 'Due to the Game Pak\'s space limitations, full motion video is not usually feasible for use in cutscenes. A notable exception is "Resident Evil 2", which contains the equivalent material of the two CD-ROM discs of the original PlayStation version, plus some expanded content, plus higher quality audio samples and unique surround sound technology, making it what IGN calls "the best version of the game". Some games contain significant cinematic scenes whose graphics are generated by the system in real-time, as with "". Nintendo downplayed the importance of studio-prerendered videos, with software engineering manager Jim Merrick saying, "Full-motion video demos really well on a CD-ROM, but once you get into the software, as a gamer, you\'re thinking \'let\'s get on with the game.\'"\n',
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'passage_text': "The game's cutscenes are created by the game engine in real-time. For example, if the player is riding in a car and a cut scene starts, the player will be driving the same car with the same condition (damaged or intact) and will be wearing the same clothes. There are exceptions, however: Scenes, such as the opening sequence and the Empire Arms Hotel explosion, are pre-rendered video clips.\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '59288871',
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'passage_text': 'Real time cutscenes are generally of much lower detail and visual quality than pre-rendered cutscenes, but can adapt to the state of the game. For example, some games allow the player character to wear several different outfits, and appear in cutscenes wearing the outfit the player has chosen. It is also possible to give the player control over camera movement during real time cutscenes, as seen in "Dungeon Siege", "", "", and "".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37047259',
'title': 'Need for Speed: Most Wanted (2005 video game)',
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'passage_text': 'The cutscenes in the game are live-action videos shot with real actors and set pieces, and CGI effects are added to car exteriors and environments for extra visual flair. The videos are presented in a significantly different style from the "Underground" series, and this presentation of cut scenes is used again in "" and "".\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '23060942',
'title': 'Metal Gear Solid: Peace Walker',
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.:Cutscenes.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The in-game cutscenes come in two different varieties: 3D sequences rendered using the game engine, and 2D sequences utilizing a illustration style similar to those featured in "" and "". The latter style has gameplay relevance, being host to quick-time events that have differing effects on the outcome of missions, ranging from contribution to mission rankings, recruitment of personnel, determining mission success, and affecting the outcome of a subsequent mission. The 3D-rendered cutscenes are available with either text-only narration, or with the inclusion of voice acting—the latter requires the decompression and installation of audio data to the PSP storage media, to permit simultaneous audio playback and game rendering without real-time decompression overhead; this feature also permits voiced radio calls during missions. 2D cutscenes are available with full audio support without installation to media.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How come cutscenes aren't preloaded in video games? Like a 4k HD video?",
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'answers': ['It depends on how the cutscene is rendered (how it is drawn in the game).\n\nIf it\'s a scripted cutscene, then everything is being shown in the actual game itself, which means everything has to be loaded as if you were playing the game even though you probably can\'t control anything except for the camera if that.\n\nIf it\'s a "computer-generated imagery" (CGI) video, then it can load like a regular video file which cuts down on the amount of time needed to load and play it.'],
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'query': "how come cutscenes aren't preloaded in video games? like a 4k hd video?",
'query_type': 'Technology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '10198223',
'title': 'Alone (2007 film)',
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'passage_text': "Pim and Ploy are twins both conjoined at the stomach. Pim is very sweet and protective of Ploy, though Ploy's nature is harsh and jealous. The girls promised each other to stay together until they die.\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '37974829',
'title': 'Spider Girls',
'section': 'Section::::Anatomy.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The twins are joined at the abdomen and pelvis, have four arms, and three legs, two of which are fused into a single, nine-toed limb, which remains concealed behind their body. They share a stomach, but have two hearts, two kidneys, one liver, and one reproductive tract.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1009476',
'title': 'Abby and Brittany Hensel',
'section': 'Section::::Physiology.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Each twin manages one side of their conjoined body. The sense of touch of each is restricted to her body half; this shades off at the midsagittal plane such that there is a small amount of overlap at the midline. Stomach aches, however, are felt by only the twin on the opposite side. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '697480',
'title': 'Steerpike',
'section': "Section::::Steerpike's fictional path.:Discovery.\n",
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'passage_text': 'At approximately this time the Twins die of starvation in their remote room; locked away they were completely dependent on Steerpike for supplies, but he ceased to visit them when they attempted to kill him and escape. Steerpike of course realizes that they must have died, but it is only after several years as Master of Ritual that he finds time to bother to confirm their deaths (during which time, among other things, he attempts to woo Fuchsia). Unfortunately for him he is followed to their room by Flay, Doctor Prunesquallor, and Titus and is discovered with the corpses. His behaviour at this point shows evident signs of madness, in stark contrast to the cool and rational mastermind he once was.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '79238',
'title': 'Twin',
'section': 'Section::::Unusual twinnings.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Among dizygotic twins, in rare cases, the eggs are fertilized at different times with two or more acts of sexual intercourse, either within one menstrual cycle (superfecundation) or, even more rarely, later on in the pregnancy (superfetation). This can lead to the possibility of a woman carrying fraternal twins with different fathers (that is, half-siblings). This phenomenon is known as heteropaternal superfecundation. One 1992 study estimates that the frequency of heteropaternal superfecundation among dizygotic twins, whose parents were involved in paternity suits, was approximately 2.4%; see the references section, below, for more details. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '79238',
'title': 'Twin',
'section': 'Section::::Complications during pregnancy.:Conjoined twins.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Conjoined twins (or the once-commonly used term "siamese") are monozygotic twins whose bodies are joined together during pregnancy. This occurs when the zygote starts to split after day 12 following fertilization and fails to separate completely. This condition occurs in about 1 in 50,000 human pregnancies.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21771772',
'title': 'Dicephalic parapagus twins',
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'passage_text': 'Dicephalic parapagus \\ dī-ˈsef-ə-lək \\ is a rare form of partial twinning where there are two heads side by side on one torso. Infants conjoined this way are sometimes called "two-headed babies" in popular media. The condition is also called parapagus dicephalus.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If conjoined twins share a stomach, do they both feel full or hungry at the same time?',
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'answers': ["It's hard to make general statement about conjoined twins because literally every case is different, but the feeling of hunger is regulated by hormones, most importantly Leptin and Ghrelin, which circulate in the blood. So if the conjoined twins share their circulatory system (which they *have to* if they share a stomach), then these hormones will always affect them at the same time. However, there might still be a different reaction in the brain to the hormones."],
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'query': 'if conjoined twins share a stomach, do they both feel full or hungry at the same time?',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3928494',
'title': 'Hyperspectral imaging',
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'passage_text': 'Whereas the human eye sees color of visible light in mostly three bands (long wavelengths - perceived as red, medium wavelengths - perceived as green, and short wavelengths - perceived as blue), spectral imaging divides the spectrum into many more bands. This technique of dividing images into bands can be extended beyond the visible. In hyperspectral imaging, the recorded spectra have fine wavelength resolution and cover a wide range of wavelengths. Hyperspectral imaging measures continuous spectral bands, as opposed to multispectral imaging which measures spaced spectral bands.\n',
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'title': 'Dominant wavelength',
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'passage_text': 'The psychological perception of color is commonly thought of as a function of the power spectrum of light frequencies impinging on the photoreceptors of the retina. In the simplest case of pure spectral light (also known as monochromatic), the spectrum of the light has power only in one narrow frequency band peak. For these simple stimuli, there exists a continuum of perceived colors which changes as the frequency of the narrow band peak is changed. This is the well known rainbow spectrum, which ranges from red at one end to blue and violet at the other (corresponding respectively to the long-wavelength and short-wavelength extremes of the visible range of electromagnetic radiation).\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '9426',
'title': 'Electromagnetic radiation',
'section': 'Section::::Electromagnetic spectrum.:Visible light.\n',
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'passage_text': 'As frequency increases into the visible range, photons have enough energy to change the bond structure of some individual molecules. It is not a coincidence that this happens in the "visible range," as the mechanism of vision involves the change in bonding of a single molecule (retinal) which absorbs light in the rhodopsin in the retina of the human eye. Photosynthesis becomes possible in this range as well, for similar reasons, as a single molecule of chlorophyll is excited by a single photon. Animals that detect infrared make use of small packets of water that change temperature, in an essentially thermal process that involves many photons (see infrared sensing in snakes). For this reason, infrared, microwaves and radio waves are thought to damage molecules and biological tissue only by bulk heating, not excitation from single photons of the radiation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '75450',
'title': 'Metamerism (color)',
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'passage_text': 'A spectral power distribution describes the proportion of total light given off (emitted, transmitted, or reflected) by a color sample at each visible wavelength; it defines the complete information about the light coming from the sample. However, the human eye contains only three color receptors (three types of cone cells), which means that all colors are reduced to three sensory quantities, called the tristimulus values. Metamerism occurs because each type of cone responds to the cumulative energy from a broad range of wavelengths, so that different combinations of light across all wavelengths can produce an equivalent receptor response and the same tristimulus values or color sensation. In color science, the set of sensory spectral sensitivity curves is numerically represented by color matching functions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Archaeo-optics',
'section': 'Section::::Optical basis.:Light.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Visible light, a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, encompasses wavelengths between 380-750 nanometers, which humans perceive as the colors of the spectrum: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. Light behaves according to a well-defined set of rules: it travels in straight lines, unless otherwise refracted or reflected by another object, or curved by gravity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '535725',
'title': 'Dominant wavelength',
'section': 'Section::::Explanation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'For many power distributions of natural light, the set of spectra mapping to the same color perception also includes a stimulus that is a narrow band at a single frequency; i.e. a pure spectral light (usually with some flat spectrum white light added to desaturate). The wavelength of this pure spectral light that will evoke the same color perception as the given complicated light mixture is the "dominant wavelength" of that mixture.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2193362',
'title': 'Chromophore',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The color that is seen by our eyes is the one not absorbed within a certain wavelength spectrum of visible light. The chromophore is a region in the molecule where the energy difference between two separate molecular orbitals falls within the range of the visible spectrum. Visible light that hits the chromophore can thus be absorbed by exciting an electron from its ground state into an excited state. In biological molecules that serve to capture or detect light energy, the chromophore is the moiety that causes a conformational change of the molecule when hit by light.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does the visible light spectrum appear cyclic to the human eye if the spectrum is based on specific linear wavelengths of light?',
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'category': 'Physics',
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'answers': ['It doesn\'t appear cyclic to the human eye. It appears cyclic to the human *brain*. \n\nOur eyes can detect 3 "regions" of color: red, green, and blue. If we detect some combinations of those, we typically perceive that as an "in-between" color. For example, orange light stimulates both the red and green sensing cells in our eyes. So stimulating the red and green cells is what we perceive as "orange". And, interestingly, if we just use red and green light (no orange light), we can stimulate those cells exactly the same as orange light, and so we still see orange. In fact, that\'s the basis for how computer and phone displays work: They only emit red, green, and blue light, and our brains perceive combinations of those as other colors.\n\nBut here comes the strangeness! What happens when you stimulate the red and blue cells in the eye with red and blue light? Well, your first guess is that we should perceive the color that is "in between" red and blue on the spectrum. But that color is green, and we\'re specifically *not* stimulating the green-detecting cells in our eyes. However, your brain isn\'t really capable of seeing it as two different colors (red and blue) simultaneously, so it invents a new color! Purple!\n\nThat\'s right, purple, the color that allows our sense of the spectrum to be cyclical, *isn\'t a real color*. There is no such thing as a purple photon of light. Purple can *only* be perceived by the human brain as a side effect of the limitations of our visual system.',
'Just to add something extra to the excellent explanation already provided...\n\nOur color vision is usually a matter of our vision system interpolating between the colors detected by our three flavours of cones in our retina. Think of it like a triangle, with red, green and blue in the corners and all the other colors somewhere in the middle.\n\nBut then consider that a small percentage of human females are "tetrachromats". For them, there are 4 types of color receptors in their retina. For them, the perceived color is interpolated between 4 different points. You have to imagine this in 3d now, like a 3 sided pyramid with 4 point of detected color, and some interpreted color point somewhere in the 3d space of the pyramid.\n\nTetrachromats may be able to distinguish 100 million colors ...\n\n_URL_0_\n',
'ELI5: what does OPs question mean?',
"Could you also explain the question like I'm 5?",
"Pink/ magenta bridges the gap between red and blue. Usually there would be no specific wavelength to represent pink, however our brains made up a colour to find the average wavelength of red and blue . It couldn't be green, since this new colour should be the opposite of green. There's a great explanation by minute physics on the topic.\n\n_URL_0_"],
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'query_id': '7j6yyh',
'query': 'why does the visible light spectrum appear cyclic to the human eye if the spectrum is based on specific linear wavelengths of light?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
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'title': 'Bryan Habana',
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'passage_text': 'In April 2007 Habana competed against a cheetah in a 100-meter race to help raise awareness of the imminent danger of the cheetah being classified as an endangered species, according to De Wildt officials. He lost, because cheetahs can run 70\xa0mph, instead of 22\xa0mph.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39531879',
'title': 'White Oak Conservation',
'section': 'Section::::Animals.:Cheetah.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
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'passage_text': 'The cheetah is the world\'s fast animal and can reach speeds over 60 miles per hour. To show off this speed, White Oak hosts "cheetah runs", which feature cheetahs chasing lures for long distances across fields. Similar types of events are hosted by other wildlife facilities, and they provide exercise and enrichment for the cheetahs while giving people the opportunity to see the cats at full speed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45609',
'title': 'Cheetah',
'section': 'Section::::Ecology and behaviour.:Speed and acceleration.:Recorded values.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 76,
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'passage_text': 'Speed and acceleration values for the hunting cheetah may be different from those for the non-hunting because, while engaged in the chase, the cheetah is more likely to be twisting and turning and may be running through vegetation. In 2012 an 11-year-old cheetah from the Cincinnati Zoo named Sarah made a world record by running in 5.95 seconds over a set run, during which she ran a recorded maximum speed of . A study of five wild cheetahs (three females, two males) during hunting reported a maximum speed of , with an average of . Speed can be increased by almost in a single stride. The average chase is and the maximum ranges from .\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13577914',
'title': 'Footspeed',
'section': 'Section::::Limits of speed.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'Maximum human sprint speed is strikingly slower than that of many animals. Compared to other land animals, humans are exceptionally capable of endurance, but incapable of great speed. Examples of animals with higher sprinting speeds include cheetahs which can attain short bursts of speed well over 100\xa0km/h (62\xa0mph), the American quarter horse has topped 88\xa0km/h (55\xa0mph), greyhounds can reach 70\xa0km/h (43\xa0mph), and the Mongolian wild ass has been measured at 64\xa0km/h (40\xa0mph). Even the domestic cat may reach 48\xa0km/h (30\xa0mph).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45609',
'title': 'Cheetah',
'section': 'Section::::Ecology and behaviour.:Speed and acceleration.:Adaptations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 73,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'By 1973, cheetah sprinting distance was thought to be limited by the building up of excessive body heat. A biologging study with six free-living cheetahs in Namibia revealed that their elevated body temperature did not compromise their chasing prey. After successful hunts, they had a 0.6 to 0.8\xa0°C higher body temperature than after unsuccessful chases.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48264022',
'title': 'Pursuit predation',
'section': 'Section::::Individual pursuers.:Vertebrates.:Mammals.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 985,
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'passage_text': 'While most big cat species are individual, ambush predators, Cheetahs ("Acinonyx jubatus") are pursuit predators. Widely known as the fastest terrestrial animal, with speeds reaching 61–64 miles per hour, cheetahs take advantage of their speed during chases. However, their speed and acceleration also have disadvantages, as both can only be sustained for short periods of time. Studies show that cheetahs can maintain maximum speed for a distance of approximately 500 yards. Due to these limitations, cheetahs are often observed running at moderate speeds during chases. There are claims that the key to cheetahs\' pursuit success may not be just their speed. Cheetahs are extremely agile, able to maneuver and change directions at very high speeds in very short amounts of time. This extensive maneuverability can make up for unsustainable high speed pursuit, as it allows cheetahs to quickly close the distance between prey without decreasing their speed when prey change direction.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45609',
'title': 'Cheetah',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'African cheetahs may achieve successful hunts only running up to a speed of while hunting due to their exceptional ability to accelerate; but are capable of accelerating up to on short distances of . It is therefore the fastest land animal. Because of its prowess at hunting, the cheetah was tamed as early as the 16th century BC in Egypt to kill game at hunts. Cheetahs have been widely depicted in art, literature, advertising and animation.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Since a normal human can run 8-10 mph but top athletes can run over 20 mph, if a cheetah "trained", could it potentially sprint much faster?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Almost all cheetahs are clones of each other. Theoretically every cheetah is already a top athlete since they are all pretty much identical. \n\n[source](_URL_0_) ',
'not really... cheetahs are genetically born to run this fast. \ntheir whole life is already dedicated to running and they are born with the right genetics for speed , same as athletes. \n\nthere might be faster and slower cheetahs, but the variance is not as great as with humans, so you wont be able to train a cheetah to run 50% faster, maybe 10-20%',
"No. They're all constantly training to catch their food. The average human doesn't need to run 20mph to survive on a day to day basis, but you had better believe that if they did then all the humans on earth would be running like that. Cheetahs do need to run fast to live, so you won't find any cheetah that isn't in top shape.",
"I mean considering wild cheetahs run to eat and ensure survival, I'm pretty sure they are the equivalent of 'trained'. Maybe 9 to 5 office cheetahs who do paperwork for a living could improve speeds though."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '6fx1g4',
'query': 'since a normal human can run 8-10 mph but top athletes can run over 20 mph, if a cheetah "trained", could it potentially sprint much faster?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '9763',
'title': 'Exoplanet',
'section': 'Section::::General features.:Color and brightness.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 48,
'end_character': 638,
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'passage_text': 'For gas giants, geometric albedo generally decreases with increasing metallicity or atmospheric temperature unless there are clouds to modify this effect. Increased cloud-column depth increases the albedo at optical wavelengths, but decreases it at some infrared wavelengths. Optical albedo increases with age, because older planets have higher cloud-column depths. Optical albedo decreases with increasing mass, because higher-mass giant planets have higher surface gravities, which produces lower cloud-column depths. Also, elliptical orbits can cause major fluctuations in atmospheric composition, which can have a significant effect.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '961349',
'title': 'Hot Jupiter',
'section': 'Section::::Puffy planets.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
'end_character': 708,
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'passage_text': 'Gas giants with a large radius and very low density are sometimes called "puffy planets" or "hot Saturns", due to their density being similar to Saturn\'s. Puffy planets orbit close to their stars so that the intense heat from the star combined with internal heating within the planet will help inflate the atmosphere. Six large-radius low-density planets have been detected by the transit method. In order of discovery they are: HAT-P-1b, COROT-1b, TrES-4, WASP-12b, WASP-17b, and Kepler-7b. Some hot Jupiters detected by the radial-velocity method may be puffy planets. Most of these planets are below two Jupiter masses as more massive planets have stronger gravity keeping them at roughly Jupiter\'s size.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12684087',
'title': 'Internal heating',
'section': 'Section::::Planets.:Gas giants.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 955,
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'passage_text': 'The gas giants have much greater internal heating than terrestrial planets, due to their greater mass and greater compressibility making more energy available from gravitational contraction. Jupiter, the most massive planet in the Solar System, has the most internal heating, with core temperature estimated to be 36,000 K. For the outer planets of the Solar System, internal heating powers the weather and wind instead of sunlight that powers the weather for terrestrial planets. The internal heating within gas giant planets raise temperatures higher than effective temperatures, as in the case of Jupiter, this makes 40 K warmer than given effective temperature. A combination of external and internal heating (which may be a combination of tidal heating and electromagnetic heating) is thought to make giant planets that orbit very close to their stars (hot Jupiters) into "puffy planets" (external heating is not thought to be sufficient by itself).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '864017',
'title': 'Planetary core',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "Gas giants also have cores, though the composition of these are still a matter of debate and range in possible composition from traditional stony/iron, to ice or to fluid metallic hydrogen. Gas giant cores are proportionally much smaller than those of terrestrial planets, though theirs can be considerably larger than the Earth's nevertheless; Jupiter has one 10–30 times heavier than Earth, and exoplanet HD149026 b may have a core 100 times the mass of the Earth.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12733',
'title': 'Giant planet',
'section': 'Section::::Subtypes.:Gas giants.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 351,
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'passage_text': "Gas giants consist mostly of hydrogen and helium. The Solar System's gas giants, Jupiter and Saturn, have heavier elements making up between 3 and 13 percent of their mass. Gas giants are thought to consist of an outer layer of molecular hydrogen, surrounding a layer of liquid metallic hydrogen, with a probable molten core with a rocky composition.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46528307',
'title': 'Comparative planetary science',
'section': 'Section::::Geology and geochemistry.:Tectonics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
'end_character': 274,
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'passage_text': 'Gas giants may in turn show different forms of heat transfer and mixing. Furthermore, gas giants show different heat effects by size and distance to the Sun. Uranus shows a net negative heat budget to space, but the others (including Neptune, farther out) are net positive.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '387514',
'title': 'Flashtube',
'section': 'Section::::Output spectrum.:Krypton and other gases.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 39,
'end_character': 787,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Heavier gases exhibit higher resistance, and therefore, have a higher value for K. Impedance, being defined as the resistance required to change energy into work, is higher for heavier gases, and as such, the heavier gases are much more efficient than the lighter ones. Helium and neon are far too light to produce an efficient flash. Krypton can be as good as 40% efficient, but requires up to a 70% increase in pressure over xenon to achieve this. Argon can be up to 30% efficient, but requires an even greater pressure-increase. At such high pressures, the voltage drop between the electrodes, formed by the spark streamer, may be greater than the capacitor voltage. These lamps often need a "boost voltage" during the trigger phase, to overcome the extremely high trigger-impedance.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do gas giants have such strong gravities?',
'selftext': "Like Jupiter for instance or Saturn. They're gas giants that are huge I'll grant, but why so much gravity? Given that they're mainly gas, wouldn't their density be very low? And if their density is low, how do they have so much gravity?",
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Their density might be low, but they are still massive. The "force" of an object\'s gravitational field depends not on density of an object but on raw mass. For example, if you crushed the earth down to a black hole maybe a few meters across the orbit of the moon and any other satellites would stay the same as they are today. ',
"Their density is lower, but they're also vastly bigger than earth or similar planets. The increase in volume means that they still have a lot more mass than smaller, denser planets, and that's what dictates their gravitational pull. ",
'Gravity is determined by mass, not density. Jupiter is 318 times more massive than Earth. Saturn is 95 times more massive than Earth. Thus, despite being far less dense, they nonetheless have far stronger gravity. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'b7urog',
'query': 'why do gas giants have such strong gravities?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '6142588',
'title': 'Glass disease',
'section': 'Section::::Chemical composition and decay.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 574,
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'passage_text': 'Exposure of a glass surface to moisture, either in solution or from humidity in the atmosphere, causes chemical reactions to occur on and below the surface of the glass. The exchange of alkali metal ions (from within the glass) and hydrogen ions (from outside) can cause chemical and structural changes to the glass. When alkali metal cations in the near-surface layer are replaced by smaller hydrogen ions, structural differences between the affected surface layer and the unaffected lower layers of glass cause increasing tensile stress, which in turn can cause cracking.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56527569',
'title': 'Conservation and restoration of photographic plates',
'section': 'Section::::Agents of deterioration.:Physical.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 377,
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'passage_text': 'Glass plates are rather stable dimensionally, but they are also very fragile and brittle. Because glass is brittle, it is highly susceptible to breakage, cracks, and fractures. This can be caused by human error including dropping or bumping the glass plate, or it can be caused by failure of storage equipment, housing, shelves, etc. which may lead to an impact to the glass. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3954001',
'title': 'Architectural glass',
'section': 'Section::::Heat-strengthened glass.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 41,
'end_character': 214,
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'passage_text': 'Heat-strengthened glass can take a strong direct hit without shattering, but has a weak edge. By simply tapping the edge of heat-strengthened glass with a solid object, it is possible to shatter the entire sheet. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '251061',
'title': 'Glass-ceramic',
'section': 'Section::::Cooktops.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 433,
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'passage_text': 'Glass-ceramic from the LAS-System is a mechanically strong material and can sustain repeated and quick temperature changes. However, it is not totally unbreakable. Because it is still a brittle material as glass and ceramics are, it can be broken. There have been instances where users reported damage to their cooktops when the surface was struck with a hard or blunt object (such as a can falling from above or other heavy items).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52715055',
'title': 'Bahntower',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 273,
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'passage_text': 'In 2007 and 2008, it was reported that the small pieces of glass had fallen onto the street from cracks in the façade. This was followed in 2016 by a near-fatal incident in which a pane of glass measuring 30\xa0cm by 150\xa0cm (1\xa0ft by 5\xa0ft) fell onto a car on the street below.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '427118',
'title': 'Principle of locality',
'section': 'Section::::Quantum mechanics.:Realism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 30,
'end_character': 309,
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'passage_text': 'Even though the result of striking a glass object with a hammer does not exist before the act of striking it, that does not mean the broken glass is a creation of the observer. A particle accelerator is a sophisticated type of hammer, and the target particles are liable to end up as a heap of broken shards.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '894198',
'title': 'Curtain wall (architecture)',
'section': 'Section::::Fire safety.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 73,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 73,
'end_character': 453,
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'passage_text': "Falling glass can endanger pedestrians, firefighters and firehoses below. An example of this is the 1988 First Interstate Tower fire in Los Angeles, California. The fire leapfrogged up the tower by shattering the glass and then consuming the aluminum framing holding the glass. Aluminum's melting temperature is 660\xa0°C, whereas building fires can reach 1,100\xa0°C. The melting point of aluminum is typically reached within minutes of the start of a fire.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How come glass breaks when it hits the ground, but marbles bounce and hardly take damage?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Spheres.\n\nSpheres distribute the shock of hitting the ground very evenly. A marble can still break, but it's less likely to than a cube, prism, or sheet.\n\n",
'The shape of the marble helps, but it is less significant than the material properties. The manufacturing process of glass marbles creates beneficial compressive residual stresses on the outside of the sphere- this effectively "prestresses" the outside. Thus when you drop a marble on the ground, the forces are not enough to overcome the residual stresses, thus never allowing for tensile forces to initiate cracking. This is similar to what you see in tempered glass (the stuff the side windows of a car might be made of, which are harder to break than you might think). \n\n\nThere is a youtube video floating around where a marble is crushed in a hydraulic press - it literally explodes, with all of the internal residual stresses being released instaneuously.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '78e5tk',
'query': 'how come glass breaks when it hits the ground, but marbles bounce and hardly take damage?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '23335',
'title': 'Parsec',
'section': 'Section::::History and derivation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'The parsec is defined as being equal to the length of the longer leg of an extremely elongated imaginary right triangle in space. The two dimensions on which this triangle is based are its shorter leg, of length one astronomical unit (the average Earth-Sun distance), and the subtended angle of the vertex opposite that leg, measuring one arc second. Applying the rules of trigonometry to these two values, the unit length of the other leg of the triangle (the parsec) can be derived.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23335',
'title': 'Parsec',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'The parsec (symbol: pc) is a unit of length used to measure large distances to astronomical objects outside the Solar System. A parsec is defined as the distance at which one astronomical unit subtends an angle of one arcsecond, which corresponds to astronomical units. One parsec is equal to about 3.26\xa0light-years or 31 trillion kilometres () or 19 trillion miles (). The nearest star, Proxima Centauri, is about from the Sun. Most of the stars visible to the unaided eye in the night sky are within 500 parsecs of the Sun.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26073',
'title': 'Right ascension',
'section': 'Section::::Explanation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "Any units of angular measure could have been chosen for right ascension, but it is customarily measured in hours (), minutes (), and seconds (), with 24 being equivalent to a full circle. Astronomers have chosen this unit to measure right ascension because they measure a star's location by timing its passage through the highest point in the sky as the Earth rotates. The line which passes through the highest point in the sky, called the meridian, is the projection of a longitude line onto the celestial sphere. Since a complete circle contains 24 of right ascension or 360° (degrees of arc), of a circle is measured as 1 of right ascension, or 15°; of a circle is measured as 1 of right ascension, or 15 minutes of arc (also written as 15′); and of a circle contains 1 of right ascension, or 15 seconds of arc (also written as 15″). A full circle, measured in right-ascension units, contains , or , or 24.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2431',
'title': 'Minute and second of arc',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Astronomy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
'end_character': 719,
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'passage_text': 'The arcsecond is also often used to describe small astronomical angles such as the angular diameters of planets (e.g. the angular diameter of Venus which varies between 10″ and 60″), the proper motion of stars, the separation of components of binary star systems, and parallax, the small change of position of a star in the course of a year or of a solar system body as the Earth rotates. These small angles may also be written in milliarcseconds (mas), or thousandths of an arcsecond. The unit of distance, the parsec, named from the "par"allax of one arc "sec"ond, was developed for such parallax measurements. It is the distance at which the mean radius of the Earth\'s orbit would subtend an angle of one arcsecond.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31548988',
'title': 'LogMAR chart',
'section': 'Section::::Relation to the Snellen chart.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 498,
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'passage_text': 'The Snellen chart, which dates back to 1862, is also commonly used to estimate visual acuity. A Snellen score of 6/6 (20/20), indicating that an observer can resolve details as small as 1 minute of visual angle, corresponds to a LogMAR of 0 (since the base-10 logarithm of 1 is 0); a Snellen score of 6/12 (20/40), indicating an observer can resolve details as small 2 minutes of visual angle, corresponds to a LogMAR of 0.3 (since the base-10 logarithm of 2 is near-approximately 0.3), and so on.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23335',
'title': 'Parsec',
'section': 'Section::::History and derivation.:Calculating the value of a parsec.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 512,
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'passage_text': 'The length of the parsec used in IAU 2015 Resolution B2 (exactly astronomical units) corresponds exactly to that derived using the small-angle calculation. This differs from the classic inverse-tangent definition by about 200\xa0km, i.e. only after the 11th significant figure. As the astronomical unit was defined by the IAU (2012) as an exact SI length in metres, so now the parsec corresponds to an exact SI length in metres. To the nearest meter, the small-angle parsec corresponds to 30,856,775,814,913,673 m.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7830588',
'title': 'List of humorous units of measurement',
'section': 'Section::::Length.:Attoparsec.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 292,
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'passage_text': 'Parsecs are used in astronomy to measure enormous interstellar distances. A parsec is approximately 3.26 light-years or about 3.086×10 m (1.917×10\xa0mi). Combining it with the "atto-" prefix (×10) yields attoparsec (apc), a conveniently human-scaled unit of about that is used only humorously.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Definition of a parsec for an amateur astronomer',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["3.26 light-years or the distance of an object where the orbit of the Earth around the sun creates a visual **P**arallax of one **ar**c**sec**ond\n\nParallax is the difference in apparent position of an object viewed from two different spots like how an object shifts a bit when you look out just your left eye is just your right eye. You can measure the difference in the angle when seen from both spots to determine the parallax angle. The smaller this angle the further away an object is(this is how we tell distance with our eyes at short to medium range)\n\nFor a Parsec, these two measurements are opposite sides of the sun, exactly 2 AU(Earth's orbital diameter) apart. If you can set the angle difference between these two measurements to be 1 arc second then they're focused on an object 1 Parsec away (~3.26 ly)",
"Just as an aside ... if you're asking because of what Han Solo said in the original Star Wars movie, the line was a mistake. Parsec is not a unit of time. It's a unit of distance."],
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'query_id': 'a0vyew',
'query': 'definition of a parsec for an amateur astronomer',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1045467',
'title': "Traveler's diarrhea",
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Antimotility agents.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Antimotility drugs such as loperamide and diphenoxylate reduce the symptoms of diarrhea by slowing transit time in the gut. They may be taken to slow the frequency of stools, but not enough to stop bowel movements completely, which delays expulsion of the causative organisms from the intestines. They should be avoided in patients with fever, bloody diarrhea, and possible inflammatory diarrhea. Adverse reactions may include nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, hives or rash, and loss of appetite. Antimotility agents should not, as a rule, be taken by children under age two.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2851571',
'title': 'Irinotecan',
'section': 'Section::::Side effects.:Diarrhea.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 312,
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'passage_text': 'Irinotecan-associated diarrhea is severe and clinically significant, sometimes leading to severe dehydration requiring hospitalization or intensive care unit admission. This side-effect is managed with the aggressive use of antidiarrheals such as loperamide or co-phenotrope with the first loose bowel movement.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '179404',
'title': 'Fecal incontinence',
'section': 'Section::::Management.:Medication.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 283,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Pharmacological management may include anti-diarrheal/constipating agents and laxatives/stool bulking agents. Stopping or substituting any previous medication that causes diarrhea may be helpful in some (see table). There is not good evidence for the use of any medications however.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '53951',
'title': 'Diarrhea',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.:Evolution.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 67,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 548,
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'passage_text': 'According to two researchers, Nesse and Williams, diarrhea may function as an evolved expulsion defense mechanism. As a result, if it is stopped, there might be a delay in recovery. They cite in support of this argument research published in 1973 that found that treating "Shigella" with the anti-diarrhea drug (Co-phenotrope, Lomotil) caused people to stay feverish twice as long as those not so treated. The researchers indeed themselves observed that: "Lomotil may be contraindicated in shigellosis. Diarrhea may represent a defense mechanism".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1045467',
'title': "Traveler's diarrhea",
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Antibiotics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 46,
'end_character': 463,
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'passage_text': 'If diarrhea becomes severe (typically defined as three or more loose stools in an eight-hour period), especially if associated with nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, fever, or blood in stools, medical treatment should be sought. Such patients may benefit from antimicrobial therapy. A 2000 literature review found that antibiotic treatment shortens the duration and severity of TD; most reported side effects were minor, or resolved on stopping the antibiotic.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43949',
'title': 'Antipyretic',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Antipyretics are substances that reduce fever. Antipyretics cause the hypothalamus to override a prostaglandin-induced increase in temperature. The body then works to lower the temperature, which results in a reduction in fever.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '995670',
'title': 'Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid',
'section': 'Section::::Adverse effects.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Possible side effects include diarrhea, vomiting, nausea, thrush, and skin rash. These do not usually require medical attention. As with all antimicrobial agents, antibiotic-associated diarrhea due to "Clostridium difficile" infection—sometimes leading to pseudomembranous colitis—may occur during or after treatment with amoxicillin/clavulanic acid.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What happens in your body when you take antidiarrheal medicine?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The most common antidiarrheal medicine is an opioid drug, like morphine, but it doesn't get absorbed from the GI tract very much at all. Opioid drugs really slow down your intestines, so much that addicts often have issues with chronic constipation. When you take this medicine, it basically slows down your gut so that you can absorb more water out of your poop and make it firmer. However, for most diarrheal illnesses, it's not recommended to take these medicines. Ask your doctor before taking any of these drugs."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'a08fn4',
'query': 'what happens in your body when you take antidiarrheal medicine?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '57026507',
'title': 'Budtender',
'section': 'Section::::Careers.:Income.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
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'end_character': 435,
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'passage_text': 'Because the distribution and use of marijuana is illegal on a federal level, budtending salaries vary per state. However as of 2014, the general hourly income for a budtender is $11–12 per hour. One of the perks of being a budtender is that many dispensaries give discounts of their product to their employees. Budtenders will often get tips from their customers, and sometimes a yearly salary (with tips) can be from $31,000–$42,000.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3045683',
'title': 'Cannabis in Canada',
'section': 'Section::::Cannabis as a commodity.:Stock market volatility.:Excise tax and sales tax.\n',
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'passage_text': "From the early planning stages, the government indicated that the substance would be taxed. An estimate in late 2016 suggested revenues of $618 million per year from a federal tax initially, and eventually, billions, according to a report by Canada's Parliamentary Budget Officer (PBO). (A recent government estimate indicates that the illegal marijuana industry is worth $7 billion per year.) The Task Force report recommended that high-potency cannabis (with a high THC content) be taxed at a higher level than the conventional product to make it less attractive to consumers.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '57043182',
'title': 'Occupational health concerns of cannabis use',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Employers and employees have faced new challenges in the workplace with the increasing legislation of cannabis. State law can have provisions, for an employer to refuse to hire based on marijuana use, under the concern of safety, productivity and company reputation. Companies that have “safety sensitive work” or include operating machinery or large vehicles are also free to institute a zero-tolerance policy for its employees. For the approximate 10 million CDL (Commercial Drivers Licenses) drivers in the USA, federal law requires they pass employer drug tests under the Omnibus Transportation Employee Safety Act of 1991.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32885226',
'title': 'Washington Initiative 502',
'section': 'Section::::Ballot measure summary.\n',
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'passage_text': 'This measure removes state-law prohibitions against producing, processing, and selling marijuana, subject to licensing and regulation by the liquor control board; allow limited possession of marijuana by persons aged twenty-one and over; and impose 25% excise taxes on wholesale and retail sales of marijuana, earmarking revenue for purposes that include substance-abuse prevention, research, education, and healthcare. Laws prohibiting driving under the influence would be amended to include maximum thresholds for THC blood concentration.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14633987',
'title': 'Taxation of illegal income in the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Medical marijuana: Treatment of deductions for expenses in business legalized under state laws.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Even though 28 states and the District of Columbia have medical marijuana laws (with eight of those states and D.C. now allowing marijuana to be consumed without a doctor recommendation), the IRS is applying section 280E to deny business deductions. Businesses operating legally under state law argue that section 280E should not be applied because Congress did not intend the law to apply to businesses that are legal under state law. The IRS asserts that it was the intent of Congress to apply the provision to anyone "trafficking" in a controlled substance, as defined under federal law (as stated in the text of the statute). Thus, section 280E is at the center of the conflict between federal and state laws with respect to medical marijuana.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38998350',
'title': 'Cannabis in Massachusetts',
'section': 'Section::::Legality.:Recreational cannabis.:Overview.:Sales.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
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'passage_text': 'Retail sales have a 10.75% excise tax on the marijuana, on top of the general 6.25% state sales tax, and up to a 3% local option tax, for a total of 17%–20% tax. Treasurer Deborah Goldberg unilaterally increased the excise tax to 10.75% from the 3.75% approved by voters in the language of ballot question.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50386788',
'title': 'Adult Use of Marijuana Act',
'section': 'Section::::Content.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Businesses selling marijuana require a license from the state-level Bureau of Marijuana Control, and local governments decide permits for businesses to allow on-site consumption. Marijuana shops are prohibited from the sale or consumption of alcohol or tobacco. Local governments are allowed to completely ban marijuana-related businesses.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do employees of marijuana dispensaries in the US handle their taxes if their income is based off the sale of marijuana?',
'selftext': 'With the federal restrictions affecting how dispensaries due business (such as not being able to have bank accounts), how do its employees handle their taxes when the income is coming from the sale of marijuana? edit: thanks for the all the replies, I think I was coming from the idea of what would happen if someone had to be audited or have their taxes looked more closely. Would it affect them at a federal level for working at a dispensarie.',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The same way anyone else does. Just report the source of the income.\n\nFederal law requires you to report all income, even if it's from an illegal source.",
"They report that their employer paid them to operate a retail shop. The IRS wants to know what you got paid, not what the shop sells. OK, there are some banking issues, so your boss had to pay you in cash. From the IRS perspective, also not a problem, they want to know how much you got paid, not how it was paid to you.\n\nOf the many legal snarls surrounding pot, employee income taxes isn't one of them.",
'THe IRS uses business activity codes that you would put on your return. WHile somewhat specific, they don\'t get so specific as to what items you sell. FOr instance Marijuana sales could be retail trade: food and beverage stores among others. So as long as your business name on the tax return is not something like "Bob\'s House of Weed, Edibles and Illegal Activities" you would be good. The other way they could know is that banks file reporting of interest income to the IRS. So if your business bank name is incriminatory that would come up. FOrtunately, or unfortunately there is not much in the way of banking services for this industry. \n\n[Source: IRS Activity Codes](_URL_0_)',
'I get my paycheck as a dead drop at my local In & Out on the 2nd and 4th Tuesday. Pretty sure thats industry standard.',
'Because the IRS doesn\'t really care if you made $30k at some place called "Steve\'s Alternative Medicine". They just want to know how much money you got and from where. They\'ve got bigger problems.',
"5 year dispensary manager here. To answer your question, we handle it normally. I filled out a w2, and taxes are taken out of my check every time. I get an income tax check every year like normal. We have an account with ADP and have to just keep money in our account with them. One time the owner forgot to deposit funds, and ADP was nice enough to pay us anyway. Obviously he made the deposit, but super courteous of them regardless. \n\nCountless times I've had to run to the local grocery store for money orders to pay rent, electricity, ect... since everything is cash based. Our taxes are even paid in cash too. We have had 8 banks close accounts that the owners have opened in their names. Chase was one of them. We had an account with them for years. All of the employees knew us and what we were doing. Then one day out of nowhere they closed our account. They even marked my boss as using the account in an illegal way, so his personal account with Charles Schwab got closed because they were notified. He had 7 days to find a place for $1.5mil (personal, not dispensary related).",
"I am probably wrong, but it was explained to me years ago that tax returns are not valid evidence in court. Under the 5th amendment you cannot be compelled to self incriminate but tax code compels you to report income. So if you sell guns illegally, or drugs, you still need to file that as income, possibly just as misc sales but as income. \n\nMr calpone was finally brought down by the IRS, and I'm sure a tax lawyer can help more than internet people. but still it's an interesting topic",
'I\'ve noticed most "employees" of dispensaries in OC work as "volunteers" but are obviously being paid. Is this some sort of work around to the taxes?',
"So the IRS still want you to report your illegal business income because they still want you to pay taxes. So that's all good, it's effectively like any other business. You report your profits, pay taxes on the profits, the remaining profits after taxes are retained by the business or returned to the owners.\n\nHowever there is a catch, and it's a big one. Businesses pay tax on revenue, not profit. So if you have sales totaling $1,000,000 and costs totaling $900,000 then you're paying tax on the million, not on the $100k difference. However you're allowed to deduct business expenses from the revenue before you pay taxes and in most businesses that'll be the full $900,000 of your expenses. So although you're taxed on revenue, not profits, you're taxed on revenue minus deductions which is effectively the same thing as profits.\n\nIf you're still with me so far I'll get to the shitty bit. Illegal businesses are only allowed to deduct cost of goods sold from their revenue. So if you have $1,000,000 in sales, spent $300,000 on stock, $300,000 on employees and $300,000 on overhead such as rent then where a normal business would be taxed on $1,000,000 minus a $900,000 deduction a marijuana dispensary would be taxed on $1,000,000 minus a $300,000 deduction. So despite only making $100,000 in profit they would be taxed on the $700,000 difference between revenue and cost of goods sold. Therefore their tax bill would be greater than their entire profit.\n\nIt's fucking shit for them. Proper accounting in that situation is really disincentivised while workarounds, such as paying staff off the books become extremely rational.",
"Could you ELI5 what marijuana dispensaries are and why they have problems? It sounds like, even though you can run a shop that sells weed in your state, you have problems because you're doing something illegal federally?",
"The IRS cares not where your money came from, only that they get their cut.\n\nYou could list any number of illegal activities as your source of income, from drug dealer to mob hitman, and the IRS won't do anything about it. Once you stop paying taxes, however, then you have a problem. That's what they got Al Capone on, after all."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '66ik4b',
'query': 'how do employees of marijuana dispensaries in the us handle their taxes if their income is based off the sale of marijuana?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '32499',
'title': 'Vector graphics',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The term "vector graphics" is mainly used today in the context of two-dimensional computer graphics. It is one of several modes an artist can use to create an image on a raster display. Vector graphics can be uploaded to online databases for other designers to download and manipulate, speeding up the creative process. Other modes include text, multimedia, and 3D rendering. Virtually all modern 3D rendering is done using extensions of 2D vector graphics techniques. Plotters used in technical drawing still draw vectors directly to paper.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32499',
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'passage_text': 'Vector graphics are computer graphics images that are defined in terms of 2D points, which are connected by lines and curves to form polygons and other shapes. Each of these points has a definite position on the "x-" and "y-"axis of the work plane and determines the direction of the path; further, each path may have various properties including values for stroke color, shape, curve, thickness, and fill. Vector graphics are commonly found today in the SVG, EPS, PDF or AI graphic file formats and are intrinsically different from the more common raster graphics file formats of JPEG, PNG, APNG, GIF, and MPEG4.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25255027',
'title': 'Video game graphics',
'section': 'Section::::Vector graphics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'Vector graphics refers to the use of geometrical primitives such as points, lines, and curves (i.e. shapes based on mathematical equations) instead of resolution-dependent bitmap graphics to represent images in computer graphics. In video games this type of projection is somewhat rare, but has become more common in recent years in browser-based gaming with the advent of Flash and HTML5 Canvas, since these support vector graphics natively. An earlier example for the personal computer is "Starglider" (1986).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44564',
'title': 'Raster graphics editor',
'section': 'Section::::Comparison to vector graphic editors.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Vector graphics editors are often contrasted with raster graphics editors, yet their capabilities complement each other. The technical difference between vector and raster editors stem from the difference between vector and raster images. Vector graphics are created mathematically, using geometric formulas. Each element is created and manipulated numerically; essentially using Cartesian coordinates for the placement of key points, and then a mathematical algorithm to connect the dots and define the colors.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44565',
'title': 'Vector graphics editor',
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'passage_text': 'A vector graphics editor is a computer program that allows users to compose and edit vector graphics images interactively on a computer and save them in one of many popular vector graphics formats, such as EPS, PDF, WMF, SVG, or VML.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32499',
'title': 'Vector graphics',
'section': 'Section::::Operation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Some authors have criticized the term "vector graphics" as being confusing. In particular, "vector graphics" does not simply refer to graphics described by Euclidean vectors. Some authors have proposed to use "object-oriented graphics" instead. However this term can also be confusing as it can be read as any kind of graphics implemented using object-oriented programming.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18567210',
'title': 'Computer graphics',
'section': 'Section::::Image types.:Two-dimensional.:Vector graphics.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Vector graphics formats are complementary to raster graphics. Raster graphics is the representation of images as an array of pixels and is typically used for the representation of photographic images. Vector graphics consists in encoding information about shapes and colors that comprise the image, which can allow for more flexibility in rendering. There are instances when working with vector tools and formats is best practice, and instances when working with raster tools and formats is best practice. There are times when both formats come together. An understanding of the advantages and limitations of each technology and the relationship between them is most likely to result in efficient and effective use of tools.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Vector Graphics',
'selftext': 'I understand that the beam is manipulated directly, and that’s what makes it different from raster, but I don’t understand how that would work or why it works and how it knows what order to do things in or why it requires different hardware or anything.',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Do you mean the old oscilloscope-style vector graphics or the modern of vector graphics?',
"Classic vector graphics uses a Cathode Ray Tube - an electron beam is controlled by electromagnets onto a phosphorous target. The phosphorous is energized and illuminated, providing the displayed image. Engineers can design such a screen with multiple beams, stronger or weaker beams, different phosphorous coatings, and even multiple phosphorous layers. The effect is the ability to draw multiple lines simultaneously, images that last longer, shorter or longer refresh rates, and even color. Color can also be set with masks and even color changing masks using TFT LCD technology.\n\nThere are electronics that control the beam, and those are controlled by an analog input signal. The details of this signal are dependent upon the device, but in my experience with oscilloscopes, you can generate a control signal with some software and the output of your sound card.\n\nThese devices are pretty limited in their capability but are desirable in some context, I suppose. Sometimes, you just can't beat analog. These devices don't store the image any longer than the phosphorous stays illuminated, so the device driver has to run in a loop to control refresh.\n\nModern vector graphics are a set of points and strokes with brushes. The image renderer has to follow an ordered set of instructions to generate the image from those instructions. The renderer drives a rasterizer, which is software that populates pixel data in a pixel buffer. The data is sent through a video driver, a layer of the OS, to the video hardware, that sends signals to your modern pixel display device."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'djbapk',
'query': 'vector graphics',
'query_type': 'Technology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1292166',
'title': 'Ultimate Soccer Manager',
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'passage_text': 'In all three games, the game always kept the same visual style: the main screen is a bird\'s eye view of the stadium facility (where clicking on the grass brings the squad selection screen or in the stands for the stadium builder) and all screens are presented like the player was inside an office ("TCM 2004" used a similar interface option). To increase the feeling of "being there", tables are accessed via teletext, news from a newspaper and fixtures are available by clicking on a sheet attached to a clipboard.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14172889',
'title': "Gazza's Superstar Soccer",
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The game has no scroll. Instead, it has three different screens showing one third of the field each. In one the player gets a side view of the middle of the field. When the ball goes out of the screen, a new screen with the goal at its top is shown (the camera is "flying" over the middle of the field).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4747538',
'title': 'Match Day (video game)',
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 279,
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'passage_text': 'This video game was the first one where large moving footballers characters could dribble, throw-in, take corners, etc. on ZX Spectrum. The game uses modified sprites from a previous title "Bear Bovver" to create an almost isometric, but still ultimately side-on football title.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1908299',
'title': 'Ultimate Soccer',
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'passage_text': '"Ultimate Soccer" is played in a field of vision similar to the Madden NFL games in the console, a second-row view behind the players\' shoulders that can also be tilted to show more field depth or more detail closer to the bottom of the screen. Player sprites, while small, are well animated and with small details such as dirt or water splashing from the players\' feet (which would become one of the trademark effects in Sega\'s own Worldwide Soccer)\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4587847',
'title': 'MLBPA Baseball',
'section': 'Section::::Summary.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Couched in what the packaging billed as "huge arcade style graphics," games could be played on either natural or artificial grass (depending on the home team) during day or night. The game also featured scoreboard animations for double and triple plays, home runs, grand slams, pitching changes, pinch hitters, and sometimes strike outs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20779904',
'title': "Rolan's Curse",
'section': 'Section::::Summary.:Graphics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': "The game's visuals are built with graphic tiles, extending the play field beyond the current view. When the player walks to the edge of the screen, the view adjusts to next set of tiles that represent a new area.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1520925',
'title': 'Scoreboard',
'section': 'Section::::Video board animation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Most major sports facilities will use a video board and display graphics and fun videos relating to what is happening in the game. For instance, a home run may be depicted by an animation of a ball flying out to space. These animations are usually high in detail and are customized for the team that uses them. Most Major League Baseball facilities do their video editing on site in the press box; however, at Triple-A baseball stadiums most of it is done off site. Some teams have animators that create their own animations, while others have outside companies do the work for them.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do live football field graphics appear beneath the players?',
'selftext': 'You know when it shows the scrimmage lines or whatever right on the field? I assume the graphics are already using pan/tilt/zoom data from the cameras, since it looks a lot stabler than simply motion tracking (please correct me if I\'m wrong on that), but what really baffles me is how the graphics appear "beneath" the players. Chroma key? Nope. I see teams with green colours that still pass over it. Extracting a matte from thermal imaging? Wouldn\'t the helmets be cooler than their bodies? What then? How?',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['You had the right idea already. It is indeed chroma key. The cameras are simply good enough that they can distinguish between the green of the grass and the green in uniforms. They actually need to continually reset the chroma key as the color of the grass changes as the sun moves or when shadows show up on the field.',
"It's a step beyond chromakey and motion tracking... first they can only do this from some of the cameras. Those cameras have motion tracking mounts that are very precise. Then when they set up before the game they not only calibrate those motion tracking, they map the field... it isn't as simple as keying out green. They're keying out the exact shade of grass at that location (within some slight variation for lighting changes). That's the way it was 10 years ago. They may have built into some level of 3d tracking to even improve it further."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'a8xza3',
'query': 'how do live football field graphics appear beneath the players?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '47202079',
'title': 'Windshield sun shades',
'section': 'Section::::Types.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 546,
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'passage_text': 'They are available in many designs, including accordion fold, roll up, etc. There are also permanently installed sun shades built directly into the window frame. Some vehicles can be equipped with power sun shades that move up and down with a touch of a button. Some retractable sun shades are attached with an adhesive, suction cups, etc. and roll up on the top or fold at the sides of the windshield. Some car shades are designed for winter use and attach to the outside of the windshield (typically with straps) to keep it snow- and ice-free.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17934824',
'title': 'Vehicle canopy',
'section': 'Section::::Disadvantages.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 284,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- In situations of bad weather such as snow, rain, or hail, it is impossible to enter or exit the vehicle without getting the interior wet, unless under cover (you would also have to clear any significant snow accumulation off of the roof or it would be too heavy to lift).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3178571',
'title': 'Reflective surfaces (climate engineering)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 284,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Solar reflective cars or cool cars reflect more sunlight than dark cars, reducing the amount of heat that is transmitted into the car’s interior. Therefore, it helps decrease the need for air conditioning, fuel consumption, and emissions of greenhouse gases and urban air pollutants.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6074980',
'title': 'Winter service vehicle',
'section': 'Section::::Design.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 661,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In most countries, winter service vehicles usually have amber light bars, which are activated to indicate that the vehicle is operating below the local speed limit or otherwise poses a danger to other traffic, either by straddling lanes or by spreading grit or de-icer. In some areas, such as the Canadian province of Ontario, winter service vehicles use the blue flashing lights associated with emergency service vehicles, rather than the amber or orange used elsewhere. In Michigan, green flashing lights are used. Many agencies also paint their vehicles in high-contrast orange or yellow to allow the vehicles to be seen more clearly in whiteout conditions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1621122',
'title': 'Snowcat',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 372,
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'passage_text': 'The cabs are optimized for use in sub-zero weather or cold conditions worsened by wind chill, with strong forced heating and a windshield designed to be kept clear of internal and external ice or condensation through a variety of means such as advanced coatings, external scrapers (windshield wipers of a modified type), and internal ducts blowing hot air on the surface.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '173759',
'title': 'Sunglasses',
'section': 'Section::::Special-use.:Land vehicle driving.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 52,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 52,
'end_character': 378,
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'passage_text': 'Even though some of these glasses are proven good enough for driving at night, it is strongly recommended not to do so, due to the changes in a wide variety of light intensities, especially while using yellow tinted protection glasses. The main purpose of these glasses are to protect the wearer from dust and smog particles entering into the eyes while driving at high speeds.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '610527',
'title': 'Whiteout (weather)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 636,
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'passage_text': 'A whiteout may be due simply to extremely heavy snowfall rates as seen in lake effect conditions, or to other factors such as diffuse lighting from overcast clouds, mist or fog, or a background of snow. A person traveling in a true whiteout is at significant risk of becoming completely disoriented and losing their way, even in familiar surroundings. Motorists typically have to stop their cars where they are, as the road is impossible to see. Normal snowfalls and blizzards, where snow is falling at /h), or where the relief visibility is not clear yet having a clear field of view for over , are often incorrectly called whiteouts.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why must my car be a "sauna" in winter, or else my windows are all fogged over with zero visibility?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Humidity in your car will precipitate out onto your window (like dew) because the window is almost as cold as the outside. By heating up the air you increase the window temperature as well as increasing the moisture capacity of the air (hot air can contain more moisture than cold air) because the air can hold more moisture and the window is not as cold it's less likely to fog up.",
'In the winter, the outside air is almost certainly colder than the inside of your car. When the warm air inside hits the (cold) window, it cools down quickly and any water in that air condenses into a liquid form, forming fog (tiny water droplets coating the inside of the window).\n\nHeating the windows with the defroster can make it warmer and less likely to "shock" the water out of the air. More important for defogging the windows is turning on the air conditioner (yes, even with the heat on). One of the main things an air conditioner does is dehumidify the air. Thus, you\'re spraying the window with dry air, which gets rid of the fog and keeps it from forming again. You can defog a window with cold air with the AC on...try it! \n\n',
'Your car doesn\'t *have* to be a sauna, you might just be using the system inefficiently.\n\nIf your car has auto defog, use it (and set the temperature to something you\'re comfortable with).\n\nIf your car has manual controls, set them as follows:\n\n* Output vent: Defog/windshield (or the combination of defog & floor vents if you want).\n* Input: Fresh/outside air. Any light labeled "recirculation" or with the icon of a curved arrow inside the car, should be **off**.\n* A/C compressor: **On**. This is the part many people don\'t understand, they think that the AC is for cooling the car in the summer. But it also has the effect of reducing humidity, which defogs the windows.\n* Fan: On so that the air reaches the windshield. To quickly defog you can turn the fan to its highest setting, then turn it back down to medium or medium-low when the fog has disappeared.\n* Temperature: *You can set this to whatever temperature you\'re comfortable with*, as long as it\'s not lower than the outside temperature. It doesn\'t have to be all the way up. I normally start with 50/50 cooling/heating and then adjust from there.',
"This isn't true of your car. Turn your heater down and fan up. The windows will defog.\n\nYour car should also have a button that allows air to come in from outside or recirculate the air from inside. Make sure you are drawing fresh air from the outside.\n\nBecause you are breathing you are humidifying the air. This water condenses on the cold windows. If you make the whole care very hot, then the windows will also get hot and the water won't condense.\n\nBut there is a better way. The air from outside has very low humidity. you just need to get that air into the car. You could blow it in cold if you wanted, the only reason to warm it a little is for your comfort.",
"Don't forget you breath when in your car. When breathing the exhaled air has a higher humidity than the air you inhaled. So you humidify the air in your car with every breath you take.\n\nWhen you heat up the windshield in your car water will not or only sparcely condensate on it."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'ahcixb',
'query': 'why must my car be a "sauna" in winter, or else my windows are all fogged over with zero visibility?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '931370',
'title': 'Tropical rainforest',
'section': 'Section::::Ecology.:Soils.:Soil types.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
'end_character': 964,
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'passage_text': 'Soil types are highly variable in the tropics and are the result of a combination of several variables such as climate, vegetation, topographic position, parent material, and soil age. Most tropical soils are characterized by significant leaching and poor nutrients, however there are some areas that contain fertile soils. Soils throughout the tropical rainforests fall into two classifications which include the ultisols and oxisols. Ultisols are known as well weathered, acidic red clay soils, deficient in major nutrients such as calcium and potassium. Similarly, oxisols are acidic, old, typically reddish, highly weathered and leached, however are well drained compared to ultisols. The clay content of ultisols is high, making it difficult for water to penetrate and flow through. The reddish color of both soils is the result of heavy heat and moisture forming oxides of iron and aluminium, which are insoluble in water and not taken up readily by plants.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '467924',
'title': 'Oxisol',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 462,
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'passage_text': 'Scientists originally thought that the heavy vegetation of tropical rain forests would provide rich nutrients, but as rainfall passes through the litter on the forest floor the rain is acidified and leaches minerals from the above soil layers. This forces plants to get their nutrition from decaying litter as Oxisols are quite infertile due to the lack of organic matter and the almost complete absence of soluble minerals leached by the wet and humid climate.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '931370',
'title': 'Tropical rainforest',
'section': 'Section::::Ecology.:Soils.:Buttress roots.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 38,
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'passage_text': 'A common feature of many tropical rainforests is the distinct buttress roots of trees. Instead of penetrating to deeper soil layers, buttress roots create a widespread root network at the surface for more efficient uptake of nutrients in a very nutrient poor and competitive environment. Most of the nutrients within the soil of a tropical rainforest occur near the surface because of the rapid turnover time and decomposition of organisms and leaves. Because of this, the buttress roots occur at the surface so the trees can maximize uptake and actively compete with the rapid uptake of other trees. These roots also aid in water uptake and storage, increase surface area for gas exchange, and collect leaf litter for added nutrition. Additionally, these roots reduce soil erosion and maximize nutrient acquisition during heavy rains by diverting nutrient rich water flowing down the trunk into several smaller flows while also acting as a barrier to ground flow. Also, the large surface areas these roots create provide support and stability to rainforests trees, which commonly grow to significant heights. This added stability allows these trees to withstand the impacts of severe storms, thus reducing the occurrence of fallen trees.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50047',
'title': 'Rainforest',
'section': 'Section::::Soils.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 1806,
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'passage_text': "Despite the growth of vegetation in a tropical rainforest, soil quality is often quite poor. Rapid bacterial decay prevents the accumulation of humus. The concentration of iron and aluminium oxides by the laterization process gives the oxisols a bright red colour and sometimes produces mineral deposits such as bauxite. Most trees have roots near the surface, because there are insufficient nutrients below the surface; most of the trees' minerals come from the top layer of decomposing leaves and animals. On younger substrates, especially of volcanic origin, tropical soils may be quite fertile. If rainforest trees are cleared, rain can accumulate on the exposed soil surfaces, creating run-off and beginning a process of soil erosion. Eventually streams and rivers form and flooding becomes possible. There are several reasons for the poor soil quality: First is that the soil is highly acidic. The roots of plants rely on an acidity difference between the roots and the soil in order to absorb nutrients. When the soil is acidic, there is little difference, and therefore little absorption of nutrients from the soil. Second, The type of clay particles present in tropical rainforest soil has a poor ability to trap nutrients and stop them from washing away. Even if humans artificially add nutrients to the soil, the nutrients mostly wash away and are not absorbed by the plants. Thirdly, The type of clay particles present in tropical rainforest soil has a poor ability to trap nutrients and stop them from washing away. Even if humans artificially add nutrients to the soil, the nutrients mostly wash away and are not absorbed by the plants. Finally, these soils are poor due to the high volume of rain in tropical rainforests washes nutrients out of the soil more quickly than in other climates.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2885328',
'title': 'Oligotroph',
'section': 'Section::::Plant adaptations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 800,
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'passage_text': 'Plant adaptations to oligotrophic soils provide for greater and more efficient nutrient uptake, reduced nutrient consumption, and efficient nutrient storage. Improvements in nutrient uptake are facilitated by root adaptations such as nitrogen-fixing root nodules, mycorrhizae and cluster roots. Consumption is reduced by very slow growth rates, and by efficient use of low-availability nutrients; for example, the use of highly available ions to maintain turgor pressure, with low-availability nutrients reserved for the building of tissues. Despite these adaptations, nutrient requirement typically exceed uptake during the growing season, so many oligotrophic plants have the ability to store nutrients, for example, in trunk tissues, when demand is low, and remobilise them when demand increases.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '245138',
'title': 'Loess',
'section': 'Section::::Fertility.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 33,
'end_character': 539,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Soils underlain by loess tend to be excessively drained. The fine grains weather rapidly due to their large surface area, making soils derived from loess rich. One theory states that the fertility of loess soils is due largely to cation exchange capacity (the ability of plants to absorb nutrients from the soil) and porosity (the air-filled space in the soil). The fertility of loess is not due to organic matter content, which tends to be rather low, unlike tropical soils which derive their fertility almost wholly from organic matter.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14124037',
'title': 'Altitudinal zonation',
'section': 'Section::::Factors.:Soil composition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 813,
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'passage_text': 'The nutrient content of soils at different elevations further complicates the demarcation of altitudinal zones. Soils with higher nutrient content, due to higher decomposition rates or greater weathering of rocks, better support larger trees and vegetation. The elevation of better soils varies with the particular mountain being studied. For example, for mountains found in the tropical rainforest regions, lower elevations exhibit fewer terrestrial species because of the thick layer of dead fallen leaves covering the forest floor. At this latitude more acidic, humose soils exist at higher elevations in the montane or subapline levels. In a different example, weathering is hampered by low temperatures at higher elevations in the Rocky Mountain of the western United States, resulting in thin coarse soils.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How come rainforests are so lush if tropical soils are generally low in nutrients?',
'selftext': "The Amazon rainforest is massive, but I've read that its soils are pretty poor. How does that work?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The nutrients are constantly recycled and absorbed into the top forest and generally all the roots hold the poor soil together from what I know.',
'Pretty much any nutrients that that become available are immediately used up. The trees also have partnerships with fungi that live in the soil and on their roots which help to break down dead plant matter, etc. The fungi hand all the nutrients they manage to produce over to the trees, and the trees give them some sugar and protection in return. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'ah10th',
'query': 'how come rainforests are so lush if tropical soils are generally low in nutrients?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '4756194',
'title': 'System Locked Pre-installation',
'section': 'Section::::Details.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 598,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Another method consists of modding the BIOS to insert the SLP 2.1 table, which can be used to replace blacklisted keys, or to add the SLP table to motherboards that do not have it (such as Gigabyte). Some brand-name computers such as Dell, already have the SLP table in their BIOS, which means that using software readily available on the Internet, a pirated retail installation can be converted to OEM, and the appropriate certificate installed into the OS, which results in Windows becoming genuine. Pirates refer to copies of Windows activated in this way as Pirated Genuine Microsoft Software.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7906921',
'title': "Sid Meier's Pirates! (2004 video game)",
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.:Historical pirates.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 47,
'end_character': 484,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Each has a buried treasure, and portions of the treasure maps sometimes may be purchased in taverns. If a player digs up a pirate\'s treasure before defeating him, the pirate will act like a "Pirate Hunter" when the player comes into view. (However, the ships they possess are not historically correct, as Blackbeard\'s ship "Queen Anne\'s Revenge" is controlled by Henry Morgan and other pirates in the game. This issue can be corrected for the computer version with the v1.01 patch.) \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5481172',
'title': 'Pop-up Pirate',
'section': 'Section::::Rules.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 433,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The pirate is placed into a spring-loaded barrel and rotated to randomize the unlucky slot. Players must take it in turns to insert plastic swords into slots in the side of the barrel. If a player inserts the sword into a specific slot (which changes randomly every time the game is played), the pirate is launched out of the barrel and the player is eliminated. The last player remaining after all others have been eliminated wins.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28712402',
'title': 'Pirates Plund-Arrr',
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 546,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': '"Pirates-Plund-Arrr" is a side-scrolling beat-em-up that incorporates a small number of role-playing video game elements. After selecting a character, the player then selects a starting stage through an overworld map. After completing a stage, the player has the choice to revisit it or to move to another stage. The map also displays shops where the player character can buy items and weaponry using coins gained from defeated foes. Arena stages can be unlocked where the player character can take on challenges to unlock additional characters.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '622150',
'title': 'Hosts (file)',
'section': 'Section::::Extended applications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 247,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Software piracy: Some pirated versions of software rely on a modified hosts file to prevent software from contacting the activation servers of the publisher, although activation servers sometimes appear in general purpose hosts files.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7774384',
'title': 'Treasure Island (1984 video game)',
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 330,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Instead, the player should find a pirate who was blocking access to an exit (or perhaps a power-up) and kill him with it, thus advancing progress through the game. This strategic rationing of cutlasses (i.e. knowing where to pick them up and where to use them) in order to progress around the island was a major gameplay element.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9877893',
'title': 'Nuke (warez)',
'section': 'Section::::Pre database.:List of public predb websites.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 549,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'There are now several public websites and IRC channels that list the contents of pre-databases. Most of them are regularly updated and show nuke reasons next to their release. They can be regularly down, very slow when searching or disappeared entirely. The server time is shown on some of them. According to TorrentFreak these websites are "simple archives of information that cannot be claimed by copyright holders, but anti-piracy companies apparently cannot tell the difference between reporting news and offering pirate releases for download."\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'how do the servers know a game is pirated, like if you had a pirated copy of C.O.D what happen s to stop you playing online?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Old games used to just want to connect so servers would let them play. \n\n\nNow a days with faster connection, the first message your game sends to the server is the exact version of the game and the serial number of the copy and a signature of all the parts of the computer(processor, Ram, graphics card, sound card ect) and the IP address exact version of the Operating server ect.\n\nThe server then looks up the serial number of the key with its database to realise that it has already been given to an other completely different computer with a different IP and not the same patch of the OS. \n\nIt now safe to say it is a copy. \n\n\nEli5: you call from a number. It is linked to your voice, speech pattern, the noise in the back and the caller ID. \n\n\nSame day, somebody with a different voice on a different caller ID, and a thick different accent call the same number pretending to be you. The person at the other end now knows it is not you.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7b9mjf',
'query': 'how do the servers know a game is pirated, like if you had a pirated copy of c.o.d what happen s to stop you playing online?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2208016',
'title': 'Geolocation',
'section': 'Section::::Techniques.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 301,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'IP address location data can include information such as country, region, city, postal/zip code, latitude, longitude and time zone. Deeper data sets can determine other parameters such as domain name, connection speed, ISP, language, proxies, company name, US DMA/MSA, NAICS codes, and home/business.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '149426',
'title': 'Subnetwork',
'section': 'Section::::Network addressing and routing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 471,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'An IP address is divided into two logical parts, the "network prefix" and the "host identifier". All hosts on a subnetwork have the same network prefix. This prefix occupies the most-significant bits of the address. The number of bits allocated within a network to the prefix may vary between subnets, depending on the network architecture. The host identifier is a unique local identification and is either a host number on the local network or an interface identifier.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23521191',
'title': 'W3C Geolocation API',
'section': 'Section::::Location Sources.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 389,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- IP Address Location: Location is detected based on nearest Public IP Address on a device (which can be a computer, the router it is connected to, or the ISP the router uses). The location depends on the IP information available, but in many cases where the IP is hidden behind Internet Service Provider NAT, the accuracy is only to the level of a city, region or even country.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1870398',
'title': 'Geotagging',
'section': 'Section::::Geotagging standards in electronic file formats.:DNS entries.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
'end_character': 405,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'RFC 1876 defines a means for expressing location information in the Domain Name System. LOC resources records can specify the latitude, longitude, altitude, precision of the location, and the physical size of on entity attached to an IP address. However, in practice not all IP addresses have such a record, so it is more common to use geolocation services to find the physical location of an IP address.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38404',
'title': 'Classless Inter-Domain Routing',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 409,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'IP addresses are described as consisting of two groups of bits in the address: the most significant bits are the network prefix, which identifies a whole network or subnet, and the least significant set forms the "host identifier", which specifies a particular interface of a host on that network. This division is used as the basis of traffic routing between IP networks and for address allocation policies.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38404',
'title': 'Classless Inter-Domain Routing',
'section': 'Section::::CIDR notation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 248,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The IP address is expressed according to the standards of IPv4 or IPv6. The address may denote a single, distinct interface address or the beginning address of an entire network. The aggregation of these bits is often called the "host identifier".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8168925',
'title': 'Network address',
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'passage_text': 'A network address is an identifier for a node or host on a telecommunications network. Network addresses are designed to be unique identifiers across the network, although some networks allow for local, private addresses or locally administered addresses that may not be unique. Special network addresses are allocated as broadcast or multicast addresses. These too are not unique.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How are IP addresses identifiable by location?',
'selftext': 'How is it that services are able to know the exact real-world location of a public IP address? Is there some prefix or suffix that gets linked to that location, ISP, or organization? Do these services just perform a WHOIS lookup?',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Blocks of IP addresses are assigned to organizations on request by a handful of non-profit organizations responsible for maintaining the IP space. These are the Regional Internet Registries.\n\nIn North America this organization is ARIN, in Europe its RIPE, in Asia it's APNIC, etc\n\nThese organizations each have certain number of IPv4 and IPv6 ranges that they can issue to companies upon request.\n\nWhen you get an IP range assigned to your company or organization it's registered into their database along with your head office location. That's what defines those IP ranges as belonging to a certain country + state + town.\n\nWe don't usually think about top-level organizations like ARIN though, because most people and companies get their IP's assigned to them by an ISP. But the ISPs in turn get their IP ranges from ARIN, RIPE, etc\n\nOnly very large organizations tend to get dedicated IP ranges all to themselves. Apple, HP, and the US government for example have massive IP ranges that belong to their organizations.",
"So, for example, I have my house location listed in my Google account as a base location for Google Maps. So when I access Google from my house, it sees the incoming connection known to be from a home ISP (not mobile), so it now knows to match the IP to the location. Amazon, Pizza delivery companies, etc all get the same. \n\nEven if I don't give Google an explicit home location, enough searches, map queries, etc will probably allow them to figure it out. Additionally, my cell phone is Android, so logged into Google and various Google apps share location data, so when my phone is on WiFi, they get it that way.\n\nISPs allocate IP addresses in area blocks, so once Google or whoever has locations of several IPs in a block, if a new IP pops up in the same range that they don't have explicit information for, they can reasonably guess that it's in the same area as the rest.",
"1. Static addresses assigned by an ISP are linked to a company and location.\n\n2. For most residential cases, dynamic addresses assigned by an ISP are leased for a limited amount of time. You go through multiple addresses every year. These addresses are linked to you profile while they are leased to you. Your profile holds your address and contact info.\n\nIn terms of geotagging, many factors contribute to your Geolocation which is encompassed in a term called Metadata. Some apps ask for the permission to use info such as GSM, GPS, ISP info, carrier info when you use their service/app/ and even browser.\n\nThus, pizza pizza knows the closest location to you is the one down the road because google chrome gave them that info.\n\nSame goes with Google Maps. It gathers everyone's gps coordinates that use the app. Therefore, it can give you the quickest route by determining how many users with their GPS enable on the road."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'frh41d',
'query': 'how are ip addresses identifiable by location?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '52118008',
'title': 'Hallucinogenic plants in Chinese herbals',
'section': 'Section::::Terminology.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Pharmacology divides hallucinogens into three classes. "Psychedelic" (first used in 1956 from Greek "psyche-" "mind; soul" and "delein" "to manifest"): "Pertaining to a rather imprecise category of drugs with mainly central nervous system action, and with effects said to be the expansion or heightening of consciousness, LSD, hashish, mescaline, psilocybin." "Dissociative" is a class of hallucinogen that produces feelings of "dissociation" (Latin "dissocioatus" "to disjoin, separate" from "socius" "partner, ally") meaning "(3) An unconscious separation of a group of mental processes from the rest, resulting in an independent functioning of these processes and a loss of the usual associations, a separation of affect from cognition." "Dissociative disorders" is defined as "a group of mental disorders characterized by disturbances in the functions of identity, memory, consciousness, or perception of the environment; this diagnostic group includes dissociative (older term, psychogenic) amnesia, dissociative fugue, dissociative identity (older term, multiple personality) disorder, and depersonalization disorder." "Deliriant" is a technical term introduced to distinguish hallucinogens that primarily cause "delirium" (1982, from Latin "deliro" "to be crazy" and "delira" "go out of the furrow"): "An altered state of consciousness, consisting of confusion, distractibility, disorientation, disordered thinking and memory, defective perception (illusions and hallucinations), prominent hyperactivity, agitation, and autonomic nervous system overactivity; caused by illness, medication, or toxic, structural, and metabolic disorders."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18952932',
'title': 'Hallucinogen',
'section': 'Section::::Deliriants.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
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'passage_text': '"Deliriants", as their name implies, induce a state of delirium in the user, characterized by extreme confusion and an inability to control one\'s actions. They are called deliriants because their subjective effects are similar to the experiences of people with delirious fevers. The term was introduced by David F. Duncan and Robert S. Gold to distinguish these drugs from psychedelics and dissociatives, such as LSD and ketamine respectively, due to their primary effect of causing delirium, as opposed to the more lucid states produced by the other hallucinogens.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3153779',
'title': 'Monothematic delusion',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'A monothematic delusion is a delusional state that concerns only one particular topic. This is contrasted by what is sometimes called "multi-thematic" or "polythematic" delusions where the person has a range of delusions (typically the case of schizophrenia). These disorders can occur within the context of schizophrenia or dementia or they can occur without any other signs of mental illness. When these disorders are found outside the context of mental illness, they are often caused by organic dysfunction as a result of traumatic brain injury, stroke, or neurological illness.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18952932',
'title': 'Hallucinogen',
'section': 'Section::::Naming and taxonomy.:Psychedelic nomenclature.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 59,
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'passage_text': 'The word "psychotomimetic", meaning "mimicking psychosis", reflects the hypothesis of early researchers that the effects of psychedelic drugs are similar to naturally occurring symptoms of schizophrenia, though it has since been discovered that some psychedelics resemble endogenous psychoses better than others. PCP and ketamine are known to better resemble endogenous psychoses because they reproduce both positive and negative symptoms of psychoses, while psilocybin and related hallucinogens typically produce effects resembling only the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. While the serotonergic psychedelics (LSD, psilocybin, mescaline, etc.) do produce subjective effects distinct from NMDA antagonist dissociatives (PCP, ketamine, dextrorphan), there is obvious overlap in the mental processes that these drugs affect and research has discovered that there is overlap in the mechanisms by which both types of psychedelics mimic psychotic symptoms. One double-blind study examining the differences between DMT and ketamine hypothesized that "classically psychedelic" drugs most resemble paranoid schizophrenia while "dissociative" drugs best mimicked catatonic subtypes or otherwise undifferentiated schizophrenia. The researchers expressed the view that "a heterogeneous disorder like schizophrenia is unlikely to be modeled accurately by a single pharmacological agent."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '157529',
'title': 'Delirium',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Delirium, also known as acute confusional state, is an organically caused decline from a previous baseline level of mental function that develops over a short period of time, typically hours to days. Delirium is a syndrome encompassing disturbances in attention, consciousness, and cognition. It may also involve other neurological deficits, such as psychomotor disturbances (e.g. hyperactive, hypoactive, or mixed), impaired sleep-wake cycle, emotional disturbances, and perceptual disturbances (e.g. hallucinations and delusions), although these features are not required for diagnosis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56661462',
'title': 'Amenomania',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Amenomania (compound of Latin "amoenus", "cheerful"; and Greek μανία, "madness") is a disused psychiatric diagnosis that originally designated patients with delusional disorders which do not paralyse them, but who may have fixed bizarre delusions. In some cases, religious delusion might accompany, causing individuals to believe to have peculiar spiritual powers, or even being God, often characterising outlines which might be diagnosed by modern psychyatry as paranoid schizophrenia or bipolar disorder.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34413419',
'title': 'Delusional intuition',
'section': 'Section::::Occurrence.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'The delusion is found described in clinical settings as a description of medical symptom of the psychotic illness known as schizophrenia, and is known within that milieu as a first rank symptom The delusional ideation sometimes occurs from a "prior delusional mood" (Fish 1985). According to the Klaus Conrad 1958 account, "", the delusion occurs as a second order development of earlier delusionary thinking.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "What's the difference between delirium and psychosis?",
'selftext': 'From what I could find they look very similar. What are the differences?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['In the most basic sense, delirium is caused an underlying medical/physical illness or problem. \nWhen the underlying problem is treated, delirium is resolved. \n\nPsychosis is a symptom of a mental illness like during a manic episode or more commonly in schizophrenia. Antipsychotic meds help to control these symptoms. '],
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'query_id': '9sjzh0',
'query': "what's the difference between delirium and psychosis?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '261613',
'title': 'Stomach cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
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'passage_text': 'In 2013, Chinese and Israeli scientists reported a successful pilot study of a breathalyzer-style breath test intended to diagnose stomach cancer by analyzing exhaled chemicals without the need for an intrusive endoscopy. A larger-scale clinical trial of this technology was completed in 2014.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1221516',
'title': 'Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
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'passage_text': 'Breath tests have been developed to test for bacterial overgrowth, based on bacterial metabolism of carbohydrates to hydrogen and/or methane, or based on the detection of by-products of digestion of carbohydrates that are not usually metabolized. The hydrogen breath test involves having the patient fast for a minimum of 12 hours then having them drink a substrate usually glucose or lactulose, then measuring expired hydrogen and methane concentrations typically over a period of several hours. It compares well to jejunal aspirates in making the diagnosis of bacterial overgrowth. C and C based tests have also been developed based on the bacterial metabolism of D-xylose. Increased bacterial concentrations are also involved in the deconjugation of bile acids. The glycocholic acid breath test involves the administration of the bile acid C glychocholic acid, and the detection of CO, which would be elevated in bacterial overgrowth. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18730256',
'title': 'Proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometry',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Food science.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
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'passage_text': "Fig. 2 shows a typical PTR-MS measurement performed in food and flavor research. The test person swallows a sip of a vanillin flavored drink and breathes via his nose into a heated inlet device coupled to a PTR-MS instrument. Due to the high time resolution and sensitivity of the instrument used here, the development of vanillin in the person's breath can be monitored in real-time (please note that isoprene is shown in this figure because it is a product of human metabolism and therefore acts as an indicator for the breath cycles). The data can be used for food design, i.e. for adjusting the intensity and duration of vanillin flavor tasted by the consumer.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28090103',
'title': 'Exhaled breath condensate',
'section': 'Section::::Potential applications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'EBC has potential uses in combination with exhaled breath analysis. There is significant interest in exhaled nitric oxide analysis in conjunction with EBC analysis but in addition, the analysis of the breath has many applications. Well known examples include and estimation of the breath alcohol level, but others included non-invasive measurements to estimate blood glucose, and well as using it for diagnosing other systemic and local lung diseases, such as lung cancer.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37615833',
'title': '2013 in science',
'section': 'Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:March.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 166,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 166,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Chinese and Israeli scientists develop a Breathalyzer-style breath test that can quickly and easily diagnose stomach cancer by analyzing exhaled chemicals, without the need for an intrusive endoscopy.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '634060',
'title': 'Spirometry',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Spirometry (meaning "the measuring of breath") is the most common of the pulmonary function tests (PFTs). It measures lung function, specifically the amount (volume) and/or speed (flow) of air that can be inhaled and exhaled. Spirometry is helpful in assessing breathing patterns that identify conditions such as asthma, pulmonary fibrosis, cystic fibrosis, and COPD. It is also helpful as part of a system of health surveillance, in which breathing patterns are measured over time.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31211209',
'title': 'Breath gas analysis',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Breath gas analysis is a method for gaining information on the clinical state of an individual by monitoring volatile organic compounds (VOCs) present in the exhaled breath. Exhaled breath is naturally produced by the human body through expiration and therefore can be collected in non-invasively and in an unlimited way. VOCs in exhaled breath can represent biomarkers for certain pathologies (lung cancer, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and others). Breath gas concentration can then be related to blood concentrations via mathematical modeling as for example in blood alcohol testing. There are various techniques that can be employed to collect and analyze exhaled breath. Even if research on exhaled breath started many years ago, there is still no clinical application of it for disease diagnosis.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Do breathalyzers measure BAC accurately for people with lung issues such as asthma, COPD, or just being generally out of shape?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Breathalyzers are "good estimates", not highly accurate. They don\'t measure total breath flow, either. They just determine the percentage of alcohol in the C02 of your breath, and conditions like asthma, COPD, or others don\'t really have any affect on that.\n\nIf you\'re on the verge of blowing just at the legal limit, you can contest the findings of a breathalyzer test by providing urinalysis, which is highly accurate. They can then work backwards using simple math to find your BAC at any given point in time.\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6kfyya',
'query': 'do breathalyzers measure bac accurately for people with lung issues such as asthma, copd, or just being generally out of shape?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3022',
'title': 'Autonomous building',
'section': 'Section::::Systems.:Electricity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 58,
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'passage_text': 'However, many areas have long winter nights or dark cloudy days. In these climates, a solar installation might not pay for itself. In stormy or windy climates, wind generators can replace or supplement solar power. The average autonomous house needs only one small wind turbine, 5 metres or less in diameter. On a 30-metre (100 foot) tower, this turbine can provide enough power to supplement solar power on cloudy days. Commercially available wind turbines use sealed, one-moving-part AC generators and passive, self-feathering blades for years of operation without service.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1496902',
'title': 'Solar vehicle',
'section': 'Section::::Water.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
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'passage_text': 'The low power density of current solar panels limits the use of solar propelled vessels, however boats that use sails (which do not generate electricity unlike combustion engines) rely on battery power for electrical appliances (such as refrigeration, lighting and communications). Here solar panels have become popular for recharging batteries as they do not create noise, require fuel and often can be seamlessly added to existing deck space.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15677755',
'title': 'Photovoltaic system',
'section': 'Section::::Other systems.:Floating solar arrays.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 78,
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'passage_text': 'The systems are said to have advantages over photovoltaics on land. The cost of land is more expensive, and there are fewer rules and regulations for structures built on bodies of water not used for recreation. Unlike most land-based solar plants, floating arrays can be unobtrusive because they are hidden from public view. They achieve higher efficiencies than PV panels on land, because water cools the panels. The panels have a special coating to prevent rust or corrosion.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11291159',
'title': 'Solar power in India',
'section': 'Section::::Rural electrification.:Rainwater harvesting.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Solar panels can also be used for harvesting most of the rainwater falling on them and drinking or breweries water quality, free from bacteria and suspended matter, can be generated by simple filtration and disinfection processes, as rainwater is very low in salinity. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11492908',
'title': 'Renewable energy in Africa',
'section': 'Section::::Renewable energy resources.:Horizontal integration potential.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Because solar and wind projects produce power where it is used, they provide a safe, reliable and cost-effective solution. Because transmission equipment is avoided, these systems are more secure, and less vulnerable to attack. This can be an important feature in regions prone to conflict. Wind and solar power systems are simple to set up, easy to operate, easy to repair, and durable. Wind resources and solar resource are abundant enough to provide all of the electrical energy requirements of rural populations, and this can be done in remote and otherwise fragmented low-density areas that are impractical to address using conventional grid-based systems.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '450053',
'title': 'Habitat for Humanity',
'section': 'Section::::Other special initiatives.:Making it Better in the Long Term with Solar.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 83,
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'passage_text': 'There are many projects that go hand in hand with the house building projects that allow these homes to supply their own electricity through the use of solar energy. U.S. companies such as Pacific Gas and Electric Company have partnered with Habitat for Humanity to provide complete solar grids for several homes. Other solar projects, mostly in the U.S., like one in San Francisco, as well as efforts of individual citizens are trying to make a difference by raising funds to get more solar homes built.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22682196',
'title': 'Smart highway',
'section': 'Section::::Solar Road Panels.:Criticism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': '"Slate" magazine stated that solar roadways would produce less electricity than solar cells that are placed at an angle, and that less light would touch them because of shade, dirt covering the road, and cars blocking the sun from touching the panels.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why are residential solar panels common, but not wind turbines? Or water wheels for people who live by rivers?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Because solar panels are small and compact, compared to giant turbines and water wheels that have a tendency to be as big as the house itself. ',
"Wind turbines are all about size, bigger is more economic, not more (edit: not more of them. If a manufacturer/operator could choose, they would pick bigger size over quantity), so they're not cost effective in a subdivision. They also make a lot of noise, require quite a bit of maintenance, and space, kill birds, and are unsightly (for those who care). You can't expect homeowners to keep up on the maintenance of their own turbines, so you have to build a far less efficient model that at least won't explode in a catastrophic failure, sending blades sailing and impaling people or property.\n\nI don't think there are enough people who live along rivers to make this a viable market for a manufacturer. I think they'd be more interested in hydro turbines instead of old fashioned water wheels, but that requires building dams, which have a huge environmental impact and we're doing what we can to tear down small, privately held dams, not build more of them.",
"You can buy them, but they are usually quite expensive. After all, they need to be durable in order to run for years. But the real problem is that ground level wind is a lot weaker than at the altitude that real wind turbines are positioned, so you're not getting a lot of power. I've only ever seen them being used on boats, running the fridge and other low power devices. ",
'Micro-wind turbines (under 1.5kW) are notoriously bad at producing a reasonable amount of energy to make them economically viable. Indeed, some probably consume more energy than they produce.\n\nThis is mostly down to the size (too small), the mounting height (too low, wind blows faster at greater heights) and poor wind regime (urban areas have too many obstacles that disrupt wind flow)'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '641sb3',
'query': 'why are residential solar panels common, but not wind turbines? or water wheels for people who live by rivers?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '246992',
'title': 'Angel food cake',
'section': 'Section::::Molecular and structural composition.:Flour.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The flour plays an important role in the texture, structure, and elasticity of an angel food cake. Minimal folding of the flour allows cell walls to form when it comes in contact with the egg protein foam and sugar mixture. If the batter is over-mixed, the egg white proteins may coagulate causing the bubbles to break during baking, or the cell walls may become too rigid, lacking elasticity. This would reduce the volume and result in a coarse texture. However, if the batter is under-mixed, a weak foam will form.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '518790',
'title': 'Rock flour',
'section': 'Section::::Formation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Typically, natural rock flour is formed during glacial migration, where the glacier grinds against the sides and bottom of the rock beneath it, but also is produced by freeze-and-thaw action, where the act of water freezing and expanding in cracks helps break up rock formations. Multiple cycles create a greater amount. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '518790',
'title': 'Rock flour',
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'passage_text': 'Rock flour, or glacial flour, consists of fine-grained, silt-sized particles of rock, generated by mechanical grinding of bedrock by glacial erosion or by artificial grinding to a similar size. Because the material is very small, it becomes suspended in meltwater making the water appear cloudy, which is sometimes known as glacial milk. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39139740',
'title': 'Fastnacht (Pennsylvania Dutch)',
'section': 'Section::::Recipe.\n',
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'passage_text': "Place the flour, baking powder, salt and mace in a medium bowl. Stir with a wire whisk to combine. Set aside. In a large bowl of an electric mixer, cream together the shortening and sugar until fluffy. Add the eggs and mix until creamy. Gradually add the dry ingredients, alternating with the milk, mixing on low speed, just until well-combined. Place on a floured board. Work the dough lightly with hands, adding a little more flour as needed if it is too sticky. (This dough should be very soft, something like a biscuit dough, so don't add more flour than necessary.) Gently roll the dough into a 1/2-inch thick rectangle or square. Using a sharp knife, cut into 2-inch squares or similarly sized rectangles. Heat the oil in a deep-sided pot over medium heat to 375\xa0°F. Carefully add the fastnachts to the oil, about 6 per batch, and fry until well-browned on one side, about 2 minutes. Flip and brown the other side for another 2 or 3 minutes. Remove with a slotted spoon and place on a baking sheet lined with paper towels to drain. Repeat with the remaining fastnachts.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32203923',
'title': 'No-knead bread',
'section': 'Section::::Method.\n',
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'passage_text': "The method uses a long rise instead of kneading to align the dough's gluten molecules with each other so as to produce a strong, elastic network, resulting in long, sticky strands. The automatic alignment is possible because of the wetness of the dough, which makes the molecules more mobile. Wet doughs, which use a water weight of about 75% that of the flour (hydration), require more salt than conventional doughs, about 2% of the flour weight.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7218',
'title': 'Cookie',
'section': 'Section::::Classification.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- "Drop cookies" are made from a relatively soft dough that is dropped by spoonfuls onto the baking sheet. During baking, the mounds of dough spread and flatten. Chocolate chip cookies (Toll House cookies), oatmeal raisin (or other oatmeal-based) cookies, and rock cakes are popular examples of drop cookies. This may also include "thumbprint cookies", for which a small central depression is created with a thumb or small spoon before baking to contain a filling, such as jam or a chocolate chip. In the UK, the term "cookie" often refers only to this particular type of product.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '198059',
'title': 'Leavening agent',
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'passage_text': 'When a dough or batter is mixed, the starch in the flour and the water in the dough form a matrix (often supported further by proteins like gluten or polysaccharides, such as pentosans or xanthan gum). Then the starch gelatinizes and sets, leaving gas bubbles that remain.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'When you shake flour, why do all the larger bits make their way to top and not the bottom?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['You can do the same experiment with a jar of rocks. Shaking the jar allows all of the little rocks to find their way down in the spaces between the larger rocks. Keep shaking and pretty soon all of the big rocks will appear to "climb" to the top.',
'Basically because the small bits go to the bottom.\n\nStarting out, all the big and small bits are randomly mixed. When you shake them, there is an opportunity for things to fall into a more efficient spot.\n\nSo, all the flour (sand, nuts, whatever...) is momentarily separated a tiny space; what bits will be able to fall? Big bits or small bits?\n\nThe small bits are able to fall into the small gaps created by shaking, so the small bits all go to the bottom and the larger bits eventually make their way to the top.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'abm8tk',
'query': 'when you shake flour, why do all the larger bits make their way to top and not the bottom?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
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'title': 'Television set',
'section': 'Section::::Display.:OLED.\n',
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'passage_text': 'An OLED display works without a backlight. Thus, it can display deep black levels and can be thinner and lighter than a liquid crystal display (LCD). In low ambient light conditions such as a dark room, an OLED screen can achieve a higher contrast ratio than an LCD, whether the LCD uses cold cathode fluorescent lamps or LED backlight.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '29831',
'title': 'Television',
'section': 'Section::::Sets.:Display technologies.:OLED.\n',
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'passage_text': 'An OLED display works without a backlight. Thus, it can display deep black levels and can be thinner and lighter than a liquid crystal display (LCD). In low ambient light conditions such as a dark room an OLED screen can achieve a higher contrast ratio than an LCD, whether the LCD uses cold cathode fluorescent lamps or LED backlight. OLEDs are expected to replace other forms of display in near future.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '191646',
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'passage_text': 'An OLED display works without a backlight because it emits visible light. Thus, it can display deep black levels and can be thinner and lighter than a liquid crystal display (LCD). In low ambient light conditions (such as a dark room), an OLED screen can achieve a higher contrast ratio than an LCD, regardless of whether the LCD uses cold cathode fluorescent lamps or an LED backlight.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2114941',
'title': 'High-dynamic-range rendering',
'section': 'Section::::Limitations and compensations.:Output to displays.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
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'passage_text': 'OLED displays have better dynamic range capabilities than LCDs, similar to plasma but with lower power consumption. Rec. 709 defines the color space for HDTV, and Rec. 2020 defines a larger but still incomplete color space for ultra-high-definition television.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '191646',
'title': 'OLED',
'section': 'Section::::Advantages.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Better picture quality: OLEDs enable a greater contrast ratio and wider viewing angle compared to LCDs, because OLED pixels emit light directly. This also provides a deeper black level, since a black OLED display emits no light. Furthermore, OLED pixel colors appear correct and unshifted, even as the viewing angle approaches 90° from the normal.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34459981',
'title': 'Universal Display Corporation',
'section': 'Section::::Technological advantages.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Wider viewing angles and improved brightness: OLEDs can enable a greater artificial contrast ratio (both dynamic range and static, measured in purely dark conditions) and a wider viewing angle compared to LCDs because OLED pixels emit light directly. OLED pixel colors appear correct and unshifted, even as the viewing angle approaches 90° from normal.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21592276',
'title': 'Digital newspaper technology',
'section': 'Section::::Hardware.:Screen technologies.:OLED.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A significant benefit of OLED displays over traditional liquid crystal displays (LCDs) is that OLEDs do not require a backlight to function. Thus they draw far less power and, when powered from a battery, can operate longer on the same charge. Because there is no need for a backlight, an OLED display can be much thinner than an LCD panel.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Difference of LCD, OLED, and AMOLED that can be easily understood',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["LCD: Liquid Crystal Display.\nA flat panel display which uses light emitting properties of liquid crystals. These crystals are illuminated by a fluorescent backlight. \n\nSmartphone LCD panels are classified into two types - IPS (In-plane Switching) and TFT (Thin Film Transistor). IPS LCDs are usually seen on high-end smartphones and consume less battery than TFT. TFT displays are inexpensive but contribute to faster battery drain. LCDs offer better sunlight legibility and consume less power (only IPS panels) than AMOLEDs, but they lack the deep blacks offered by AMOLED panels.\n\nLED: Light Emitting Diode; OLED: Organic LED\nOLED displays contain an LED, which itself has an organic material that emits light when current is passed through. OLEDs exhibit deeper and darker blacks than vanilla LEDs.\n\nOLED displays are classified into two types- PMOLED (Passive Matrix OLED) and AMOLED (Active Matrix OLED). AMOLED adds a layer of semiconducting film behind the OLED panel which allows it to more quickly activate each pixel. AMOLEDs provide better picture quality than LCDs, have faster refresh rates, deeper black colour and most importantly, no limitation on the display size. The downsides of AMOLEDs as of now - they are generally more expensive to manufacture and incorporate into devices, they have poor readability in sunlight, and they eat up battery faster than LCDs. Most importantly, they are prone to image burn-in.\n\nThese issues are somewhat addressed by a variant of AMOLED called Super AMOLED. Although Super-AMOLED has been around for some time now, it's mostly installed on higher-end phones.",
"/u/kittuboy/ is correct about *LED, but made some mistakes about LCDs.\n\nLCD basics: structure with liquid crystals and polarizers that can be switched to pass light through or block it. Three such structures with RGB color filters and white backlight make one pixel. Because of constant white backlight LCDs are bad at producing deep black color.\n\nThere are several kinds of these structures. \n\n* TN, for twisted nematic, is cheap, but when you look at it from the side, colors are off — this is because its structure blocks light well in small angle only.\n* IPS, for in-plane switching, is more advanced, it can be viewed from any angle and generally have better colors, but it's more expensive. Also a few years ago it was considerably slower in switching from closed to open (from black to white), so IPS displays were not fit for videogames with lots of small fast changing details. They got better since.\n* PVA/MVA — were an alternative for IPS, a bit cheaper, a bit faster. Mostly went out of use when IPS improved.\n\nAlso, TFT is not an LCD type. It just means that there is a transistor for each pixel, unlike, say, in calculator's display. It means roughly the same as Active Matrix in AMOLED. So TN and IPS actually are TFT TN and TFT IPS.\n\nNow, *main* difference between LCDs and *LEDs is that first require backlight for the whole screen even if you need only one white pixel (and some light is leaking through even if scren is set to black), while second have pixels produce light themselves and powered off pixels are completely black. Guess difference in power consumption.\n\nThe only problem with *LED screens (aside of price) is that making good color filters for LCD is easier than making good color LEDs. Many consider AMOLED screen colors too vibrant and unnatural."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '6l55qg',
'query': 'difference of lcd, oled, and amoled that can be easily understood',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '10035818',
'title': 'Hell and High Water (1954 film)',
'section': 'Section::::Production.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
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'passage_text': 'The U.S. government, who provided the nuclear bomb explosion footage that opens the film, insisted that certain spectrum colors be eliminated from the sequence, lest it "could reveal nuclear secrets".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2196050',
'title': 'Castle Romeo',
'section': 'Section::::Fireball in popular culture.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': 'One particular image of the Castle Romeo fireball (at right) has been one of the most highly reprinted images of a nuclear explosion. It often serves as a stand-in for nuclear weapons in general for news stories, book covers, magazine articles, etc., likely because of its threatening appearance and extreme red, orange, and yellow hues. The fact that the explosion is of a US megaton-range weapon has not prevented it to be used to represent the arsenals of other states or weapons of far lower yields in many cases, which would have a very different appearance.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1593659',
'title': 'Nuclear weapons in popular culture',
'section': 'Section::::Images of nuclear weapons.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The first pictures released of a nuclear explosion—the blast from the Trinity test—focused on the fireball itself; later pictures would focus primarily on the mushroom cloud that followed. After the United States began a regular program of nuclear testing in the late 1940s, continuing through the 1950s (and matched by the Soviet Union), the mushroom cloud has served as a symbol of the weapons themselves.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6968060',
'title': 'Royal Air Force roundels',
'section': 'Section::::Fin flash.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
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'passage_text': 'All Royal Air Force aircraft carry a flash on the fin. This is either red/white/blue, or red/blue on camouflaged aircraft, with the red stripe nearest the leading edge. Aircraft painted anti-flash white in the nuclear strike role had a pale pink and blue flash, the same shades as the roundels, to reflect some of the thermal radiation from a nuclear explosion.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20367280',
'title': 'Operational instruments of the Royal Observer Corps',
'section': 'Section::::Initial detection of nuclear bursts on the UK.\n',
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'passage_text': "The Ground Zero Indicator, or GZI or shadowgraph, consisted of four horizontally mounted cardinal compass point pinhole cameras within a metal drum, each 'camera' contained a sheet of photosensitive paper on which were printed horizontal and vertical calibration lines. The flash from a nuclear explosion would produce a mark on one or two of the papers within the drum. The position of the mark enabled the bearing and height of the burst to be estimated. With triangulation between neighbouring posts these readings would give an accurate height and position. The altitude of the explosion was important because a ground or near ground burst would produce radioactive fallout, whereas an air burst would produce only short distance and short lived initial radiations (but no fallout).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '227519',
'title': 'Operation Crossroads',
'section': 'Section::::Test "Baker".\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
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'passage_text': 'Photographs of "Baker" are unique among nuclear detonation pictures. The searing, blinding flash that usually obscures the target area took place underwater and was barely seen. The clear image of ships in the foreground and background gives a sense of scale. The large Wilson cloud and the vertical water column are distinctive "Baker" shot features. One picture shows a mark where the 27,000-ton battleship was.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2619388',
'title': 'United Kingdom Warning and Monitoring Organisation',
'section': 'Section::::Operational organisation.:Instrumentation.:For the detection of nuclear bursts.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The "Ground Zero Indicator", or "GZI" or shadowgraph, consisted of four horizontally mounted cardinal compass point pinhole cameras within a metal drum; each "camera" contained a sheet of photosensitive paper on which were printed horizontal and vertical calibration lines. The flash from a nuclear explosion would produce a mark on one or two of the papers within the drum. The position of the mark enabled the bearing and height of the burst to be estimated. With triangulation between neighbouring posts these readings would give an accurate height and position. The altitude of the explosion was important because a ground or near-ground burst would produce radioactive fallout, whereas an air burst would produce only short-distance and short-lived initial radiation (but no fallout). Reports following a reading on the GZI were preceded by the codeword "Nuclear Burst".\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'In footage of nuclear explosions, what are the white vertical stripes?',
'selftext': 'As seen for example [here]( URL_0 ) and [here]( URL_1 )? Another question about nuclear explosions, I once read on Reddit about the experiences of someone who as a kid was watching some nuclear test in Mojave, I think, and he said that at the moment of detonation he saw these speckles of very weird colours. Does this really happen and if yes, why?',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The vertical stripes I think are for measurement of the shockwave / pressure wave. So they can calculate its velocity. ',
"Those are smoke trails from smoke rockets. Before nuclear tests, they would sometimes fire smoke rockets up into the air near the blast location, which would allow them to monitor the blast's shock wave by watching how the smoke trails moved in response.",
'Those are rocket trails. Just before launch small rockets are launched which leave those plumes of white smoke as they go up. Scientists can watch how the plumes behave in the vicinity of the blast and get a nice visualization of how the air around the fireball is behaving.\n\nIt is possible that the specks of white light at the time of the blast were from the interaction of high energy gamma radiation with the retina of the viewers. Radiation interacting with photoreceptors often appears as a small white speck or flash.',
'Pertaining to your second question, my grandfather was commissioned for some work on Enewetak atoll tests with the military. He recalled that the officers stood on a navy ship deck some signigicant distance away when it detonated. He held his hand up and could see through his hand like an xray. Maybe the speckles of light are a similar outcome of radiation exposure from the blast?\n\nEdit: He described it as holding his hand up and the light was so intense he could see his bones more or less',
'How can they sit "so close" completely exposed and not at least be sick from radiation?',
'They are used to calculate the yield if the bomb. Shoot a few small rockets in the air to make smoke trails in front of the camera, do a little trigonometry, and you can determine the size of the fireball/blast. This gives you yield.\n\n\nInteresting history, before the trinity test in July 1945, they carted out 200,000 lbs of TNT and filmed it explode so that they could use to baseline big explosions and later calculate the yeild of the actual nuke using visual techniques.\n\n\nI find it interesting that there was no crazy math or science used to calculate the size if the bomb, but rather just a test explosion with conventional explosives. That same method was used through the "atmospheric" testing days with the rocket smoke contrails.\n\n\nWhen they went to underground testing they had to develope another technique that I cant recall if its classified or not, so I will error on the side of not saying.\n\n\nSource: I am a nuke weapons engineer.\n\nEdit: just noticed your second question. atmospheric testing done on the mainland was done at the nevada test site (now called NNSS) that is about 1.5 hr drive North of vegas.\n\n\nSpeckles...hmmm, there are some materials (I wont name) that do make some really cool effects when you blow them up (think sparklers), however they only last a moment (high speed camera catches it) and only in conventional explosions. When it goes nuclear, everything is pretty much vaporized in less that 100 micro seconds and vapor doesn\'t really sparkle. Plus, he would have been mikes and mikes away and nonway would he been able to see that even if it wasn\'t vaporized. I call BS on his story. \n\n\nPlus they quit atmospheric testing decades ago, is this your grandpa or something?',
"Also, when nuclear detonations happen and you see what appears to be very thin spears of fire coming from the fireball, that's the support wires from the scaffolding that holds the bomb in the air, instantly vaporising because the heat is travelling faster through the metal than the air.\nExample [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)\n\n~~Edit:apparently I am wrong, thanks to u/smmstv for correcting! [_URL_1_](_URL_1_)~~\n\nEdit 2: nvm",
"They would launch rockets that would leave a smoke trail, so you could see how the air moves around the blast. You'll notice they get pushed outwards as the shock front passes, showing how the air moves. Sometimes they'll get sucked back in as the air behind the shock front gets more rarefied. ",
"Can atomic blasts have any affect on the angular momentum of our planet? or, do we know if any of the detonations caused a wobbling affect upon the Earth? Maybe bombs we've built now could have this magnitude of affect?",
'Question: does a nuclear bomb "stuck in" at first then expand? ',
'Another question here... In 100 years will these explosions look the same? It sounds a little crazy asking but the mushroom cloud and all that, is it set it stone or can they look different? Sometimes the cloud is not symmetrical or maybe "ugly" in a way that makes me think newer models would look more like cgi or closer to what might be drawn in a comic book.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '92agda',
'query': 'in footage of nuclear explosions, what are the white vertical stripes?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1434632',
'title': 'Ames room',
'section': 'Section::::"Anti-gravity" illusion and "magnetic mountains".\n',
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'passage_text': 'For Gregory, this observation raised particularly interesting questions about how different principles for understanding the world compete in our perception. The "anti-gravity effect" is a much stronger paradox than the "size change" effect, because it seems to negate the law of gravity which is a fundamental feature of the world. In contrast, the apparent size change is not such a strong paradox, because we do have the experience that objects can change size to a certain degree (for example, people and animals can appear to become smaller or larger by crouching or stretching).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23680',
'title': "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom",
'section': 'Section::::Conception.\n',
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'passage_text': "As the sizes got smaller, one would have to redesign some tools, because the relative strength of various forces would change. Although gravity would become unimportant, surface tension would become more important, Van der Waals attraction would become important, etc. Feynman mentioned these scaling issues during his talk. Nobody has yet attempted to implement this thought experiment, although it has been noted that some types of biological enzymes and enzyme complexes (especially ribosomes) function chemically in a way close to Feynman's vision. Feynman also mentioned in his lecture that it might be better eventually to use glass or plastic because their greater uniformity would avoid problems in the very small scale (metals and crystals are separated into domains where the lattice structure prevails). This could be a good reason to make machines and also electronics out of glass and plastic. At the present time, there are electronic components made of both materials. In glass, there are optical fiber cables that amplify the light pulses at regular intervals, using glass doped with the rare-earth element erbium. The doped glass is spliced into the fiber and pumped by a laser operating at a different frequency. In plastic, field effect transistors are being made with polythiophene, a plastic invented by Alan J. Heeger et al. that becomes an electrical conductor when oxidized. At this time, a factor of just 20 in electron mobility separates plastic from silicon.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '697155',
'title': 'Hierarchy problem',
'section': 'Section::::Examples in particle physics.:Theoretical solutions.:Solution via extra dimensions.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Thus the fundamental Planck mass (the extra-dimensional one) could actually be small, meaning that gravity is actually strong, but this must be compensated by the number of the extra dimensions and their size. Physically, this means that gravity is weak because there is a loss of flux to the extra dimensions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46933',
'title': 'Spelljammer',
'section': 'Section::::Setting.:Gravity and air.\n',
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'passage_text': 'All bodies of a sufficiently large size have gravity. This gravity usually (but not always) exerts a force equal to the standard gravitational attraction on the surface of an Earth-sized planetary body. Gravity in the "Spelljammer" universe is also an exceptionally convenient force, and almost always works such that "down" orients itself in a manner most humanoids would find sensible.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44362809',
'title': 'Symmetry (geometry)',
'section': 'Section::::Scale symmetry and fractals.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Scale symmetry means that if an object is expanded or reduced in size, the new object has the same properties as the original. This is "not" true of most physical systems, as witness the difference in the shape of the legs of an elephant and a mouse (so-called allometric scaling). Similarly, if a soft wax candle were enlarged to the size of a tall tree, it would immediately collapse under its own weight.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '244611',
'title': "Newton's law of universal gravitation",
'section': 'Section::::Bodies with spatial extent.\n',
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'passage_text': 'If the bodies in question have spatial extent (as opposed to being point masses), then the gravitational force between them is calculated by summing the contributions of the notional point masses which constitute the bodies. In the limit, as the component point masses become "infinitely small", this entails integrating the force (in vector form, see below) over the extents of the two bodies.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2073846',
'title': 'Malmquist bias',
'section': 'Section::::Correction methods.:Volume weighting.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A large downside of the volume weighting method is its sensitivity to large-scale structures, or parts of the universe with more or less objects than average, such as a star cluster or a void. Having very overdense or underdense regions of objects will cause an inferred change in our average absolute magnitude and luminosity function, according with the structure. This is a particular issue with the faint objects in calculating a luminosity function, as their smaller maximum volume means that a large-scale structure therein will have a large impact. Brighter objects with large maximum volumes will tend to average out and approach the correct value in spite of some large-scale structures.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "why isn't gravity scaled to smaller things?",
'selftext': "Like if I took a 100ft wide ball and a .5cm wide marble why wouldn't the marble be attracted to the ball? Or would it be attracted and I've lived my entire life without this info",
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['I read somewhere once that if you put 2 pens floating in space near each other, after a very long time they would eventually gravitate towards each other. It does happen, it would just take a very very very long time',
'They are attracted. All things with mass are always pulling on all other things with mass. But it takes A LOT if mass to make a difference. So if you have a large and small ball, both are still pulled to the earth. Earth is a bigger ball.',
'It is. All objects/particles with mass (or energy) exert a gravitational pull on the objects/particles around them.',
"They are attracted to each other through gravity, it's just such a small effect that there's practically no way to measure it and they'll have practically no effect on each other. Every object in the universe has gravity pulling everything else towards it - a marble, a planet, you and me. But gravity's effects are so weak at small scales that they're almost unnoticeable - it scales up really well though so that when you get to the size of a planet or a moon, it becomes really significant.",
"They are attracted to each other, it's just a basically non-existent force compared to the gravity of Earth, friction, inertia, ect. that keep the marble and the ball stationary.\n\nIn the vacuum of space without any other forces, they would (very slowly) come together.",
'Scientist Henry Cavendish [did exactly that](_URL_0_) with two different-sized balls in 1797 and successfully measured how strong gravity is, to within 1%.',
'This is how the gravitational constant is measured. Henry Cavendish did [an experiment](_URL_0_ ) in the 1790s to measure the strength of gravity without using the Earth as a mass. This was important, as the mass of the Earth was not known accurately. The experiment used 2-inch (51 mm) diameter 1.61-pound (0.73 kg) lead balls, and 12-inch (300 mm) 348-pound (158 kg) lead balls to measure how the large balls attracted the small balls.',
'They are attracted. The problem is that at that small scale, the attraction is so small that it is easily negated. \n\nIn fact, one of the first ways we measured the gravitational constant was the [Cavendish Experiment](_URL_0_), which involved the gravitational attraction of two balls. You can check out a video with a demonstration of the experiment [here](_URL_1_). The experiment needs to take advantage of some stuff to scale up the value to something that actually has a measurable effect at the scale.',
"Aside from other answers, people don't realise Gravity is VERY VERY weak. People see it as strong , but that's only because it's one of the easiest forces to observe.\n\nThey do attract, but the force between the two is a joke compated to the earth."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'g19m8p',
'query': "why isn't gravity scaled to smaller things?",
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '8671831',
'title': 'Foundation for International Spiritual Unfoldment',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'The proposed benefits of meditation include overcoming stress, depression, anger, neutralizing mood swings, increase creativity, peace of mind, inner strength, increase happiness, improvement in health, and generally improving the quality of life.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9578417',
'title': 'Research on meditation',
'section': 'Section::::Mindfulness.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'A previous study commissioned by the US Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality found that meditation interventions reduce multiple negative dimensions of psychological stress. Other systematic reviews and meta-analysis show that mindfulness meditation has several mental health benefits such as bringing about reductions in depression symptoms, and mindfulness interventions also appear to be a promising intervention for managing depression in youth.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30830212',
'title': 'Memory improvement',
'section': 'Section::::Strategies.:Stress management.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
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'passage_text': 'Meditation, a form of mental training to focus attention, has been shown to increase the control over brain resource distribution, improving both attention and self-regulation. The changes are potentially long-lasting as meditation may have the ability to strengthen neuronal circuits as selective attentional processes improve. Meditation may also enhance cognitive limited capacity, affecting the way in which stimuli are processed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41969899',
'title': 'Kelly McGonigal',
'section': 'Section::::Willpower.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'According to McGonigal, the practice of meditation is an effective way to establish the primacy of the prefrontal cortex, thus enabling a choice to do the harder thing, when that is required for attaining a long-term goal. McGonigal believes exercising self-control can help build up willpower in the same way as, over time, physical exercising can increase capacity to exercise. She says: "If you do it with awareness and intention, it can make you stronger. The strength develops over time, even if you feel temporarily weaker. But I think this only works when you have this mindset, and feel like you are consciously choosing to "use" your willpower. If you feel like you are being drained by everything you "have" to do (or not do), that lack of autonomy is even more stressful than exercising self-control." The promise of happiness from cravings often misleads in McGonigal\'s view, and she gives techniques of mindfully focusing attention on the actual experience when indulging a craving or temptation, so as to compare it with the expectation of reward that preceded it.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9578417',
'title': 'Research on meditation',
'section': 'Section::::Mindfulness.:Stress reduction.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Research has shown stress reduction benefits from mindfulness. A 2019 study tested the effects of meditation on the psychological well-being, work stress, and blood pressure of employees working in the United Kingdom. One group of participants were instructed to meditate once a day using a mindfulness app on their smartphones, while the control group did not engage in meditation. Measurements of well-being, stress, and perceived workplace support were taken for both groups before the intervention and then again after 4 months. Based on self-report questionnaires, the participants who engaged in meditation showed a significant increase in psychological well-being and perceived workplace support. The meditators also reported a significant decrease in anxiety and stress levels. \xa0\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20062',
'title': 'Meditation',
'section': 'Section::::Secular applications.:Clinical applications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 83,
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'passage_text': 'The US National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine states that ""Meditation may be practiced for many reasons, such as to increase calmness and physical relaxation, to improve psychological balance, to cope with illness, or to enhance overall health and well-being."" Meditation techniques have been used in Western counseling and psychotherapy. Relaxation training works toward achieving mental and muscle relaxation to reduce daily stresses. Sahaja (mental silence) meditators scored above control group for emotional well-being and mental health measures on SF-36 ratings.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20062',
'title': 'Meditation',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Meditation may be used with the aim of reducing stress, anxiety, depression, and pain, and increasing peace, perception, self-concept, and well-being. Meditation is under research to define its possible health (psychological, neurological, and cardiovascular) and other effects.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does meditation improve mental stamina?',
'selftext': "I've read that meditation can improve your mental stamina and I was wondering how exactly it does this. I'm a full time student and I spend a lot of time studying and doing flashcards to learn new material, but once I reach a certain point my mental energies are completely zapped and I can't bring myself to do anymore. I was wondering if meditation could help my brain last longer before throwing in the towel for the day. I also read that meditation gives you the best results when it involves you actively focusing instead of just zoning out. If this is the case, will meditation simply drain even more of my mental stamina? I am already consciously controlling my thoughts for long stretches of the day when I attempt to memorize flashcards and solve problems, how is the focus you use in meditation different? Just to be clear, my attention span and ability to focus on my studies are not deficient in any way. It takes me hours of flashcards to hit this wall (Also I do take breaks, get plenty of exercise and sleep, etc.). I am just looking for a way to improve my ability to focus and learn new information beyond how it is now. If possible I would love to see official articles regarding this subject, but any and all input would be greatly appreciated, thanks.",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["I feel like the other two are too quick to jump on the placebo explanation.\n\nA better way to think about meditation that sounds less mystical is that you're training your brain to stop wandering and having too many thoughts at the same time. It's a real and documented effect, and it does wonders for eliminating negative thoughts and helps you focus (less noise)\n\nIt is easy to see why having a less noisy and distracted mind would alleviate the drain on your mental faculties.",
"Although meditation has several evidentiary benefits, with a long and colored past of scholarly investigation, it hasn't been shown to be more effective at producing the kinds of results you're looking for than focusing on any other single task for a long period of time.\n\nTo be blunt; exercising your ability to mentally focus helps you improve your ability to mentally focus. It doesn't matter if you're meditating or reading complicated material or building a boat in your basement. It's the practicing and exercising that gradually improve your ability. \n\nEDIT:\nSome scholarly sources of information on the topic.\n\n_URL_2_\n_URL_1_\n_URL_0_",
'Although you are looking to extend mental stamina, I’d offer than in my experience meditation does a great deal more than that. The best way I can describe it is like drinking liquid luck if you are a Harry Potter fan. It has this amazing effect that just makes things work out better. My interactions with others improve, I can stay calmer for longer, and yes, I can focus for longer periods of time because it relaxes my mind. Meditations allows the mind and body to release the stress that inevitably builds up in our lives, given clearer though and a more focused mind.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '72psmy',
'query': 'how does meditation improve mental stamina?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '13478488',
'title': 'Speed of gravity',
'section': 'Section::::General relativity.:Aberration of field direction in general relativity, for a weakly accelerated observer.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
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'passage_text': 'It is in fact not very easy to construct a self-consistent gravity theory in which gravitational interaction propagates at a speed other than the speed of light, which complicates discussion of this possibility.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4756732',
'title': 'Reactionless drive',
'section': 'Section::::Open systems.:Movement without thrust.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Some bimetric theories of gravity with variable speed of light like the Janus cosmological model hypothesize apparent faster-than-light interstellar travel with no acceleration nor deceleration, using the energy difference of the two conjugated metrics to reach relativistic speeds after a mass inversion process.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '176349',
'title': 'Tom Van Flandern',
'section': "Section::::Non-mainstream science and beliefs.:Le Sage's theory of gravitation and the speed of gravity.\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'In 1998 Van Flandern wrote a paper asserting that astronomical observations imply that gravity propagates at least twenty billion times faster than light, or even infinitely fast. These claims were dismissed by mainstream physicists.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13478488',
'title': 'Speed of gravity',
'section': 'Section::::General relativity.:Measurements.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
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'passage_text': "In September 2002, Sergei Kopeikin and Edward Fomalont announced that they had measured the speed of gravity indirectly, using their data from VLBI measurement of the retarded position of Jupiter on its orbit during Jupiter's transit across the line-of-sight of the bright radio source quasar QSO J0842+1835. Kopeikin and Fomalont concluded that the speed of gravity is between 0.8 and 1.2 times the speed of light, which would be fully consistent with the theoretical prediction of general relativity that the speed of gravity is exactly the same as the speed of light.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13478488',
'title': 'Speed of gravity',
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'passage_text': 'In classical theories of gravitation, the changes in a gravitational field propagate. A change in the distribution of energy and momentum of matter results in subsequent alteration, at a distance, of the gravitational field which it produces. In the relativistic sense, the "speed of gravity" refers to the speed of a gravitational wave, which, as predicted by general relativity and confirmed by observation of the GW170817 neutron star merger, is the same speed as the speed of light ("c").\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1267762',
'title': 'Variable speed of light',
'section': "Section::::Historical proposals.:Einstein's updated proposals (1905–1915).\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'Albert Einstein went through several versions of light speed theory between 1905 and 1915, eventually concluding that light speed is constant when gravity does not have to be considered but that the speed of light cannot be constant in a gravitational field with variable strength. In the same book Einstein explained that he intended light speed to be a vector when it was described by coordinates in a reference frame.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13478488',
'title': 'Speed of gravity',
'section': 'Section::::Introduction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'The speed of gravitational waves in the general theory of relativity is equal to the "speed of light" in a vacuum, "c". Within the theory of special relativity, the constant "c" is not exclusively about light; instead it is the highest possible speed for any interaction in nature. Formally, "c" is a conversion factor for changing the unit of time to the unit of space. This makes it the only speed which does not depend either on the motion of an observer or a source of light and/or gravity. Thus, the speed of "light" is also the speed of gravitational waves and any massless particle. Such particles include the gluon (carrier of the strong force), the photons that make up light (hence carrier of electromagnetic force), and the hypothetical gravitons which make up the associated field particles of gravity (however, a theory of the graviton requires a theory of quantum gravity).\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "I just read about gravity traveling at the same speed as light and I'm still confused.",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Imagine a stick that’s one light year long. If you stood on one end and pulled on the stick, it would take time before someone on the other side of the stick felt that pull. So if you pull, and then drop the stick and leave, by the time that person feels the pull, you could be gone and somewhere else',
'Imagine a big heavy ball in the middle of a rubber sheet.... if the sheet breaks and the ball falls through the bottom, then the rubber sheet will take time to "spring back" up to a normal flat plane... That doesn\'t happen infinitely fast..\n\nThe same thing with gravity which is really just a warping of the local space/time fabric.. if something changes in the fabric some distance away from you , it takes time for the change in that fabric to reach you...',
"Don't think of the speed of light as the speed of light. We call it that for historical reasons, but that speed is not unique to light. A better way is to think of that speed (299,792,458 meters per second) as the cosmic speed limit for *everything.* That means nothing in the universe can go faster than that, and nothing with mass can ever reach that speed. It's the speed of information and causality. Once you think of it from that perspective, it becomes a little easier to understand. Since *nothing* can travel faster than that speed, changes in a gravitational field must also obey that speed limit.",
'The speed of light is really more "the speed limit of the universe". Things that have no mass, like force fields, can travel this fast. The electromagnet (light) force and gravity react at that speed. But everything else is moving too. So the gravity force between the sun and earth is moving in the direction of a straight line between the two. But in the 8 minutes that it takes the gravity to travel the 93 million mile distance, the earth has moved a bit. So there is a little but of lag.',
'As for your edit "being pulled to a point where something was, but isn\'t there anymore". From the Blue Marbles perspective the object is there. The fact that it\'s not there anymore is only something we\'re aware of because we are capable of processing time. But to an object it\'s not capable of processing time, there is no past or future for it. There is only now, and the now that it knows has that object there. This probably is a bad way to explain it.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'dms38w',
'query': "i just read about gravity traveling at the same speed as light and i'm still confused.",
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '8591744',
'title': 'Murga punishment',
'section': 'Section::::Variants.:Regular/Sitting Murga.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'end_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': "As the duration of the punishment increases, the tiredness becomes increasingly unbearable. At some point, one may feel compelled to raise one's bottom to try and get some relief. However, that only brings temporary relief as keeping the buttocks raised is painful (similar to standing murgha), so one soon lowers the buttocks onto the arms again. That again brings only temporary relief and one again feels like going back to the raised position. In this way, one can end up oscillating between the two positions, not getting much relief either way.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13391732',
'title': 'Levator ani syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Symptoms include a dull ache to the left 2\xa0inches above the anus or higher in the rectum and a feeling of constant rectal pressure or burning. The pain may last for 30 minutes or longer, and is usually described as chronic or intermittent with prolonged periods, in contrast to the brief pain of the related disorder proctalgia fugax. Pain may be worse when sitting than when standing or lying. Precipitating factors include extended sitting, defecation, stress, sexual intercourse, childbirth, and surgery. Palpation of the levator ani muscle may find tenderness.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3298206',
'title': 'Gluteal muscles',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical significance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 328,
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'passage_text': 'Sitting for long periods can lead to the gluteal muscles atrophying through constant pressure and disuse. This may be associated with (although not necessarily the cause of) lower back pain, difficulty with some movements that naturally require the gluteal muscles, such as rising from the seated position, and climbing stairs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '498149',
'title': 'Pudendal nerve entrapment',
'section': 'Section::::Symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 434,
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'passage_text': "The pain is typically caused by sitting, relieved by standing, and is absent when recumbent (lying down) or sitting on a toilet seat. If the perineal pain is positional (changes with the patient's position, for example sitting or standing), this suggests a tunnel syndrome. Anesthesiologist John S. McDonald of UCLA reports that sitting pain relieved by standing or sitting on a toilet seat is the most reliable diagnostic parameter.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5597968',
'title': 'Sitting disability',
'section': 'Section::::Possible causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 563,
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'passage_text': 'Pain while sitting is a well known symptom when having ischial tuberosity pain, Myofascial Pain Syndrome, coccyx pain (coccydynia), failed back surgery, Arachnoiditis, and back pain in general. An inability to sit is one of the signs of chronic low back pain. Low back pain is a condition that affects a large part of the general United States population at some point in life. 65 to 80% of Americans have an episode of low back pain at some time in their lives. Although most cases resolve quickly, 40% recur and 5% result in a residual disability after 1 year.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '689764',
'title': "Onuf's nucleus",
'section': 'Section::::Clinical significance.:Urinary stress incontinence.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 281,
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'passage_text': 'Stress urinary incontinence (SUI) is a common disease in women caused by pelvic floor muscle weakness. Coughing, laughing, sneezing, exercising or other movements that increase intra-abdominal pressure, and thus increase pressure on the bladder, are common reasons for urine loss.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '365101',
'title': 'Sciatica',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Other.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 623,
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'passage_text': 'Pain that does not improve when lying down suggests a nonmechanical cause, such as cancer, inflammation, or infection. Sciatica can be caused by tumors impinging on the spinal cord or the nerve roots. Severe back pain extending to the hips and feet, loss of bladder or bowel control, or muscle weakness may result from spinal tumors or cauda equina syndrome. Trauma to the spine, such as from a car accident or hard fall onto the heel or buttocks, may also lead to sciatica. A relationship has been proposed with a latent "Cutibacterium acnes" infection in the intervertebral discs, but the role it plays is not yet clear.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do our butts hurt after sitting for a long period of time?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Well, the pressure causes your muscles to press against your bones, which hurts for example, pinch you arm. Your flesh is getting crushed, so it hurts....'],
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'query_id': '96h8ye',
'query': 'why do our butts hurt after sitting for a long period of time?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '465334',
'title': 'Financial accounting',
'section': 'Section::::Three components of financial statements.:Statement of financial position (balance sheet).\n',
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'passage_text': 'The balance sheet is the financial statement showing a firm\'s assets, liabilities and equity (capital) at a set point in time, usually the end of the fiscal year reported on the accompanying income statement. The total assets always equal the total combined liabilities and equity in dollar amount. This statement best demonstrates the basic accounting equation - "Assets = Liabilities + Equity". The statement can be used to help show the status of a company.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9525663',
'title': 'Overhead (business)',
'section': 'Section::::Application of business overheads.:Balance sheet.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
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'passage_text': "Balance sheet is a financial statement which outlines a company's financial assets, liabilities, and shareholder's equity at a specific time. Both assets and liabilities are separated into two categories depending on their time frame; current and long-term. Business overheads in particular fall under current liabilities as they are costs for which the company must pay on a relatively short-term/immediate basis. Although the balance sheet by itself does not offer much information, it is a useful piece of financial information when combined with other documents such as the income statement or ratio analysis as it offers a diverse and well-rounded description of the company's financial position.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '100374',
'title': 'Balance sheet',
'section': 'Section::::Types.\n',
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'passage_text': "A balance sheet summarizes an organization or individual's assets, equity and liabilities at a specific point in time. Two forms of balance sheet exist. They are the report form and account form. Individuals and small businesses tend to have simple balance sheets. Larger businesses tend to have more complex balance sheets, and these are presented in the organization's annual report. Large businesses also may prepare balance sheets for segments of their businesses. A balance sheet is often presented alongside one for a different point in time (typically the previous year) for comparison.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '100374',
'title': 'Balance sheet',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'In financial accounting, a balance sheet or statement of financial position or statement of financial condition is a summary of the financial balances of an individual or organization, whether it be a sole proprietorship, a business partnership, a corporation, private limited company or other organization such as Government or not-for-profit entity. Assets, liabilities and ownership equity are listed as of a specific date, such as the end of its financial year. A balance sheet is often described as a "snapshot of a company\'s financial condition". Of the four basic financial statements, the balance sheet is the only statement which applies to a single point in time of a business\' calendar year.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43344078',
'title': 'Balance sheet recession',
'section': 'Section::::Definition.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A balance sheet recession is a particular type of recession driven by the high levels of private sector debt (i.e., the credit cycle) rather than fluctuations in the business cycle. It is characterized by a change in private sector behavior towards saving (i.e., paying down debt) rather than spending, which slows the economy through a reduction in consumption by households or investment by business. The term balance sheet derives from an accounting equation that holds that assets must always equal the sum of liabilities plus equity. If asset prices fall below the value of the debt incurred to purchase them, then the equity must be negative, meaning the consumer or business is insolvent. Until it regains solvency, the entity will focus on debt repayment. It has been argued that a balance sheet recession essentially is the same phenomenon that the German economist Wilhelm Röpke and Austrian School economists in the 1930s denoted as a secondary deflation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '100374',
'title': 'Balance sheet',
'section': 'Section::::Sample.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The following balance sheet is a very brief example prepared in accordance with IFRS. It does not show all possible kinds of assets, liabilities and equity, but it shows the most usual ones. Because it shows goodwill, it could be a consolidated balance sheet. Monetary values are not shown, summary (subtotal) rows are missing as well.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50969944',
'title': 'Glossary of civil engineering',
'section': 'Section::::B.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Balance sheet – In financial accounting, a balance sheet or statement of financial position is a summary of the financial balances of an individual or organization, whether it be a sole proprietorship, a business partnership, a corporation, private limited company or other organization such as Government or not-for-profit entity. Assets, liabilities and ownership equity are listed as of a specific date, such as the end of its financial year. A balance sheet is often described as a "snapshot of a company\'s financial condition". Of the four basic financial statements, the balance sheet is the only statement which applies to a single point in time of a business\' calendar year.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does a balance sheet always balance?',
'selftext': 'I did accounting more than ten years ago in high school, but can’t remember it understand why if for example assets increase, the other side of the balance sheet also increases?',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Because you can't print or destroy money. If you're assets increased, you must have paid for those assets somehow - so you have less cash or more debt or whatever it took to get that asset.",
'The accounting equation is Assets = Liabilities + Equity. \n\nAs you increase or decrease one side of the equation, the other side is also increased or decreased. So if I report taking out a 500 dollar loan as an increase in my assets, I’m also recording it as an increase of 500 dollars of liability, balancing both sides of this equation . It is therefore balanced by design.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'd82osj',
'query': 'why does a balance sheet always balance?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '10106868',
'title': 'Batu Lintang camp',
'section': 'Section::::Daily life in the camp.:Health.:Malnutrition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 50,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 50,
'end_character': 466,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': '""We are having a particularly hungry period and [I] can quite truthfully say that our mouths water, and that we \'slaver\' as dogs do before meals. Some of us find it advisable to rise slowly after lying down, as due to malnutrition, any rapid movement is apt to cause dizziness or even a black-out ... one morning recently I awoke and discovered to my horror that my sight had become very dim. Later I realised this was due to vitamin deficiency in our poor diet.""\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36819392',
'title': 'Zion Square assault',
'section': 'Section::::Facebook report.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 239,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "It's late at night, and I can't sleep. My eyes are full of tears for a good few hours now and my stomach is turning inside out with the question of the loss of humanity, the image of God in mankind, a loss that I am not willing to accept.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40857121',
'title': 'Disease in Imperial Rome',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Herbal medicines.:Military use.:Thyme (Thymus vulgaris).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 71,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 71,
'end_character': 411,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The poor living conditions and many ailments of being in the Roman army often led to depression in the soldiers. For some reason, it was commonly believed that lying on thyme while sleeping would provide a more positive outlook. Although less common, some Roman civilians also practiced this. While this is a misconception, a placebo effect may have even stronger effects on mental ailments such as depression.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47216393',
'title': 'Sleep hollow',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 267,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The affected persons fall asleep during day-to-day activities and always feel sleepy. One of the doctors said, "You wake them up, they can speak to you, reply to you, but as soon as you stop talking and ask what bothers them, they just want to sleep, sleep, sleep.".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '545918',
'title': 'Chest pain',
'section': 'Section::::Differential diagnosis.:Gastrointestinal.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 38,
'end_character': 220,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Gastroesophageal reflux disease - The pain is aggravated when lying down or after meals. Persons may describe this as a heartburn. Besides, they may also complain of tasting bitter contents from the stomach.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '155131',
'title': 'Bruxism',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 487,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Most people who brux are unaware of the problem, either because there are no symptoms, or because the symptoms are not understood to be associated with a clenching and grinding problem. The symptoms of sleep bruxism are usually most intense immediately after waking, and then slowly abate, and the symptoms of a grinding habit which occurs mainly while awake tend to worsen through the day, and may not be present on waking. Bruxism may cause a variety of signs and symptoms, including:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3021397',
'title': 'DFS Furniture',
'section': 'Section::::History.:DFS.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 264,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Kirkham told the "Yorkshire Post": "It\'s something that\'s caused me fitful sleep in the time I\'ve been thinking about it. I\'ve no hobby, this is my hobby – it\'s what I do. I\'m an entrepreneur. It\'s almost as if I can feel the adrenaline running through my veins."\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is going asleep on your stomach so bad for you but feel so good?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['If sleeping on your back is *uncomfortable*, maybe you just need a new mattress. If you want to sleep on your stomach, though, know that sleeping on your stomach can put your lower back in an awkward position. If stomach sleeping is more comfortable for you, try sleeping with a pillow under your stomach. That will put your spine in a more neutral position to alleviate the strain.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'c6r86e',
'query': 'why is going asleep on your stomach so bad for you but feel so good?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2986125',
'title': 'Jug (instrument)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 530,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Jugs will also produce sound at their main resonance frequency when air is blown across the top opening. This method is not used in bands, since it is relatively quiet and produces only a single pitch. It is typically used for making glass bottles whistle. A larger bottle produces a lower musical pitch while smaller ones produce higher pitches. The pitch of a bottle played in this way may be controlled by changing its volume by adding or emptying contents. Loudness is a function of the speed of the air blown across the top.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10261414',
'title': 'Hot chocolate effect',
'section': 'Section::::Origin of the phenomenon.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 487,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Water is approximately 800 times denser than air, and air is approximately 15,000 times more compressible than water. When water is filled with air bubbles, however, the fluid's density is very close to the density of water, but the compressibility will be the compressibility of air. This greatly reduces the speed of sound in the liquid. Wavelength is constant for a given volume of fluid, therefore the frequency (pitch) of the sound will decrease as long as gas bubbles are present.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58991',
'title': 'Fog',
'section': 'Section::::Sound propagation and acoustic effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 51,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 51,
'end_character': 755,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Molecular effect: Though fog is essentially liquid water, the many droplets are separated by small air gaps. High-pitched sounds have a high frequency, which in turn means they have a short wavelength. To transmit a high frequency wave, air must move back and forth very quickly. Short-wavelength high-pitched sound waves are reflected and refracted by many separated water droplets, partially cancelling and dissipating their energy (a process called "damping"). In contrast, low pitched notes, with a low frequency and a long wavelength, move the air less rapidly and less often, and lose less energy to interactions with small water droplets. Low-pitched notes are less affected by fog and travel further, which is why foghorns use a low-pitched tone.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41270451',
'title': 'Broadband acoustic resonance dissolution spectroscopy',
'section': 'Section::::Principles of the BARDS response.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 424,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'where V is the volume of the medium, and dV is the volume decrease due to the pressure increase dp of the sound wave. When water is filled with air bubbles, the fluid density is essentially the density of water, and the air will contribute significantly to the compressibility. Crawford derived the relationship between fractional bubble volume and sound velocity in water, and hence the sound frequency in water, given as.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '262733',
'title': 'Dynamic range compression',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Other uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 59,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 59,
'end_character': 326,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Gain pumping, where a regular amplitude peak (such as a kick drum) causes the rest of the mix to change in volume due to the compressor, is generally avoided in music production. However, many dance and hip-hop musicians purposefully use this phenomenon, causing the mix to alter in volume rhythmically in time with the beat.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '147853',
'title': 'Speed of sound',
'section': 'Section::::Dependence on the properties of the medium.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 43,
'end_character': 235,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Humidity has a small but measurable effect on the speed of sound (causing it to increase by about 0.1%–0.6%), because oxygen and nitrogen molecules of the air are replaced by lighter molecules of water. This is a simple mixing effect.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34423259',
'title': 'Liquid sound',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 346,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'For Liquid Sound, for instance, a special stereo set is necessary because one hears differently underwater than in the air: it is impossible to hear from where the tones are coming. The reason is that sound waves go through water about five times as fast as through the air. Due to its higher speed, the sound seems to be coming from everywhere.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does the sound of poured water gets higher and higher as you keep pouring?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Because the sound you're hearing is sound coming out of a round chamber. When the glass fills with water, the size of the chamber changes, so the pitch changes. Large chamber, low pitch. Small chamber, high pitch. It's why digieridoos are deep and rumbly while ocarinas are high pitched and whiny.",
'Its the screams of the air being vacated from thier homes. The youngest (aka highest pitch) were at the bottom, so the screams raise in pitch from oldest-youngest'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'cbyvv5',
'query': 'why does the sound of poured water gets higher and higher as you keep pouring?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1122245',
'title': 'Rocking chair',
'section': 'Section::::Purpose.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 228,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Many adults find rocking chairs soothing because of the gentle motion. Gentle rocking motion has been shown to provide faster onset of sleep than remaining stationary, mimicking the process of a parent rocking a child to sleep.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36434851',
'title': 'Ghodiyu',
'section': 'Section::::Usage.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 313,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Indian people believe that the rocking motion soothes and relaxes the child and puts them to sleep quickly by replicating the comfort and security of the womb. Indian mothers claim that using a ghodiyu for their child can relieve baby colic symptoms due to the rocking motion which they believe relaxes the baby.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20223284',
'title': 'Pulsing (bodywork)',
'section': 'Section::::Forms and Practice.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 370,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Children and adults will often rock themselves when distressed: there appears to be a deep comfort and security to be found in gentle movement. With its flowing and wave-like movements, Pulsing perhaps recalls a body-memory of the foetal experience in the womb, where the baby is constantly subject to rhythmic pulsation, or of being cradled and rocked during infancy. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '232062',
'title': 'Plagiocephaly',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Repositioning.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 629,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "This may include repositioning the child's head throughout the day so that the rounded side of the head is placed against the mattress, re-positioning cribs and other areas that infants spend time in so that they will have to look in a different direction to see their parents or others in the room, re-positioning mobiles and other toys for similar reasons, and avoiding extended time sleeping in car-seats (when not in a vehicle), bouncy seats, or other supine seating which is thought to exacerbate the problem. If the child appears to have discomfort or cries when they are re-positioned, a neck problem should be ruled out.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '954465',
'title': 'Rumble strip',
'section': 'Section::::Accident and driver dynamics.:"Classic" one-car crashes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 38,
'end_character': 291,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'This phenomenon implies that a sleeping driver often does not react and begin to recover, until all four wheels have struck a rumble strip; if the paved shoulder is narrower than the width of the vehicle wheel track, a rumble strip may not prevent a sleeping driver from going off the road.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1954771',
'title': 'Swaddling',
'section': 'Section::::Modern swaddling.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 329,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'By the time the baby is learning to roll over, often around 4–5 months, parents and caregivers should transition the baby from swaddling to a less restrictive covering for sleep. If the baby can roll over, then it is important for the baby to have use of its hands and arms to adjust his or her head position after rolling over.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5596641',
'title': 'Horse behavior',
'section': 'Section::::Sleep patterns.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 48,
'end_character': 745,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Horses can sleep both standing up and lying down. They can doze and enter light sleep while standing, an adaptation from life as a prey animal in the wild. Lying down makes an animal more vulnerable to predators. Horses are able to sleep standing up because a "stay apparatus" in their legs allows them to relax their muscles and doze without collapsing. In the front legs, their equine forelimb anatomy automatically engages the stay apparatus when their muscles relax. The horse engages the stay apparatus in the hind legs by shifting its hip position to lock the patella in place. At the stifle joint, a "hook" structure on the inside bottom end of the femur cups the patella and the medial patella ligament, preventing the leg from bending.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why is it that a rocking motion or a car ride puts my baby to sleep but when I'm in a similar situation it doesn't make me sleepy?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It's not just the rocking motion, it is the constriction of the car seat that doesn't allow him to move coupled with the sound of the car. A car's tires on the road would be a familiar sound to what a baby hears for the entire gestation period. For instance, cup your hands over your ears and you hear the blood rushing through... sound familiar to a car tire on the road?\n\nThose both allow the baby to feel back in the mother's womb."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6tos12',
'query': "why is it that a rocking motion or a car ride puts my baby to sleep but when i'm in a similar situation it doesn't make me sleepy?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '18834674',
'title': 'Erection',
'section': 'Section::::Socio-sexual aspects.:Size.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 248,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Generally, the size of an erect penis is fixed throughout post-pubescent life. Its size may be increased by surgery, although penile enlargement is controversial, and a majority of men were "not satisfied" with the results, according to one study.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20598355',
'title': 'Human penis size',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 373,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A statistically significant correlation between penis size and the size of other body parts has not been found in research. Some environmental factors in addition to genetics, such as the presence of endocrine disruptors, can affect penis growth. An adult penis with an erect length of less than , but otherwise formed normally, is referred to in medicine as a micropenis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20598355',
'title': 'Human penis size',
'section': 'Section::::Studies.:Erect circumference.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 432,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Similar results exist regarding studies of the circumference of the adult fully erect penis, with the measurement usually taken mid-shaft. As with length, studies that relied on self-measurement consistently reported a significantly higher average than those with staff measuring. In a study of penis size where measurements were taken in a laboratory setting, the average penis circumference when erect was 11.66\xa0cm (4.59 inches).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20598355',
'title': 'Human penis size',
'section': 'Section::::Variance.:Conditions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 44,
'end_character': 607,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'An adult penis with an erect length of less than 7\xa0cm or 2.76\xa0inches but otherwise formed normally is referred to in a medical context as having the micropenis condition. The condition affects 0.6% of men. Some of the identifiable causes are deficiency of pituitary growth hormone or gonadotropins, mild degrees of androgen insensitivity, a variety of genetic syndromes and variations in certain homeobox genes. Some types of micropenis can be addressed with growth hormone or testosterone treatment in early childhood. Operations are also available to increase penis size in cases of micropenis in adults.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7117073',
'title': 'Onykia ingens',
'section': 'Section::::Size and growth.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 324,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Penis elongation has been observed in this species; when erect, the penis may be as long as the mantle, head and arms combined. As such, deep water squid like "M. ingens" have the greatest known penis length relative to body size of all mobile animals, second in the entire animal kingdom only to certain sessile barnacles.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17322701',
'title': 'Penis',
'section': 'Section::::Invertebrates.:Arthropods.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 84,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 84,
'end_character': 219,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "The record for the largest penis size to body size ratio is held by the barnacle. The barnacle's penis can grow to up to forty times its own body length. This enables them to reach the nearest female for fertilization.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18834674',
'title': 'Erection',
'section': 'Section::::Socio-sexual aspects.:Size.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 381,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In regards to the average size of a human erect penis, a study of 15,521 men, and the best research to date on the topic, as the subjects were measured by health professionals, rather than self-measured, has concluded that the average length of an erect human penis is 13.12 cm (5.17 inches) long, while the average circumference of an erect human penis is 11.66 cm (4.59 inches).\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does a penis triple in size while erect?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Human skin has a natural elasticity, like a rubber band, and can stretch a little, or a lot, depending on the area. The extra mass that fills the skin is blood within the veins and muscle. That’s what ‘engorged’ means. When you’re not excited there’s less blood flow to the area so it’s in the rest of your body doing other stuff.',
'Imagine a balloon. At the start, the balloon is small. After u blow air into the balloon, it gets bigger and bigger. But instead, the balloon is ur penis and the air is ur blood.',
'The penis is, essentially, a balloon with a hose running through the middle of it. When arousal occurs, blood is directed into the penis, filling it in a manner not unlike a water balloon placed over a faucet. It doesn\'t gain any new tissue; when there isn\'t extra blood in the penis stretching it out, it contracts and relaxes into its flaccid shape.\n\nFurther, not all penises triple in size during erection. Every owner of a penis exists somewhere on the sliding scale of "grower" to "shower," with some individuals gaining no extra length from erection, and others who measure within the average zone during erection can have something classifiable as a micropenis when flaccid.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7jo8ac',
'query': 'how does a penis triple in size while erect?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '641156',
'title': 'Bruise',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 1310,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A bruise, also known as a contusion, is a type of hematoma of tissue, the most common cause being capillaries damaged by trauma, causing localized bleeding that extravasate into the surrounding interstitial tissues. Most bruises are not very deep under the skin so that the bleeding causes a visible discoloration. The bruise then remains visible until the blood is either absorbed by tissues or cleared by immune system action. Bruises, which do not blanch under pressure, can involve capillaries at the level of skin, subcutaneous tissue, muscle, or bone. Bruises are not to be confused with other similar-looking lesions primarily distinguished by their diameter or causation. These lesions include petechia (<\xa03\xa0mm result from numerous and diverse etiologies such as adverse reactions from medications such as warfarin, straining, asphyxiation, platelet disorders and diseases such as cytomegalovirus), purpura (3\xa0mm to 1\xa0cm, classified as palpable purpura or non-palpable purpura and indicates various pathologic conditions such as thrombocytopenia), and ecchymosis (1\xa0cm caused by blood dissecting through tissue planes and settled in an area remote from the site of trauma or pathology such as periorbital ecchymosis, e.g.,"raccoon eyes", arising from a basilar skull fracture or from a neuroblastoma).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '641156',
'title': 'Bruise',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.:Size and shape.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 602,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Bruise shapes may correspond directly to the instrument of injury or be modified by additional factors. Bruises often become more prominent as time lapses, resulting in additional size and swelling, and may grow to a large size over the course of the hours after the injury that caused the bruise was inflicted. As stated above, bruising present in a different location than the site of impact is called "ecchymosis" and generally occurs when the tissue at the site of injury is loose, allowing blood to travel under the skin to another location due to gravity or other forces, such as in a black eye.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1280779',
'title': 'Degenerative disc disease',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 724,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "After an injury, some discs become painful because of inflammation and the pain comes and goes. Some people have nerve endings that penetrate more deeply into the anulus fibrosus (outer layer of the disc) than others, making discs more likely to generate pain. In the alternative, the healing of trauma to the outer anulus fibrosus may result in the innervation of the scar tissue and pain impulses from the disc, as these nerves become inflamed by nucleus pulposus material. Degenerative disc disease can lead to a chronic debilitating condition and can have a serious negative impact on a person's quality of life. When pain from degenerative disc disease is severe, traditional nonoperative treatment may be ineffective.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '641156',
'title': 'Bruise',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 674,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The presence of bruises may be seen in patients with platelet or coagulation disorders, or those who are being treated with an anticoagulant. Unexplained bruising may be a warning sign of child abuse, domestic abuse, or serious medical problems such as leukemia or meningoccocal infection. Unexplained bruising can also indicate internal bleeding or certain types of cancer. Long-term glucocorticoid therapy can cause easy bruising. Bruising present around the navel (belly button) with severe abdominal pain suggests acute pancreatitis. Connective tissue disorders such as Ehlers-Danlos syndrome may cause relatively easy or spontaneous bruising depending on the severity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6217255',
'title': 'Pelvic fracture',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Complications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 345,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Complications are likely to result in cases of excess blood loss or punctures to certain organs, possibly leading to shock. Swelling and bruising may result, more so in high-impact injuries. Pain in the affected areas may differ where severity of impact increases its likelihood and may radiate if symptoms are aggravated when one moves around.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '641156',
'title': 'Bruise',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.:Severity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 445,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Damage that causes bruising can also cause bones to be broken, tendons or muscles to be strained, ligaments to be sprained, or other tissue to be damaged. The symptoms and signs of these injuries may initially appear to be those of simple bruising. Abdominal bruising or severe injuries that cause difficulty in moving a limb or the feeling of liquid under the skin may indicate life-threatening injury and require the attention of a physician.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2174577',
'title': 'FOLFOX',
'section': 'Section::::Common complications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
'end_character': 221,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Bruising more easily due to a drop in platelets – you may have nosebleeds or bleeding gums after brushing your teeth. Or you may have lots of tiny red spots or bruises on your arms or legs (known as petechia)\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why does poking a bruise sometimes feel good even though it’s painful?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The pain and pleasure centers of the brain are right next to each other, and mild pain can cause them to get "confused" (as far as I understand it).\n\nIt\'s the same reason why some people like spicy foods and spanking in bed. I\'m guessing that how masochistic you are is determined by how easily your pain and pleasure centers get confused.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'a4iqcz',
'query': 'why does poking a bruise sometimes feel good even though it’s painful?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '62745',
'title': 'Lethal injection',
'section': 'Section::::Euthanasia protocol.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 65,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 65,
'end_character': 538,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Lethal injection has also been used in cases of euthanasia to facilitate voluntary death in patients with terminal or chronically painful conditions. Euthanasia can be accomplished either through oral, intravenous, or intramuscular administration of drugs. In individuals who are incapable of swallowing lethal doses of medication, an intravenous route is preferred. The following is a Dutch protocol for parenteral (intravenous) administration to obtain euthanasia, with the old protocol listed first and the new protocol listed second:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2548579',
'title': 'Voluntary euthanasia',
'section': 'Section::::Protocols.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 60,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 60,
'end_character': 387,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Euthanasia can be accomplished either through an oral, intravenous, or intramuscular administration of drugs, or by oxygen deprivation (anoxia), as in some euthanasia machines. In individuals who are incapable of swallowing lethal doses of medication, an intravenous route is preferred. The following is a Dutch protocol for parenteral (intravenous) administration to obtain euthanasia:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2548579',
'title': 'Voluntary euthanasia',
'section': 'Section::::Medical ethics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 52,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 52,
'end_character': 500,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Physicians who are in favor of euthanasia state that to keep euthanasia or physician-assisted suicide (PAS) illegal is a violation of patient freedoms. They believe that any competent terminally-ill patient should have the right to choose death or refuse life-saving treatment. Suicide and assistance from their physician is seen as the only option those patients have. With the suffering and the knowledge from the doctor, this may also suggest that PAS is a humane answer to the excruciating pain.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2241675',
'title': 'Secobarbital',
'section': 'Section::::Use in animal and human euthanasia.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 46,
'end_character': 521,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In the Netherlands, individuals have two options for euthanasia. They can orally consume 100 ml of concentrated syrup containing either 15 grams of pentobarbital or 15 grams of secobarbital, or they can choose to have 2 grams of thiopental or 1 gram of propofol administered intravenously by a doctor, followed by a muscle relaxant. In recent years only 15% of those who died by euthanasia opted for orally consuming the lethal drug(s), the rest choosing to have the drugs administered intravenously by a doctor instead.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '180121',
'title': 'Medication',
'section': 'Section::::Types of medicines.:For euthanasia.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 87,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 87,
'end_character': 205,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A euthanaticum is used for euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide. Euthanasia is not permitted by law in many countries, and consequently medicines will not be licensed for this use in those countries.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8243661',
'title': 'Ezekiel Emanuel',
'section': 'Section::::Opposition to legalization of euthanasia (1997).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 33,
'end_character': 956,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "There is one final matter to consider: the possibility that euthanasia not only would be performed on incompetent patients in violation of the rules—as an abuse of the safeguards—but would become the rule in the context of demographic and budgetary pressures on Social Security and Medicare as the Baby Boom generation begins to retire, around 2010. Once legalized, physician-assisted suicide and euthanasia would become routine. Over time doctors would become comfortable giving injections to end life and Americans would become comfortable having euthanasia as an option. Comfort would make us want to extend the option to others who, in society's view, are suffering and leading purposeless lives. The ethical arguments for physician-assisted suicide and euthanasia, advocates of euthanasia have maintained, do not apply to euthanasia only when it is voluntary; they can also be used to justify some kinds of nonvoluntary euthanasia of the incompetent.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41245041',
'title': 'Voluntary Euthanasia Party',
'section': 'Section::::Definitions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 468,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'There is no universally agreed definition of "voluntary euthanasia". Terms like dying with dignity, physician-assisted dying, physician-assisted suicide and voluntary assisted dying are also used. The VEP regards voluntary euthanasia as involving a request by a terminally or incurably ill person for medical assistance to end his or her life painlessly and peacefully. A doctor may administer the medication or prescribe medication that the patient self-administers.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'when terminally ill patients want to be euthanized what substance is injected for them to pass away and why does it kill them?',
'selftext': 'do they just inject them with toxic things or other stuff?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Secobarbitol as a capsule, pentobarbitol as a liquid. Both are barbiturates. \n\nLow does of secobarbitol is actually used for insomnia and anxiety. \n\nMakes you sleepy, then you sleep. Your central nervous system becomes depressed, leading to brachycardia and brain death. \n\nBasically everything slows down until you die. \n\nWorks by 'enhancing the GABA neurotransmitter in the brain.'- _URL_0_"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '664d5u',
'query': 'when terminally ill patients want to be euthanized what substance is injected for them to pass away and why does it kill them?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '54754604',
'title': 'Latch (breastfeeding)',
'section': 'Section::::Pain.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 234,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "The infant's head should be slightly tilted back to make nursing and swallowing easier. When his or her head is tilted back and the mouth is open, the tongue will naturally be down in the mouth to allow the breast to go on top of it.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8030036',
'title': 'Primitive reflexes',
'section': 'Section::::Tonic labyrinthine reflex.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 483,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The tonic labyrinthine reflex is a primitive reflex found in newborn humans. With this reflex, tilting the head back while lying on the back causes the back to stiffen and even arch backwards, the legs to straighten, stiffen, and push together, the toes to point, the arms to bend at the elbows and wrists, and the hands to become fisted or the fingers to curl. The presence of this reflex beyond the newborn stage is also referred to as abnormal extension pattern or extensor tone.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6592660',
'title': 'Tonic labyrinthine reflex',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 489,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The tonic labyrinthine reflex (TLR) is a primitive reflex found in newborn humans. With this reflex, tilting the head back while lying on the back causes the back to stiffen and even arch backwards, the legs to straighten, stiffen, and push together, the toes to point, the arms to bend at the elbows and wrists, and the hands to become fisted or the fingers to curl. The presence of this reflex beyond the newborn stage is also referred to as abnormal extension pattern or extensor tone.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '546108',
'title': 'Pharyngeal reflex',
'section': 'Section::::Suppression and activation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 318,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Swallowing unusually large objects or placing objects in the back of the mouth may cause the pharyngeal reflex. Some people, for instance sword swallowers, have learned how to suppress it. In contrast, triggering the reflex is sometimes done intentionally to induce vomiting, by those who suffer from bulimia nervosa.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2332663',
'title': 'Tongue thrust',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 437,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Tongue thrust (also called reverse swallow or immature swallow) is the common name of an oral myofunctional disorder, a dysfunctional muscle pattern in which the tongue protrudes anteriorly or laterally during swallowing, during speech, and while the tongue is at rest. Nearly all infants exhibit a swallowing pattern involving tongue protrusion, but by six months of age most lose this reflex allowing for the ingestion of solid foods.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '196983',
'title': 'Swallowing',
'section': 'Section::::In humans.:Phases.:Esophageal phase.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 43,
'end_character': 226,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Swallowing therefore depends on coordinated interplay between many various muscles, and although the initial part of swallowing is under voluntary control, once the deglutition process is started, it is quite hard to stop it.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2793517',
'title': 'Good-morning',
'section': 'Section::::Safety.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 423,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Rounding the back can result in back injuries. To aid in preventing a rounded back, the lifter's chin should remain upright. A common technique is to focus the eyes on a spot at about belt height during the lift, reversing direction after lowering when the eyes come in line with the spot. At the bottom of the range of motion, this keeps the chin up and the head tilted back, facilitating a flat or slightly arched spine.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is it so difficult to swallow when you look up, or tilt your head backwards?',
'selftext': "I would assume it's because your throat is being pinched in a manner, but why so easily?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Because tilting your head back opens your airway and they can't both be open at the same time."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6ycolh',
'query': 'why is it so difficult to swallow when you look up, or tilt your head backwards?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '8587670',
'title': 'Spokey Dokes',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 332,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'When the bicycle user pedals at a slow speed, the beads slide up and down the spoke, resulting in noise. When speed is increased the beads move to the outside of the rim due to centripetal force and cease to make sound. They come in a variety of colors, including glow in the dark and a variety of shapes include spheres and stars.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19740545',
'title': 'Traffic collision',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Human factors.:Driver impairment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 64,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 64,
'end_character': 590,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Research suggests that the driver's attention is affected by distracting sounds such as conversations and operating a mobile phone while driving. Many jurisdictions now restrict or outlaw the use of some types of phone within the car. Recent research conducted by British scientists suggests that music can also have an effect; classical music is considered to be calming, yet too much could relax the driver to a condition of distraction. On the other hand, hard rock may encourage the driver to step on the acceleration pedal, thus creating a potentially dangerous situation on the road.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13645',
'title': 'Horse',
'section': 'Section::::Biology.:Anatomy.:Senses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 52,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 52,
'end_character': 800,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "A horse's hearing is good, and the pinna of each ear can rotate up to 180°, giving the potential for 360° hearing without having to move the head. Noise impacts the behavior of horses and certain kinds of noise may contribute to stress: A 2013 study in the UK indicated that stabled horses were calmest in a quiet setting, or if listening to country or classical music, but displayed signs of nervousness when listening to jazz or rock music. This study also recommended keeping music under a volume of 21 decibels. An Australian study found that stabled racehorses listening to talk radio had a higher rate of gastric ulcers than horses listening to music, and racehorses stabled where a radio was played had a higher overall rate of ulceration than horses stabled where there was no radio playing.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '996422',
'title': 'Fixed-gear bicycle',
'section': 'Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 570,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'When first riding a fixed gear, a cyclist used to a freewheel may try to freewheel, or coast, particularly when approaching corners or obstacles. Since coasting is not possible this can lead to a "kick" to the trailing leg, and even to loss of control of the bicycle. Riding at high speed around corners can be difficult on a road bike converted into a fixed-gear bicycle, as the pedals can strike the road, resulting in loss of control. Proper track bikes have a higher bottom bracket to compensate for the constantly spinning cranks and largely mitigate this problem.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2561171',
'title': 'Honda VF1000',
'section': 'Section::::VF1000R.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 841,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Gear noise is one of the major drawbacks of using a geartrain to drive cams. In order to minimise this, Honda used a spring mounted scissor gear system (essentially two gears slightly offset) on the gear mounted on each camshaft, as well as the lowest mounted gear in each head (driven by the crankshaft), offsetting the teeth by roughly half of the pitch. This allowed the lash to be entirely taken up by the tension of the two teeth resting on the gear below, hence eliminating some of the noise and lash inherent in this type of system. The motor still makes a whirring noise which can be heard, as this is an intrinsic property of the straight cut type of gears which were used. The gear driven cams went on to be a key feature Honda used in their line of VFR750 motorcycles throughout the remainder of the 80's and throughout the 90's.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3973',
'title': 'Bicycle',
'section': 'Section::::Social and historical aspects.:Legal requirements.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 131,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 131,
'end_character': 462,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In most jurisdictions, bicycles must have functioning front and rear lights when ridden after dark. As some generator or dynamo-driven lamps only operate while moving, rear reflectors are frequently also mandatory. Since a moving bicycle makes little noise, some countries insist that bicycles have a warning bell for use when approaching pedestrians, equestrians, and other cyclists, though sometimes a car horn can be used when a 12 volt battery is available.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5343488',
'title': 'Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 683,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'While remaining upright may be the primary goal of beginning riders, a bike must lean in order to maintain balance in a turn: the higher the speed or smaller the turn radius, the more lean is required. This balances the roll torque about the wheel contact patches generated by centrifugal force due to the turn with that of the gravitational force. This lean is usually produced by a momentary steering in the opposite direction, called countersteering. Countersteering skill is usually acquired by motor learning and executed via procedural memory rather than by conscious thought. Unlike other wheeled vehicles, the primary control input on bikes is steering torque, not position.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'When riding a bike, why does turning your ear towards the wind make it more quiet?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It forms a pocket of pressurized air that other air flows around, stopping turbulent air from making your eardrum vibrate.',
"Here. Get a (empty preferred, but a bit of water at the bottom is fine) water bottle with a small opening. Now blow across it. You will likely hear a loud whooshing sound. Now blow directly into it from the top. Nothing, right? That's pretty much what's happening when you turn your ear toward the wind, except sideways. Blowing across the bottle hole (ear canal) causes the now trapped air to vibrate instead of move, which produces sound. Blowing into it pushes the air out/forms a slight pressurized area inside the bottle/ear canal rather than vibrating."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8a25kz',
'query': 'when riding a bike, why does turning your ear towards the wind make it more quiet?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '7994556',
'title': 'Rasa shastra',
'section': 'Section::::Toxicity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 786,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Modern medicine finds that mercury is inherently toxic, and that its toxicity is not due to the presence of impurities. While mercury does have anti-microbial properties, and used to be widely used in Western medicine, its toxicity does not warrant the risk of using it as a health product in most circumstances. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have also reported a number of cases of lead poisoning associated with Ayurvedic medicine. Other incidents of heavy metal poisoning have been attributed to the use of "rasa shastra" compounds in the United States, and arsenic has also been found in some of the preparations, which have been marketed in the United States under trade names such as "AyurRelief", "GlucoRite", "Acnenil", "Energize", "Cold Aid", and "Lean Plus".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13153789',
'title': 'Metal toxicity',
'section': 'Section::::Specific types of poisoning.:Mercury poisoning.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
'end_character': 643,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Mercury poisoning is a disease caused by exposure to mercury or its compounds. Mercury (chemical symbol Hg) is a heavy metal occurring in several forms, all of which can produce toxic effects in high enough doses. Its zero oxidation state Hg exists as vapor or as liquid metal, its mercurous state Hg exists as inorganic salts, and its mercuric state Hg may form either inorganic salts or organomercury compounds; the three groups vary in effects. Toxic effects include damage to the brain, kidney, and lungs. Mercury poisoning can result in several diseases, including acrodynia (pink disease), Hunter-Russell syndrome, and Minamata disease.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19986016',
'title': 'Mercury in fish',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 576,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Mercury is known to bioaccumulate in humans, so bioaccumulation in seafood carries over into human populations, where it can result in mercury poisoning. Mercury is dangerous to both natural ecosystems and humans because it is a metal known to be highly toxic, especially due to its ability to damage the central nervous system. In human-controlled ecosystems of fish, usually done for market production of wanted seafood species, mercury clearly rises through the food chain via fish consuming small plankton, as well as through non-food sources such as underwater sediment.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '344287',
'title': 'Mercury poisoning',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 660,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Mercury poisoning is a type of metal poisoning due to exposure to mercury. Symptoms depend upon the type, dose, method, and duration of exposure. They may include muscle weakness, poor coordination, numbness in the hands and feet, skin rashes, anxiety, memory problems, trouble speaking, trouble hearing, or trouble seeing. High-level exposure to methylmercury is known as Minamata disease. Methylmercury exposure in children may result in acrodynia (pink disease) in which the skin becomes pink and peels. Long-term complications may include kidney problems and decreased intelligence. The effects of long-term low-dose exposure to methylmercury are unclear.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '344287',
'title': 'Mercury poisoning',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Sources.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 323,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Compounds of mercury tend to be much more toxic than either the elemental form or the salts. These compounds have been implicated in causing brain and liver damage. The most dangerous mercury compound, dimethylmercury, is so toxic that even a few microliters spilled on the skin, or even on a latex glove, can cause death.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1952244',
'title': 'Environmental toxicants and fetal development',
'section': 'Section::::Toxicants and their effects.:Mercury.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
'end_character': 572,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Elemental mercury and methylmercury are two forms of mercury that may pose risks of mercury poisoning in pregnancy. Methylmercury, a worldwide contaminant of seafood and freshwater fish, is known to produce adverse nervous system effects, especially during brain development. Eating fish is the main source of mercury exposure in humans and some fish may contain enough mercury to harm the developing nervous system of an embryo or fetus, sometimes leading to learning disabilities. Mercury is present in many types of fish, but it is mostly found in certain large fish. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5795802',
'title': 'Blue mass',
'section': 'Section::::Toxicity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 464,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Mercury is known today to be toxic, and ingestion of mercury leads to mercury poisoning, a form of heavy-metal poisoning. While mercury is still used in compound form in some types of medicines and for other purposes, blue mass contained excessive amounts of the metal: a typical daily dose of two or three blue mass pills represented ingestion of more than one hundred times the daily limits set by the Environmental Protection Agency in the United States today.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is Mercury poisonous? What exactly is it doing to the body, and why can it not be resisted?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["TLDR: It prevents your cells from repairing themselves from everyday damage, and it's very hard to flush out of your system.\n\nMercury like many other toxic heavy metals accumulates in your body over time. Your body has a difficult time flushing it out so even if the source of Mercury poisoning is small, if it persists then it will accumulate over time, possibly reaching poisonous levels.\n\nNo amount of Mercury is considered safe (The background level in humans is zero, so ideally you should avoid exposure) but you can have a certain amount of Mercury in your system without any ill effects. Which is why you are able to safely consume certain fish like Tuna that naturally have tiny amounts of Mercury in the meat.\n\nMercury is not a disease and therefore your immune system doesn't fight against it. Your body has to rely on organs like the liver and kidneys to flush the toxin out, but it happens that our bodies aren't really good at that so it takes a long time to flush mercury out.\n\nMercury poisoning can cause a variety of problems including muscle weakness, hair and nail loss, kidney dysfunction, etc but is most well known for causing neurological problems including memory loss, difficulty sleeping, and in bad cases insanity.\n\nMercury causes damage in various ways, but one of the most significant is it prevents your cells from repairing themselves from oxidization damage which constantly occurs by our bodies nature. Since the brain uses more oxygen by mass than any other part of your body, the damage to the brain is most severe.",
'I can’t answer your question, but “The Disappearing Spoon: And Other True Tales of Madness, Love, and the History of the World from the Periodic Table of the Elements” is a fascinating book on how the elements were discovered and worth a read if the topic interests you.',
"Elements come in different oxidation states (Number of protons - Number of electrons). When Mercury lacks two electrons (Hg^(2+)), it gets confused with other metals like Magnesium (Mg^(2+)) by certain proteins that usually contain Magnesium. These proteins incorporate Hg instead, which renders them useless. Since Hg stays in your body this process continues even after the useless protein got destroyed by the cell. Hg just slips into another comfy pocket of a protein. \n\n\nThat's why Hg^(2+) is poisonous.",
"Elemental mercury is actually fairly nonreactive and does not cause much damage if ingested (orally) it's been used in fillings like gold. Other metals can also be fairly toxic in different oxidative states, even gold for example. It is mercury cations and mercury containing compound like dimethyl mercury as well as mercury vapour that cause major damage and accumulate in parts of the body where other elements would naturally be, messing up the chemistry of the body causing proteins to function incorrectly, resulting in brain damage among other problems that will eventually result in death if they are left untreated and continue to accumulate in the body, since we have a hard time excreting certain heavy metals once they form compounds within the body. Chelation therapy is the main treatment for heavy metal poisoning.",
"Our bodies have lots of tiny, tiny machines inside our cells. These machines often have a bit of metal in them, which they use to do their jobs. \n\nFor example, there's something called Haemoglobin in your blood. This has a tiny piece of iron at its centre. It uses this iron to latch on to oxygen and carry it around.\n\nOther machines use different metals, and do different things. The metal Selenium is used in a machine (an 'enzyme') that helps us use vitamins C and E, for example.\n\nThe metals that these machines use have specific properties. Generally, they're able to latch onto things in one environment, and let go of them in others. Iron can latch on to oxygen in your lungs, where there's lots of it, and let go of it in your muscles, where there's very little. This is why each machine needs very specific metals to do specific jobs. \n\nHeavy metals like Mercury and Arsenic are dangerous because they can replace useful metals like Iron and Selenium in these machines. This is irreversible - once Mercury manages to replace Selenium in a machine, there's no removing it. The whole machine has to be scrapped. And since our bodies aren't very good at getting rid of Mercury, scrapping the machine will often just free up the mercury to go ruin another machine. The result is that if you have too much mercury in your body, a bunch of the machines that keep you healthy will just stop working.\n\nWe treat this with something called 'chelation'. This involves a medicine that is really good at trapping mercury and holding onto it. This means that instead of lodging into our machines, the Mercury lodges into the medicine."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'cd8ps7',
'query': 'why is mercury poisonous? what exactly is it doing to the body, and why can it not be resisted?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '366023',
'title': 'Wear',
'section': 'Section::::Wear types and mechanisms.:Abrasive wear.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Cutting occurs when material is separated from the surface in the form of primary debris, or microchips, with little or no material displaced to the sides of the grooves. This mechanism closely resembles conventional machining.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '221653',
'title': 'Bleeding time',
'section': 'Section::::Process.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': "It involves cutting the underside of the subject's forearm, in an area where there is no hair or visible veins. The cut is of a standardized width and depth, and is done quickly by an automatic device.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '332989',
'title': 'Vegetative reproduction',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Artificial means.:Cutting.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 52,
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'end_paragraph_id': 52,
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'passage_text': 'A cutting is a part of the plant, usually a stem or a leaf, is cut off and planted. Adventitious roots grow from cuttings and a new plant eventually develops. Usually those cuttings are treated with hormones before being planted to induce growth.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '77668',
'title': 'Scar',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Surgery.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 58,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 58,
'end_character': 283,
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'passage_text': 'Scar revision is a process of cutting the scar tissue out. After the excision, the new wound is usually closed up to heal by primary intention, instead of secondary intention. Deeper cuts need a multilayered closure to heal optimally, otherwise depressed or dented scars can result.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '751281',
'title': 'Fasciotomy',
'section': 'Section::::Process.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 367,
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'passage_text': 'In addition to scar formation, there is a possibility that the surgeon may need to use a skin graft to close the wound. Sometimes when closing the fascia again in another surgical procedure, the muscle is still too large to close it completely. A small bulge is visible, but is not harmful. It takes a much longer time to heal and in some cases takes several months.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21892870',
'title': 'Cut (earthmoving)',
'section': 'Section::::Creation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'Cuts can be created by multiple passes of a shovel, grader, scraper or excavator, or by blasting. One unusual means of creating a cut is to remove the roof of a tunnel through daylighting. Material removed from cuts is ideally balanced by material needed for fills along the same route, but this is not always the case when cut material is unsuitable for use as fill.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6614349',
'title': 'Plant reproduction',
'section': 'Section::::Asexual reproduction.:Usage.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': 'In horticulture, a "cutting" is a branch that has been cut off from a mother plant below an internode and then rooted, often with the help of a rooting liquid or powder containing hormones. When a full root has formed and leaves begin to sprout anew, the clone is a self-sufficient plant, genetically identical to the mother plant.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do cuts become new skin?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Most of your skin is dead/dying cells. They are just there to act as a physical barrier. The living cells which divide and produce these dead cells are way below deep under the skin.\n\nSo when you get a shallow cut, the layer of dead skin cells is destroyed but the living cells underneath survive and continue what they’re doing. Eventually the skin returns to normal.\n\nWhen you get a deep cut the living cells can be destroyed. Sometimes they can recover, but other times they can’t so a scar is formed.'],
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'query_id': 'bq3ft2',
'query': 'how do cuts become new skin?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '25908079',
'title': 'FastPort',
'section': 'Section::::Functions.:Charging the battery/powering the phone.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The port can charge the battery and power the phone while it is connected to, for example, a hands-free solution in a car. The FastPort became the only way to get external power to the phones. Chargers comes in several varieties, from 12/24 volt DC to use in cars, to 100-250 volt AC to use elsewhere. Some charger-models can only charge the phone (the cable is attached at the middle), in others all the connector pins through to the plug end, thus supporting data/signal transfer while the phone is being charged.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '57000350',
'title': 'Wi-Charge',
'section': 'Section::::Technology.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Wi-Charge claims to deliver power using focused beams of invisible infrared light. The system consists of a transmitter and a receiver. Transmitter connects to a standard power outlet and converts electricity into infrared laser beam. Receivers use a miniature photo-voltaic cell to convert transmitted light into electrical power. Receivers can be embedded into a device or connected into an existing charging port. The transmitter automatically identifies chargeable receivers and start charging. Several devices can charge at the same time. According to Wi-Charge it can deliver several watts of power to a device at several meters away. The core technology is based on a "distributed laser resonator" which is formed by the retroreflectors within the transmitter and the receiver. This unique concept allows the charging of multiple devices without any moving components and if an opaque object enters one of the beams the corresponding power transfer is turned off automatically.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6349042',
'title': 'Inductive charging',
'section': 'Section::::Examples.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- March 3, 2015: Samsung announced its new flagship Galaxy S6 and S6 Edge with wireless inductive charging through both Qi and PMA compatible chargers. All phones in the Samsung Galaxy S and Note lines following the S6 have supported wireless charging.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '57000350',
'title': 'Wi-Charge',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Wi-Charge was founded in 2012 by Victor Vaisleib, Ori Mor and Ortal Alpert. The company is developing an unique far-field wireless power technology based on infrared laser beams. In 2015, Wi-Charge demonstrated its first prototype capable of charging small electronic devices.. In 2017, the company claimed to obtain compliance with international safety standards. During CES 2018, Wi-Charge demonstrated simultaneous charging of multiple devices from a single transmitter.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32248775',
'title': 'Solar cell phone charger',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Solar chargers used to charge a phone directly, rather than by using an internal battery, can damage a phone if the output is not well-controlled, for example by supplying excessive voltage in bright sunlight.In less bright light, although there is electrical output it may be too low to support charging, it will not just charge slower.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6349042',
'title': 'Inductive charging',
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'passage_text': 'Inductive charging (also known as wireless charging or cordless charging) is a type of wireless charging that uses an electromagnetic field to transfer energy between two objects using electromagnetic induction, the production of electricity across a magnetic field. Inductive charging is usually done with a charging station or inductive pad. Energy is sent through an inductive coupling to an electrical device, which can then use that energy to charge batteries or run the device. It is the technology that enables smartphone wireless charging, such as the Qi wireless charging standard.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41512342',
'title': 'USB-C',
'section': 'Section::::Hardware support.:USB-C devices.\n',
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'end_paragraph_id': 109,
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'passage_text': 'Examples of devices that support high-power charging according to the USB Power Delivery specification include: MacBook, Chromebook Pixel, Surface Book 2, Dell Venue 10 Pro, Lenovo ThinkPad X1, Samsung Galaxy TabPro S, Samsung Galaxy Tab S4, iPad Pro, Nintendo Switch, Nexus 5X/6P, Google Pixel/2, ROG Phone, BlackBerry Key2, Essential Phone, HTC 10/U Ultra, LG G5/G6, Moto Z, Nokia 8, Razer Phone, Samsung Galaxy S8/S9, Samsung Galaxy Note 8/Note 9,Sony Xperia XZ1/XZ2, Apple iPhone 8/X etc.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Can an electric car be charged wirelessly like the Samsung Galaxy's?",
'selftext': "Imagine being able to park your car in a parking lot, and it's charging. No need to fumble around with connectors and not knowing if you have the right dongle to match the pump. Even just a mat that you would lay on your garage floor would be cool.",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It is coming:\n\n* September 2015 AUDI Wireless Charging(AWC) presented a 3.6 kW inductive charger during the 66th International Motor Show (IAA) 2015.\n\n* September 17, 2015 Bombardier-Transportation PRIMOVE presented a 3.6 kW Charger for cars, which was developed at Site in Mannheim Germany.\n\n* Transport for London has introduced inductive charging in a trial for double-decker buses in London.\n\nEDIT: inductive charging is still pretty expensive and slow.',
'Assuming that we could come up with a common standard for automobile wireless charging (we still have 2 competing major standards for wirelessly charging phones), it is theoretically possible. I would personally bet that automobile wireless charging will see multiple standards pop up and compete, causing adoption to crawl and fizzle out.\n\nThere may still be a few problems, such as efficiency (a significant portion of the energy pulled from the wall is lost as heat), and a slower-than-wired charging time (which would make charging in public places a problem)'],
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'query_id': '5umyv5',
'query': "can an electric car be charged wirelessly like the samsung galaxy's?",
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '236449',
'title': 'Sleep paralysis',
'section': 'Section::::Epidemiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 51,
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'passage_text': 'Sleep paralysis could lead the individual to acquire conditioned fear of the experience ("worry attacks"), resulting in more nighttime awakening and fragmented sleep (because of nocturnal arousal and hyper-alertness to symptoms of paralysis), making the person more likely to have sleep paralysis in the future. It is more frequent in students and psychiatric patients.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '236449',
'title': 'Sleep paralysis',
'section': 'Section::::Prevention.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
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'passage_text': 'Several circumstances have been identified that are associated with an increased risk of sleep paralysis. These include insomnia, sleep deprivation, an erratic sleep schedule, stress, and physical fatigue. It is also believed that there may be a genetic component in the development of RISP, because there is a high concurrent incidence of sleep paralysis in monozygotic twins. Sleeping in the supine position has been found an especially prominent instigator of sleep paralysis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '236449',
'title': 'Sleep paralysis',
'section': 'Section::::Society and culture.:Cultural significance and priming.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 56,
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'passage_text': 'Although the core features of sleep paralysis (e.g., atonia, a clear sensorium, and frequent hallucinations) appear to be universal, the ways in which they are experienced vary according to time, place, and culture. Over 100 terms have been identified for these experiences. Some scientists have proposed sleep paralysis as an explanation for reports of paranormal phenomena such as ghosts, alien visits, demons or demonic possession, alien abduction experiences, the night hag and shadow people haunting.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '236449',
'title': 'Sleep paralysis',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Between 8% and 50% of people experience sleep paralysis at some time. About 5% of people have regular episodes. Males and females are affected equally. Sleep paralysis has been described throughout history. It is believed to have played a role in the creation of stories about alien abduction and other paranormal events.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19025882',
'title': 'Perspectives on the abduction phenomenon',
'section': 'Section::::Skeptical perspectives.:False memory hypothesis.:Sleep paralysis.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The events experienced during sleep paralysis are often unusual and terrifying, but are often dismissed as being a minor sleep disorder. Others are convinced the event was so unusual and unpleasant that the explanation must be equally unusual and unpleasant; they search for such an explanation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '236449',
'title': 'Sleep paralysis',
'section': 'Section::::Epidemiology.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Isolated sleep paralysis is commonly seen in patients that have been diagnosed with narcolepsy. Approximately 30–50% of people that have been diagnosed with narcolepsy have experienced sleep paralysis as an auxiliary symptom. A majority of the individuals who have experienced sleep paralysis have sporadic episodes that occur once a month to once a year. Only 3% of individuals experiencing sleep paralysis that is not associated with a neuromuscular disorder have nightly episodes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '236449',
'title': 'Sleep paralysis',
'section': 'Section::::Society and culture.:Cultural significance and priming.\n',
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'passage_text': 'According to some scientists culture may be a major factor in shaping sleep paralysis. When sleep paralysis is interpreted through a particular cultural filter, it may take on greater salience. For example, if sleep paralysis is feared in a certain culture, this fear could lead to conditioned fear, and thus worsen the experience, in turn leading to higher rates. Consistent with this idea, high rates and long durations of immobility during sleep paralysis have been found in Egypt, where there are elaborate beliefs about sleep paralysis, involving malevolent spirit-like creatures, the "Jinn."\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why are some people more likely to have sleep paralysis, while others never have it or have only experienced it once?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Everyone or, at least, most people are capable of having sleep paralysis. Its nothing special as far as chemical imbalance go or something in genes or dealing with immune (it's been noted to be a common occurrence in narcoleptic people). But experiencing that transition from physically awake to mentally awake can vary from person to person and age. Most children will experience it more commonly than adults due growing and experiencing the world, in general, while sleeping. That's how you get a laundry list of childhood fears relating the darkness, nighttime and sleep."],
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'query_id': '5x3lxq',
'query': 'why are some people more likely to have sleep paralysis, while others never have it or have only experienced it once?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '191884',
'title': 'Headphones',
'section': 'Section::::Ambient noise reduction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 55,
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'passage_text': 'Active noise-cancelling headphones use a microphone, amplifier, and speaker to pick up, amplify, and play ambient noise in phase-reversed form; this to some extent cancels out unwanted noise from the environment without affecting the desired sound source, which is not picked up and reversed by the microphone. They require a power source, usually a battery, to drive their circuitry. Active noise cancelling headphones can attenuate ambient noise by 20\xa0dB or more, but the active circuitry is mainly effective on constant sounds and at lower frequencies, rather than sharp sounds and voices. Some noise cancelling headphones are designed mainly to reduce low-frequency engine and travel noise in aircraft, trains, and automobiles, and are less effective in environments with other types of noise.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '269193',
'title': 'Noise-cancelling headphones',
'section': 'Section::::Theory.\n',
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'passage_text': "To prevent higher-frequency noise from reaching the ear, most noise-cancelling headphones depend on soundproofing. Higher-frequency sound has a shorter wavelength, and cancelling this sound would require locating devices to detect and counteract it closer to the listener's eardrum than is currently technically feasible or would require digital algorithms that would complicate the headphone's electronics.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6846175',
'title': 'Listener fatigue',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment and prevention.:Audio technology.:Synthetic membrane earphone.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
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'passage_text': 'Blockage of the ear canal, common in [headphones], is thought to be a main contributing factor in listener fatigue. When cut off from outside sound with the earphone, an oscillating pressure chamber is created in the eardrum. This effectively provides a boost in sound pressure levels. When this boost occurs, an acoustic reflex mechanism triggers and acts as a defense against these sounds. This mechanism seeks to reduce the sound energy in the ear by dampening its transfer from eardrum to cochlea. It has been seen that this process can reduce sound waves by up to 50 decibels. Although this mechanism can decrease the sound energy, it does not negate the oscillatory pressure. Due to this defense mechanism, sounds do not seem as loud as they are, and ironically, listeners will want to increase the volume. As a result, the reflex mechanism is activated again, and the cycle continues on. This ultimately leads to fatigue.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '269193',
'title': 'Noise-cancelling headphones',
'section': 'Section::::Theory.\n',
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'passage_text': 'To cancel the lower-frequency portions of the noise, noise-cancelling headphones use active noise control. They incorporate a microphone that measures ambient sound, generate a waveform that is the exact negative of the ambient sound, and mix it with any audio signal the listener desires.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '269193',
'title': 'Noise-cancelling headphones',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Noise-cancelling headphones, or noise-canceling headphones, are headphones that reduce unwanted ambient sounds using active noise control. This is distinct from passive headphones which, if they reduce ambient sounds at all, use techniques such as soundproofing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '269193',
'title': 'Noise-cancelling headphones',
'section': 'Section::::Theory.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Noise-cancelling headphones specify the amount of noise they can cancel in terms of decibels. This number may be useful for comparing products but does not tell the whole story, as it does not specify noise reduction at various frequencies.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '269193',
'title': 'Noise-cancelling headphones',
'section': 'Section::::As a sleeping aid.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Over the last few years, the use of noise-cancellation headphones as sleeping aids has increased. Both active and passive noise-cancellation headphones and ear plugs help to achieve better noise isolation from ambient sounds, which is particularly helpful for people suffering from insomnia or other sleeping disorders, for whom sounds such as cars honking and snoring impact their ability to sleep. For that reason, noise-cancelling sleep headphones and ear plugs are designed to cater to this segment of patients.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How come noise cancelling headphones don't increase hearing loss when there is actually more sound being produced around your ears?",
'selftext': "I understand that passive noise cancelling headphones are good for your ears because they have and insulant that keeps some of the sound from outside sources from reaching your ear. What I don't understand is the active noise cancelling technology that records the audio on the outside of the headphones and produces sound waves of the opposite amplitude on the inside. Wouldn't these extra sound waves exhaust your ears and potentially damage your hearing?",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["That's the whole point of the opposite amplitude, the two waves cancel each other out and the eardrum doesn't move at all as a result. So the additional sounds actually result in less movement of the eardrums, and thus are easier on your ears. People who work in noisy environments (like a data center), even if the volume isn't enough to be classed as dangerous, often eventually lose their hearing in the band of frequencies the sound was in. That's due to the cilia in the inner ear in that zone being worn away."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'apjzep',
'query': "how come noise cancelling headphones don't increase hearing loss when there is actually more sound being produced around your ears?",
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '7221088',
'title': 'Air conditioning',
'section': 'Section::::Installation types.:Split systems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 72,
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'passage_text': 'Split-system air conditioners come in two forms: mini-split and central systems. In both types, the inside-environment (evaporative) heat exchanger is separated by some distance from the outside-environment (condensing unit) heat exchanger.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7221088',
'title': 'Air conditioning',
'section': 'Section::::Installation types.:Split systems.:Multi-split system.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 82,
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'passage_text': 'Other common types of air conditioning system are multi-split systems, the difference between separate split system and multi-split system in several indoor units. All of them are connected to the main external unit, but the principle of their operation is similar to a simple split-system.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7221088',
'title': 'Air conditioning',
'section': 'Section::::Installation types.:Split systems.:Multi-split system.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 79,
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'passage_text': 'A multi-split system is a conventional split system, which is divided into two parts (evaporator and condenser) and allows cooling or heating of several rooms with one external unit. In the outdoor unit of this air conditioner there is a more powerful compressor, ports for connecting several traces and automation with locking valves for regulating the volume of refrigerant supplied to the indoor units located in the room.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7861368',
'title': 'Constant air volume',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "The mixed air system has two air streams, typically one for the coldest and one for the hottest needed air temperature in the zone. The two air streams are strategically combined to offset the space's load. The mixed air system option is not as proficient at controlling the humidity, yet it does do well at controlling the temperature.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48660',
'title': 'Fuzzy control system',
'section': 'Section::::History and applications.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- An industrial air conditioner designed by Mitsubishi uses 25 heating rules and 25 cooling rules. A temperature sensor provides input, with control outputs fed to an inverter, a compressor valve, and a fan motor. Compared to the previous design, the fuzzy controller heats and cools five times faster, reduces power consumption by 24%, increases temperature stability by a factor of two, and uses fewer sensors.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17122264',
'title': 'Deep water source cooling',
'section': 'Section::::Basic concept.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'Unlike residential air conditioners, most modern commercial air conditioning systems do not transfer heat directly into the exterior air. The thermodynamic efficiency of the overall system can be improved by utilizing evaporative cooling, where the temperature of the cooling water is lowered close to the wet-bulb temperature by evaporation in a cooling tower. This cooled water then acts \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29570218',
'title': 'Meitetsu 5000 series (2008)',
'section': 'Section::::Electrical and mechanical systems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
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'passage_text': 'The air conditioning system is the inverter unified distributed units type taken from the 1000 series, with two such units mounted in each car. After inversion, each of the RPU-4414B model units can cool up to 17,000 kilocalories per hour. In line with increased air conditioning power, the heat exchanger installed on every car in the 1000 series is not installed in this series. This series is also equipped with the same diamond-shaped pantograph from the 1000 series.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'The difference between the degrees and the warm/cold settings on a split system air-conditioner.',
'selftext': "Long time lurker, first time poster to ELI5. Apologies if I haven't titled this correctly. & #x200B; I am working in a small office today and we have set the air-conditioner to warm and 22C. But my co-worker and I questioned what is the difference between 22C warm and 22C cold. We just thought 22C is just 22C.",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Warm=keeping room temp above set temp\n\nCool=keeping room temp below set temp\n\nThe temp you set the thermostat to isn't necessarily going to be the room temp, it's just the temp that activates the system. ",
"22C cool tells the system that when the air temp goes above 22 the cooling system turns on to cool the air to 22C. \n \n22C warm is the reverse - it controls the heating system. \n \nSo if the system is set to 22C cool and the temp is **below** 22C, the heating system won't engage, **no matter how cold** the air gets."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'b6cadm',
'query': 'the difference between the degrees and the warm/cold settings on a split system air-conditioner.',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '49598',
'title': 'Pigment',
'section': 'Section::::Physical basis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'Pigments appear colored because they selectively reflect and absorb certain wavelengths of visible light. White light is a roughly equal mixture of the entire spectrum of visible light with a wavelength in a range from about 375 or 400 nanometers to about 760 or 780\xa0nm. When this light encounters a pigment, parts of the spectrum are absorbed by the pigment. Organic pigments such as diazo or phthalocyanine compounds feature conjugated systems of double bonds. Some inorganic pigments, such as vermilion (mercury sulfide) or cadmium yellow (cadmium sulfide), absorb light by transferring an electron from the negative ion (S) to the positive ion (Hg or Cd). The other wavelengths or parts of the spectrum are reflected or scattered. The new reflected light spectrum creates the appearance of a color. Pigments, unlike fluorescent or phosphorescent substances, can only subtract wavelengths from the source light, never add new ones.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1898396',
'title': 'Chrome yellow',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Because the pigment tends to react with hydrogen sulfide and darken on exposure to air over time, forming lead sulfide, and it contains the toxic heavy metal lead plus the toxic, carcinogenic chromate, it was replaced by another pigment, cadmium yellow (mixed with enough cadmium orange to produce a color equivalent to chrome yellow). Darkening may also occur from reduction by sulfur dioxide. Good quality pigments have been coated to inhibit contact with gases that can change their color.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52858620',
'title': 'Chlorine-releasing compounds',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Whitening agents.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 350,
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'passage_text': "Colors of natural materials typically arise from organic pigments, such as beta carotene. Chlorine-based compounds work by breaking the chemical bonds that make up the pigment's chromophore. This changes the molecule into a different substance that either does not contain a chromophore, or contains a chromophore that does not absorb visible light.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2308647',
'title': 'Cave of the Mounds',
'section': 'Section::::Formations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': 'These formations come in many different brilliant colors such as reds, browns, blues, and grays. The reds and browns are caused by the presence of iron oxide in the formation. Similarly, blues and grays are caused by manganese oxide. Some speleothems are even partially luminescent and give off light for a brief period after exposure to another light.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '850897',
'title': 'Weloganite',
'section': 'Section::::Properties.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 445,
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'passage_text': 'It is usually white, lemon yellow, or amber in color, and can be translucent. It crystallizes in the triclinic system and shows pseudo-hexagonal crystal forms due to twinning. The width of the crystals typically undulates down the length, forming crystals that widen in the middle or flare out at the end. Crystals are affected by light and can develop a white alteration coating over time. Weloganite is triboluminescent, producing blue light.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '49598',
'title': 'Pigment',
'section': 'Section::::Physical basis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 740,
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'passage_text': 'Other properties of a color, such as its saturation or lightness, may be determined by the other substances that accompany pigments. Binders and fillers added to pure pigment chemicals also have their own reflection and absorption patterns, which can affect the final spectrum. For example, in pigment/binder mixtures, individual rays of light may not encounter pigment molecules and may be reflected unchanged. These stray rays of source light make the mixture appear to have a less saturated color. Pure pigment allows very little white light to escape, producing a highly saturated color, while a small quantity of pigment mixed with a lot of white binder will appear unsaturated and pale due to incident white light escaping unchanged.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2343635',
'title': 'Erythrolitmin',
'section': 'Section::::Interaction with acids.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'end_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'The intense coloring of the molecule is generated by the absorption of specific wavelengths of light by the pi bonds. These bonds are ordinarily excited by light in the orange region of the spectrum, causing the molecule to appear blue. When the molecule interacts with protons from an acid the bonds become harder to excite and thus absorb green light which has a shorter wavelength. This is what causes the molecule to appear red in the presence of an acid.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do pigments look like another colour when they’re a powder?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Well, I can't say I've noticed what you describe, but the explanation would be the following:\n\nLet's start with electromagnetic radiation: Electromagnetic radiation consists of electromagnetic waves, which are synchronized oscillations of electric and magnetic fields. It has a property called wavelength — the distance over which the wave's shape repeats.\n\nLight is actually a spectrum of wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation (as are radio waves, microwaves, x-rays and so on.. the difference between all of them is wavelength).\n\nWe can perceive a small part of that spectrum with our eyes - That part is what we consider visible light (some animals can perceive parts of that spectrum that we cannot, such as ultra-violet or infra-red). We can further break down that visible spectrum into individual colors - Each color is actually a slight variation of wavelength with red roughly at one end of our visible spectrum and violet at the other, going through every possible color in between. \n\nHere's a little graphic to better explain _URL_0_ \n\nNow the reason we actually see objects at all is because they mess with with the flow of these electromagnetic waves. The images we see are the waves bouncing off objects - partially off transparent objects and fully off opaque objects. \n\nThe reason we think objects have color is because the surface of the object can bounce the different wavelengths of visible light in slightly different ways - a particular surface might reflect a lot of the red spectrum of light, but little of the blue spectrum. Thus, that object appears to us as red because that's the part of visible light that gets to our eyes from that object. \n\nSo color is entirely determined by how a surface reflects electromagnetic radiation. It isn't red, it just reflects red light better than other kinds of light.\n\nThe explanation to your question, then, would be that those reflective properties are slightly altered when the powder is mixed with a liquid, resulting in a slightly different spectrum to be reflected back to our eyes.\n\n "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '861cqc',
'query': 'why do pigments look like another colour when they’re a powder?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '31602166',
'title': 'Privacy concerns with social networking services',
'section': 'Section::::Social networks.:Facebook.:Facebook friends study.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 157,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 157,
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'passage_text': "A study was conducted at Northeastern University by Alan Mislove and his colleagues at the Max Planck Institute for Software Systems, where an algorithm was created to try and discover personal attributes of a Facebook user by looking at their friend's list. They looked for information such as high school and college attended, major, hometown, graduation year and even what dorm a student may have lived in. The study revealed that only 5% of people thought to change their friend's list to private. For other users, 58% displayed university attended, 42% revealed employers, 35% revealed interests and 19% gave viewers public access to where they were located. Due to the correlation of Facebook friends and universities they attend, it was easy to discover where a Facebook user was based on their list of friends. This fact is one that has become very useful to advertisers targeting their audiences but is also a big risk for the privacy of all those with Facebook accounts.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18354521',
'title': 'Bebo',
'section': 'Section::::Original website features.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 289,
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'passage_text': 'Users received a personal profile page where they would post blogs, photographs, music, videos, and questionnaires, which other users may answer. Additionally, users could add others as friends and send them messages, and update their personal profiles to notify friends about themselves.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3193510',
'title': 'Newsvine',
'section': 'Section::::Features.:Friends List.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 451,
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'passage_text': 'The Friends List was a feature that existed prior to 2013, which gave users the ability to meet new people and find others with common interests, but there are no requirements in doing so. Creating a populated friends list gives users the ability to find interesting new articles through the Conversation Tracker. Once a user adds a friend to the list, the added friend receives a notification and is given the ability to accept or decline the offer.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9978180',
'title': 'Hi5',
'section': 'Section::::Features.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': "At hi5, users can create an online profile in order to show information such as interests, age and hometown. Users can also upload photos and create personal photo albums where other users can post comments. Users can also send friend requests via e-mail to other users. When a person receives a friend request, he may accept or decline it, or block the user altogether. If the user accepts another user as a friend, the two will be connected directly or in the 1st degree. The user will then appear on the person's friend list and vice versa.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2041117',
'title': 'Social networking service',
'section': 'Section::::Issues.:Effects on personal relationships and social capital.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 145,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 145,
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'passage_text': 'Moreover, a study shows that Facebook users know only a bit more than two thirds of their "friends" on the platform, meaning that they did not know one-third of the individuals in their friend-lists. This raises security and privacy issues and the project researchers alerted participants that they would better unfriend people they did not recognize.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40078184',
'title': 'Tinder (app)',
'section': 'Section::::Operation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
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'passage_text': 'Using Facebook, Tinder is able to build a user profile with photos that have already been uploaded. Basic information is gathered and the users\' social graph is analyzed. Candidates who are most likely to be compatible based on geographical location, number of mutual friends, and common interests are streamed into a list of matches. Based on the results of potential candidates, the app allows the user to anonymously like another user by swiping right or pass by swiping left on them. If two users like each other it then results in a "match" and they are able to chat within the app. The app is used in about 196 countries.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36536119',
'title': 'ResearchGate',
'section': 'Section::::Features.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': '"The New York Times" described the site as a mashup of Facebook, Twitter and LinkedIn. Site members may "follow" a research interest, in addition to following other individual members. It has a blogging feature for users to write short reviews on peer-reviewed articles. ResearchGate indexes self-published information on user profiles to suggest members to connect with others who have similar interests. When a member posts a question, it is fielded to others that have identified on their user profile that they have a relevant expertise. It also has private chat rooms where users can share data, edit shared documents, or discuss confidential topics. \n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does Facebook (and other social media sites) compile a creepily accurate Suggested Friends list even when you are a new user and have given the site minimal personal information?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Using a mixture of IP addresses and cookies for identification purposes, throughout various websites and ads they keep track of and build a profile on you.',
"Phone contacts.\n\nOnce, i added to my phone a guy from other city (he was on vacation) and we didn't have friends in common.\n\nNext day, he appears on facebook as a friend suggestion.",
"Did you give them your phone number? Even if it isn't public, if some idiot installs the facebook app on their phone and has it in their contacts, facebook will link you. Same for email address - if someone has that in their phone's contacts or gave facebook access to their emails (e.g. has both the gmail and facebook apps installed).\n\nI recently saw someone from way far away with 0 friends in common who I have emailed a few times for something very specific and business-related as a suggested friend.\n\nFacebook actually [builds profiles on non-members based on members' data](_URL_0_) and then links the two if that person ever does join facebook.",
"A lot of ways. If you have the account signed in on your phone, it can read your contacts and find their Facebook accounts.\n\nAn obvious way: it looks at mutual friends.\n\nIf you use apps via Facebook, it could look at other people using those apps, people you've used it with and people nearby who've used it.\n\nIt could and probably does track the location of users (via IP addresses and GPS) and - if it finds you spend a lot of time with particular accounts - might consider that you were friends.\n\nIt might also buy data from Google, Yahoo or Hotmail about the people certain people email, and find accounts registered to your frequently contacted email addresses.\n\nFinally, it's unlikely but possible that if you create multiple accounts from the same computer, it will automatically associate them with each other.",
"One of the higher ups with the company I work for is always showing up in my suggested friends. He's not in my contact list at all. No phone number. No email. Nothing. We have no mutual friends. I don't have anything linked to my workplace on my profile at all. We don't even work out of the same building or the same city for that matter. I would really love to know how that works."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6lajev',
'query': 'how does facebook (and other social media sites) compile a creepily accurate suggested friends list even when you are a new user and have given the site minimal personal information?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '28688759',
'title': 'Unemployment in the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Fiscal and monetary policy.:Monetary policy.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The U.S. Federal Reserve (the Fed) has a dual mandate to achieve full employment while maintaining a low rate of inflation. U.S. Federal Reserve interest rate adjustments (monetary policy) are important tools for managing the unemployment rate. There may be an economic trade-off between unemployment and inflation, as policies designed to reduce unemployment can create inflationary pressure, and vice versa. Debates regarding monetary policy during 2014–2015 centered on the timing and extent of interest rate increases, as a near-zero interest rate target had remained in place since the 2007–2009 recession. Ultimately, the Fed decided to raise interest rates marginally in December 2015. The Fed describes the type of labor market analyses it performs in making interest rate decisions in the minutes of the Federal Open Market Committee, its policy governing body, among other channels.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35197210',
'title': 'Tax uncertainty',
'section': 'Section::::In the United States.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 470,
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'passage_text': 'According to a report published by the Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research financial and tax uncertainty played a significant role in the slow recovery of the U.S. economy because uncertainty had led to a more cautious approach to investments and hiring. In November 2012 the analysis firm Macroeconomic Advisers predicted that, in the absence of a resolution, unemployment would rise to 8.5 percent and the U.S. economy would grow only 1.1 percent in 2013.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '164391',
'title': 'Monetary policy of the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Opinions of the Federal Reserve.:Criticisms.:Fulfillment of wider economic goals.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 63,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 63,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- High employment – Unemployment has experienced significant increases on occasion, despite the efforts of the Federal Reserve. These periods include the early 1990s recession caused by the savings and loan crisis, the bursting of the dot-com bubble and the 2006 bursting of the housing bubble plus the 2007 subprime mortgage financial crisis. In some cases, the Federal Reserve intentionally sacrificed employment levels in order to rein in spiralling inflation, as was the case for the Early 1980s recession, which was induced to alleviate a stagflation problem.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36532781',
'title': 'United States fiscal cliff',
'section': 'Section::::Negotiations.:Other viewpoints.:Federal Reserve.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 101,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 101,
'end_character': 403,
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'passage_text': 'On December 12, 2012, the Federal Reserve announced it would keep short-term interest rates near zero percent in an effort to lower unemployment to 6.5 percent. However, when commenting on the upcoming fiscal cliff, Federal Reserve officials "agree that the impact of the bank\'s stimulus campaign will be trivial in comparison to the consequences, and the economy will most likely return to recession."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28688759',
'title': 'Unemployment in the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Unemployment generally falls during periods of economic prosperity and rises during recessions, creating significant pressure on public finances as tax revenue falls and social safety net costs increase. Government spending and taxation decisions (fiscal policy) and U.S. Federal Reserve interest rate adjustments (monetary policy) are important tools for managing the unemployment rate. There may be an economic trade-off between unemployment and inflation, as policies designed to reduce unemployment can create inflationary pressure, and vice versa. The U.S. Federal Reserve (the Fed) has a dual mandate to achieve full employment while maintaining a low rate of inflation. The major political parties debate appropriate solutions for improving the job creation rate, with liberals arguing for more government spending and conservatives arguing for lower taxes and less regulation. Polls indicate that Americans believe job creation is the most important government priority, with not sending jobs overseas the primary solution.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38254885',
'title': 'Abenomics',
'section': 'Section::::Results.:Impacts on the world economy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 95,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 95,
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'passage_text': 'Regarding the impact upon the US economy, officials of the Federal Reserve Bank, including its second-in-command, said that global stagnation could cause the Federal Reserve Bank to be forced to postpone the planned interest rate hike. US Treasury Secretary Jacob Lew rejected the idea that the US alone could boost the world economy.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8045',
'title': 'Economy of Djibouti',
'section': 'Section::::Investment climate.:Background.\n',
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'end_paragraph_id': 19,
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'passage_text': 'An unemployment rate of 50 percent continues to be a major problem. Inflation is not a concern, however, because of the fixed tie of the franc to the US dollar. Per capita consumption dropped an estimated 35 percent over the last seven years because of recession, civil war, and a high population growth rate. Faced with a multitude of economic difficulties, the government has fallen in arrears on long-term external debt and has been struggling to meet the stipulations of foreign aid donors.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does the US Federal Reserve want to raise intrest rates if unemployment falls below 4%?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The Fed has a dual-mandate: keep unemployment low and keep inflation low. Generally economists think that the US is at full employment if the unemployment rate is around 4%. This is because you figure that at any point in time you have about that many people "frictionally" unemployed. Meaning they are moving from one part of the country to another, want to change careers, just caught a bad break, etc. They are no unemployed because of it being systematically hard to find a job.\n\nOnce the economy hits full-employment, the Fed gets very worried about inflation taking hold in wages. If the economy continues to grow, employers will start bidding up wages even though there are no more people to hire. In essence, wages would increase without an increase in productivity, and thus inflation would be transmitted through out the rest of the economy. (This is essentially what happened in the 1970\'s and was a huge problem.) So they start raising rates to slow growth and prevent wage inflation. ',
'Moderate inflation is good for the economy as it results in more money to employees = > increased consumer spending = > increased production = > increase in GDP.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7fjm2c',
'query': 'why does the us federal reserve want to raise intrest rates if unemployment falls below 4%?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '386661',
'title': 'Product key',
'section': 'Section::::Effectiveness.\n',
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'passage_text': "Because of this, software publishers are increasingly turning to alternative methods of verifying that keys are both valid and uncompromised. One method, product validation, assigns a product key based on a unique feature of the purchaser's computer hardware (such as its MAC address), which cannot be as easily duplicated since it depends on the user's hardware. Other newer methods may involve requiring periodical validation of the CD key with an internet server (for games with an online component, this is done whenever the user signs in). The validation can then be performed on the server side, preventing cracks tampering with it (as they do on the client side). The server can also keep a blacklist of all CD keys known to be invalid or which have explicitly been banned, and deny them access.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '386661',
'title': 'Product key',
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'passage_text': 'A product key, also known as a software key, is a specific software-based key for a computer program. It certifies that the copy of the program is original. Activation is sometimes done offline by entering the key, or with software like Windows 8.1, online activation is required to prevent multiple people using the same key. Not all software has a product key, as some publishers may choose to use a different method to protect their copyright, or in some cases, such as free or open source software, copyright protection is not used.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2742297',
'title': 'Volume licensing',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
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'passage_text': "Traditionally, a product key has been supplied with computer programs. It acts analogously to a password: The computer programs of the old ask the user to prove their entitlement; in response, the user provides this key. This key, however, must only be used once, i.e. on one computer. A volume licensing key (VLK), however, can be used on several computers. Vendors can take additional steps to ensure that their products' key are only used in the intended number. These efforts are called product activation.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17410459',
'title': 'List of Magic: The Gathering keywords',
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'passage_text': 'Keywords are typically created to summarize abilities or other attributes which are reasonably common in an individual expansion, expansion block, or in the game as a whole. Many keywords summarize abilities or attributes which are sufficiently complex such that the full explanation would fill the "rules text" area of the card; the smaller, one- or two-word keywords allow cards to be printed with a number of complex abilities, yet still be easily readable by players.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39802440',
'title': 'Trusted execution environment',
'section': 'Section::::Details.\n',
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'passage_text': 'To prevent simulation of hardware with user-controlled software, a so-called "hardware root of trust" is used. This is a set of private keys (so-called "endorsement keys" or "provisioned secrets") which are embedded directly into the chip during manufacturing (one-time programmable memory such as eFuses are usually used, despite the large area on the chip they take), cannot be changed, and whose public counterparts reside in a manufacturer database, together with a non-secret hash of a public key belonging to the trusted party (usually a chip vendor) which is used to sign trusted firmware alongside the circuits doing cryptographic operations and controlling access. The hardware is designed in a way which prevents all software not signed by the trusted party\'s key from accessing the privileged features. The public key of the vendor is provided at runtime and hashed; this hash is then compared to the one embedded in the chip. If the hash matches, the public key is used to verify a digital signature of trusted vendor-controlled firmware (such as a chain of bootloaders on Android devices or \'architectural enclaves\' in SGX). The trusted firmware is then used to implement remote attestation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22772421',
'title': 'Multi-factor authentication',
'section': 'Section::::Authentication factors.:Possession factors.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Possession factors ("something the user and only the user has") have been used for authentication for centuries, in the form of a key to a lock. The basic principle is that the key embodies a secret which is shared between the lock and the key, and the same principle underlies possession factor authentication in computer systems. A security token is an example of a possession factor.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '386661',
'title': 'Product key',
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'passage_text': 'Product keys consist of a series of numbers and/or letters. This sequence is typically entered by the user during the installation of computer software, and is then passed to a verification function in the program. This function manipulates the key sequence according to a mathematical algorithm and attempts to match the results to a set of valid solutions.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "what's preventing me from randomly guessing someone else's software product key, especially for physical copies of stuff?",
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'answers': ['You seem to understand the concept of brute force. I think the reason it\'s not more common is just the amount of work that entails for relatively little gain. It would be more lucrative to use that program and computational power to guess windows keys or something more valuable than the new CoD DLC or whatever. But it does happen there are a number of "cracked" games where you use a keygen program as part of the install process. ',
'Actually, the numberspace is significantly smaller because with a 15 char key, the 15th is usually a check digit. So you just need to generate the 14 char combos and ensure you calculate the correct check digit for the last one.\n\nOther than that, it’s all up to the large numberspace to prevent collisions (just like with hashes).',
" > but first of all I could bring that number down by avoiding using obvious or simple compinations (e.g. QWERTY)\n\nLet us assume there is some sort of filter on the keys to prevent curse words from showing up. Or maybe any word at all, in any language which uses those characters. A couple million combinations ruled out then.\n\nHow many combinations can you get for a 15 character key that allows letters and numbers which are case-sensitive? That means each character can be one of 62 different possibilities and you are choosing 15 of them in a specific order.\n\nThe result is that there are about 7.689 times 10 to the 26th power different options. That is 768900000000000000000000000 different options. Your couple million filter doesn't make it much easier. Let us assume you make a copy of the game for every living person on Earth? Still absurdly tiny in comparison to the different possible options.",
'TL;DR: Nothing really, because the chances of you guetting a valid key is slimmer than winning the lottery. The number of invalid keys simply make any potential guess worthless, even in great numbers. It\'s the same with passwords. \n\nFor one the validation server might notice you trying thousands upon thousands of keys and deny you access, so that\'s one possibility. \n\nHowever, I don\'t think you actually understand how monumentally huge the number 35^15 is. It\'s a number that has 24 digits (not to mention most keycodes use both upper and lowercase, so it\'s more likely to be 62^15 or whatnot).\n\nLet me put it this way: let\'s assume that you have a computer that can make 100 million guesses every second. It will take that computer roughly 45 million years to manage to guess every single key. If we assume that there are a billion (10^9) different valid keys then your chances of guessing a valid key is for all practical purposes 0. \n\nIf you take 100 thousand guesses the odd of you getting NO valid keys, out of a billion, are 99.9999999%, essentially guaranteed failiure. \n\n\nIn order to get a 50% chance of finding ONE of the billion keys floating around you\'d have to print 10^14 different codes. ten thousand billion guesses to have a 50% chance. \n\n\nIt\'s simply not practical in any sense of the word, even if there are more valid keys. This is also the philosophy behind "your website password must be X characters long". after a certain point, assuming you don\'t use an obvious password, it simply isn\'t practical with all the computing power in the world to randomly guess the correct answer. \n\n\n',
'You\'re grossly underestimating the difficulty of guessing a key. Let\'s go with your 37^15 probably, since that\'s a fair approximation. Now let\'s assume that we can knock out all the "most common" keys that are "too easy". That gets rid of 10,000 or so possibilities. Yay. But that still leaves HUNDREDS of TRILLIONS of possible keys. Assuming you can make 10,000 guesses per SECOND, on average it will take you approximately 10,000 YEARS to get a single hit. \n \nThat\'s what keeps you from randomly guessing a key, it\'s why Bitcoin wallets (and other forms of encryption for that matter) are so secure, etc. Statistically you have a significantly larger chance of guessing every number in the Powerball drawing ONE time over the course of your ENTIRE LIFE than you do of randomly guessing one out of 100,000 15-digit product keys.',
'Since its ELI5, there is nothing but raw chance that makes it so you can\'t do it.\n\nMore advanced:\nsay a computer takes 3 seconds to attempt a passcode, relay the information to the company, and get either a pass or fail response back:\n\nThe chances of you getting it correct are 1 in 3.3344626795e+23, or for simplicity sake, 330000000000000000000000 with a 15 character. Each time you do it AND FAIL, you don\'t say "Now I have 2 out of x chances" instead you have just the same amount of chance of getting it right. The law of large numbers says as we do more trials, the number of successes / number of attempts will slowly reach what is the true chance.\n\nEven assuming that somehow, we\'re guaranteed to get a hit at least be the bigNumber\'th time, that\'s still on average bigNumber * 3 seconds.\n\nLets see how long one person takes to do it:\n330000000000000000000000 * 3 / 60 / 60 / 24 / 365 = 3.1392694e+16\nor 31,000,000,000,000,000 years (again, this is assuming we have the power to get average odds on demand)\n\nYou bring up that a single game has 100,000 copies sent out, so now we have many more times the chance to hit! \n\nNow we\'re down to 31,000,000,000 years of churning. \nThere are 15,624 games on steam (as of 2017, so data is a little old) and lets make it an even 15000 (some games are free!) \n31,000,000,000 / 15000 = 2,066,666 years of churning (assuming we just want one license)\n\nYou can have more computers working, so say we have 500 computers going all at the same time (avg cost of a computer is $700 so thats $350000) \n\n2,066,666 / 500 = 4133 years of constant work to get one game.\n\nAt that rate, its cheaper to buy a game.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '9e5ybd',
'query': "what's preventing me from randomly guessing someone else's software product key, especially for physical copies of stuff?",
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '18665',
'title': 'Listerine',
'section': 'Section::::Composition.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The active ingredients listed on Listerine packaging are essential oils which are menthol (mint) 0.042%, thymol (thyme) 0.064%, methyl salicylate (wintergreen) 0.06%, and eucalyptol (eucalyptus) 0.092%. In combination all have an antiseptic effect and there is some thought that methyl salicylate may have an anti inflammatory effect as well. Ethanol, which is toxic to bacteria at concentrations of 40%, is present in concentrations of 21.6% in the flavored product and 26.9% in the original gold Listerine Antiseptic. At this concentration, the ethanol serves to dissolve the active ingredients.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3045',
'title': 'Amyl alcohol',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Isobutyl carbinol can be synthesized from isobutanol by conversion into isovaleraldehyde, which is subsequently reduced to isobutyl carbinol by means of sodium amalgam. It is a colourless liquid of density 0.8247 g/cm³ (0\xa0°C), boiling at 131.6\xa0°C, slightly soluble in water, and easily dissolved in organic solvents. It has a characteristic strong smell and a sharp burning taste. Amyl alcohol has an oral LD50 of 200\xa0mg/kg in mice, suggesting that it is significantly more toxic than ethanol. On passing the vapour through a red-hot tube, it decomposes into acetylene, ethylene, propylene, and other compounds. It is oxidized by chromic acid to isovaleraldehyde, and it forms addition compounds crystals with calcium chloride and tin(IV) chloride.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '414192',
'title': 'Ovarian cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Risk factors.:Other.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Alcohol consumption does not appear to be related to ovarian cancer. Other factors that have been investigated, such as smoking, low levels of vitamin D in the blood, presence of inclusion ovarian cysts, and infection with human papilloma virus (the cause of some cases of cervical cancer), have been disproven as risk factors for ovarian cancer. The carcinogenicity of perineal talc is controversial, because it can act as an irritant if it travels through the reproductive tract to the ovaries. Case-control studies have shown that use of perineal talc does increase the risk of ovarian cancer, but using talc more often does not create a greater risk. Use of talc elsewhere on the body is unrelated to ovarian cancer. Sitting regularly for prolonged periods is associated with higher mortality from epithelial ovarian cancer. The risk is not negated by regular exercise, though it is lowered.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18665',
'title': 'Listerine',
'section': 'Section::::Safety.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
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'passage_text': 'On April 11, 2007, McNeil-PPC disclosed that there were potentially contaminants in all Listerine Agent Cool Blue products sold since its launch in 2006, and that all bottles were being recalled. The recall affected some 4,000,000 bottles sold since that time. According to the company, Listerine Agent Cool Blue is the only product affected by the contamination and no other products in the Listerine family were under recall.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18665',
'title': 'Listerine',
'section': 'Section::::Safety.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'There has been concern that the use of alcohol-containing mouthwash such as Listerine may increase the risk of developing oral cancer. As of 2010, 7 meta-analyses have found no connection between alcohol-containing mouthwashes and oral cancer, and 3 have found increased risk.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36008996',
'title': 'Thermoanaerobacter pseudethanolicus',
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'passage_text': 'Thermoanaerobacter pseudethanolicus (formerly "Clostridium thermohydrosulfuricum" and later "Thermoanaerobacter ethanolicus") is a thermophilic, strictly anaerobic, spore-forming bacteria that was first found at Yellowstone National Park in the United States. Because of its ability to efficiently ferment sugars, it is thought to be of potential use in producing industrial alcohol.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58785634',
'title': 'Cheribundi',
'section': 'Section::::Research.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'Cheribundi products have been the subject of much research, with studies conducted by third parties that include the British Journal of Sports Medicine and the Journal of Nutrition. Research has also been conducted at various research institutions, including Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, the VA Medical Center, and the University of Pennsylvania. The company has promoted these studies as indicating that consumers of their beverages will receive a wide range of health benefits against muscle fatigue and joint inflammation. Consuming Montmorency cherries, used to make Cheribundi, also improves gut health by stimulating the growth of good bacteria.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "so I bought 'new' Listerine with no alcohol. What's left in it that kills germs? Do I need the alcohol?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Alcohol isn't actually the ingredient used to kill mouth germs, its primary purpose is to keep the actual active ingredients in solution. Alcohol free Listerine, according to their site, uses essential oils with antibacterial and anti-fungal properties. I'm unsure what ingredient in the Zero Alcohol formula keeps the oils in solution"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6jc1qa',
'query': "so i bought 'new' listerine with no alcohol. what's left in it that kills germs? do i need the alcohol?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '33966840',
'title': 'Snapping scapula syndrome',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Snapping Scapula Syndrome, also known as scapulocostal syndrome or scapulothoracic syndrome, is described by a “grating, grinding, popping or snapping sensation of the scapula onto the back side of the ribs or thoracic area of the spine” (Hauser). Disruption of the normal scapulothoracic mechanics causes this problem. The most common cases are found in young, active patients who tend to excessively use the overhead or throwing motion.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '51440077',
'title': 'The Crack Up (song)',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': '"The Crack Up" (sometimes styled as "The Crack-Up") is a song by Australian blues and rock band The Black Sorrows. It was released as the fourth single from their fifth studio album "Hold On to Me" (1988). The song peaked at number 40 in June 1989.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7143217',
'title': 'Facet joint',
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'passage_text': 'In the thoracic spine the facet joints function to restrain the amount of flexion and anterior translation of the corresponding vertebral segment and function to facilitate rotation. Cavitation of the synovial fluid within the facet joints is responsible for the popping sound (crepitus) associated with manual spinal manipulation, commonly referred to as "cracking the back."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11670255',
'title': 'Back Stabbers (song)',
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'passage_text': '"Back Stabbers" is a 1972 song by the O\'Jays. Released from the hit album of the same name, the song spent one week at number one on the Hot Soul Singles chart. It was also successful on the pop charts, peaking at number three on the "Billboard" Hot 100 singles chart in October 1972. The narrator in "Back Stabbers" warns men about their male "friends" who smile to their faces, but are secretly planning to steal their wives or girlfriends. It was also inspired by an earlier hit with a similar theme, the Undisputed Truth\'s "Smiling Faces Sometimes", the chorus of which is quoted at the end of the song. It was part of the soundtrack for the 1977 movie "Looking for Mr. Goodbar".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4853866',
'title': 'Guitar showmanship',
'section': 'Section::::Pete Townshend.\n',
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'passage_text': '"Pete: (After cracking the headstock) I was expecting everybody to go, “Wow, he’s broken his guitar, he’s broken his guitar,” but nobody did anything, which made me kind of angry in a way. And determined to get this precious event noticed by the audience, I proceeded to make a big thing of breaking the guitar. I bounced all over the stage with it and I threw the bits on the stage and I picked up my spare guitar and carried on as though I really had meant to do it."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33966840',
'title': 'Snapping scapula syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.\n',
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'passage_text': 'One source of snapping scapula is when the muscles underneath the scapula (the subscapularis muscle) atrophies. This causes the scapula to become very close to the rib cage, eventually causing rubbing or bumping during arm/shoulder movement. Another cause is bursitis, which is when the tissues between the shoulder blade and thoracic wall inflame. Muscle and bone abnormalities in the shoulder area can also contribute to the pain.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4302920',
'title': 'Knee examination',
'section': 'Section::::Palpation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': 'Pain, swelling, and a defect of the insertion of the quadriceps tendon into the superior part of the patella is suggestive of quadriceps tendon rupture. A "pop" sound may be associated with this injury, followed by the loss of the ability to straighten the knee (knee extension). Pain at the medial joint line (medial to the inferior border of the patella) indicates medial compartment osteoarthritis, injury to the medial collateral ligament, or a medial meniscal tear. Pain at the midpoint between the anterior part of the medial joint line and tibial tuberosity is suggestive of Pes anserine bursitis (inflammation of anserine bursa. Lateral joint line tenderness is associated with lateral compartment osteoarthritis, lateral collateral ligament injury, and lateral meniscal tear. Pain at the lateral femoral condyle is suggestive of iliotibial band syndrome. Swelling at the popliteal fossa may reveal a Baker\'s cyst.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What\'s happening when my back "pops" and is it bad?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Usually, when bones 'pop', you're basically popping very small air bubbles between your bones (or at least that's the best theory we've come up with). Your back popping is not a big deal if it happens rarely, but if it happens regularly it could be a sign of back problems, especially if it hurts.\n\nDon't be scared about this though (ik how scary looking up health conditions on the internet can be), but if it's just the popping, it's usually nothing too bad. It's probably just a sign of straining your back a lot of maybe unhealthy sitting or sleeping positions. Try to fix these things and the popping should decrease.",
"Directly, it's not 'bad'. As above, it's just air bubbles in joints. Completely normal. However, when you 'pop' your own back - which is essentially known as a 'manipulation' - you are often only manipulating the vertebral joints that have the greatest range of movement by comparison to the other ones in your spine. This means the joints that have a more restricted range of movement are not being manipulated, as you essentially 'miss' them. So over time you end up with some joints that are hypermobile by comparison to the ones that you missed. This isn't necessarily a bad thing, but as a result, the muscles of your back often have tighter, more restricted resting and active states (because your body naturally makes compensations for imbalances or restrictions in movement to help it work as effectively as possible). \n\nTherefore: you are more likely to suffer from postural or mobility issues later down the line - not because cracking your joints has lead to arthritis or other degenerative musculoskeletal disorders (you've probably been told you'll get arthritis by popping joints, which is mostly false), but because your body is suffering from muscular imbalances and overcompensations as a result of some joints that haven't been popped being very very restricted.\n"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '87ixvq',
'query': 'what\'s happening when my back "pops" and is it bad?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '22779666',
'title': 'Vision Mobile Browser',
'section': 'Section::::Functionality.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'end_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Mobile phone users can access and use the same web sites on their wireless handsets that they visit using personal computers. Full web pages load in seconds due to compression and in-network processing of content by the server.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52742',
'title': 'Desktop computer',
'section': 'Section::::Comparison with laptops.\n',
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'passage_text': "Laptop computers, conversely, offer portability that desktop systems (including small form factor and all-in-one desktops) can not due to their compact size and clamshell design. The laptop's all-in-one design provides a built-in keyboard and a pointing device (such as a trackpad) for its user, and can draw on power supplied by a rechargeable battery. Laptops also commonly integrate wireless technologies like WiFi, Bluetooth and 3G, giving them a broader range of options for connecting to the internet, though this trend is changing as newer desktop computers come integrated with one or more of these technologies.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '713497',
'title': 'Wireless mesh network',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Applications.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The laptops in the One Laptop per Child program use wireless mesh networking to enable students to exchange files and get on the Internet even though they lack wired or cell phone or other physical connections in their area.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2681135',
'title': 'Wireless security',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Some organizations that have no wireless access points installed do not feel that they need to address wireless security concerns. In-Stat MDR and META Group have estimated that 95% of all corporate laptop computers that were planned to be purchased in 2005 were equipped with wireless cards. Issues can arise in a supposedly non-wireless organization when a wireless laptop is plugged into the corporate network. A hacker could sit out in the parking lot and gather information from it through laptops and/or other devices, or even break in through this wireless card–equipped laptop and gain access to the wired network.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2681135',
'title': 'Wireless security',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
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'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'If router security is not activated or if the owner deactivates it for convenience, it creates a free hotspot. Since most 21st-century laptop PCs have wireless networking built in (see Intel "Centrino" technology), they don\'t need a third-party adapter such as a PCMCIA Card or USB dongle. Built-in wireless networking might be enabled by default, without the owner realizing it, thus broadcasting the laptop\'s accessibility to any computer nearby.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3742',
'title': 'Bluetooth',
'section': 'Section::::Computer requirements.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 61,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 61,
'end_character': 319,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A personal computer that does not have embedded Bluetooth can use a Bluetooth adapter that enables the PC to communicate with Bluetooth devices. While some desktop computers and most recent laptops come with a built-in Bluetooth radio, others require an external adapter, typically in the form of a small USB "dongle."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6023289',
'title': 'Wilmagate',
'section': 'Section::::Features.:Steps.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 213,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "BULLET::::- The user's mobile terminal (laptop or PDA) physically connects to a network, either by plugging in a cable (Ethernet or Firewire) or by associating with a wireless access point via Wi-Fi or Bluetooth.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why can my laptop pick up my WiFi very well, but my phone, on the same desk, hardly connect at all?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["I would only assume better hardware in the laptop given its increased form factor.\n\nSame reason you won't get a core i9 and 32gb ram in a smartphone.\n\nEdit - forgot to add phones are more power conscious so reduce performance of areas to prolong life.",
"Laptops are larger so they can fit a bigger and better wifi antenna, usually the wifi antenna is built into the edge of the laptop's monitor."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'bvig0h',
'query': 'why can my laptop pick up my wifi very well, but my phone, on the same desk, hardly connect at all?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '56115455',
'title': '2019 in science',
'section': 'Section::::Events.:February.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 58,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 58,
'end_character': 287,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- 11 February – Scientists find evidence, based on genetics studies using artificial intelligence (AI), that suggest the existence of an unknown human ancestor species, not Neanderthal, Denisovan or human hybrid (like "Denny" (hybrid hominin)), in the genome of modern humans.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58232541',
'title': 'Denny (hybrid hominin)',
'section': 'Section::::Context and implications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 266,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In February 2019, scientists discovered evidence, based on genetics studies using artificial intelligence (AI), that suggest the existence of an unknown human ancestor species, not Neanderthal, Denisovan or human hybrid (like Denny), in the genome of modern humans.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30231169',
'title': 'Interbreeding between archaic and modern humans',
'section': 'Section::::Related studies.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 73,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 73,
'end_character': 266,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In February 2019, scientists discovered evidence, based on genetics studies using artificial intelligence (AI), that suggest the existence of an unknown human ancestor species, not Neanderthal, Denisovan or human hybrid (like Denny), in the genome of modern humans.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6578398',
'title': 'Human evolutionary genetics',
'section': 'Section::::Genetic differences among modern humans.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 74,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 74,
'end_character': 283,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In February 2019, scientists discovered evidence, based on genetics studies using artificial intelligence (AI), that suggest the existence of an unknown human ancestor species, not Neanderthal, Denisovan or human hybrid (like Denny (hybrid hominin)), in the genome of modern humans.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1034339',
'title': 'Most recent common ancestor',
'section': 'Section::::MRCA of different species.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 447,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The concept of the last common ancestor from the perspective of human evolution is described for a popular audience in "The Ancestor\'s Tale" by Richard Dawkins (2004). Dawkins lists "concestors" of the human lineage in order of increasing age, including hominin (human-chimpanzee), hominine (human-gorilla), hominid (human-orangutan), hominoid (human-gibbon), and so on in 40 stages in total, down to the last universal ancestor (human-bacteria).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2053831',
'title': 'Progenitor',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 280,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In archaeogenetics (archaeological genetics), a human Y-chromosomal Adam has been named as the most recent common ancestor from whom all currently living people are descended patrilinearly. This Adam lived in Africa at a time variously estimated from 60,000 to 338,000 years ago.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11473533',
'title': 'Adam and Eve',
'section': 'Section::::Historicity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 48,
'end_character': 272,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'With scientific developments in paleontology, geology, biology and other disciplines, it was discovered that humans, and all other living things, share the same common ancestor which evolved through natural processes, over billions of years to form the life we see today.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How did scientists identify humanity's common ancestor?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Imagine evolution to be like a book, something written long before the invention of printing. Like the bible. So it was copied over and over by monks, who even though they worked very thoroughly, occasionally made a mistake. Since there are so many more words than mistakes, the chance that two monks do the same mistake twice are incredibly low. But the monks who use that particular book to make their own copies will copy over the mistakes in it.\n\nSo now you've got 1000 copies of the book, and want to find the one that's closest to the original. What do you do? You assume that a book can only have a particular mistake if it's the one where a monk first made the mistake, or it was copied from that book, or it was copied from a book that was copied from it, and so on and so forth. So they all must have a common ancestor.\n\nBy sorting all the books by their mistakes, you can trace exactly which book was copied from which other book. And ultimately, that will lead you to the oldest common ancestor - or at least tell you which ones are the oldest.\n\nGenetics are similar. Mutations rarely occur twice in the same way, and it's basically impossible that multiple mutations occur at the same time in a species independently from one another. So if you have two different human fossils where, say, the hip bone looks oddly similar, it might be pure chance. But if in addition to that they have a similar skull, it's safe to assume that they do have a common ancestor. So if you have a whole bunch of different fossils, you can group them by these similarities, and reconstruct which ones are the ancestors of different fossils. Ultimately, that will lead you to the oldest of the bunch.",
"Scientifically, there is no such thing as a 'common ancestor' in the sense that 'every human alive is descended from one single person'. The closest we can get is the 'Most Recent Common Matrilineal Ancestor' (MRCMA), or the putative 'Mitochondrial Eve' (a term which many scientists dislike), which you can read about [here](_URL_0_) .\n\nMitochondria are genetic 'energy factories' inside our cell-structure, and they're only ever transmitted through the female line of descent. It's possible to trace mitochondrial DNA back over the millennia until the lines of descent converge on one woman.\n\nIt's important to note, though, that 'one woman' does not mean that it's one *specific* woman, or that she was the 'only' woman alive; by definition, Mitochondrial Eve had at least two daughters who both have unbroken female lineages that have survived to the present day. Thus, mt-Eve is effectively a 'title', passed down mother-to-daughter, that denotes the *most recent* female that qualifies as 'Mitochondrial Eve'."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'a58adl',
'query': "how did scientists identify humanity's common ancestor?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '21282070',
'title': 'Taste',
'section': 'Section::::Further sensations and transmission.:Astringency.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 74,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 74,
'end_character': 246,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'When referring to wine, "dry" is the opposite of "sweet," and does not refer to astringency. Wines that contain tannins and so cause an astringent sensation are not necessarily classified as "dry", and "dry" wines are not necessarily astringent.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4189181',
'title': 'Dryness (taste)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 408,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Dryness is a property of beverages that describes the lack of a sweet taste. This may be due to a lack of sugars, the presence of some other taste that masks sweetness, or an underabundance of simple carbohydrates that can be converted to sugar by enzymes in the mouth (amylase in particular). The term "dry" may be applied to types of beer, wine, distilled spirits, or any other form of alcoholic beverage.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1054902',
'title': 'Sweetness of wine',
'section': 'Section::::Residual sugar.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 644,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "How sweet a wine will taste is also controlled by factors such as the acidity and alcohol levels, the amount of tannin present, and whether the wine is sparkling or not. A sweet wine such as a Vouvray can actually taste dry due to the high level of acidity. A dry wine can taste sweet if the alcohol level is elevated. Medium and sweet wines have a perception among many consumers of being of lower quality than dry wines. However, many of the world's great wines, such as those from Sauternes (including Barsac) or Tokaj, have a high level of residual sugar, which is carefully balanced with additional acidity to produce a harmonious result.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22216378',
'title': 'Clarification and stabilization of wine',
'section': 'Section::::Clarifying wine.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 367,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In wine tasting, a wine is considered "clear" when there are no visible particles suspended in the liquid and, especially in the case of white wines, when there is some degree of transparency. A wine with too much suspended matter will appear cloudy and dull, even if its aroma and flavor are unaffected; wines therefore generally undergo some kind of clarification.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '927688',
'title': 'White wine',
'section': 'Section::::Culinary aspects.:Harmony of white wine and food.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 186,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 186,
'end_character': 258,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'For an aperitif, flavoured dry wine or sparkling wine goes with all meals. Specialists in tasting consider that the sugar or alcohol in some wines has a saturating effect on the taste buds, by contrast the fruity liveliness awakens them to the meal to come.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '683030',
'title': 'Canada Dry',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 283,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The "Dry" in the brand\'s name refers to not being sweet, as in a dry wine. When John J. McLaughlin, who first formulated "Canada Dry Pale Ginger Ale", originally made his new soft drink, it was far less sweet than other ginger ales then available; as a result, he labelled it "dry".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32961',
'title': 'Wine',
'section': 'Section::::Variants.:White wine.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 420,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Dry (non-sweet) white wine is the most common, derived from the complete fermentation of the wort. Sweet wines are produced when the fermentation is interrupted before all the grape sugars are converted into alcohol. Sparkling wines, which are mostly white wines, are produced by not allowing carbon dioxide from the fermentation to escape during fermentation, which takes place in the bottle rather than in the barrel.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How do 'dry' wines taste dry when they're a liquid?",
'selftext': "I never knew what people meant when they said dry wines until I drank one recently and it definitely tastes dry. It's a liquid though and I'm curious how this works.",
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Dry is simply the opposite of sweet. Dry wine means it has a low sugar content. They tend to be quite sharp, the same way lemon juice is, and I suppose that could taste "dry".',
'"Dry" is just the wine lingo word for "not sweet." Sugar tends to make us salivate a little bit, which might explain why "dry" is used to mean a wine with little sugar - because the sour, bitter, and tannic flavors in wine can make the mouth feel drier without much sugar to compensate.\n\nHowever, it is mainly the tannins in wine that cause that puckery, drying out feeling on the tongue. The same compounds in a strong cup of tea. But we describe wines with a high amount of those tannins as "tannic," rather than dry. Confusingly, a wine can have plenty of sweetness and high tannins, meaning that your mouth might have that dry feeling, but the wine shouldn\'t be considered "dry." It\'s just a term that\'s been used historically for drinks without much sugar content.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'flhogm',
'query': "how do 'dry' wines taste dry when they're a liquid?",
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1525',
'title': 'Aspirin',
'section': 'Section::::Medical use.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 780,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Aspirin is used in the treatment of a number of conditions, including fever, pain, rheumatic fever, and inflammatory conditions, such as rheumatoid arthritis, pericarditis, and Kawasaki disease. Lower doses of aspirin have also been shown to reduce the risk of death from a heart attack, or the risk of stroke in people who are at high risk or who have cardiovascular disease, but not in elderly people who are otherwise healthy. There is some evidence that aspirin is effective at preventing colorectal cancer, though the mechanisms of this effect are unclear. In the United States, low-dose aspirin is deemed reasonable in those between 50 and 70 years old who have a risk of cardiovascular disease over 10%, are not at an increased risk of bleeding, and are otherwise healthy.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '324482',
'title': 'Colonoscopy',
'section': 'Section::::Procedure.:Preparation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 62,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 62,
'end_character': 275,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The patient may be asked not to take aspirin or similar products such as salicylate, ibuprofen, etc. for up to ten days before the procedure to avoid the risk of bleeding if a polypectomy is performed during the procedure. A blood test may be performed before the procedure.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1525',
'title': 'Aspirin',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism of action.:Prostaglandins and thromboxanes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 86,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 86,
'end_character': 640,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Low-dose aspirin use irreversibly blocks the formation of thromboxane A in platelets, producing an inhibitory effect on platelet aggregation during the lifetime of the affected platelet (8–9 days). This antithrombotic property makes aspirin useful for reducing the incidence of heart attacks in people who have had a heart attack, unstable angina, ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack. 40mg of aspirin a day is able to inhibit a large proportion of maximum thromboxane A release provoked acutely, with the prostaglandin I2 synthesis being little affected; however, higher doses of aspirin are required to attain further inhibition.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29135763',
'title': 'Management of acute coronary syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Antiplatelet drugs.:Aspirin.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
'end_character': 717,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Aspirin inhibits platelet aggregation and formation of blood clots. It is effective across the entire spectrum of acute coronary syndromes, and it actually has been shown to reduce the rate of death in patients with STEMI and in patients presenting without ST elevation. Aspirin is contraindicated in patients with documented allergy or known platelet disorder. Patients who have had gastrointestinal symptoms while on long-term aspirin therapy are usually able to tolerate aspirin in the short term. For patients with true intolerance to aspirin clopidogrel is recommended. Lower doses need days to achieve full antiplatelet effect, therefore a loading dose is necessary for patients who are not already on aspirin.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1525',
'title': 'Aspirin',
'section': 'Section::::Medical use.:Heart attacks and strokes.:After surgery.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
'end_character': 777,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'After percutaneous coronary interventions (PCIs), such as the placement of a coronary artery stent, a U.S. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality guideline recommends that aspirin be taken indefinitely. Frequently, aspirin is combined with an ADP receptor inhibitor, such as clopidogrel, prasugrel, or ticagrelor to prevent blood clots. This is called dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT). United States and European Union guidelines disagree somewhat about how long, and for what indications this combined therapy should be continued after surgery. U.S. guidelines recommend DAPT for at least 12 months, while EU guidelines recommend DAPT for 6–12 months after a drug-eluting stent placement. However, they agree that aspirin be continued indefinitely after DAPT is complete.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '844668',
'title': 'Chalazion',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Surgery.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 33,
'end_character': 331,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'When surgery for a chalazion is considered, patients who take aspirin or any other blood-thinning medications are advised to stop taking them one week prior to the procedure as they may lead to uncontrollable bleeding. There are several tests taken prior to surgery to make sure the patient is in good condition for the operation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16283254',
'title': 'History of aspirin',
'section': 'Section::::Revival as heart drug.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 48,
'end_character': 1578,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "The idea of using aspirin to prevent clotting diseases (such as heart attacks and strokes) was revived in the 1960s, when medical researcher Harvey Weiss found that aspirin had an anti-adhesive effect on blood platelets (and unlike other potential antiplatelet drugs, aspirin had low toxicity). Medical Research Council haematologist John O'Brien picked up on Weiss's finding and, in 1963, began working with epidemiologist Peter Elwood on aspirin's anti-thrombosis drug potential. Elwood began a large-scale trial of aspirin as a preventive drug for heart attacks. Nicholas Laboratories agreed to provide aspirin tablets, and Elwood enlisted heart attack survivors in a double-blind controlled study—heart attack survivors were statistically more likely to suffer a second attack, greatly reducing the number of patients necessary to reliably detect whether aspirin had an effect on heart attacks. The study began in February 1971, though the researchers soon had to break the double-blinding when a study by American epidemiologist Hershel Jick suggested that aspirin prevented heart attacks but suggested that the heart attacks were more deadly. Jick had found that fewer aspirin-takers were admitted to his hospital for heart attacks than non-aspirin-takers, and one possible explanation was that aspirin caused heart attack sufferers to die before reaching the hospital; Elwood's initial results ruled out that explanation. When the Elwood trial ended in 1973, it showed a modest but not statistically significant reduction in heart attacks among the group taking aspirin.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is taking an aspirin before the surgery harmful?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It prevents your blood from clotting properly! Hence, if you want to walk out of the surgery without blood gushing from your wounds you shouldn't take an aspirin right before it :)\n\nEDIT: words",
"Because aspirin is the only NSAID with blood thinning properties: that's why it's used in prevention of CV events at low dosage ( < 100mg). ",
"They also usually don't want you to take ibuprofen (Motrin/Advil) before surgery, either. And make sure of the number of days before surgery that you can't take them."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5nbd6g',
'query': 'why is taking an aspirin before the surgery harmful?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3982',
'title': 'Bicarbonate',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 391,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The term "bicarbonate" was coined in 1814 by the English chemist William Hyde Wollaston. The prefix "bi" in "bicarbonate" comes from an outdated naming system and is based on the observation that there is twice as much carbonate () per sodium ion in sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO) and other bicarbonates than in sodium carbonate (NaCO) and other carbonates. The name lives on as a trivial name.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3982',
'title': 'Bicarbonate',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 204,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In inorganic chemistry, bicarbonate (IUPAC-recommended nomenclature: hydrogencarbonate) is an intermediate form in the deprotonation of carbonic acid. It is a polyatomic anion with the chemical formula .\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3711806',
'title': 'Tricarbon',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 282,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Tricarbon (systematically named 1λ,3λ-propadiene and "catena"-tricarbon) is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula (also written [C(μ-C)C] or ). It is a colourless gas that only persists in dilution or solution as an adduct. It is one of the simplest unsaturated carbenes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1786719',
'title': 'Step-growth polymerization',
'section': 'Section::::Classes of step-growth polymers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 359,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Polycarbonates are transparent, self-extinguishing materials. They possess properties like crystalline thermoplasticity, high impact strength, good thermal and oxidative stability. They can be used in machinery, auto-industry, and medical applications. For example, the cockpit canopy of F-22 Raptor is made of high optical quality polycarbonate.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '536313',
'title': 'Polycarbonate',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 288,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Polycarbonates received their name because they are polymers containing carbonate groups (−O−(C=O)−O−). A balance of useful features, including temperature resistance, impact resistance and optical properties, positions polycarbonates between commodity plastics and engineering plastics.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '402188',
'title': 'Ammonium bicarbonate',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 1402,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Ammonium bicarbonate is used in the food industry as a raising agent for flat baked goods, such as cookies and crackers, and in China in steamed buns and Chinese almond cookies. It was commonly used in the home before modern-day baking powder was made available. In China it is called edible or food-grade "smelly powder". Many baking cookbooks (especially from Scandinavian countries) may still refer to it as hartshorn or hornsalt (e.g., FI: "hirvensarvisuola", NO: "hjortetakksalt", DK: "hjortetakssalt", SE: "hjorthornssalt", "salt of hart\'s horn", DE: "Hirschhornsalz"). Although there is a slight smell of ammonia during baking, this quickly dissipates, leaving no taste. It is used in, for example, Swedish "drömmar" biscuits and Danish Christmas biscuits (Hjortetakssalt), and German Lebkuchen. In many cases it may be substituted with baking soda or baking powder or a combination of both, depending on the recipe composition and leavening requirements. Compared to baking soda or potash, hartshorn has the advantage of producing more gas for the same amount of agent, and of not leaving any salty or soapy taste in the finished product, as it completely decomposes into water and gaseous products that evaporate during baking. It cannot be used for moist, bulky baked goods however, such as normal bread or cakes, since some ammonia will be trapped inside and will cause an unpleasant taste.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23366853',
'title': 'Twinwall plastic',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.:Polycarbonate.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 361,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Polycarbonates received their name because they are polymers containing carbonate groups (–O–(C=O)–O–). Most polycarbonates of commercial interest are derived from rigid monomers. A balance of useful features including temperature resistance, impact resistance and optical properties position polycarbonates between commodity plastics and engineering plastics.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is bicarbonate?',
'selftext': 'I am learning about the means of transport of carbon dioxide in my college A & P II class right now and I learned that 70% of CO2 is transported as bicarbonate dissolved in plasma. The only chemistry background I have is junior year high school chem, so I’m very confused about what bicarbonate is, especially in relation to anatomy.',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Bicarbonate is HCO3(-). It acts as a buffer keeping your blood within certain pH values. \n\nIt is formed when H2O and CO2 are combined in red bllod cells by carbonic anhydrase(an enzyme) to make carbonic acid, H2CO3. This carbonic acid quickly breaks down into H and HCO3. When it reaches the lungs the bicarbonate is separated back into H2O and CO2.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '88g8jl',
'query': 'what is bicarbonate?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '14564013',
'title': '16:10 aspect ratio',
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'passage_text': '16:10 (8:5) is an aspect ratio mostly used for computer displays and tablet computers. The width of the display is 1.6 times its height. This ratio is close to the golden ratio "formula_1" which is approximately 1.618.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '551856',
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'passage_text': '16:9 (1.7:1 = 4:3) is an aspect ratio with a width of 16 units and height of 9. Since 2010 it has become the most common aspect ratio for televisions and computer monitors, and is also the international standard format of HDTV, Full HD, non-HD digital television and analog widescreen television. This has replaced the old .\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '551856',
'title': '16:9 aspect ratio',
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'passage_text': 'Dr. Kerns H. Powers, a member of the SMPTE Working Group on High-Definition Electronic Production, first proposed the 16:9 (1.7:1) aspect ratio in 1984 when nobody was creating 16:9 videos. The popular choices in 1980 were: 1.3:1 (based on television standard\'s ratio at the time), 1.6:1 (the European "flat" ratio), 1.85:1 (the American "flat" ratio), 2.20:1 (the ratio of 70\xa0mm films and Panavision) and 2.35:1 (the CinemaScope ratio for anamorphic widescreen films).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5350141',
'title': 'Academic grading in Denmark',
'section': 'Section::::Previous scales.:1963: 13-scale.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 80,
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'passage_text': 'The 13-scale was introduced in 1963 and used until 2006 (2007 in universities). The scale started out as a relative scale but has since its introduction in 1963 changed to an absolute scale at all levels of education. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24029605',
'title': '21:9 aspect ratio',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The 64:27 aspect ratio is an extension of the existing video aspect ratios 4:3 and 16:9, as it is the third power of 4:3, where 16:9 of traditional HDTV is 4:3 squared. This allows electronic scalers and optical anamorphic lenses to use an easily implementable 4:3 (1.3:1) scaling factor.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1643227',
'title': '14:9 aspect ratio',
'section': 'Section::::Mathematics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': 'The aspect ratio of 14:9 (1.555...) is the arithmetic mean (average) of 16:9 and 4:3 (12:9), formula_1. More practically, it is approximately the geometric mean (the precise geometric mean is formula_2), and in this sense is mathematically a compromise between these two aspect ratios: two equal area pictures (at 16:9 and 4:3) will intersect in a box with aspect ratio the geometric mean, as demonstrated in the image at top (14:9 is just slightly wider than the intersection). In this way 14:9 balances the needs of both 16:9 and 4:3, cropping or distorting both about equally. Similar considerations were used in by the SMPTE, which balanced 2.35 and 4:3.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28385304',
'title': 'Graphics display resolution',
'section': 'Section::::Aspect ratio.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'The favored aspect ratio of mass market display industry products has changed gradually from 4:3, then to 16:10, then to 16:9, and now changing to 18:9 for phones, and 21:9 for monitors. The 4:3 aspect ratio generally reflects older products, especially the era of the cathode ray tube (CRT). The 16:10 aspect ratio had its largest use in the 1995–2010 period, and the 16:9 aspect ratio tends to reflect post-2010 mass market computer monitor, laptop, and entertainment products displays.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Who decided that the standards were 4:3 16:9 21:9 for aspect ratio?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It's because 4:3 is closest to our vision and is best to relay information, 21:9 was already the standard of cinema and is best to describe scenery. 16:9 is just the compromise between those two. \nAnd for where those numbers came from, there's only 1 word: compromise. The artist, engineers, and the market all fought with eachother with their own aspect ratios. Those that survive are the ones we use today. \nExample: there now exist mobile phones with 17:9 and 18:9 resolutions, due to how applications are layed out on the screen (vertical scrolling). Only time can tell if they survive and become the new standards."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '7zttct',
'query': 'who decided that the standards were 4:3 16:9 21:9 for aspect ratio?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '31775661',
'title': 'Speed of Darkness',
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'passage_text': 'The expression "speed of darkness" had appeared in a 1999 book mixing physics and fiction, named The Science of Discworld, written by Terry Pratchett, Ian Stewart and Jack Cohen. In a 2011 interview on BBC Radio 1, frontman Dave King explained that the title track and album title was taken from a quote of Dino Misetić, the artist who designed the album cover, which appeared in the book Sarajevo Marlboro. Dino, who grew up in the Balkans during the Balkan Wars, is quoted in the book, saying: "They taught us what the speed of light is, but nobody can teach you what the speed of darkness is."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2741000',
'title': 'Speed of Dark',
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'passage_text': 'Speed of Dark (released in some markets as The Speed of Dark) is a near-future science fiction novel by American author Elizabeth Moon. The story is told from the first person viewpoint of an autistic process analyst. It won the Nebula Award for Best Novel in 2003, and was also an Arthur C. Clarke Award finalist.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41452537',
'title': 'A Slower Speed of Light',
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'passage_text': 'A Slower Speed of Light is a freeware video game developed by MIT Game Lab that demonstrates the effects of special relativity by gradually slowing down the speed of light to a walking pace. The game runs on the Unity engine using the own open source OpenRelativity toolkit.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35974834',
'title': 'Sidney Perkowitz',
'section': 'Section::::Books.\n',
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'passage_text': '"Slow Light" (2011) is Perkowitz’s fifth book of science nonfiction for popular audiences. "Slow Light" is a popular treatment of recent breakthroughs in the science of light. Even though the quantum mysteries of light are still not fully understood, it can be slowed to a stop and speeded up beyond its Einsteinian speed limit, 186,000 miles/sec; used for quantum telecommunications; teleported; manipulated to create invisibility; and perhaps used to generate hydrogen fusion power.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1849686',
'title': 'Ronald Mallett',
'section': 'Section::::Career.:Time travel research.:Criticism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
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'passage_text': "One has to distinguish between the speed of light in a vacuum, which is a constant, and through any other medium, which can vary enormously. Light travels more slowly through water than through empty space, for example, but this does not mean that you age more slowly while scuba diving or that it is easier to twist space-time underwater.brThe experiments done so far don't lower the speed of light in empty space; they just lower the speed of light in a medium and should not make it easier to twist space-time. Thus, it should not take any less mass-energy to form a black hole or a time machine of a given size in such a medium.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11746979',
'title': 'The Speed of Darkness (EP)',
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'passage_text': "The Speed of Darkness is an EP re-release of Leviathan's contribution to 2003's Live In Eternal Sin/The Speed Of Darkness split album. It was re-released on LP in 2006 via Hate Records and was limited to two-hundred copies on clear vinyl and four-hundred sixty-six copies on dark green vinyl.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19444970',
'title': 'Dark flow',
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'passage_text': 'In astrophysics, dark flow is a theoretical non-random component of the peculiar velocity of galaxy clusters. The actual measured velocity is the sum of the velocity predicted by Hubble\'s Law plus a possible small and unexplained (or "dark") velocity flowing in a common direction.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Does darkness have a speed?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Darkness is the absence of light. Since a lack of something isn't, in and of itself, a thing it has no bounds on how fast it may move.\n\nIn some setups darkness moves at the speed of light. For example, if you consider a spotlight shining out into space and briefly flash it then you shoot a cylinder of light. The front of the cylinder approaches at the speed of light, then the rear approaches at the speed of light. Arguably the end of this cylinder is darkness, so we could say that darkness was, in this case, moving at the speed of light.\n\nWhile that's the simplest setup it's not the only one. We could imagine a long corridor with a bunch of spotlights pointed down. At some point we could have these spotlights start turning off, one after another, going down the row. This causes a wave of darkness to move down the corridor at whatever speed we want. We could turn off lights 1 meter further down the corridor each second and the speed of dark would be 1 m/s, or we could turn them off 600,000 km further per second giving our darkness wave a speed of about twice the speed of light (note that for this setup we'd need to set things up with timers to allow for the speed of light signal delay, but that's an engineering problem, not a physics one).\n\nSince darkness is just the absence of light it's just as meaningful to look at the wave of darkness moving down the hallway as it is to look at the wave of darkness in our first scenario. In both cases we follow a wave where on one side there's visible light and on the other there's not. It wouldn't be proper to use the corridor experiment to argue that the speed of light is whatever you want because light is a thing in and of itself. You can meaningfully track the motion of an individual photon while no such concept can exist for the lack of photons. \n\nThis notion is similar to a shocking observation some astronomers made at one point. They saw what appeared to be something moving at many times the speed of light which cast doubt on various models until they realized that it was the interference between two large debris clouds. While the debris was not traveling faster than the speed of light the boundary of intersection between the two fields was. A boundary isn't a physical thing so it's not bound by the speed of light. ",
'I suppose it depends on just how you look at things. The speed at which electromagnetic radiation is no longer touching something is the same speed at which it came into contact with that thing in the first place.\n\nBut since some things remain illuminated for variable amounts of time after coming into contact with a light source, and nothing stays dark for a time after coming into contact with a light source, you could say that dark is slightly slower than light. \n\nOutside of that rather flimsy example though, the absence of light does not have speed.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '7nruk8',
'query': 'does darkness have a speed?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '7562910',
'title': 'Assist (Scientology)',
'section': 'Section::::Types of assists.:Contact assist.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
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'passage_text': '"Let’s say a child stubbed his shin on the lawn mower and now doesn’t want to come nearer than one hundred feet from that lawn mower. You would make him do a Contact Assist with his shin and body at that point (one hundred feet from the same lawn mower), having him go through the motions of the accident. Gradually, gradient by gradient, you narrow the distance that he is willing to approach it and eventually he will go up and do a Contact Assist on the lawn mower."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2981813',
'title': "Fireman's pole",
'section': 'Section::::Safety issues.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': "Losing one's grip on the pole can result in falling from a great height; the firefighter may hit an object such as a door extending from a truck; poor speed control can result in injured or even broken legs upon impact with the floor; and burns can occur due to friction if the skin rubs against the pole. If the pole runs through an unprotected hole in the floor, there is a risk of a person falling through it, as well as exhaust fumes rising into the living quarters.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '331680',
'title': 'Edge detection',
'section': 'Section::::Approaches.:Edge thinning.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 72,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::5. Remove a point if:The point has no neighbors in the North (if you are in the north pass, and respective directions for other passes).The point is not the end of a line.The point is isolated.Removing the points will not cause to disconnect its neighbors in any way.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '49818095',
'title': 'Field sobriety testing',
'section': 'Section::::Testing.:Standardized Field Sobriety Tests (SFSTs).:One Leg Stand test (OLS).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 71,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 71,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::3. When I tell you to, I want you to raise one leg, either one, approximately 6 inches off the ground, foot pointed out, both legs straight and look at the elevated foot. Count out loud in the following manner: 1001, 1002, 1003, 1004 and so on until told to stop.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11956089',
'title': 'Seismic migration',
'section': 'Section::::Rationale.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 202,
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'passage_text': 'In this case, the distance is halved because it can be assumed that it only took one-half of the total travel time to reach the reflector from the source, then the other half to return to the receiver.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1744317',
'title': 'Glossary of rowing terms',
'section': 'Section::::The stroke.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 225,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 225,
'end_character': 250,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Over reach : Fault done by an oarsman when he comes to his full reach forward and then attempts to obtain even greater length by releasing his grasp on the handle with his outside hand or by bringing his outside shoulder further forward.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '208943',
'title': 'Touch (sport)',
'section': 'Section::::Terminology.:Defending.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 48,
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'passage_text': "BULLET::::- After making a touch, the defending team must retreat the distance the referee marks, at least five metres from the mark where the touch occurred and stay there until the Half touches the ball, or until the referee says they can 'play on'.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If any distance can be halved, at what point do you stop touching something?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Mathematics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Uh... if you're taking your finger off something, then the distance will increase, halving is a decrease.\n\nAlso, from a physics standpoint you never actually touch anything...\n\nAside from those, you're describing a form of one of Zeno's Paradox. Ultimately the solution is the fact that in the limit, 0.99999.... is equal to 1.",
'You\'re never touching anything - you are just as close as possible to it. The sensation you feel is effectively the force of the atoms "pushing back" against your fingers (and your fingers\' atoms "pushing back" against the atoms in whatever you are touching). Think of it a bit like how two magnets push against each other, but much much stronger.',
'Planck length, the smallest possible measurement in the universe before the laws of physics break down.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '7dzxcs',
'query': 'if any distance can be halved, at what point do you stop touching something?',
'query_type': 'Mathematics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '772',
'title': 'Ampere',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The ampere ( or (UK), symbol: A), often shortened to "amp", is the base unit of electric current in the International System of Units (SI). It is named after André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836), French mathematician and physicist, considered the father of electrodynamics.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2500759',
'title': 'Volt-ampere',
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'passage_text': 'A volt-ampere (VA) is the unit used for the apparent power in an electrical circuit. The apparent power equals the product of root-mean-square (RMS) voltage and RMS current. In direct current (DC) circuits, this product is equal to the real power (active power) in watts. Volt-amperes are useful only in the context of alternating current (AC) circuits (sinusoidal voltages and currents of the same frequency). The volt-ampere is dimensionally equivalent to the watt (in SI units, 1 VA = 1 N m A s A = 1 N m s = 1 J s = 1 W).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7443773',
'title': 'List of technology in Judge Dredd',
'section': 'Section::::Equipment.:Psionic amplifier.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The psionic amplifier or psi-amp is a machine which exponentially increases the psionic power of the user (provided that the user has at least some psionic ability to begin with). The machine runs on electricity and is generally shaped either like a coffin or a chair. It works by converting the user\'s own "life-force" into psionic energy, which gives the user extraordinary power far greater than what anybody could achieve unaided. However the machine is always user-fatal, as once it is switched off the user\'s life-force is exhausted, and his body crumbles into dust. Consequently, psi-amps are illegal, although the Judges keep one of their own for use in dire emergencies. Judge Omar died using it to destroy the demonic Seven Samurai when Shojun the Warlord summoned them from Hell to conquer Mega-City One.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41858',
'title': 'Volt-ampere reactive',
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'passage_text': 'In electric power transmission and distribution, volt-ampere reactive (var) is a unit of measurement of reactive power. Reactive power exists in an AC circuit when the current and voltage are not in phase. The term "var" was proposed by the Romanian electrical engineer Constantin Budeanu and introduced in 1930 by the IEC in Stockholm, which has adopted it as the unit for reactive power.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32549',
'title': 'Voltage',
'section': 'Section::::Volt.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The volt (symbol: ) is the derived unit for electric potential, electric potential difference, and electromotive force. The volt is named in honour of the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta (1745–1827), who invented the voltaic pile, possibly the first chemical battery.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50969944',
'title': 'Glossary of civil engineering',
'section': 'Section::::A.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Ampere – often shortened to "amp", is the base unit of electric current in the International System of Units (SI). It is named after André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836), French mathematician and physicist, considered the father of electrodynamics.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32567',
'title': 'Volt',
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'passage_text': 'The volt (symbol: V) is the derived unit for electric potential, electric potential difference (voltage), and electromotive force. It is named after the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta (1745–1827).\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': '; it’s not the volts that kill you, it’s the amps?',
'selftext': 'Biology because that’s the closest I can think of, but wouldn’t a whole bunch of volts kill somebody pretty quick? Edit: wow ok this blew up overnight, was not expecting this. So what seems to be the most common answer was that volts are the potential, amps are the potential being realized, the saying is wrong, and that time is also needed to kill. Thanks everyone!',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Basically, voltage is electrical potential, amps is that potential being realized. Potential can't kill you, action can",
"The title statement is misleading because it takes voltage to make current flow. Together with resistance they form Ohm's Law: E=IR They are inextricably linked. \n\nVoltage is potential, while current is motion. To use the water analogy, water pressure alone can't do work. It takes a stream of moving water to do work. However that water stream won't flow without pressure to overcome resistance of the hose and the work resistance. \n\nEdited for clarity.",
"When going through the human body, one uniquely determines the other. If there is a constant voltage V across the body, it will generate the current I=V/R, and if there is a current I, it will have been caused by the voltage V = IR.\n\nHowever, both of these assume an ideal voltage source and an ideal current source, which are idealizations of real electrical systems. You can have capacitors which can build up a huge voltage but don't have a lot of charge - then discharging it might not hurt you because the voltage begins to drop rapidly, so the amount of actual energy going through you is not large.\n\nLikewise, a current source might rely on low-resistance objects like metal, and stop functioning on high-resistance objects like the human body.\n\nThe thing that kills you is energy, so the real measure of how much damage an electrical system can do to you is how rapidly and for how long it can dump energy into your body.",
'This isn\'t entirely true.\n\nVolts and Amps are tied together. I know this is ELI5 but I\'m going to give a simple equation called Ohms law:\n\n & #x200B;\n\nI=V/R\n\nI is current, which is amps. Amps are to current as pounds are to weight.\n\nV is for volts. \n\nR is for resistance, which as you might guess is the resistance to the flow of electricity. Wood has a really high resistance, metal doesn\'t.\n\nFor a person the resistance is going to be \\*your\\* resistance. Unless your skin are wet or you have a cut (this allows electricity to just skip right through your skin) it\'s pretty much constant.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nSo because resistance is pretty much constant. The only way your current will go up is if voltage goes up. These two things are tied together. More voltage means you will have more current. You won\'t get shocked by 12 volts and end up dying, because you won\'t have enough amps. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nSo the question now is "Why do we even say this." Well, a static shock is at 20,000 volts. For reference the voltage of an electrical outlet is 120 if you are in north america and 240 if you are in Europe. But obviously a static shock doesn\'t kill you but an electrical outlet can. So what\'s going on?\n\n \nWhat \\*\\*actually\\*\\* kills you is the \\*\\*energy\\*\\* that goes into you. Here\'s another equation (I know, I\'m sorry)\n\n & #x200B;\n\nE=V\\*I\\*s\n\nenergy equals voltage times current times seconds. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nWith a static shock you have a really high voltage and remember that\'s a really high current \\*too\\*. But it\'s only for a few microseconds (1 million of those make a seconds) until the energy is used up. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nBut a toddler that sticks their fingers into an electrical outlet would be touching that for several seconds. Millions of times longer. So more energy gets transfer into them and they die. The same with a car battery, that things stores a ton of energy so if you touch it you die. ',
"Current, Amps, is a measure of the motion of electrons. Voltage is a measure of how strongly an electron is attracted to something else without actually moving. The problem with a lot of current is that you have all these electrons moving through your body hitting a bunch of atoms as they move through. There has to be enough voltage to pull the electrons along the path of least resistance but as the electrons travel along they constantly collide with everything along the way and each collision causes heat and all that heat build up and ends up burning whatever it's hitting. If there's only one electron, even if there's a high voltage and it's pulling that electron along really quickly there's not a whole lot of collisions so there's not much heat built up. If there are a lot of electrons there are a lot of collisions which causes heat build up and eventually burns.",
"Let me make an analogy. Wind speed is voltage, how heavy or massive the air is the amperage, and how much work that thickness of air, moving at a certain speed can do is like the wattage. \n\nHigh voltage with low amperage is like very thin air, like Mars atmosphere, blowing very fast. It's moving super fast, but it's so thin you barely feel it. You are aware of it, but it's not blowing you over. \n\nHigh voltage with higher amperage, is like thicker air, or even maybe water, moving at high speed. Now you not only feel it, but it can actually pick you up off your feet and kill you. \n\n\n\nThere are two ways that electricity can damage the body. \n\n1. Burns - Burns require amperage, lots of amperage, but not necessarily high voltage. Think of a 3 volt lithium battery melting a wire shorted across it. It's only 3 volts, but it can put out 20-30 amps, which is enough to heat up almost any material. Electricity moving through the body can [literally cook you](_URL_0_) with enough amps. Electrical burns are the primary reason why a person may need a limb amputated after an electrocution. The damage to the limb is severe enough it could kill the person if not amputated. \n\n2. Interrupting the [autonomic nervous system](_URL_1_) like the hearts rhythm or even the brain. This requires a high enough voltage to penetrate deeply into the body, an electrical path that brings it through the trunk of the body like from the hands to the feet, or in one arm, out the other. It also requires enough amperage to disrupt the bodies nervous system and the hearts natural pace maker. It can cause a dangerous arrhythmia and death. \n\n\nAnother way of thinking about it is the high voltage helps overcome the low electrical conductivity of the human body, and the high amperage plus high resistance = heat, much like a resistive wire in a vaporizer heating up and glowing red when electricity is passed through it. ",
'Electricity is like a garden hose. The water is the amperage, water pressure is the voltage, hose is the conductor and squeezing the hose is resistance. Getting wet is equivalent to getting shocked. ',
"e: revised the analogy.\n\nconsider a cliff, a tall one, with level ground on top and level ground at the bottom.\n\nand let's use water flow as an analogy to electric flow - water coming from the top creates a water-fall falling onto the ground below.\n\nif there's only a little water - and you stand under the cliff - you'll only get wet. but if there's a lot of water flowing and coming down the water-fall - you will get crushed. the amount of water is equivalent to electrical current or amps.\n\nnow imagine the same cliff but much much smaller - smaller in fact than a person. so that when you stand on the bottom the water only goes up to your shoulders or even your knees. that's equivalent to electrical resistance and electrical potential - if the height of the water fall (potential, volts) is lower than your face, even a large flow of water will not hurt you (ignoring for now the fact you are likely to be swept away) - in the same way a large flow of current (amps) that doesn't have enough potential (volts) to overcome your skin resistance (ohms) will not go through your body (ie you will not become part of the circuit).",
"It's not speed that kills you, it's the force!\n\nYou can easily drive 200 kph and stop without dying. It's the force of a sudden stop against a concrete wall that will kill you.\n\nBut while it's technically the force that kills you, it makes a lot of difference if you hit that wall with 200 or 20 kph.",
"P = IV\n\nIt's power that kills you.\n\nCase 1 : 500 Volts, 0.00001 Amps\n\nSure 500 Volts means that the electrons reallllly want to flow and hit you hard but 0.0001 Amps indicate there isn't many electrons in the first place so it won't kill you.\n\nCase 2: 0.0001 Volts and 500 Amps\n\nThere's a shit tonne of electrons ready to flow, but the potential isn't there for them to reallllly want to flow through so even though there's a lot of electrons, they don't hit you that hard and you don't die.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nCase 3: 5000 Volts 40 Amps\n\nP = IV = 5000 V \\* 40 A = 200 000 W = 200 000 J/s\n\nTwo hundred thousand joules per second. Good night. Forever.",
'An ELI5....\n\nIf you look at a dam, there is stagnant water up above and fast moving down below. This serves as a large potential between the two (voltage)\n\nNow, think of the fast moving water down below as the amperage, its the flow of electrons, in this case the flow of water.\n\nNow, when they say its the amps that kill you, its the water flowing at a fast rate. To answer your question it would be the electrons flowing through your heart which will kill you.',
'Even after closely reading the 20 different analogies offered here, my brain still has a hard time understanding electricity. :(\n',
'"yes" So the two are related. \n\n\nCurrent is what kills you. But current happens when voltage is placed across a load. In this case, the load is "you" and that\'s a load that\'s going to be in a very specific range. \n\n\nthis is going to be "about right" but it takes just a few milliamps across your heart to stop it. However, you can take a couple dozen milliamps across your whole body. This is because current takes "every path availalbe" rather than just the path of least resistance. \n\n\nI\'m getting off in the wrong direction. Basicly you\'re a big resistor, to get enough current across your heart, you need enough voltage to do it. :-) Volts is what you need to worry about, amps "take care of themselves". ',
"It's a little bit bullshit. It's very similar to saying that it's not the fall that kills you but the ground. Voltage is potential, same as height. Without a lot of it, you can't drive enough current to be dangerous in a human body. Also the voltage and current relationship is linear. So given some constant resistance through your heart, it's the volts that drive exactly the amps that kill you",
"Two examples... \n\n12V car battery. If we assume the resistance of dry hands to be around 100k ohms, then placing your hands on both terminals causes 0.00012 amps of current to flow between your body. This isn't enough to even feel. The important point here is that the car battery is capable of putting out hundreds of amps, so if you place a wrench across those same terminals it would make a lovely lightning show.\n\nThe second example is a van de graff generator. Large ones can produce voltages of hundreds of thousands of volts. The metal ball on the generator acts like 1 plate of a capacitor, while the ground is the other. The ball is only able to store a very small charge, but at very high voltage. The current only flows long enough to discharge the spark, then stops until the voltage builds up again. When the capacitor just charges it acts like a high frequency wave so the current tends to travel through your skin instead of through your soft tissues which have much lower electrical resistance.\n\nIn summary, it is a combination of voltage, frequency, and the maximum current output of the power source. \n\n",
"Voltage is the name used to measure electrical potential energy. Amperes is used to measure current.\n\nVoltage is akin to a rock on a hill. It's harmless as long as there is no path for it to roll down and exert force on something. The higher the voltage, the bigger the rock.\n\nCurrent is the rock in motion. The rock can only be in motion if something opens a path for it to roll down. Current can only occur if there is something to conduct it from high voltage to low voltage.\n\nIf you are in the path of the current or rock, the rock will exert some force on you. Say you are in the path of the rock but you are running away and the rock grazes you, the rock exerted some force on you but since you did not resist it, it does little damage. But if you stand your ground and face the rock head on, it will exert more force on you and do more damage.\n\nThe human body can conduct a current but parts of our bodies also resist a current. Those parts of your body resist the current and some energy from the current is converted to heat which has no where to go but your body. This causes internal burns which causes death. On the same person, higher voltage will cause more current to be conducted which results in more heat dissipated causing worst burns. Our bodies also use electrical signals to communicate so current can also interfere with that and cause death through say heart or lung failure.\n\nIf you see a sign that says high voltage, don't touch it or go near it. And rubber gloves probably won't protect you if the voltage is high enough. :)",
"If this is ELI5, only the volts matter. High voltage will kill you. Dont touch anything over maybe 12V just to be safe. Don't worry about amps. That's all anyone that's not a technical person needs to know.\n\nSlightly more technically, the amount of current needed to kill a human is tiny. So tiny that virtually any circuit could deliver it. If the voltage isn't high enough though, there will be no current. Once the voltage is over maybe 50V, the circuit can possibly deliver enough current to hurt and/or kill.\n\nBoth of the aboves are pretty vast over simplifications, but that's the gist. Anyone who tells you 'it's the amps' either doesn't know what they are talking about or is an engineer being a sophist. Given the complex subject matter, that's about the best ELI5 you're going to get without resorting to the god awful water hose analogies or even worse, math.",
'Think about volts as the weight of a travelling object and amps as the speed of the object. A slow moving truck will be less likely to kill you than a fast moving bullet, although the truck has more weight.',
'That saying is just plain wrong. It’s the volts *and* the amps *and* the frequency *and* the duration that kill you. Sadly there is no really simple way to understand all the nuances of electricity.\n\nA typical static shock blasts you with a pulse of tens of thousands of volts, carrying about between 1 and 20 amps amps IIRC. 100 milli~~volts~~**amps** is enough to kill you, but that is for a sustained shock.\n\nIf you touch 170 volts DC from a source without current limiting, it will be pretty unpleasant, but you could definitely hold on to it for a bet; if you touch and hold on to 170 volts AC at a certain range of frequencies from a source without current limiting, you will die.\n\nIf you touch 5000V AC at 60Hz from a source without current limiting, you will instantly die. If you touch 5000V AC at 20,000Hz from a source without current limiting, you will get a nasty burn where you touched it, but you will live.\n\nElectricity and biology are bizarre beasts, which is what makes them so interesting! Electricity is an oddball because we can use relatable analogies to represent many of its behaviors (like water pressure and flow rate = voltage and current, one-way check valve=diode, etc.), but there are some behaviors that we can’t really relate to more accessible concepts.\n\nHere’s the most I could distill it down without being misleading or untruthful: *Voltage can push current (amps) through you, which can be lethal if enough current is pushed through you at certain frequencies for a long enough duration.*\n\n\n**TLDR: If it were just the amps that kill you, static shocks would be 100% lethal. It is a combination of the voltage, current, duration and frequency that kill you.**\n\n & nbsp;^(Edit: 100 milliamps, not millivolts)',
'Imagine a serine river flowing by. That’s a lot of water flowing by but you can stick your fingers in it. Now imagine that same amount of water forced into a pipe with a small opening in the side. The spray coming out would cut your finger off. The amount of water going by is the voltage and the pressure at which you can touch it is the amperage.',
'This saying is not true. Neither is more important than the other. With an excess of one and not enough of the other it is no more deadly than the other way around.',
"Think of it as water. There is a tank above your head. It has an opening in the bottom.\n\nIf there is one drop of water in the tank, it doesn't matter how big the opening is.\n\nIf the opening is 1/8 of an inch, it doesn't matter how much water is in the tank.\n\nThere are various combinations that of the two that will be a very bad result.\n\nThe volume of the tank is volts. The size of the opening is amps.",
"As those mentioned here, the saying is misleading and wrong. \n\nThere are three components we need to take into account; voltage, current (amps), and resistance (ohms). There are other ELI5 posts discussing how electricity works and water analogies so I won't get into it.\n\nThe most basic electrical formula (v=ir) restructured gives us current equals voltage divided by resistance. This means if we have a given voltage, 120 V, the current will depend on resistance. For example, electricity flows with less resistance through water. So if a conductive object is wet, it will have less resistance. \n\nSo I accidentally touch a 120 V supply that is capable of supplying 100 amps. If I am dry without broken skin (which I was in this real life scenario), I could have 100,000 ohms. This value varies from person to person. 120/100000 = 1.2mA. Looking at an electrical safety chart says I'd feel a tingling sensation which I did. It wasn't painful. If I was wet, then my body resistance could be 100 ohms. 120/100 = 1.2 A or 1200 mA. I'd be burned with internal organ damage and possibly died if this happened.\n\nSo it is about the current but only in respect to the supply voltage and the body's resistance at that moment.\n\n-----------------------\nA couple things for additional reading.\n\nYour outlet is capable of supplying more than 2 amps. But when you plug in your phone, a digital clock, or a low power device, the outlet is supplying only what the device is asking for. The phone will not receive 20 A while charging or you'd see magic smoke. This means these devices have internal resistences built into the wall wart, the device, and/or the power brick. \n\nSo even though, in my example above, the full service or supply is 120 Volts and 100 Amps, I only received 1.2 mA and Max would have been 1.2 A.\n\nI assumed DC voltage above for simplicity sake but in reality, it was 120 VAC. To get a DC voltage from this, we can calculate the rms value. 120 VAC * SQRT(2) = 170 Vrms. My dry body resistences is also in the range of 70000 ohms. So in reality, the tingling sensation was from 170V/70000 = 2.4 mA",
"Well, my potential for fully grasping this concept is currently at about... zero.\nLet's just say its a voltage-gated situation.",
'From experience. I touched 500v and it stung but clearly still alive. Right after my coworker asked if I was ok, I said this line as I was shaking. Was not pleasant, was not what I meant to do (lapse of attention) but clearly didnt kill me.',
"Think of it like water. Volts at how much water is in a tank. Amps are how much flows. Resistance would be the size of the pipe.\n\nSo an entire ocean couldn't kill you if it only went at a trickle (high voltage, low amperage), but a slug of water going fast enough to punch a hole in you could definitely kill you.\n\nThere might be more in depth, but I think a 5 year old could get this *shrug*",
'The huge semi truck sitting still won’t kill you. The huge semi truck driving into you will kill you.\n\nThe bullet sitting on the table won’t kill you. The bullet shot at you out of a gun will kill you.\n\nVoltage is electricity’s way of just sitting there waiting for something to do. Current is electricity’s way of doing something. They’re obviously related - you can’t have current without voltage, just like how you can’t be run over by a truck without the truck being there in the first place.',
'In my electronics degree, I found it useful to think of electricity like water. Because I can intuitively grasp plumbing more easily than electron flow.\n\nSo voltage (aka "electric potential") is akin to water pressure, or the "head" the water has (aka "gravitational potential"). A raindrop in a cloud has massive gravitational potential, but won\'t hurt if it drops on you.\n\nAmperage (aka "current flow") is akin to the current flow of the water. The more water that flows through a pipe each second, the higher its "current".\n\nOhmage (aka "resistance") is akin to the constriction or width of the pipe. Given the same water pressure, you can get more water per second through a wider pipe.\n\nWattage (aka "power") is how fast the water can do work: the current, times the potential. So a meandering river is low-power compared to the same river flowing over a waterfall (or a water-wheel!), even though they have the same current. You can consider it the "flow speed" of the water.\n\nJoulage (aka "energy", "Kilowatt-hours", "Watt-hours", "Ampere-hours") is the measure of capacity of a power storage, or the amount of work that the water has done. How much water has been lifted how high, and so forth.\n\nVariable resistors and switches are intuitively replaced by faucets and stops; resistors by pipe constrictions; diodes by one-way valves. A broken wire is a capped-off pipe. Capacitors are chambers with a diaphragm separating the two exits. Inductors are coils of soft pipe that swells depending on the pressure in them. Even more complex devices like transistors (a valve controlled by pressure in a third input), relays, voltage regulators, motors and so forth all have reasonably simple and intuitive representations, which illustrate the basic principles of how charge flows in an electric circuit. Only some effects seem impossible to mock up (electromagnets, heating elements, LEDs...).\n\nIt feels like there should be a teaching kit with a set of panels, each panel having a component and a plumbing equivalent; you\'d be able to link the panels together to make both a hydraulic and an electrical circuit.\n\n\\---\n\nYou can\'t, with either electricity or water, say "It\'s the \\[metric name\\] that kills you." A million joules, spread over a long time, won\'t hurt you. A massive current won\'t hurt you, if it\'s a wide, meandering river. A massive flow-speed won\'t hurt you, if it\'s a raindrop. A massive pressure won\'t hurt you, if applied and removed slowly.\n\nBut in combination, they can hurt and kill.\n\nWith a water leak, it\'s the bill that kills you.'],
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'passage_text': 'Physics makes particular use of calculus; all concepts in classical mechanics and electromagnetism are related through calculus. The mass of an object of known density, the moment of inertia of objects, as well as the total energy of an object within a conservative field can be found by the use of calculus. An example of the use of calculus in mechanics is Newton\'s second law of motion: historically stated it expressly uses the term "change of motion" which implies the derivative saying "The" change "of momentum of a body is equal to the resultant force acting on the body and is in the same direction." Commonly expressed today as Force\xa0=\xa0Mass\xa0×\xa0acceleration, it implies differential calculus because acceleration is the time derivative of velocity or second time derivative of trajectory or spatial position. Starting from knowing how an object is accelerating, we use calculus to derive its path.\n',
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'selftext': 'What exactly does calculus do to physics? Say we have a simple equation like Force=mass*acceleration. The second derivative means acceleration. So if you take the second derivative of Force what would it be and what does it mean?',
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'answers': ["Acceleration is the second derivative of displacement with respect to time. The second derivative of force with respect to time isn't all that meaningful. I'm not entirely sure what you're asking, to be honest. Can you clarify a little bit?",
'You get something called jerk. Its how quickly an acceleration changes. For example, An object that goes from an acceleration of 20m/s/s to 30m/s/s over 2 seconds will have a jerk of 5m/s/s/s. ',
' > What exactly does calculus do to physics? \n\nA lot. Without a specific example in mind, it\'s hard to quantify. It\'s like asking what algebra does. The generic answer is if you want to know how some variable changes as you change other variables, that\'s calculus. ie, dx/dt is telling you if you change t a little, how does x change.\n\nTo give one example. Lets say i tell you you have an object under a constant acceleration (like say, a projectile under gravity close to earth). You could integrate twice, and get something like\n\nx(t)=x_0+v_0*t+0.5*a*t^2\n\nGiven an initial position and initial velocity, you can solve for the position of that object at some time t.\n\nYou could also do the reverse- if someone gives you the position as a function of time and you want the acceleration, take two derivatives with respect to time. In the generic example i gave above, if you took the derivative of x(t), you\'ll just get back to a=constant.\n\n > So if you take the second derivative of Force what would it be and what does it mean?\n\nJust because you *can* take a derivative, doesn\'t mean it\'s meaningful.\n\nIn this case, the second derivative of force (with respect to time) would give you something in terms of "jounce". (also called snap)\n\n_URL_0_\n\nIt\'s not really meaningful for the most part. Forces care about accelerations (for the most part).\n\nFor a lot of functions, they\'re either polynomials, or infinitely differentiable.\n\nTo use the constant acceleration example again, the jounce is just 0. But for a function like sin(wt), you can take as many derivatives as you want. But it\'s just a math exercise.\n\n > The second derivative means acceleration.\n\nThe second derivative of *position* (with respect to time) is acceleration.',
'What you are partly getting at is the more philosophical question of whether mathematics is invented or discovered. Calculus was "invented" as a way to describe natural phenomena in physics that people were observing. Those terms like velocity, acceleration, jerk, etc. are all qualities of an object in motion. Calculus just describes these properties that are already there in physics. Calculus doesn\'t "do" anything to physics, it\'s just a way to describe and understand how the natural world works. Which is where the philosophical question comes from: since the natural world obeyed these laws before humans understood them, is the math behind them something we invented or did it already pre-exist?',
"Calculus allows you to two things:\n\n* calculate the instantaneous rate of change, like the velocity of an object the instant it hits the ground\n* calculate the accumulation of a value over time, like the total distance travel by an object with changing velocity\n\n > The second derivative means acceleration.\n\nThe second derivate of *displacement* is acceleration. Physics describes many things that are not displacement.\n\n > So if you take the second derivative of Force what would it be and what does it mean?\n\nI am not aware of any special names the derivatives of force have. The first derivative of force would describe how force's rate of change varied over time, and would be measured newtons per second (N/s), or kg m/s^(3). The second derivative would be the change in the rate of change, and the unit would be N/s^2 or kg m/s^(4).\n\nThis is true for the derivatives of any measurement. The first is rate of change, the second is the rate of change of the rate of change. The ones for displacement just happen to have special names."],
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '54650904',
'title': 'Infant food safety',
'section': 'Section::::Infant Formula.:Safe infant formula preparation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 39,
'end_character': 393,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'If soap and water are not available, use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer with at least 60% alcohol (check the product label to be sure). Hand sanitizer with at least 60% alcohol is effective in killing Cronobacter germs. But use soap and water as soon as possible afterward because hand sanitizer does not kill all types of germs and may not work as well if hands are visibly greasy or dirty.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '428502',
'title': 'Hand washing',
'section': 'Section::::Substances used.:Hand antiseptics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 552,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Hand sanitizers containing a minimum of 60 to 95% alcohol are efficient germ killers. Alcohol rub sanitizers kill bacteria, multi-drug resistant bacteria (MRSA and VRE), tuberculosis, and some viruses (including HIV, herpes, RSV, rhinovirus, vaccinia, influenza, and hepatitis) and fungi. Alcohol rub sanitizers containing 70% alcohol kill 99.97% (3.5 log reduction, similar to 35 decibel reduction) of the bacteria on hands 30 seconds after application and 99.99% to 99.999% (4 to 5 log reduction) of the bacteria on hands 1 minute after application.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11469677',
'title': 'Intensive animal farming',
'section': 'Section::::Controversies and criticisms.:Human health impact.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 97,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 97,
'end_character': 659,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A 2011 nationwide study reported nearly half of the meat and poultry sold in U.S. grocery stores — 47 percent — was contaminated with S. aureus, and more than half of those bacteria — 52 percent — were resistant to at least three classes of antibiotics. Although Staph should be killed with proper cooking, it may still pose a risk to consumers through improper food handling and cross-contamination in the kitchen. The senior author of the study said, "The fact that drug-resistant S. aureus was so prevalent, and likely came from the food animals themselves, is troubling, and demands attention to how antibiotics are used in food-animal production today."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3829190',
'title': 'Hand sanitizer',
'section': 'Section::::Safety.:Non-alcohol based.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 30,
'end_character': 575,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'On April 30, 2015, the FDA announced that they were requesting more scientific data based on the safety of hand sanitizer. Emerging science also suggests that for at least some health care antiseptic active ingredients, systemic exposure (full body exposure as shown by detection of antiseptic ingredients in the blood or urine) is higher than previously thought, and existing data raise potential concerns about the effects of repeated daily human exposure to some antiseptic active ingredients. This would include hand antiseptic products containing alcohol and triclosan.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '620957',
'title': 'Water dispenser',
'section': 'Section::::Purification.:Sanitization & disinfection.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 47,
'end_character': 296,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The main difference between a sanitizer and a disinfectant is that at a specific use dilution, the disinfectant must have a higher kill capability for pathogenic bacteria than that of a sanitizer. If these micro-organisms are not destroyed, the bottled water being produced may be contaminated. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '476265',
'title': 'Microcystin',
'section': 'Section::::Human health effects upon exposure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 400,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'There appears to be inadequate information to assess the carcinogenic potential of microcystins by applying EPA Guidelines for Carcinogen Risk Assessment. A few studies suggest a relationship may exist between liver and colorectral cancers and the occurrence of cyanobacteria in drinking water in China. Evidence is, however, limited due to limited ability to accurately assess and measure exposure.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19753612',
'title': 'Black silicon',
'section': 'Section::::Function.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
'end_character': 366,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The killing rate was 450,000 bacteria per square centimetre per minute over the first three hours of exposure or 810 times the minimum dose needed to infect a person with "S. aureus", and 77,400 times that of "P. aeruginosa". Although, it was later proven that the quantification protocol of Ivanova\'s team was not suitable for these kind of antibacterial surfaces.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "What will happen to the 0.1% of the germs that didn't get killed by the hand sanitizer?",
'selftext': "Do the 0.1% of the germs get sick? Do they function properly like nothing happened? I honestly don't know.",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Those that survive will often pass on this genetic advantage to their offspring, which will then be slightly more resistant and so on...This is natural selection and evolution in action. Bacteria and viruses have already evolved/mutated in response to our modern medical treatments, which has created new classes of drug resistant pathogens (e.g. MRSA, VRSA, HIV, etc..). Alcohol kills germs differently than medications do, however the same basic idea applies It's actually becoming a bit of an issue in places like hospitals, which are in a constant arms race against newly forming, drug resistant infectious agents. Because we can never truly be 100% perfect at eliminating all germs at all times, a few will slip through the cracks and become ever more resilient. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'aarlw2',
'query': "what will happen to the 0.1% of the germs that didn't get killed by the hand sanitizer?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '22053022',
'title': 'Adiposopathy',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.:Anatomy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 364,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'However, other subcutaneous fat tissues also might contribute to metabolic disease, if the fat cells become too enlarged and "sick." Admittedly, subcutaneous fat cells typically are larger, and capable of storing more fat when needed. However, subcutaneous fat tissue represents the largest proportion of fat tissue in the body, and is the major source of leptin.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3757348',
'title': 'GLUT4',
'section': 'Section::::Tissue distribution.:Adipose tissue.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 261,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Adipose tissue, commonly known as fat,\xa0is a depository for energy in order to conserve metabolic homeostasis. As the body takes in energy in the form of glucose, some is expended, and the rest is stored as glycogen primarily in the liver, muscle cells, or fat.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '419094',
'title': 'Adipose tissue',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 1054,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In biology, adipose tissue, body fat, or simply fat is a loose connective tissue composed mostly of adipocytes. In addition to adipocytes, adipose tissue contains the stromal vascular fraction (SVF) of cells including preadipocytes, fibroblasts, vascular endothelial cells and a variety of immune cells such as adipose tissue macrophages. Adipose tissue is derived from preadipocytes. Its main role is to store energy in the form of lipids, although it also cushions and insulates the body. Far from being hormonally inert, adipose tissue has, in recent years, been recognized as a major endocrine organ, as it produces hormones such as leptin, estrogen, resistin, and cytokine (especially TNFα). The two types of adipose tissue are white adipose tissue (WAT), which stores energy, and brown adipose tissue (BAT), which generates body heat. The formation of adipose tissue appears to be controlled in part by the adipose gene. Adipose tissue\xa0– more specifically brown adipose tissue\xa0– was first identified by the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gessner in 1551.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1065865',
'title': 'Subcutaneous tissue',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 642,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Subcutaneous fat is the layer of subcutaneous tissue that is most widely distributed. It is composed of adipocytes, which are grouped together in lobules separated by connective tissue. The number of adipocytes varies among different areas of the body, while their size varies according to the body's nutritional state. It acts as padding and as an energy reserve, as well as providing some minor thermoregulation via insulation. Subcutaneous fat is found just beneath the skin, as opposed to visceral fat, which is found in the peritoneal cavity, and can be measured using body fat calipers to give a rough estimate of total body adiposity.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5971730',
'title': 'Body fat redistribution syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 319,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The most common manifestations of body fat redistribution are accumulations of fat in the central body in the form of a fat pad on the back of the neck and an accumulation of visceral fat in the abdomen or belly. This fat accumulation is accompanied by a loss of subcutaneous fat in the face, arms, legs, and buttocks.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '59881479',
'title': 'Fat body',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 834,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Fat body ("Corpus adiposum") is a loosely organized tissue or organ in some arthropods, composed primarily of storage cells and distributed throughout the animal\'s body. Its main functions are nutrient storage and conversion (intermediary metabolism), for which it is commonly compared to a combination of adipose tissue and liver in humans. However, it may also serve a variety of other roles, such as regulation of metabolism through hormone synthesis, systemic immunity, vitellogenesis, and housing of microbial symbionts. The fat body is of mesodermal origin and is normally composed of a network of thin sheets, ribbons or small nodules suspended in hemocoel by connective tissue and tracheae, so that most of its cells are in direct contact with hemolymph. It is closely associated with epidermis, digestive organs and ovaries.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27978',
'title': 'Skin',
'section': 'Section::::Structure in humans and other mammals.:Subcutaneous tissue.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 33,
'end_character': 432,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The subcutaneous tissue (also hypodermis) is not part of the skin, and lies below the dermis. Its purpose is to attach the skin to underlying bone and muscle as well as supplying it with blood vessels and nerves. It consists of loose connective tissue and elastin. The main cell types are fibroblasts, macrophages and adipocytes (the subcutaneous tissue contains 50% of body fat). Fat serves as padding and insulation for the body.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does fat in the body create more flesh?',
'selftext': 'And when you lose weight how does the extra flesh vanish?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['You have dedicate fat cells that are specialized in storing energy as fat. To if you eat more food that you need you can stor it as fat in those cells.\n\nIf you eat food with less calories then you need you start to remove the fat from the cells and use it for energy. When you use fat for energy you convert fat+oxygen- > water +carbon dioxide. \n\nThe carbon dioxide is exhaled from you lungs to the air. The water is used or excreted like other water you drink.\n\nSo you convert fat stored in the body to thin that you excrete so you lose weight.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8mstu1',
'query': 'how does fat in the body create more flesh?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '26565579',
'title': 'Neuroscience of free will',
'section': 'Section::::Notable experiments.:Libet experiment.:Criticisms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 562,
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'passage_text': 'In a variation of this task, Haggard and Eimer asked subjects to decide not only when to move their hands, but also to decide "which hand to move". In this case, the felt intention correlated much more closely with the "lateralized readiness potential" (LRP), an event-related potential (ERP) component that measures the difference between left and right hemisphere brain activity. Haggard and Eimer argue that the feeling of conscious will must therefore follow the decision of which hand to move, since the LRP reflects the decision to lift a particular hand.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26565579',
'title': 'Neuroscience of free will',
'section': 'Section::::Notable experiments.:Libet experiment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 533,
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'passage_text': 'Libet found that the "unconscious" brain activity leading up to the "conscious" decision by the subject to flick their wrist began approximately half a second "before" the subject consciously felt that they had decided to move. Libet\'s findings suggest that decisions made by a subject are first being made on a subconscious level and only afterward being translated into a "conscious decision", and that the subject\'s belief that it occurred at the behest of their will was only due to their retrospective perspective on the event.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26565579',
'title': 'Neuroscience of free will',
'section': 'Section::::Other related phenomena.:Manipulating the perceived intention to move.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 91,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 91,
'end_character': 910,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Various studies indicate that the perceived intention to move (have moved) can be manipulated. Studies have focused on the pre-supplementary motor area (pre-SMA) of the brain, in which readiness potential indicating the beginning of a movement genesis has been recorded by EEG. In one study, directly stimulating the pre-SMA caused volunteers to report a feeling of intention, and sufficient stimulation of that same area caused physical movement. In a similar study, it was found that people with no visual awareness of their body can have their limbs be made to move without having any awareness of this movement, by stimulating premotor brain regions. When their parietal cortices were stimulated, they reported an urge (intention) to move a specific limb (that they wanted to do so). Furthermore, stronger stimulation of the parietal cortex resulted in the illusion of having moved without having done so.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '263801',
'title': 'Alien hand syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.:Frontal lobe.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 43,
'end_character': 984,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Unilateral injury to the medial aspect of the brain\'s frontal lobe can trigger reaching, grasping and other purposeful movements in the contralateral hand. With anteromedial frontal lobe injuries, these movements are often exploratory reaching movements in which external objects are frequently grasped and utilized functionally, without the simultaneous perception on the part of the patient that they are "in control" of these movements. Once an object has been acquired and is maintained in the grasp of this "frontal variant" form of alien hand, the patient often has difficulty with voluntarily releasing the object from grasp and can sometimes be seen to be peeling the fingers of the hand back off the grasped object using the opposite controlled hand to enable the release of the grasped object (also referred to as tonic grasping or the "instinctive grasp reaction"). Some (for example, the neurologist Derek Denny-Brown) have referred to this behavior as "magnetic apraxia"\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47921',
'title': 'Free will',
'section': 'Section::::Scientific approaches.:Neuroscience and neurophilosophy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 149,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 149,
'end_character': 886,
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'passage_text': 'These studies of the timing between actions and the conscious decision bear upon the role of the brain in understanding free will. A subject\'s declaration of intention to move a finger appears "after" the brain has begun to implement the action, suggesting to some that unconsciously the brain has made the decision "before" the conscious mental act to do so. Some believe the implication is that free will was not involved in the decision and is an illusion. The first of these experiments reported the brain registered activity related to the move about 0.2 s before movement onset. However, these authors also found that awareness of action was "anticipatory" to activity in the muscle underlying the movement; the entire process resulting in action involves more steps than just the "onset" of brain activity. The bearing of these results upon notions of free will appears complex.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13140640',
'title': 'Eye–hand coordination',
'section': 'Section::::Behavior and kinematics.:Hand-guided saccades.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 675,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Humans have demonstrated the ability to aim eye movement toward the hand without vision, using the sense of proprioception, with only minor errors related to internal knowledge of limb position. It has been shown the proprioception of limbs, in both active and passive movement, result in eye saccade overshoots when the hands are being used to guide eye movement. These overshoots result from the control of eye saccades rather than previous movement of the hands in experiments. This implies that limb-based proprioception is capable of being transformed into ocular motor coordinates to guide eye saccades, which allows for the guidance of the saccades by hands and feet.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26565579',
'title': 'Neuroscience of free will',
'section': 'Section::::Notable experiments.:Libet experiment.:Criticisms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
'end_character': 641,
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'passage_text': 'In a second experiment, researchers asked volunteers to decide on the spot whether to use left hand or right to tap the key while monitoring their brain signals, and they found no correlation among the signals and the chosen hand. This criticism has itself been criticized by free-will researcher Patrick Haggard, who mentions literature that distinguishes two different circuits in the brain that lead to action: a "stimulus-response" circuit and a "voluntary" circuit. According to Haggard, researchers applying external stimuli may not be testing the proposed voluntary circuit, nor Libet\'s hypothesis about internally triggered actions.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What happens in the brain when you decide to move a hand or leg?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It is a VERY long answer in reality, but I'll try to make it short. Your brain sends signals from the zones that are responsible for initiating movement to the muscles needed. It generates this signal based on various information (sight, balance, etc).\n\n\nWhile the muscles contract and perform said movement, your cerebellum, eyes, and inner ear check for any error and correct it by sending appropriate signals to the brain (that then convey the signal to the muscles to correct any error).",
'Somewhat related, but there’s a rather prominent theory that you don’t actually “decide” to move your hand or leg, your hand or leg moves for whatever reason (you get an itch etc) and your brain creates this narrative of choice in order to explain why it happened. Many studies have found that conscious experience of events happen after the sensorimotor processing.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'co7azr',
'query': 'what happens in the brain when you decide to move a hand or leg?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '178769',
'title': 'Intravenous therapy',
'section': 'Section::::Adverse effects.:Embolism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 93,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 93,
'end_character': 438,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'One reason veins are preferred over arteries for intravascular administration is because the flow will pass through the lungs before passing through the body. Air bubbles can leave the blood through the lungs. A patient with a right-to-left shunt is vulnerable to embolism from smaller amounts of air. Fatality by air embolism is rare, although this may be in part because it is so difficult to determine when this is the cause of death.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3135',
'title': 'Arteriovenous malformation',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
'end_character': 497,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Arteries and veins are part of the human cardiovascular system. Arteries carry blood away from the heart to the lungs or the rest of the body, where the blood passes through capillaries, and veins return the blood to the heart. An AVM interferes with this process by forming a direct connection of the arteries and veins. AVMs can cause intense pain and lead to serious medical problems. Although AVMs are often associated with the brain and spinal cord, they can develop in any part of the body.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2344134',
'title': 'Arteriovenous fistula',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 559,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Intentionally created (for example, Cimino fistula as vascular access for hemodialysis). Blood must be aspirated from the body of the patient, and since arteries are not easy to reach compared to the veins, blood may be aspirated from veins. The problem is that the walls of the veins are thin compared to those of the arteries. The AV fistula is the solution for this problem because, after 4-6 weeks, the walls of the veins become thicker due to the high arterial pressure. Thus, this vein can now tolerate needles during hemodialysis sessions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '903582',
'title': 'Vascular smooth muscle',
'section': 'Section::::Function.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 285,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Arteries have a great deal more smooth muscle within their walls than veins, thus their greater wall thickness. This is because they have to carry pumped blood away from the heart to all the organs and tissues that need the oxygenated blood. The endothelial lining of each is similar.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10968353',
'title': 'Emergency bleeding control',
'section': 'Section::::External wound management.:Tourniquet.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 329,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Improvised tourniquets, in addition to creating potential problems for the ongoing medical management of the patient, usually fail to achieve force enough to adequately compress the arteries of the limb. As a result, they not only fail to stop arterial bleeding, but may actually increase bleeding by impairing venous bloodflow.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3135',
'title': 'Arteriovenous malformation',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 30,
'end_character': 503,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Normally, the arteries in the vascular system carry oxygen-rich blood, except in the case of the pulmonary artery. Structurally, arteries divide and sub-divide repeatedly, eventually forming a sponge-like capillary bed. Blood moves through the capillaries, giving up oxygen and taking up waste products, including , from the surrounding cells. Capillaries in turn successively join together to form veins that carry blood away. The heart acts to pump blood through arteries and uptake the venous blood.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12646543',
'title': 'Long-term complications of standing',
'section': 'Section::::Complications.:Varicose veins.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 605,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'When standing, gravity pulls the blood downwards to the lower part of the body. Body mechanisms, such as vasoconstriction and valves of the veins, assist in pumping blood upwards. As blood is pumped through the body, the valves within the veins prevent the blood from flowing backwards. After extensive, prolonged standing, these valves can become weak and eventually fail. When this happens, blood is no longer being prevented from flowing backward. Gravity will pull the blood back into an individuals legs, ankles and feet. This forces the veins to expand or "balloon" to accommodate this extra blood.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How is it that your veins/arteries don't simply cut off whenever you sit or compress the body in normal circumstances?",
'selftext': "When you sit, what makes it so that our veins/arteries don't just immediately close under the pressure of your weight? Like a hose being cut off by someone standing on it. I understand that there is blood pressure, but is the heart really that powerful to create pressure that can suspend the veins/arteries enough for blood to pass?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['For the most part veins and arteries are not on the surface so simply sitting won\'t compress them enough to "cut off" flow, but it can be significant enough to reduce flow to the point your leg "goes to sleep" , also why you should not have legs crossed when taking your blood pressure, etc. \n\nAlso the circulatory system is remarkably complex and closing one pathway often is compensated for by blood rerouting through alternate, less restricted, paths.',
"Many major vessels are fairly well protected by muscles and fat. Also vessel walls are fairly tough and can maintain their shape. Blood pressure does play a role in keeping the lumen (hollow part inside vessel) open, but I think for your question the better answer is just the veins and arteries being pretty well protected. \n\nIf you do put enough pressure on a vessel it will cut off flow (i.e. tourniquet) but you won't have immediate tissue damage. We use pneumatic tourniquets in the O.R. when doing some surgeries on extremities like hands, feet, or knees. But the maximum time they can stay inflated is 1-1.5 hours."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'bdmzgc',
'query': "how is it that your veins/arteries don't simply cut off whenever you sit or compress the body in normal circumstances?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2268500',
'title': 'Tehuantepecer',
'section': 'Section::::Ocean impact.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 670,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Tehuantepecers can be felt up to out to sea in the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean. Sustained winds at sea have been recorded as high as , with gusts as high as , with a wind event in February 1974 which sandblasted the ship which took the observation. These winds cause waves which then propagate as swell and are sometimes observed away (e.g., in the Galapagos Islands). Its effects can appear similar to a tropical cyclone, though the sky is usually clear. The surface wind can also change local ocean currents during an event. These strong winds upwell sub-surface waters, cooling the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean by as much as 14\xa0°F (9\xa0°C), and may last 4–7\xa0days.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13710550',
'title': 'Fabiola León-Velarde',
'section': 'Section::::Bibliography.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 233,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Gamboa, A., F. León-Velarde, M. Rivera-Ch, M. Vargas, J-A. Palacios and C. Monge C. Ventilatory and cardiovascular responses to hypoxia in Andean natives living at sea level. [High Alt. Med. & Biol]. 2(3): 341-349, 2001.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2569645',
'title': 'Permissive hypercapnia',
'section': 'Section::::Symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 390,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Symptoms of early hypercapnia (i.e. where PaCO is elevated but not extremely so) include flushed skin, full pulse, extrasystoles, muscle twitches, hand flaps, and possibly a raised blood pressure. In severe hypercapnia (generally PaCO greater than 10 kPa or 75 mmHg), symptomatology progresses to disorientation, panic, hyperventilation, convulsions, unconsciousness, and eventually death.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '75654',
'title': 'Hyperthermia',
'section': 'Section::::Classification.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 258,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The normal human body temperature can be as high as in the late afternoon. Hyperthermia requires an elevation from the temperature that would otherwise be expected. Such elevations range from mild to extreme; body temperatures above can be life-threatening.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9667378',
'title': 'Chacala',
'section': 'Section::::Geography.:Climate.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 332,
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'passage_text': "Chacala (and all of Nayarit) lies south of the Tropic of Cancer, thus it is located in the true Tropics, and its climate is Tropical – hot and humid. The actual classification is 'warm subhumid tropical'. Nayarit is characterized by its high rainfall – the fifth highest in the country, averaging 1000-1500mm (40-60\xa0in.) per annum.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18842168',
'title': 'Semen',
'section': 'Section::::Physiology.:Human semen.:Composition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 394,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A 1992 World Health Organization report described normal human semen as having a volume of 2 ml or greater, pH of 7.2 to 8.0, sperm concentration of 20×10 spermatozoa/ml or more, sperm count of 40×10 spermatozoa per ejaculate or more, and motility of 50% or more with forward progression (categories a and b) of 25% or more with rapid progression (category a) within 60 minutes of ejaculation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13710550',
'title': 'Fabiola León-Velarde',
'section': 'Section::::Bibliography.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 253,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Gamboa A, León-Velarde F, Rivera-Ch M, Palacios J-A, Pragnell T.R, O’Connor D. and Robbins P.A. Acute and sustained ventilatory responses to hypoxia in high altitude natives living at sea level. [J. Applied Physiol.] 94(3): 1255-1262, 2003.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'is there a highest temputare the human body can feel?',
'selftext': "can the human body tell the difference between a 1000 degree flame and a 1001 degree flame, and than a 1002 degree flame? Also is there a max temperature in total where after that you won't feel any more pain no matter how hot the fire is?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Well first, I don't think someone would notice the slight change of temperature. It's like feeling the difference between 73 degrees and 74 degrees but hotter. Also the heat would start to burn your skin and damage nerves which would tell your brain that it is hot. So the highest temperature someone could feel is the temperature is when their nerves are damaged enough to where they can't feel anything.",
"It is easier to think about this in percentages, going from 1000 to 1001 is only a change of 0.1% while going from 10 to 11 is a change of 10% (Assuming absolute quantities). This is just [Weber's Law](_URL_0_). I don't know what the difference threshold is for noticing a change in temperature, but it is most likely much greater than 0.1% so you would not feel a difference between a single degree at such high temperature. ",
'Seeing as how we all are roughly 70% water, water boils at 212F, coincidently skin melts at 212F, I would say that once you get to just about there you are going to stop feeling it. In the flip side nerve ending spaetzle is delicious. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6c7tfi',
'query': 'is there a highest temputare the human body can feel?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1716550',
'title': 'Physical paradox',
'section': 'Section::::Paradoxes relating to false assumptions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 425,
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'passage_text': "Mpemba paradox is that under certain conditions, hot water will freeze faster than cold water even though it must pass through the same temperature as the cold water during the freezing process. This is a seeming violation of Newton's law of cooling but in reality it is due to non-linear effects that influence the freezing process. The assumption that only the temperature of the water will affect freezing is not correct.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '146879',
'title': 'Hypothermia',
'section': 'Section::::Management.:Fluids.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 64,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 64,
'end_character': 308,
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'passage_text': 'For people who are alert and able to swallow, drinking warm sweetened liquids can help raise the temperature. Many recommend alcohol and caffeinated drinks be avoided. As most people are moderately dehydrated due to cold-induced diuresis, warmed intravenous fluids to a temperature of are often recommended.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '407299',
'title': 'Hard water',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 526,
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'passage_text': "Hard drinking water may have moderate health benefits, but can pose critical problems in industrial settings, where water hardness is monitored to avoid costly breakdowns in boilers, cooling towers, and other equipment that handles water. In domestic settings, hard water is often indicated by a lack of foam formation when soap is agitated in water, and by the formation of limescale in kettles and water heaters. Wherever water hardness is a concern, water softening is commonly used to reduce hard water's adverse effects.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5594274',
'title': 'Slush (beverage)',
'section': 'Section::::Temperature.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 376,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Chipped ice in water is the standard for the freezing point of water, 0\xa0°C (32\xa0°F). Ice made from water can be 0\xa0°C, or a much lower temperature. The agitation of the machines is partially to keep the water from freezing solid. Some of the drinks have additives to make the freezing temperature of the mix lower, so that the drink can be much colder than a water slush drink.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '440959',
'title': 'Mpemba effect',
'section': 'Section::::Recent views.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
'end_character': 750,
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'passage_text': 'A reviewer for "Physics World" writes, "Even if the Mpemba effect is real — if hot water can sometimes freeze more quickly than cold — it is not clear whether the explanation would be trivial or illuminating." He pointed out that investigations of the phenomenon need to control a large number of initial parameters (including type and initial temperature of the water, dissolved gas and other impurities, and size, shape and material of the container, and temperature of the refrigerator) and need to settle on a particular method of establishing the time of freezing, all of which might affect the presence or absence of the Mpemba effect. The required vast multidimensional array of experiments might explain why the effect is not yet understood.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2285947',
'title': 'Deep ocean water',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 529,
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'passage_text': 'The simplest use of cold water is for air conditioning: using the cold water itself to cool air saves the energy that would be used by the compressors for traditional refrigeration. Another use could be to replace expensive desalination plants. When cold water passes through a pipe surrounded by humid air, condensation results. The condensate is pure water, suitable for humans to drink or for crop irrigation. Via a technology called Ocean thermal energy conversion, the temperature difference can be turned into electricity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38946253',
'title': 'Tankless water heating',
'section': 'Section::::Tankless disadvantages.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 53,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 53,
'end_character': 293,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- "Achieving cooler temperatures:" Tankless water heaters often have minimum flow requirements before the heater is activated, and this can result in a gap between the cold water temperature, and the coolest warm water temperature that can be achieved with a hot and cold water mix.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is it so much more difficult to chug cold water vs room temperature?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Ik for me the cold water can make my teeth hurt and kinda gives my mouth and throat a sort of "brain freeze".',
'Because it will make your mouth and throat cold and the human body doesn’t like that?'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'e5cc5m',
'query': 'why is it so much more difficult to chug cold water vs room temperature?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '414192',
'title': 'Ovarian cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Prognosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 196,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 196,
'end_character': 228,
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'passage_text': 'Ovarian cancer usually has a relatively poor prognosis. It is disproportionately deadly because it lacks any clear early detection or screening test, meaning most cases are not diagnosed until they have reached advanced stages.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7885695',
'title': 'Heart cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Primary.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 636,
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'passage_text': 'Most heart tumors begin with myxomas, fibromas, rhabdomyomas, and hamartomas, although malignant sarcomas (such as angiosarcoma or cardiac sarcoma) have been known to occur. In a study of 12,487 autopsies performed in Hong Kong seven cardiac tumors were found, most of which were benign. According to Mayo Clinic: "At Mayo Clinic, on average only one case of heart cancer is seen each year." In a study conducted in the Hospital of the Medical University of Vienna 113 primary cardiac tumour cases were identified in a time period of 15 years with 11 being malignant. The mean survival in the latter group of patients was found to be .\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7666050',
'title': 'Primary tumors of the heart',
'section': 'Section::::Prognosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 358,
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'passage_text': 'The vast majority of the tumors of the heart have a benign course and are not directly fatal. However, even the benign tumors of the heart can be lethal due to either direct extension into the electrical conduction system of the heart (causing complete heart block or a fatal dysrhythmia), or due to emboli from the tumor mass that may have lethal sequelae.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7666050',
'title': 'Primary tumors of the heart',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Benign.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'The most common primary tumor of the heart is the myxoma. In surgical series, the myxoma makes up as much as 77% of all primary tumors of the heart. Less common tumors of the heart include lipoma and cystic tumor of the atrioventricular nodal region.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7666050',
'title': 'Primary tumors of the heart',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Primary tumors of the heart are extremely rare tumors that arise from the normal tissues that make up the heart. This is in contrast to secondary tumors of the heart, which are typically either metastatic from another part of the body, or infiltrate the heart via direct extension from the surrounding tissues.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '53368676',
'title': 'Gynecologic cancer disparities in the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Ovarian cancer disparities.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 687,
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'passage_text': 'While ovarian cancer accounts for only 3% of cancers for women in the U.S., it is the fifth leading cause of cancer-related deaths for this population. This cancer is known as the "silent killer" and is disproportionately lethal because of lack of effective screening and early detection strategies resulting from the absence of disease-specific symptoms. If diagnosed in an early stage (stage I) while the tumor is confined to the ovaries, ovarian cancer is highly treatable with a five-year survival rate over 90%. However the majority of ovarian cancer patients are diagnosed with stage III and stage IV cancer, which are associated with poor prognosis, even with aggressive therapy.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16658662',
'title': 'Hypopharyngeal cancer',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'end_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'This type of cancer is rare. Only about 2,500 cases are seen in the US each year. Because of this, Hypopharyngeal Cancer is difficult to catch in its earliest stages and has one of the highest mortality rates of any head and neck cancer.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is heart cancer so rare?',
'selftext': "The heart's an organ just like the brain, right?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': [' > Right?\n\nWrong, the heart is a muscle. (Technically a "muscular organ")\n\nThat isn\'t why there\'s no heart cancer though. It\'s because cancer is the unregulated and out of control division of cells that turns into a tumor. But heart cells don\'t divide, so there\'s no process to go haywire.',
"Cancer is the abnormal and unstoppable cell growing. Some types of cancer are very common (like prostate cancer) because the cells of that organ are growing continuously.\nThe heart stop growing at a very young age compared to other organs, and the rarer the cells are regenerate, the rarer the type of cancer is. \n\nThat's because heart cancer is such a rare type of cancer. ",
"Cancer is dependent upon cells that actually reproduce. \n\nThe more cells reproduce and replicate the more chances that antigen and genetic changes take place that actually produce cancer. Cancer isn't really a disease but a spectrum of diseases and changes that we call cancer. \n\nThe heart cells do not reproduce so cancer is rare. ",
'This is because muscle cells (also called muscle fibers) don\'t divide, and cancer is most common in cells that divide a lot. Dividing cells are primed for cancer because:\n1) a lot of the machinery needed to divide rapidly is already present in the cell so not a lot extra is needed to make it grow uncontrollably into a tumor/cancer\n2) the more a cell divides the more chances it has to make errors. DNA replication isn\'t perfect, and over time these errors can accumulate into dangerous mutations (this is also why cancer is more common in the elderly)\nThis is why we see a lot of cancer in tissues with a high "cellular turnover" rate - skin, liver, colon, etc. Cells that never divide (muscle fibers, neurons) almost never get cancer. Brain cancer is usually caused by a special type of brain cell that can divide (but not signal) call neuroglia, which forms the cancerous "glioma."\nBonus biology fact - because muscle cells fibers don\'t divide, you have the same number your whole life. Arnold Schwarzenegger has the same number of muscle fibers now as he did as a baby, they\'re just more packed with the good stuff.\nSource - biochemistry major, medical researcher.',
'There is a very rare endocrine tumor predisposition syndrome called the Carney Complex which is characterized by the development of cardiac tumors called cardiac myxomas. Patients can also develop tumors in the various endocrine glands (thyroid, testis, pituitary, etc.). Heart tumors are rare for the reasons others have mentioned, but they are not entirely non-existent. \n\nSource: I got my PhD studying aspects of the Carney Complex.',
"The heart is a muscle, constantly contracting 24/7. It is extremely difficult for cancer cells (or, anything for that matter) to take up permanent residency in a space where there is zero fuel to spare (because it's always being sucked up by the muscle cells of the heart in order to continue to beat). ",
'Hear cancer is rare partly because heart cells rarely divide. Because of that the chance for a cancer to develop is [very small](_URL_0_).',
"From what I remember, In order for a person to get cancer, a cell has to reproduce with a mutation that is considered cancerous. Such mutation would cause that particular cell to keep producing without dying and creating more cancerous cells.\n\n\nHowever, tissues like our muscles don't reproduce, die and repeat, they continue to maintain, grow and shrink as they are needed. The Heart is an organ made mostly of muscle tissue, so it doesn't regenerate any of it's cells. In the event that it does, the new cell may or may not carry a mutation to make it cancerous.\n\n\nI would like to point out that not all cancerous cells are harmful, some are benign. Meaning the cancer cell exists but it's not gonna do any arm. Some are internal, some are external and people are covered in these (think of moles on the skin).\n\n\nHowever, some can turn malignant, the opposite of benign, that's the type you should worry about and your doctor will tell you more about that.",
'Others have given you the answer. I just wanted to mention that there was a Reddit member with heart cancer that did a great AMA about a year or so ago. ',
"A lot of people with super long answers. But here is my short answer. Heart cells don't undergo mitosis as much as other cells in the body. The more your cells divide the more chances there are of mutations that occur which eventually can lead to cancer cells. ",
"People's answers here have been good, but I just came to say that the lack of heart cell proliferation has a flip side in that damage to the heart is not easily repaired. This is why heart attacks can be so detrimental, any cells that die are not likely to be replaced.",
'1. Cancer is a set of diseases where cell division goes wrong and the cells divide uncontrollably. \n2. Your body is made up of many different cell types which have different rates of division.\n3. Skin cells are replaced every 2 weeks, red blood cells every 4 weeks, muscle cells every 16 years.\n4. The heart is made of muscle.\n5. Heart cells therefore divide *very* slowly, making division errors uncommon and heart cancer rare.',
"The heart doesnt change its number of cells much (no hyerplasia) or change cells much (metaplasia). Places like your lungs amd GI change a lot because of their environment and purpose making them susceptible. Like skeletal muscles though, the heart can become larger by the cells becoming larger (hypertrophy) from working harder such as in people with hypertension.\n\nThe grinch's heart didnt grow because of xmas, it grew because of severe hypertension."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '5pb8p0',
'query': 'why is heart cancer so rare?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '54637386',
'title': 'Physiology of underwater diving',
'section': 'Section::::Exposure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'Cold shock response is the physiological response of organisms to sudden cold, especially cold water, and is a common cause of death from immersion in very cold water, such as by falling through thin ice. The immediate shock of the cold causes involuntary inhalation, which if underwater can result in drowning. The cold water can also cause heart attack due to vasoconstriction; the heart has to work harder to pump the same volume of blood throughout the body, and for people with heart disease, this additional workload can cause the heart to go into arrest. A person who survives the initial minute of trauma after falling into icy water can survive for at least thirty minutes provided they don\'t drown. However, the ability to perform useful work like staying afloat declines substantially after ten minutes as the body protectively cuts off blood flow to "non-essential" muscles.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3543130',
'title': 'Underwater diving',
'section': 'Section::::Physiological constraints on diving.:Exposure.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Cold shock response is the physiological response of organisms to sudden cold, especially cold water, and is a common cause of death from immersion in very cold water, such as by falling through thin ice. The immediate shock of the cold causes involuntary inhalation, which if underwater can result in drowning. The cold water can also cause heart attack due to vasoconstriction; the heart has to work harder to pump the same volume of blood throughout the body, and for people with heart disease, this additional workload can cause the heart to go into arrest. A person who survives the initial minute after falling into cold water can survive for at least thirty minutes provided they do not drown. The ability to stay afloat declines substantially after about ten minutes as the chilled muscles lose strength and co-ordination.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '219367',
'title': 'Drowning',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.:Cold water immersion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 66,
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'passage_text': "Submersion into cold water can induce cardiac arrhythmias (abnormal heart rates) in healthy people, sometimes causing strong swimmers to drown. The physiological effects caused by the diving reflex conflict with the body's cold shock response, which includes a gasp and uncontrollable hyperventilation leading to aspiration of water. While breath-holding triggers a slower heart rate, cold shock activates tachycardia, an increase in heart rate. It is thought that this conflict of these nervous system responses may account for the arrhythmias of cold water submersion.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '54637386',
'title': 'Physiology of underwater diving',
'section': 'Section::::Exposure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'Hypothermia is reduced body temperature that happens when a body dissipates more heat than it absorbs. Hypothermia is a major limitation to swimming or diving in cold water. The reduction in finger dexterity due to pain or numbness decreases general safety and work capacity, which consequently increases the risk of other injuries. Body heat is lost much more quickly in water than in air, so water temperatures that would be quite reasonable as outdoor air temperatures can lead to hypothermia in inadequately protected divers, although it is not often the direct clinical cause of death.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17484978',
'title': 'Cold shock response',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'In humans, cold shock response is perhaps the most common cause of death from immersion in very cold water, such as by falling through thin ice. The immediate shock of the cold causes involuntary inhalation, which if underwater can result in drowning. The cold water can also cause heart attack due to vasoconstriction; the heart has to work harder to pump the same volume of blood throughout the body. For people with existing cardiovascular disease, the additional workload can result in cardiac arrest. Inhalation of water (and thus drowning) may result from hyperventilation. Some people are much better able to survive swimming in very cold water due to body or mental conditioning.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1352911',
'title': 'Dousing',
'section': 'Section::::Cold water dousing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Cold water dousing is used to "shock" the body into a kind of fever. The body\'s reaction is similar to the mammalian diving reflex or possibly temperature biofeedback. Several meditative and awareness techniques seem to share similar effects with elevated temperature, such as Tummo. Compare cold water dousing with ice swimming.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4886790',
'title': 'Winter swimming',
'section': 'Section::::Health risks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
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'passage_text': 'Winter swimming can be dangerous to people who are not used to swimming in very cold water. After submersion in cold water the cold shock response will occur, causing an uncontrollable gasp for air. This is followed by hyperventilation, a longer period of more rapid breathing. The gasp for air can cause a person to ingest water, which leads to drowning. As blood in the limbs is cooled and returns to the heart, this can cause fibrillation and consequently cardiac arrest. The cold shock response and cardiac arrest are the most common causes of death related to cold water immersion.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'When your body is submerged in cold water, it feels freezing at first, then starts to feel warmer and warmer. When your body is exposed to cold air, it feels okay at first, then gets colder and colder. What causes this phenomenon?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["I'm no expert, but I think it has to do with body heat. In the water, your body heat and the temperature of the water find an equilibrium where both are at the same temperature, whereas in the air, it's always moving so it cools your body while your body heat doesn't have time to affect the air temperature.",
"Not an expert and could be wrong. Water will actually take body heat away about twice as fast as air will. So the average body temp is about 98.6 Fahrenheit. The body is always producing heat through metabolic and kinetic (muscle movement). It just so happens that 98.6 is the perfect temp your body has found for homeostasis. If you were to go into a body of water that was below that at 80 degrees you will start to feel cold sooner. your blood vessels will constrict in you extremities as your body tries to keep blood flow to more important organs (lungs, heart, and the such) to keep them warm. Then you will start to shiver. That's the body's way of producing heat as a last ditch effort. This is why scuba divers will use wet suits to stay warm even if the water is a high 70-80 degree Fahrenheit. Now you can go outside at those temperatures and feel comfortable in little to no clothes. But, if you were in a room set at those temperatures with no other form of energy to warm you up like the sun after a period of time you will get that cold feeling. As to your question i think there could be a couple answers. 1. Your mind tries to block the sensation so you can be more attentive to other things. An evolution perk so predators don't sneek up on us. 2. This might be the major cause. As your body constricts vessels and restricts blood flow to your limbs your nerve endings lose sensation and can't feel as well per say. Also since you have less blood flow to your hands the temperature of your hands drop. Like when you go outside in the freezing cold and then place your hands under room temperature water it will feel hot(don't do this for fun it can cause damage). So both are doing the same thing it's just that water does this faster than air.",
'If you mean cold water as in near-freezing, the warm effect comes from endorphins released to block the painful freezing sensation in order to maintain function to enable you to get the hell out of the freezing water.\n\nI disagree with the equilibrium theories proposed by others, unless you were to be submerged in a body of water that is only a small fraction of your total volume but still manages to cover you. If the water volume is greater than say a third of your own, you will dramatically cool down as the water in your body and the water around you begin to equalize their temperatures, unless measures are taken to increase your own heat generation. \n\nThe body has compensation mechanisms in place to prevent dying rapidly due to hypothermia, including the shivering reflex to increase muscular heat generation and constricting peripheral blood vessels to minimize heat loss from vital organs, at the cost of your extremities cooling down faster.'],
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'query_id': '7ns9io',
'query': 'when your body is submerged in cold water, it feels freezing at first, then starts to feel warmer and warmer. when your body is exposed to cold air, it feels okay at first, then gets colder and colder. what causes this phenomenon?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
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'title': 'Program counter',
'section': 'Section::::Hardware implementation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Like other processor registers, the PC may be a bank of binary latches, each one representing one bit of the value of the PC. The number of bits (the width of the PC) relates to the processor architecture. For instance, a “32-bit” CPU may use 32 bits to be able to address 2 units of memory. If the PC is a binary counter, it may increment when a pulse is applied to its COUNT UP input, or the CPU may compute some other value and load it into the PC by a pulse to its LOAD input.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '8192994',
'title': 'ATI video card suffixes',
'section': 'Section::::Descriptions/Common Features.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Memory Interface: This is the form of interface the graphics core has with its video RAM. As a number, it refers to how much data, in bits, can be read from or written to the memory every clock cycle the memory goes through. Radeon X1k cards also have an internal "ringbus," which is twice as wide as its actual external interface; in this case, the actual interface width is used, not the width of the ringbus.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '21371926',
'title': 'Aakash (tablet)',
'section': 'Section::::Specifications.\n',
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'passage_text': '"Memory": ROM size has apparently not been stated by Datawind, but is estimated to be either 256\xa0MB or 2\xa0GB. Both tablets have graphics processing cards, but the graphics memory size and GPU speed have not been stated .\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '59944',
'title': 'Program counter',
'section': 'Section::::Hardware implementation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In a typical central processing unit (CPU), the PC is a digital counter (which is the origin of the term "program counter") that may be one of many registers in the CPU hardware. The instruction cycle begins with a fetch, in which the CPU places the value of the PC on the address bus to send it to the memory. The memory responds by sending the contents of that memory location on the data bus. (This is the stored-program computer model, in which executable instructions are stored alongside ordinary data in memory, and handled identically by it.) Following the fetch, the CPU proceeds to execution, taking some action based on the memory contents that it obtained. At some point in this cycle, the PC will be modified so that the next instruction executed is a different one (typically, incremented so that the next instruction is the one starting at the memory address immediately following the last memory location of the current instruction).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1441402',
'title': 'Cray-3/SSS',
'section': 'Section::::Design.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Memory is normally organized within the RAM chips in a row/column format, with a controller on the chip reading requested data from the chip in parallel across the rows, then assembling the results into 32- or 64-bit words for processing by the CPU. In the SSS concept, the chips would also be equipped with a series of single-bit computers operating on a particular column of all the rows are at once—this meant that the processors could access data at very high speeds, about 100x as fast as normal. Add to this the speed of the "network" implemented by the scatter/gather hardware, and the system could be scaled to sizes considerably greater than existing SIMD systems.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30920530',
'title': 'HP Integral PC',
'section': 'Section::::Hardware.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Within the Integral PC CPU, RAM, ROM, memory management, I/O buffering, system timing and keyboard interface are integrated on a single logic-board. All peripheral units and the 14 connections are built using independent boards. Each board is smaller than a letter sized sheet. To make it easier to check the boards, each board contains an own timer. The I/O-board (with two connections for optional addons) the keyboard-interface, the "Human Interface Link" HP-HIL and the power supply can be checked and tested independently.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3301619',
'title': 'Graphics hardware',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Graphics Cards.\n',
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'passage_text': 'An integrated graphics card, usually by Intel to use in their computers, is bound to the motherboard and shares RAM(Random Access Memory) with the CPU, reducing the total amount of RAM available. This is undesirable for running programs and applications that use a large amount of video memory. \n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do the graphics card, RAM, and processor all work together to determine performance of a PC?',
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'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["CPU is its ability to do math. Everything a computer does is dictated by math, so this makes things faster. However you can't get faster than almost instant (dictated by speed of electrons wizzing around inside) so if the CPU is able to go at that speed, other things may slow it down instead.\n\nThis is where we get to RAM. RAM (Random Access Memory) is the computers ability to remember things quickly. The CPU can't remember things on its down, so if you want it to, say, remember the keys you are typing in your keyboard, it needs RAM to hold that information until the CPU needs it. If the RAM is smaller than is needed, we get issues. On solution is to temporary store information on your hard drive, that that is orders of manitude slower, so your CPU has to twiddle it non-existent thumbs and sit around and wait for the numbers it needs to get to it so it can do more math.\n\nThe Graphics card (GPU) is just another specialized CPU that has it's own RAM built in with it. 3D graphics involved LOT of very complicated math done very quickly. The GPU does that math so the CPU doesn't have to bother and it's custom build to do that specific math very well. If it's not good enough, you graphics will go behind. See the above two explanations for details, as either the GPU or it's dedicated RAM will be at issue. You're CPU can't handle it's own work and modern 3d graphics at once.\n\nThings that do not require 3d graphics do not use the GPU at all, usually. Crytocurrency happens to use similar math to 3d graphics, so that's why those are used for that. Hope that helps!",
'Think of a computer as a restaurant.\n\nThe CPU is the head chef and sou chefs that manages all the tasks and sets up the menus. The faster or more experienced chefs will increase the performance but they are expensive. These chefs work harder and faster than any individual worker but they can\'t operate an entire restaurant by themselves.\n\nMost of the work goes to the line cooks which are the GPUs. While they are slower and less experienced, there are a lot more of them and they are cheaper to hire. They work in parallel to cook individual steps of a dish and put it together. If they are well trained and work faster, the restaurant can serve food faster. More of them can also increase sales if the restaurant can scale to allow more demand.\n\nRAM is the kitchen space. You need tables to hold ingredients for processing food. More dishes means more tables. GPU RAM is the stoves and cooking areas. Food from the tables (RAM) need to be transfered to these areas for specific processing by the line chefs (GPU). If your kitchen is too small, you will end up with "too many cooks in the kitchen" and end up slowing the entire process.\n\nLastly, storage of food is the hard drive space. It takes some time to pull out the food and have it ready for the kitchen.'],
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'query': 'how do the graphics card, ram, and processor all work together to determine performance of a pc?',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '9387918',
'title': 'Human nose',
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'passage_text': 'Several bones and nasal cartilages make up the bony-cartilaginous framework of the nose, and the internal structure. The nose is also made up of types of soft tissue such as skin, epithelia, mucous membrane, muscles, nerves, and blood. In the skin there are sebaceous glands, and in the mucous membrane there are nasal glands.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '68954',
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'passage_text': 'A nostril (or naris , plural "nares" ) is one of the two channels of the nose, from the point where they bifurcate to the external opening. In birds and mammals, they contain branched bones or cartilages called turbinates, whose function is to warm air on inhalation and remove moisture on exhalation. Fish do not breathe through their noses, but they do have two small holes used for smelling, which may, indeed, be called nostrils.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9387918',
'title': 'Human nose',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.:Bones.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The two maxilla bones join at the base of the nose at the lower nasal midline between the nostrils, and at the top of the philtrum to form the anterior nasal spine. This thin projection of bone holds the cartilaginous center of the nose. It is also an important cephalometric landmark.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9387918',
'title': 'Human nose',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The framework of the nose is made up of bone and cartilage which provides strong protection for the internal structures of the nose. The arrangement of the cartilages allows flexibility through muscle control to enable airflow to be modified.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1578885',
'title': 'Nasal septum deviation',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The nasal septum is the bone and cartilage in the nose that separates the nasal cavity into the two nostrils. The cartilage is called the quadrangular cartilage and the bones comprising the septum include the maxillary crest, vomer and the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid. Normally, the septum lies centrally, and thus the nasal passages are symmetrical. A deviated septum is an abnormal condition in which the top of the cartilaginous ridge leans to the left or the right, causing obstruction of the affected nasal passage. The condition can result in poor drainage of the sinuses. People can also complain of difficulty breathing, headaches, bloody noses, or of sleeping disorders such as snoring or sleep apnea.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2111215',
'title': 'Nasion',
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'passage_text': 'The nasion () is the most anterior point of the frontonasal suture that joins the nasal part of the frontal bone and the nasal bones. It marks the midpoint at the intersection of the frontonasal suture with the internasal suture joining the nasal bones. It is visible on the face as a distinctly depressed area directly between the eyes, just superior to the bridge of the nose. It is a cephalometric landmark that is just below the glabella.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5330321',
'title': 'Septal nasal cartilage',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The septal nasal cartilage (cartilage of the septum or quadrangular cartilage) is composed of hyaline cartilage. It is somewhat quadrilateral in form, thicker at its margins than at its center, and completes the separation between the nasal cavities in front.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is the tip of the human nose made of cartilage?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
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'answers': ['The actual reason, although rather vague, is that natural selection leads to traits that are more advantageous for survival to be selected for and thereby become more prevalent in a population. So having a cartilaginous tip to the nose allowed for better survival to reproduction. Probably because the nose sticks out relatively unprotected, and cartilage has some give that is more forgiving when hit compared to bone which would be more likely to break, possibly causing increased bleeding or chance of infection by breaking through the skin.',
'We are descended from other species where the nose is this way, possibly useful in those species as they may press their nose against the ground when following a scent. But in a sense evolution never provides a "why." Some things just grew that way by accident.'],
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'query': 'why is the tip of the human nose made of cartilage?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '976663',
'title': 'Industrial and multiphase power plugs and sockets',
'section': 'Section::::Australia.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Within each size group, the plugs and sockets are keyed with certain "lugs" protruding on the outside of the plugs. Higher current plugs have more lugs to prevent them from being inserted into a lower current socket outlet, while still allowing them to be inserted into a socket outlet of the same size group rated for a higher current. For example, a 32\xa0A 4-pin plug without neutral can plug into a 50\xa0A 5-pin socket with neutral available.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '326109',
'title': 'DC connector',
'section': 'Section::::Cylindrical connectors.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Many non-proprietary co-axial power plugs are in outside diameter (OD) and in length. Two pin sizes are common in the jacks for this size plug body, and , and the plugs should match. If the size is not known, it is difficult to distinguish by eye or measurement between the 2.1mm and 2.5mm ID plugs; some suppliers suggest simple methods.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '773271',
'title': 'AC power plugs and sockets',
'section': 'Section::::Application issues.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'Designs of plugs and sockets have gradually developed to reduce the risk of electric shock and fire. Plugs are shaped to prevent finger contact with live parts, and sockets may be recessed. Some types can also include fuses and switches.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '457968',
'title': 'Power strip',
'section': 'Section::::Socket arrangement.\n',
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'passage_text': 'If sockets on a power strip are grouped closely together, a cable with a large "wall wart" transformer at its end may cover up multiple sockets. Various designs address this problem, some by simply increasing the spacing between outlets. Other designs include receptacles which rotate in their housing, or multiple short receptacle cords feeding from a central hub. A simple DIY method for adapting problematic power strips arrangements to large "wall warts" is to use a three-way socket adapter to extend the socket above its neighbors, providing the required clearance. The PowerCube adapter is arranged as a cube, meaning the adapters do not fight for space next to each other.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43336414',
'title': 'Ganton Street',
'section': 'Section::::Giant plug and socket.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'An outsize plug and socket has been a feature of the façade of the electrical substation on the corner of Ganton Street and Marshall Street since 2001. "Plug and Socket" was installed by James Glancy Design as a piece of urban art to enliven an otherwise dull building. It has had a number of different designs over the years and the whole item, including the cable, lights up at night.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '57592739',
'title': 'History of AC power plugs and sockets',
'section': 'Section::::Obsolete types.:Old Spanish sockets.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Some older industrial buildings in Spain used sockets that took a plug rated for higher current and had two flat contacts and a round earth pin, somewhat similar in design to the ones found on American plugs but larger in size. The two flat contacts are spaced further apart than on an American plug. No domestic appliances were ever sold with these plugs. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6438447',
'title': 'Modular connector',
'section': 'Section::::Size and contacts.:Interchangeability.\n',
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'passage_text': "The dimensions of modular connectors are such that a narrower plug can be inserted into a wider jack that has more positions than the plug, leaving the jack's outermost contacts unconnected. The contact spacing is always 1.02\xa0mm (center to center). However, not all plugs from all manufacturers have this capability, and some jack manufacturers warn that their jacks are not designed to accept smaller plugs without damage. If an inserted plug lacks slots to accommodate the jack's contacts at the outermost extremes, it may permanently deform those outermost contacts of an incompatible jack. Excessive resistance may be encountered when inserting an incompatible plug, as the outermost contacts in the jack are forcibly deformed.\n",
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'title': 'Why are some electrical plugs so huge that they cover the outlets next to them? What is taking up all that space?',
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'category': 'Technology',
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'answers': ['Many devices integrate a converter from mains-voltage Alternating current to a much lower direct current voltage in the wall plug as opposed to a block in the middle of the cable or into the decice itself.',
'Circuitry and electrical components that turn the electricity at the wall into electricity the device itself can use.\nIn the US it\'s approximately 120V AC current. My phone uses 5V DC to charge the battery. If I were to funnel 120V AC current into my phone without converting it I would damage my phone. \n\nAn electrical engineer would be able to explain it better but I can clear up some practical reasons for having large plugs at the wall.\n\nPortability is some of it and the rest comes from ease of use and ease of mass production.\n\nGoing back to my phone, it is a detachable device that uses a proprietary or universal cable depending on use case so it needs all of the electrical equipment at the plug since it can\'t count on the cord I use to have the proper parts in-line.\n\nMy laptop uses a special plug so it doesn\'t have to rely on cords that I provide, and they make it all one (mostly) continuous device. The big brick in the middle handles the conversion, in my case 120V AC to 19V DC, so it leaves the plug nice and compact. Expanding on that, a tower computer, a TV, or Blu-ray player have that part in the actual device most times so it can get away with "universal" power cords that only need to ferry the 120V AC to the unit and nothing else.\n\nThe big ones are frustrating at the outlet but it\'s probably also the sturdiest way to guarantee that it doesn\'t break. Big, sturdy block at the part of the cord that gets moved least.\n\nStealth Edit: Spelling, grammar, clarity.',
'The large component is the transformer. Household voltage can easily be stepped down to a few volts. However smaller the transformer, the lower the amps. If you look at all those power adapters around your house, you will see 2 numbers: volts (V) and amps (mA). The larger the amps, the bigger the brick.\n\nOf course, companies can slim down power bricks using more efficient transformers and other components but that requires cost. And of course, that cost is included in the equipment you’re buying.'],
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'query': 'why are some electrical plugs so huge that they cover the outlets next to them? what is taking up all that space?',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '5653826',
'title': 'BUN-to-creatinine ratio',
'section': 'Section::::Technique.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Creatinine formation begins with the transamidination from arginine to glycine to form glycocyamine or guanidoacetic acid (GAA). This reaction occurs primarily in the kidneys, but also in the mucosa of the small intestine and the pancreas. The GAA is transported to the liver where it is methylated by S-adenosyl methionine (SAM) to form creatine. Creatine enters the circulation, and 90% of it is taken up and stored by muscle tissue.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '331221',
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'passage_text': 'Creatine ( or ) is an organic compound with the nominal formula (HN)(HN)CN(CH)CHCOH. This species exists in various modifications (tautomers) in solution. Creatine is found in vertebrates where it facilitates recycling of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy currency of the cell, primarily in muscle and brain tissue. Recycling is achieved by converting adenosine diphosphate (ADP) back to ATP via donation of phosphate groups. Creatine also acts as a buffer.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '65623',
'title': 'Creatinine',
'section': 'Section::::Biological relevance.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Creatine is synthesized primarily in the liver from the methylation of glycocyamine (guanidino acetate, synthesized in the kidney from the amino acids arginine and glycine) by S-Adenosyl methionine. It is then transported through blood to the other organs, muscle, and brain, where, through phosphorylation, it becomes the high-energy compound phosphocreatine. Creatine conversion to phosphocreatine is catalyzed by creatine kinase; spontaneous formation of creatinine occurs during the reaction.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '57092035',
'title': 'Pre-workout',
'section': 'Section::::Ingredients/ Supplements.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Creatine is a natural chemical that is produced in the kidney and liver and stored in the skeletal muscle cells. Creatine is an energy source that can act alone as a supplement and draws water to muscle cells creating muscle hypertrophy. The creation of muscle trophy is because when it is stored in the muscle cells it is phosphorylated and produces phosphocreatine(PCr). There are four forms of creatine: Creatine mono-hydrate, creatine phosphate, creatine citrane, and creatine esters.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12774563',
'title': 'Cerebral creatine deficiency',
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'passage_text': 'Creatine is synthesized in the kidney and liver, by a two step enzymatic process. In the first step, glycine and arginine are combined by to form guanidinoacetate. This step also results in the production of ornithine. Creatine is produced by the enzyme guanidinoacetate methyltransferase. After production in the liver and kidneys, creatine is transported to organs and tissues with high energy demands, most commonly the brain and skeletal muscles. In addition to endogenous production, creatine can be obtained from dietary sources or supplementation. Ornithine aminotransferase deficiency can cause secondary creatine deficiency, however it does not result in cerebral creatine deficiency.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Creatine',
'section': 'Section::::Biosynthesis.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Creatine is not an essential nutrient as it is naturally produced in the human body from the amino acids glycine and arginine, with an additional requirement for methionine to catalyze the transformation of guanidinoacetate to creatine. In the first step of the biosynthesis these two amino acids are combined by the enzyme (AGAT, EC:2.1.4.1) to form guanidinoacetate, which is then methylated by guanidinoacetate N-methyltransferase (GAMT, EC:2.1.1.2), using S-adenosyl methionine as the methyl donor. Creatine itself can be phosphorylated by creatine kinase to form phosphocreatine, which is used as an energy buffer in skeletal muscles and the brain.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2383985',
'title': 'Bodybuilding supplement',
'section': 'Section::::Creatine.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Creatine is an organic acid naturally occurring in the body that supplies energy to muscle cells for short bursts of energy (as required in lifting weights) via creatine phosphate replenishment of ATP. A number of scientific studies have shown that creatine can improve strength, energy, muscle mass, and recovery times. In addition, recent studies have also shown that creatine improves brain function. and reduces mental fatigue. Unlike steroids or other performance-enhancing drugs, creatine can be found naturally in many common foods such as herring, tuna, salmon, and beef.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does creatinine work in the body?',
'selftext': "I know that creatinine can be measured to diagnose kidney or liver problems, but creatinine doesn't actually affect the liver or kidneys. How does this work?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Creatinine is a metabolic byproduct that is produced in muscle tissue. Specifically it is used as an indicator of kidney function because the kidneys are the only organs that filter it out of the blood. It is formed in the body, usually at a fairly set rate and the kidneys will remove it at a set rate. Normally we expect creat levels in the bloodstream to be 0.5-1.0 in adults. As that number begins to rise, it indicates that the kidneys are not functioning properly. It doesn’t tell us specifically what’s wrong with the kidneys, it just tells us SOMETHING is wrong with them. Hence, they call it an indicator of kidney function. Usual follow up testing for elevated creatinine levels range from imaging, ultrasound and possible biopsy. It doesn’t indicate liver function at all to my knowledge. ',
'Your muscles make creatinine. Your kidneys get rid of creatinine normally. If your kidneys don\'t work right, the creatinine doesn\'t leave your body and so the levels rise. Doctors can check the blood and see what your creatinine levels are. People with less muscle mass have lower creatinine levels to start with, so it is important to remember if you\'ve got some frail 90 year old woman, and she has a Cr of 0.8, that might be high for her; you need to know what her baseline Cr is. \n\nPeople with bad livers don\'t make creatine, which is the thing that comes before creatinine. So if the liver doesn\'t work, there isn\'t much of the starting product to make the creatinine. But it is tricky because people who have bad livers may also have bad kidneys. They also tend to have less muscle.\n\nFor a non-5-year-old answer, you can read "The evaluation of renal function and disease in patients with cirrhosis" by Francoz et al.\n\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '9el2xs',
'query': 'how does creatinine work in the body?',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1352911',
'title': 'Dousing',
'section': 'Section::::Cold water dousing.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The effects of dousing are usually more intense and longer-lasting than just a cold shower. Ending a shower with cold water is an old naturopathic tradition. There are those who believe that this fever is helpful in killing harmful bacteria and leaving the hardier beneficial bacteria in the body.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1197437',
'title': 'Shower (juggling)',
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'passage_text': 'There are two different types of shower: synchronous shower, where both hands throw their ball at the same time and asynchronous shower. The half-shower resembles the shower, but is siteswap 3. It is, "one of the best of all the routines for strengthening and for improving all-around agility and coordination." A variant of the shower or shape distortion of the half-shower, the Statue of Liberty (siteswap: 3), involves one overhead hand.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '54842715',
'title': 'Interoception',
'section': 'Section::::Interoceptive physiology.:Thermoregulatory system.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
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'passage_text': 'Temperature and pain are thought to be represented as “feelings” of coolness/warmness and pleasantness/unpleasantness in the brain. These sensory and affective characteristics of thermoregulation may motivate certain behavioral responses depending on the state of the body (for example, moving away from a source of heat to a cooler space). Such perturbations in the internal homeostatic environment of an organism are thought to be key aspects of a motivational process giving rise to emotional states, and have been proposed to be represented principally by the insular cortex as feelings. These feelings then influence drives when the anterior cingulate cortex is activated.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '477822',
'title': 'Shower',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'A shower is a place in which a person bathes under a spray of typically warm or hot water. Indoors, there is a drain in the floor. Most showers have temperature, spray pressure and adjustable showerhead nozzle. The simplest showers have a swivelling nozzle aiming down on the user, while more complex showers have a showerhead connected to a hose that has a mounting bracket. This allows the showerer to hold the showerhead by hand to spray the water at different parts of their body. A shower can be installed in a small shower stall or bathtub with a plastic shower curtain or door. Showering is common in Western culture due to the efficiency of using it compared with a bathtub. Its use in hygiene is, therefore, common practice. A shower uses less water on average than a bath: for a shower compared with for a bath.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7455643',
'title': 'Thermal comfort',
'section': 'Section::::Influencing factors.:Relative humidity.:Skin wettedness.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
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'passage_text': 'The wetness of skin in different areas also affects perceived thermal comfort. Humidity can increase wetness on different areas of the body, leading to a perception of discomfort. This is usually localized in different parts of the body, and local thermal comfort limits for skin wettedness differ by locations of the body. The extremities are much more sensitive to thermal discomfort from wetness than the trunk of the body. Although local thermal discomfort can be caused from wetness, the thermal comfort of the whole body will not be affected by the wetness of certain parts.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '401062',
'title': 'Shower-curtain effect',
'section': 'Section::::Hypotheses.:Air pressure.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Colder dense air outside and hot less dense air inside causes higher air pressure on the outside to force the shower curtain inwards to equalise the air pressure, this can be observed simply when the bathroom door is open allowing cold air into the bathroom.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5248591',
'title': 'Shower gel',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Body washes and shower gels holds a lower pH value than the traditional soap, which is also known to feel less drying to the skin. In certain cases, sodium stearate is added to the chemical combination to create a solid version of the shower gel.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does the same water feel a different temperature to your body than it does to your head? For example when in the shower?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Nerves are distributed unevenly over our whole body, google human homunculus and you'll get the idea",
'Because some parts of the body have more nerves in one area than others. The hands/feet and face are notable ones because they are used quite often.',
"On top of what other people have mentioned the water will get cooler as it drops through the air to the floor. If you sit down in a shower the water will feel cooler than when stood up. I would think that as your head is the nearest to the water source it feels hotter as by the time it's reached your body is has cooled slightly.",
'Fun fact: you can’t actually sense temperature; not in the way we usually think of it.\n\nInstead, you sense the transfer of heat into or out of your skin. If different parts of your body are different temperatures, they will feel the same temperature differently.\n\nThere are a couple of experiments you can run to illustrate this:\n\n1. Get three bowls of water, big enough to stick your hands into. Fill one with icy-cold water, one with hot water, and one with luke-warm water. Put one hand in the cold water and one in the hot water, and hold them there for a minute or so. Then put both hands in the medium water at the same time, and notice how each hand reports the temperature of that water differently.\n\n2. Leave a block of wood, a piece of metal, and a plastic object in a room for a while, so they end up being the same temperature. When you feel them, they will feel different temperatures, because the different materials transfer heat more or less efficiently.',
"Your head (probably) has hair on it. It absorbs a little of the heat before it gets to your scalp, giving you more time to adjust to the temperature. It then stays wet, keeping the old water there longer to mix with and cool the new hot water. It's the same way a cold shower is more tolerable on your head than on your bare skin.\n\nWhen you feel heat it's the difference from your skin's current temperature. Which is why you can sit in a hot tub comfortably once you've adjusted, but warm water on cold feet feels like fire.",
'I’d imagine it’s because those body parts are different temperatures to begin with, no? For instance, my feet are always always freezing and a nice hot shower that feels great on my body and head is unbearably and agonisingly scalding on my feet',
'The shower is a bad example; your head is literally closer to the shower head, giving the water less time to be exposed to the air and cool down.',
"Yeah, I've been doing the cold shower thing, out of necessity because my water heater died, and I can eventually tolerate the icy water everywhere but my head, it hurts like hell up there!! I can hardly rinse the shampoo.. Would love to know why.",
'Because of your brain.\n\nYour brain consumes about 20% of the energy used by your body. All that energy use generates heat. The heat is released through blood vessels in your head.\n\nThe blood vessels in your head can also be a conduit for further heat loss or gain. Like u/Nova_Saibrock mentioned, you feel differences in temperature, not absolute temperature and since your head is smaller than your torso, it is more sensitive to temperature changes.',
'What you feel is not the temperature itself, but how fast heat is transferred in (hot) to your body or out (cold) of your body.\n\nLook around you and find some wood (or a book) or glass (table top of drinking glass), or maybe something metallic. Since they\'re in the room, all 3 of those are at "room temperature", but if you put your hand on them, they will feel different "temperatures". Metal will seem colder because it\'s able to remove head faster from your hand (heat conducts faster in metals, so as the heat leaves your hand, goes into the metal, and conducts away, to make room for more heat to leave your hand, so you feel colder). Wood will probably feel the "warmest" since it doesn\'t remove heat from your hand that fast (insulator).\n\nThe same happens on different parts of your body. The skin has different layers and depending on which part of the body you look at, it\'ll have different size of the fat layer which acts as an insulator of sorts. The more fat there is, the longer it\'ll take the neurons to feel like heat is leaving the body. Head/Forehead has less fat, so if the hot water is hitting it, heat will go in and the neurons will know right away and tell you it\'s hot. The same water hitting the body might dissipate some of the heat into the fat layer before hitting the neurons.\n\nThere\'s also the whole notion about wet-bulb temperature which is what you actually feel and can be colder than the actual temperature. (for example, you\'re in a pool, at a certain temperature, and leave, and immediately start shivering even though room temperature isn\'t that cold. You\'re feeling the wet-bulb temperature.)\n\nThis might be more than a ELI"5", but i can try to answer more questions in further comments!',
"I'm no expert on this, but I would imagine that the difference in temperature of different parts of the body plays a big role.\n\nParts of your head are likely closer to 35 degrees, while extremeties like hands and feet can fall below 25 degrees. Logically, 30 degree water would thus feel cold on your face and cold on your feet.",
"Relative temp. If the water is cooler than the skin/flesh it's touching, it will feel colder as the temp of the water drops. For example, if the temp of our mouth was normally 32 F, ice wouldn't feel cold and normal temps would feel like it's on fire. The same concept works for hot water.\n\nThe reason it feels different is because your body and head are different temperatures. 98.6 F is normal CORE body temp. Doesn't mean that's the temp of your skin everywhere.",
'Different parts of your body are different temperatures so they feel less or greater effects from the same temperature.',
"Well if you're talking about the shower the water is literally warmer by your head than it is by the time it gets down to your body. There's a lot of surface area on the droplets of water that come out of a shower head so it cools off plenty fron the time it comes out of the shower head to the time it hits the floor. Try submerging in a bath, does it feel different to you then? It doesn't for me.",
"Because YOU are different temperatures on different parts of your body.\n\nThat means the difference between you & the water is different, and that's what you feel.\n\nExample: \n\nWhere the water feels cold, you are hot.\n\nWhere the water feels warm, you are cold.\n\nBut the water is the same temperature (unless you change the shower)",
'I thought it was because your head is closer to the shower head and feels the water just as it exits and your legs are futher so they feel the water after its had time to cool down in the air.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'ekggc5',
'query': 'why does the same water feel a different temperature to your body than it does to your head? for example when in the shower?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1781370',
'title': 'Processed meat',
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'passage_text': 'Processed meat is considered to be any meat which has been modified in order either to improve its taste or to extend its shelf life. Methods of meat processing include salting, curing, fermentation, and smoking. Processed meat is usually composed of pork or beef, but also poultry, while it can also contain offal or meat by-products such as blood. Processed meat products include bacon, ham, sausages, salami, corned beef, jerky, canned meat and meat-based sauces. Meat processing includes all the processes that change fresh meat with the exception of simple mechanical processes such as cutting, grinding or mixing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1138195',
'title': 'Meat packing industry',
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'passage_text': 'The meat packing industry handles the slaughtering, processing, packaging, and distribution of meat from animals such as cattle, pigs, sheep and other livestock. Poultry is not included. This greater part of the entire meat industry is primarily focused on producing meat for human consumption, but it also yields a variety of by-products including hides, feathers, dried blood, and, through the process of rendering, fat such as tallow and protein meals such as meat & bone meal.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '435799',
'title': 'Mechanically separated meat',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Mechanically separated meat (MSM), mechanically recovered/reclaimed meat (MRM), or mechanically deboned meat (MDM) is a paste-like meat product produced by forcing pureed or ground beef, pork, mutton, turkey or chicken, under high pressure through a sieve or similar device to separate the bone from the edible meat tissue. It is sometimes called "white slime" as an analog to meat-additive pink slime and to meat extracted by advanced meat recovery systems, both of which are different processes. The process entails pureeing or grinding the carcass left after the manual removal of meat from the bones and then forcing the slurry through a sieve under pressure. This puree includes bone, bone marrow, skin, nerves, blood vessels, and the scraps of meat remaining on the bones. The resulting product is a blend primarily consisting of tissues not generally considered meat along with a much smaller amount of actual meat (muscle tissue). In some countries such as the United States, these non-meat materials are processed separately for human and non-human uses and consumption. The process is controversial; "Forbes", for example, called it a "not-so-appetizing meat production process".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58759648',
'title': 'Case-ready meat',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Case-ready meat, retail-ready meat, or pre-packaged meat refers to fresh meat that is processed and packaged at a central facility and delivered to the store ready to be put directly into the meat case. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18940',
'title': 'Meat',
'section': 'Section::::Production.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 62,
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'passage_text': 'Meat is produced by killing an animal and cutting flesh out of it. These procedures are called slaughter and butchery, respectively. There is ongoing research into producing meat "in vitro", that is, outside of animals.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45654196',
'title': 'Labor rights in American meatpacking industry',
'section': 'Section::::Characteristics of the American meat production industry.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Within the meat production industry, "meatpacking" is defined as "all manufacturing of meat products including the processing of animals." This includes production of beef, pork, poultry, and fish. The scope of the American meat production industry is large; it slaughters and processes over 10 billion animals per year.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1922978',
'title': 'Meat industry',
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'passage_text': 'The term meat industry describes modern industrialized livestock agriculture for production, packing, preservation and marketing of meat (in contrast to dairy products, wool, etc.). In economics, it is a fusion of primary (agriculture) and secondary (industry) activity and hard to characterize strictly in terms of either one alone. The greater part of the entire meat industry is termed meat packing industry- the segment that handles the slaughtering, processing, packaging, and distribution of animals such as cattle, pigs, sheep and other livestock.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'what makes a meat "processed"',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Processed meat is any meat that is preserved by any of a number of methods, such as smoking, curing, salting, or addition of chemical preservatives. Examples of processed meat are bacon, salami, pepperoni, obviously bologna and hot dogs, most lunch meats, etc.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'bha4dc',
'query': 'what makes a meat "processed"',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '210476',
'title': 'SIM lock',
'section': 'Section::::Laws and practices.:Romania.\n',
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'passage_text': 'If the handset is purchased as part of a promotional package or at a preferential price and the customer requires the unlocking before the expiry of the minimum period provided in the contract for communications services concluded with the operator, the customer will have to pay both the unlocking fee and the penalty for the anticipated unlocking of the handset. The price charged to unlock handsets will not exceed the costs of this operation and operators are obliged to meet unlocking requests within 15 days.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '210476',
'title': 'SIM lock',
'section': 'Section::::Laws and practices.:Sweden.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 128,
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'passage_text': 'In Sweden, carriers are required to unlock handsets after 12 months since purchase. This applies both to on-contract and pay as you go phones. All carriers will charge a fee of 300 SEK (approximately $45) or 350 SEK (approximately $50), depending on carrier, to unlock the handset. However, as of 2016, most carriers have stopped locking phones altogether.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '210476',
'title': 'SIM lock',
'section': 'Section::::Laws and practices.:United States.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 142,
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'passage_text': "According to a ruling effective October 28, 2012, it will be illegal to unlock phones purchased 90 days after this date or later without the carrier's permission. In other words, users can already unlock phones they already own, and phones purchased before January 29, 2013, but phones purchased after this point can only be unlocked with the carrier's permission.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '210476',
'title': 'SIM lock',
'section': 'Section::::Laws and practices.:Portugal.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 115,
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'passage_text': 'A recently approved law requires network operators to unlock a device free of charge if the respective contract has already expired (But they refuse to do so charging at least 10 euros). It also establishes limits to the fees that operators may charge to unlock a device while it is still under contract.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '210476',
'title': 'SIM lock',
'section': 'Section::::Laws and practices.:Denmark.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 66,
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'passage_text': 'The carrier can choose to bind contracts up to 6 months from the contract\'s start. Many of the carriers choose not to lock the phones. Only Hi3G ("3") lock their phones, but can only do so for six months. If the phone needs to be unlocked within the first six months, the carrier can charge DKK 500 (~ €67) for the unlock. After six months, the carrier is obliged by law to unlock the phone free of charge. But the consumer needs to contact the original supplier, and provide the IMEI and original phone number for which the phone was sold.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '210476',
'title': 'SIM lock',
'section': 'Section::::Laws and practices.:Colombia.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Starting October 1, 2011, all the mobile telephone services providers, must sell to all users unlocked devices and provide free of charge support to unlock previously sold devices. This regulation was ordered to enable mobile number portability and to facilitate the reduction on costs ordered simultaneously.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '210476',
'title': 'SIM lock',
'section': 'Section::::Laws and practices.:Croatia.\n',
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'passage_text': "In Croatia, for devices bought on contract, the mobile operator must provide the unlock code on the user's request free of charge. Such request can be made immediately after buying the phone, and the operator has a 15-day period to fulfill the request. For devices bought on a prepaid plan, the user has to wait at least 12 months before submitting such request.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What does it mean to unlock your phone to another service provider? And why, depending on the brand, does it cost so much and take so long?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
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'answers': ["Most phones are *capable* of talking to other carriers that use the same networking technology. For example, in the USA, AT & T T-Mobile and I think a couple others all use the same GSM system. \n\nHowever, if you buy a phone through one of those carriers, they put a piece of software in place that checks who you're trying to connect to, and will block it if it's not AT & T or whoever. Why? Because they gave you a bargain/contract when you bought that phone through them, and they want you to stay inside their network.\n\nThus they make unlocking the device and leaving their network challenging and/or expensive. If you leave, they don't make money billing you.\n\nCell phones not purchased through a carrier company are unlocked and can be used with any compatible network. ",
"Many phones are locked to a single carrier. If I have a locked Verizon phone, I can't use it with Tmobile or Sprint or whatever. Some phones come unlocked, so they can use any carrier you have a SIM card for.\n\nSome phones can be unlocked, which is simply removing this restriction in some way. It's usually expensive and inconvenient because they don't want you to buy their product and then use it with a competitors service.",
"Most cellphones in the US are locked to a specific network (AT & T and T-Mobile for GSM, and VZW and Sprint for CDMA). Unlocking a phone allows that phone to be used on any network which uses the same technology (GSM and CDMA are not compatible with each other). I've had two cellphones unlocked for a total of $40, and after I paid the fee I was given codes to dial into each phone which unlocked them from their respective carriers (one was T-Mobile and the other was AT & T), and it took me about twenty minutes total. I've since gotten around that by using Google's Nexus phones, which are compatible with all GSM networks out of the box by design and intent."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '63ov95',
'query': 'what does it mean to unlock your phone to another service provider? and why, depending on the brand, does it cost so much and take so long?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '869123',
'title': 'Gastroenteritis',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.:Viral.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Rotavirus, norovirus, adenovirus, and astrovirus are known to cause viral gastroenteritis. Rotavirus is the most common cause of gastroenteritis in children, and produces similar rates in both the developed and developing world. Viruses cause about 70% of episodes of infectious diarrhea in the pediatric age group. Rotavirus is a less common cause in adults due to acquired immunity. Norovirus is the cause in about 18% of all cases.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17615699',
'title': 'Stomach disease',
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'passage_text': 'Many stomach diseases are associated with infection. Historically, it was widely believed that the highly acidic environment of the stomach would keep the stomach immune from infection. However, a large number of studies have indicated that most cases of stomach ulcers, gastritis, and stomach cancer are caused by "Helicobacter pylori" infection. One of the ways it is able to survive in the stomach involves its urease enzymes which metabolize urea (which is normally secreted into the stomach) to ammonia and carbon dioxide which neutralises gastric acid and thus prevents its digestion. In recent years, it has been discovered that other "Helicobacter" bacteria are also capable of colonising the stomach and have been associated with gastritis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18947703',
'title': 'Nausea',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Gastrointestinal.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'Gastrointestinal infection is one of the most common causes of acute nausea and vomiting. Chronic nausea may be the presentation of many gastrointestinal disorders, occasionally as the major symptom, such as gastroesophageal reflux disease, functional dyspepsia, gastroparesis, peptic ulcer, celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity, Crohn\'s disease, hepatitis, upper gastrointestinal malignancy, and pancreatic cancer. Uncomplicated "Helicobacter pylori" infection does not cause chronic nausea.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1169767',
'title': 'Rimonabant',
'section': 'Section::::Adverse effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'Additionally, nausea and upper respiratory tract infections were very common (occurring in more than 10% of people) adverse effects; common adverse effects (occurring in between 1% and 10% of people) included gastroenteritis, anxiety, irritability, insomnia and other sleep disorders, hot flushes, diarrhea, vomiting, dry or itchy skin, tendonitis, muscle cramps and spasms, fatigue, flu-like symptoms, and increased risk of falling.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '869123',
'title': 'Gastroenteritis',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'Viruses (particularly rotavirus) and the bacteria "Escherichia coli" and "Campylobacter" species are the primary causes of gastroenteritis. There are, however, many other infectious agents that can cause this syndrome including parasites and fungus. Non-infectious causes are seen on occasion, but they are less likely than a viral or bacterial cause. Risk of infection is higher in children due to their lack of immunity. Children are also at higher risk because they are less likely to practice good hygiene habits. Children living in areas without easy access to water and soap are especially vulnerable.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52237093',
'title': 'Door handle bacteria',
'section': 'Section::::Notable diseases.:Calicivirus.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 213,
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'passage_text': 'The calicivirus, which causes the very common stomach flu, can live for days or weeks depending on the surrounding conditions. This virus belongs to the family Caliciviridae, which includes other viruses such as:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '140968',
'title': 'Rotavirus',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'The virus is transmitted by the faecal-oral route. It infects and damages the cells that line the small intestine and causes gastroenteritis (which is often called "stomach flu" despite having no relation to influenza). Although "Rotavirus" was discovered in 1973 by Ruth Bishop and her colleagues by electron micrograph images and accounts for approximately one third of hospitalisations for severe diarrhoea in infants and children, its importance has historically been underestimated within the public health community, particularly in developing countries. In addition to its impact on human health, rotavirus also infects animals, and is a pathogen of livestock.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does the stomach flu (norovirus, rotavirus) present such intense, violent symptoms in most people?',
'selftext': 'Is causing intense pain, vomiting, and diarrhea beneficial to the survival of the virus, or is it just the body’s way of trying to get it out?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Both. The pain is caused by the virus to basically make you immobile, noone wants to move much when in a lot of pain, vomiting and diarrhoea are two great ways to spread the virus to those taking care of you because you yourself are too sick to do anything. The Diarrhoea is most likely due to the virus' attacking the cells in your intestine causing them to leak water. That in combination with your body trying to berid most of the virus leads to those symptoms."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'a5q3a4',
'query': 'why does the stomach flu (norovirus, rotavirus) present such intense, violent symptoms in most people?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '619925',
'title': 'Lollipop',
'section': 'Section::::Ingredients.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'Sugar is a very versatile ingredient and is used in many of food and products we consume every single day. What makes sugar different is the way it interacts with the other ingredients and systems within the food as well as how it is treated. When it is heated enough to break the molecules apart, it generates a complex flavor, changes the color, and creates a pleasing aroma. Sugar can form two types of solids in foods; crystalline and glassy amorphous. Crystalline solids can be found in food products like fondant, fudge, and butter creams. Glassy amorphous solids can be found in products like lollipops, marshmallows, and caramels. Glassy amorphous solids result when moderate sugar concentrations (50% solutions) are heated to high temperatures which nearly eliminates all moisture. The final moisture content is around 1%-2%, whereas the final moisture content in crystalline candies is 8%-12%. The non-crystalline nature of glassy amorphous solids is due to the presence of inhibitors in the solution. Without an inhibitor, crystallization would occur spontaneously and rapidly as sugar cools due to its high concentration. Some common inhibitors used in lollipop production are corn syrup, cream of tartar, honey, and butter.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44760',
'title': 'Confectionery',
'section': 'Section::::Sugar confectionery.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 317,
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'passage_text': 'Sugar confections include sweet, sugar-based foods, which are usually eaten as snack food. This includes sugar candies, chocolates, candied fruits and nuts, chewing gum, and sometimes ice cream. In some cases, chocolate confections are treated as a separate category, as are sugar-free versions of sugar confections.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44760',
'title': 'Confectionery',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Sugar confectionery includes candies ("sweets" in British English), candied nuts, chocolates, chewing gum, bubble gum, pastillage, and other confections that are made primarily of sugar. In some cases, chocolate confections (confections made of chocolate) are treated as a separate category, as are sugar-free versions of sugar confections. The words "candy" (US and Canada), "sweets" (UK and Ireland), and "lollies" (Australia and New Zealand) are common words for the most common varieties of sugar confectionery.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1685216',
'title': 'Sugaring',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Sugaring is a food preservation method similar to pickling. Sugaring is the process of desiccating a food by first dehydrating it, then packing it with pure sugar. This sugar can be crystalline in the form of table or raw sugar, or it can be a high sugar density liquid such as honey, syrup or molasses.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50606554',
'title': 'List of sugars',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'This is a list of sugars and sugar products. Sugar is the generalized name for sweet, short-chain, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. There are various types of sugar derived from different sources.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1666561',
'title': 'Sugar candy',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Sugar candy is a sub-type of candy, which includes sugar candies as well as chocolates, chewing gum and other sweet foods. Candy, in turn, is a sub-type of confectionery, which also includes sweet pastries and sometimes ice cream. In British English, some of these sugar candies are called "sweets", and the name "candy" is used only for hard candies.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39008676',
'title': 'Added sugar',
'section': 'Section::::Added sugar consumption in the United States.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'In the United States, the most popular types of added sugar are sucrose and high-fructose corn syrup, both primarily composed of about half glucose and half fructose. Other types of added sugar include: all types of beet and cane sugars, all types of corn syrup (including solids), malt syrup, maple syrup, pancake syrup, fructose sweetener, liquid fructose, fruit juice concentrate, honey, and molasses. The most common types of foods containing added sugars are sweetened beverages, including most soft drinks. In the US, 20% of daily calorie consumption comes from that single source. The World Health Organization recommends that this number should be no higher than 10%. 13% of American population receives over 25% of their calories from added sugars, which often means they are not getting enough of other key nutrients.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Whats the difference between sugar in fruits, sugar in sweets, sugar in normal food (like potatoes, meat) and raw white sugar that I buy in supermarket? Which one is worse for my health?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["They are all sugar. \n\nThe only difference is that some foods (fruit for example) also have fiber in them, which very slightly slows down the rate at which your body absorbs the sugar. But that hardly matters unless you are diabetic. \n\nAlso some foods like fruits and potatoes have vitamins and minerals in them that are good for you. That doesn't make their sugars any less sugars. \n\nIn terms of calories, their sugars are for all intents and purposes just sugar. Try not to consume too much sugar.",
'Sugar is a category of molecules, including monosaccharides (one molecule, like glucose or fructose), disaccharides (two monosaccharides stuck together, eg 1 Glucose + 1 Fructose = 1 Sucrose), and polysaccharides (many mono or disaccharides stuck together, eg Starch which is a whole bunch of glucoses).\n\nThe sugar you find in fruit is mostly fructose. Fructose is a lot sweeter than glucose or sucrose, which means less of it is required to create the taste of sweetness. Many artificial sweeteners are fructose-based. Fructose is also less versatile than glucose in terms of what the body can use it for. \n\nThe sugar in sweets is typically sucrose, as is raw white sugar. Sucrose is broken down into 1 glucose and 1 fructose in your small intestine. The glucose is subsequently stored in the liver, whilst the fructose behaves like fructose. Generally, you need more sucrose to create a flavour of sweetness than you do fructose, however, sucrose is also *waaaaay* easier to make and also quite a lot easier to work with, which is why it\'s the go to sugar for things like baking. \n\nThe sugar in things like potatoes and meat *tend* to be glucose-based polysaccharides. In potatoes, this is starch. This kind of sugar you probably hear referred to most often as "carbohydrates". They\'re the carbohydrates that don\'t count as "of which sugar" on food labels. These sugars take quite a while for your digestive tract to digest, and are also very easily stored by the liver (the first stop of the blood after the small intestine, where glucose is absorbed), meaning that these large glucose-based polysaccharides are much less of an issue for blood sugar levels than sucrose is. Also, these polysaccharides don\'t taste sweet, which means they don\'t activate the brain\'s dopamine very much, and thus it\'s much harder to over-eat. \n\nBonus round: Lactose sugars found in milk and other dairy products are even less sweet than glucose, but is pretty much identical to glucose in terms of function since the body rapidly converts it into glucose. However, most humans can\'t actually digest lactose at all. \n\nNo sugar is directly worse for your health than any other. The real danger of sugar is that it can be addictive, and as a sweet substance, is also something we can be prone to eating far too much of just by accident. Sucrose in particular dissolves spectacularly well, so you can pack a *ton* of it into pretty much anything you want, like coke.',
"There are several types of sugar, the main ones being fructose, glucose and galactose. Sugar in fruits is mostly fructose. Raw white sugar and sugar in sweets is sucrose (which is half glucose and half fructose). Sugar in potatoes is eventually broken down into glucose.\n\nThe ones that are worse for your health are the ones that come already stripped out of the plant cells, so that eating it is like a junkie injecting it straight into their veins. The fancy term for that is **acellular carbohydrates**, because they aren't packaged in cells the way the fructose from fruit and the glucose from potatoes comes. Your digestive system absorbs the acellular carbs in one massive hit as you eat them rather than over hours as your body breaks down the fibre around the sugars in other foods.\n\nSo the 'bad' sugars are white sugar, things with white sugar in them, and sugary drinks. \n\nThe 'good' sugars are ones which come inside wholefoods like fruit, potatoes etc etc."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'f2gktp',
'query': 'whats the difference between sugar in fruits, sugar in sweets, sugar in normal food (like potatoes, meat) and raw white sugar that i buy in supermarket? which one is worse for my health?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '37201518',
'title': 'Plastic pollution',
'section': 'Section::::Effects on the environment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
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'end_character': 672,
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'passage_text': 'The distribution of plastic debris is highly variable as a result of certain factors such as wind and ocean currents, coastline geography, urban areas, and trade routes. Human population in certain areas also plays a large role in this. Plastics are more likely to be found in enclosed regions such as the Caribbean. It serves as a means of distribution of organisms to remote coasts that are not their native environments. This could potentially increase the variability and dispersal of organisms in specific areas that are less biologically diverse. Plastics can also be used as vectors for chemical contaminants such as persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52848801',
'title': 'Microbead-Free Waters Act 2015',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 1028,
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'passage_text': 'Plastics are made from petroleum and resist biodegredation, they absorb persistent organic pollutants, leach chemicals that are toxic to humans and other organisms, degrade ocean and terrestrial ecosystems, and may impact migratory patterns, trophic structures (food chains), and habitats around the world. Plastics are a direct threat to the well-being of marine life as they can lead to entanglement causing animals to drown, it can impair their ability to catch food, and ingested plastics can block digestive tracts and cause starvation and even death. The detrimental impacts that plastics have on individual animals affects not only their livelihood, but may also affect the balance of ocean ecosystem and the ecological services they provide for human benefit. With the numerous health and environmental concerns that plastics pose, bans against many single use plastic products have become more and more prevalent throughout local and state governments in the United States and even in other countries across the globe.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1827851',
'title': 'Marine debris',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'With the increasing use of plastic, human influence has become an issue as many types of (petrochemical) plastics do not biodegrade. Waterborne plastic poses a serious threat to fish, seabirds, marine reptiles, and marine mammals, as well as to boats and coasts. Dumping, container spillages, litter washed into storm drains and waterways and wind-blown landfill waste all contribute to this problem.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1831174',
'title': 'Plastic wrap',
'section': 'Section::::Food use.:Environmental concerns.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The accumulation of plastic debris on the Earth threatens both wildlife and the environment. Plastic debris might choke or trap wildlife, and it could also penetrate toxic compounds into ecosystems. This land-originated problem has become a problem in ocean ecosystem as well since streams and rivers which are close to the land have carried the plastic debris into the coast, and currents transfer it to everywhere in the ocean. Plastic debris is a potential danger to all forms of aquatic life. Some marine species, like sea turtles, take plastic as prey items by mistake. Besides, some species might even pick up plastics and feed their offspring, which cause huge problems on growth and even cause mortality. Toxic compounds in plastics can disrupt hormone regulation in the cells of organisms, which can lead to alteration of animals’ mating behavior, reproductive ability, and even cause the development of tumors. Plastic debris could be a big threat to lives in the ocean.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42962805',
'title': 'Conservation and restoration of plastic objects',
'section': 'Section::::Common plastics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 490,
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'passage_text': 'Biodegradable plastics have become an issue because as plastic is used in many everyday objects the push to create biodegradable plastics has been on the rise. This causes an issue for conservators because these object will ultimately degrade as their composition is designed to as there is an increase in plastic waste. It is these biodegradable plastics that can be prove to be difficult and museums will need to provide research for these items quickly to slow done their deterioration.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37189697',
'title': 'Ecobricks',
'section': 'Section::::Context for Ecobricking.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 612,
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'passage_text': "A tremendous amount of plastic waste litters our planet every year, and its cost is huge. According to the UNEP 2014 Yearbook, plastic contamination threatens marine life, tourism, fisheries and businesses and the overall natural capital cost for plastic waste is $75 billion each year. Since plastics don't biodegrade but photodegrade, plastics in the fields or water just break down into small pieces. Plants and animals then absorb these toxic pieces and enter the human food chain. When the toxic materials are in the human food chain it may then lead to fatal consequences such as cancer and birth defects.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1255961',
'title': 'Zero waste',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Present day.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 35,
'end_character': 754,
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'passage_text': 'Biodegradable plastic is the most prominent example. One side argues that biodegradation of plastic is wasteful because plastic is expensive and environmentally damaging to make. Whether made of starch or petroleum, the manufacturing process expends all the same materials and energy costs. Factories are built, raw materials are procured, investments are made, machinery is built and used, humans labor and make use of all normal human inputs for education, housing, food etc. Even if the plastic is biodegraded after a single use, all of those costs are lost so it is much more important to design plastic parts for multiple reuse or perpetual lives. The other side argues that keeping plastic out of a dump or the sea is the sole benefit of interest.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why is plastic so bad for the environment if it's raw material literally comes out of earth ?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Plutonium literally comes from the earth, too.\n\nEverything item we use comes from the earth. Some, however, are toxic.\n\nPlastic is made from petroleum, and petroleum isn't good for the environment. ",
'it is difficult for it to decompose, it can be toxic if it is in the form of microplastics used in cosmetics and generally has really bad effect on animals since they frequently eat it/get stuck in it\n\nchemically speaking i cant say much more, but generally if it decomposed faster/in an easier way it would be much much better. ',
'Oil, the raw material for plastic is a fluid, the big problem is that plastic is too durable and does not exist naturally, but does not behave like rock. It does not bream down like organic matter, but is not an inorganic molecule. Peat and pitch two close natural materials are toxic for animals but they tend to stay in place unlike plastic which floats in water and disperses. Because of its flexibility and the inability to break down it clogs gills and airways killing animals who would not normally die from biological materials ingested the same way because they would break down. \n\nTo make things worse the monikers and plasticisers act like hormones to many animals and so muck up animal development.',
'The raw materials are converted into something nature has never experienced before. There are no organisms capable of processing it, so plastic trash might as well be everlasting rocks, but with no positives and countless negatives for the environment (especially marine life).\n\nThe problem is that plastics are less robust than rocks. They break into micro-sized fragments which are absorbed by marine animals. Imagine eating a mouthful of sand with every meal. That will screw up your digestive system. Also, plastics can be made in Long thin shapes like plastic bags / ribbons. These can tangle easily, and choke animals to death, or block their digestive tract. Because it doesn’t degrade, there is no option but to slowly die.\n\nIf an organism evolved to digest plastic, there would be less problems with plastic trash. Floating bits would break down into hydrocarbons and become feed material for plants. Unfortunately, evolving an organism capable of doing so will be slow.\n\nLook up the Carboniferous period. The exact same thing happened with wood lignin. When woody plants first evolved, nothing digested wood pulp and it just littered the entire world. Literally miles deep of coal rocks were formed from this wooden layer not decaying and slowly being compressed. Eventually some fungi evolved to digest it and now we don’t worry about “wood pollution”.',
'It isn\'t a "raw material" that literally comes out of the Earth. It is a highly processed material that is extremely hard to break down.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '94zye7',
'query': "why is plastic so bad for the environment if it's raw material literally comes out of earth ?",
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '29997133',
'title': 'LCD crosstalk',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'Certain patterns, particularly those involving fine dots, can interact with the inversion and reveal visible cross-talk. If you try moving a small Window in front of the inversion pattern (above) which makes your screen flicker the most, you may well see cross-talk in the surrounding pattern.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '64343',
'title': 'Moiré pattern',
'section': '',
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'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 410,
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'passage_text': 'Moiré patterns appear in many different situations. In printing, the printed pattern of dots can interfere with the image. In television and digital photography, a pattern on an object being photographed can interfere with the shape of the light sensors to generate unwanted artifacts. They are also sometimes created deliberately – in micrometers they are used to amplify the effects of very small movements.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1598512',
'title': 'Random dot stereogram',
'section': 'Section::::Further developments.:Dynamic random dot stereograms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 265,
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'passage_text': 'Dynamic random-dot stereograms consist in a moving stereoscopic (cyclopean) form made of moving random dots, camouflaged by further random dots. The observer is to make a perceptual judgment about the shape and/or motion of the dichoptically presented moving form.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1598512',
'title': 'Random dot stereogram',
'section': '',
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'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 288,
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'passage_text': 'Random-dot stereogram (RDS) is stereo pair of images of random dots which when viewed with the aid of a stereoscope, or with the eyes focused on a point in front of or behind the images, produces a sensation of depth, with objects appearing to be in front of or behind the display level.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46867928',
'title': 'In re Alappat',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 263,
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'passage_text': 'There were two problems, however, with these displays. First, the jaggies would create a "staircase effect." Second, random noise superimposed on the signal makes the lines appear to flicker and move up and down or from side to side (which is called "aliasing").\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1952417',
'title': 'Intarsia (knitting)',
'section': 'Section::::Technique.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 363,
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'passage_text': 'Intarsia patterns are almost always given as charts (which, because of the mechanics of knitting, are read beginning at the lower right and continuing upward). The charts generally look like highly pixellated cartoon drawings, in this sense resembling dot-matrix computer graphics or needlepoint patterns (though usually without the colour nuance of the latter).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23289',
'title': 'Persistence of vision',
'section': 'Section::::Natural occurrences and applications.:Color-top / Newton disc.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 213,
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'passage_text': 'Colors on spinning tops or rotating wheels mix together if the motion is too fast to register the details. A colored dot then appears as a circle and one line can make the whole surface appear in one uniform hue.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does a weird wavy patter appear if a small chequered pattern moves across a screen?',
'selftext': '*Pattern',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['As always, there\'s [a relevant xkcd](_URL_0_) for that!\n\nWhat you\'re seeing is a [moiré pattern](_URL_1_), which happens when a repeating pattern (lines, dots, a grid, etc) is more fine than the sensor/resolution of whatever is photographing or displaying it. Think of aliasing in videogames, where an angled line has to be represented with square pixels and can end up looking blocky and "jaggy" as a result. Moiré patterns are similar in that the camera or screen just can\'t capture every detail of the pattern and so some of the pixels end up shifting around to try to approximate it as best it can.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '6luigk',
'query': 'why does a weird wavy patter appear if a small chequered pattern moves across a screen?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '314437',
'title': 'Thermography',
'section': 'Section::::Thermal energy.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Thermal images, or thermograms, are actually visual displays of the amount of infrared energy emitted, transmitted, and reflected by an object. Because there are multiple sources of the infrared energy, it is difficult to get an accurate temperature of an object using this method. A thermal imaging camera is capable of performing algorithms to interpret that data and build an image. Although the image shows the viewer an approximation of the temperature at which the object is operating, the camera is actually using multiple sources of data based on the areas surrounding the object to determine that value rather than detecting the actual temperature.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '905803',
'title': 'Transparent ceramics',
'section': 'Section::::Night vision.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
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'passage_text': 'Thermal images are visual displays of the amount of infrared (IR) energy emitted, transmitted, and reflected by an object. Because there are multiple sources of the infrared energy, it is difficult to get an accurate temperature of an object using this method. A thermal imaging camera is capable of performing algorithms to interpret that data and build an image. Although the image shows the viewer an approximation of the temperature at which the object is operating, the camera is using multiple sources of data based on the areas surrounding the object to determine that value rather than detecting the temperature.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8202959',
'title': 'Thermal imaging camera',
'section': 'Section::::Construction.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A thermal imaging camera consists of five components: an optic system, detector, amplifier, signal processing, and display. Fire-service specific thermal imaging cameras incorporate these components in a heat-resistant, ruggedized, and waterproof housing. These parts work together to render infrared radiation, such as that given off by warm objects or flames, into a visible light representation in real time.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '181887',
'title': 'Night vision',
'section': 'Section::::Night vision technologies.:Thermal vision.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Thermal imaging detects the temperature difference between the background and the foreground objects. Some organisms are able to sense a crude thermal image by means of special organs that function as bolometers. This allows thermal infrared sensing in snakes, which functions by detection of thermal radiation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8202959',
'title': 'Thermal imaging camera',
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'passage_text': 'A thermal imaging camera (colloquially known as a TIC) is a type of thermographic camera used in firefighting. By rendering infrared radiation as visible light, such cameras allow firefighters to see areas of heat through smoke, darkness, or heat-permeable barriers. Thermal imaging cameras are typically handheld, but may be helmet-mounted. They are constructed using heat- and water-resistant housings, and ruggedized to withstand the hazards of fireground operations.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '181887',
'title': 'Night vision',
'section': 'Section::::Night vision technologies.:Thermal vision.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Thermal imaging cameras are excellent tools for night vision. They detect thermal radiation and do not need a source of illumination. They produce an image in the darkest of nights and can see through light fog, rain and smoke (to a certain extent). Thermal imaging cameras make small temperature differences visible. Thermal imaging cameras are widely used to complement new or existing security networks, and for night vision on aircraft, where they are commonly referred to as "FLIR" (for "forward-looking infrared"). When coupled with additional cameras (for example, a visible camera or SWIR) multispectral sensors are possible, which take advantage of the benefits of each detection band capabilities. Contrary to misconceptions portrayed in the media, thermal imagers cannot \'see\' through solid objects (walls for example), nor can they see through glass or perspex as both these materials have their own thermal signature and are opaque to long wave infrared radiation.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '241913',
'title': 'Thermographic camera',
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'passage_text': 'A thermographic camera (also called an infrared camera or thermal imaging camera or infrared thermography) is a device that forms a heat zone image using infrared radiation, similar to a common camera that forms an image using visible light. Instead of the 400–700 nanometre range of the visible light camera, infrared cameras operate in wavelengths as long as 14,000\xa0nm (14\xa0µm). Their use is called thermography.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does Thermal Imaging work?',
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'category': 'Technology',
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'answers': ['You build a camera that can see the color of light just slightly lower than red on the spectrum.\n\nThen show the intensity of this light as a color scale. White for a lot of intensity, black for none.',
"Heat sources emit electromagnetic radiation with a frequency respecting to their temperature. The visible spectrum of EM radiation ranges from red to violet. The sun's surface is about 5000 Kelvin hot and our eyes happen to see this light. Infrared means that the frequency of the EM radiation coming from an object is below the visible specrum due to lower temperature than the sun, anyway it can still be detected and it's frequency measured pretty accurately.\n\nBut How do we get a picture we CAN see?\n\nLike digital cameras have light sensitive chips that render visible light directly to true red- green- and blue information in their memory, we can build a chip that detects light of lower frequency and renders it to any other colour and intensity value in real time.\n\nIt's just a microchip doing real time calculus, mapping the gathered frequency and intensity information to another color map we can display and see.",
'To summarise in a genuinely simple ELI5-way: all objects with any heat at all emit infrared waves. Thermal imaging simply uses sensors/cameras that "see" infrared instead of visible light, and converts it to light we can see.\n\nTechnically speaking, humans even emit visible light. It\'s just such a ridiculously tiny amount that you can\'t tell.',
"Electromagnetic radiation is a wave-like physical phenomenon that takes different names depending of its frequency, i.e. how fast the wave oscillates. \n\nThe radiation our eyes can detect we call it visible light. But radio waves, microwaves, x-rays, gamma rays, infrared and ultraviolet are all 'flavours' electromagnetic radiation of different ranges of frequency.\n\nEvery object emits spontaneously radiation, most intensely on a certain frequency that grows as the temperature grows.\n\nThat's why heated metal starts to glow read: at a certain point our eyes can pick up its 'thermal' radiation. \n\nEvery room temperature object emits in a range of radiation called infrared that our eyes can't see. It's just 'before' the red color, that's the first we can see. \n\nIf you build a detector, exactly like those of a regular camera, but tuned on the infrared instead of visible light, you can obtain a thermal picture. \n\nThen you convert it on a scale of visible colors on screen to make our human mind understand.",
'Most heat is transmitted as infrared light. Infrared light isn\'t visible to human eyes. It\'s relatively easy with modern technology though to make a sensor that can detect it. Attach that sensor to a computer and tell the computer to display the different levels of heat as different colors and boom: thermal imaging.\n\nBonus science: the discovery of IR is one of my favorite science stories. If you were to guess when IR was discovered what year would you think? Whatever your guess I bet it was a lot later than the answer: 1800. William Herschel discovered it by accident with a thermometer.\n\nHe had set up a prism to refract sunlight onto a table. He put thermometers down in each of different colored bands on the table because he wanted to see if there was a difference in the colors of light. He also wanted a control temperature for the ambient room temperature so he had an additional thermometer on the table just past the red light on the end. When he checked his readings he discovered that there was indeed temperature differences between the various colors. That was interesting, but what was especially surprising was that his "control" thermometer had the highest temperature reading of all. That initially made no sense, but with some additional expiramentation he determined that there most be an additional band of non-visible light beyond the red that carried a lot of heat energy. He called it infrared for "below red".\n\nImagine that. A guy discovered an invisible part of the electromagnetic spectrum by *accident* using a *thermometer.*',
'Actual ELI5:\n\nWhen things get hot, they let out tiny invisible waves,\n\nThese waves are captured by a special lens\n\nThe waves then hit a tiny special component, and the material gets hotter\n\nWhen it heats up, its electrical resistance changes\n\nEach tiny special component corresponds to a pixel on the display\n\nThe pixel just shows a unique colour for each resistance (/temperature)\n\nPut many pixels together, and you have a colourful picture of resistance/temperature values in the form of colour',
' \n\nThe analog value from the pixels detectors are converted to digital values, usually already in the chip. These digital values are going thought some calculation to correct for difference sensitivities in the pixels to get consistent values. So that a specific digital value always corresponds to the same temperature regardless of differences in pixels detectors. After this each value is mapped into palette that converts it to RGB that is displayed. The palette are usually selectable by the user. In addition to this there might also be some math converting the values to temperature if it is what you want. The detectors can be of different types. Very common today is bolometric detector elements. Each element are heated by the received radiation. And the change in resistance caused by this heating are measured. All this is made in real time. \n\n\n ( from somebody developing IR cameras at FLIR for 25 years )',
'A microbolometer is used for most thermal cameras. This is a fancy name for an array of a large number of temperature sensors.\n\nInfrared radiation is emitted by hot objects. This causes the individual pixels in the microbolometer to warm up. The change in temperature is measured by an electronic circuit, in much the same fashion as a digital image sensor measures the change. This is displayed using a defined thermal "palette" - hotter colours usually appearing brighter or more yellow/red.\n\nBecause the wavelength of the infrared light is much longer (8 to 13 micrometers compared to 450 to 700 nanometers - about twenty times larger) it is necessary to have much larger sensor pixels than an ordinary camera. The sensors also need to be kept apart from each other, so that they can produce an accurate image without the adjacent sensors causing too much interference. This means that thermal cameras generally have a low resolution. Most are under 160 x 120 pixels - which is about 400x less pixels than a smartphone camera (19.2Kpixels vs 8Mpixels). \n\nSome microbolometer sensors have cooling to reduce their sensitivity to changes in the environment. Other sensors use a shutter, which is made of metal, so its temperature can be measured easily by a separate sensor. This provides a calibration factor. The shutter needs to be put in front of the sensor periodically to measure the reference temperature and compensate for errors in the sensor. If you have heard a thermal imaging camera "click" and have the image update pause, this is because it is calibrating. More advanced thermal cameras have a continuously rotating shutter that means the image doesn\'t get updated. \n\nOther technologies are used for thermal imaging (old cameras often used vidicon tubes optimised for thermal applications) but microbolometers are how the majority of thermal imaging cameras function.\n\nFun bonus fact: Because thermal imaging cameras are valuable in military operations, they are restricted to 9 Hz refresh rate (9 frames per second) for consumer applications. This is ostensibly intended to stop people using them for combat operations. \n\nAdditional bonus fun fact: FLIR makes the most thermal imaging sensors and holds a patent on a thermal imager with more than 14 thermal imaging sensors in a row. To work around this patent, a competitor, Raytheon, deliberately disables every 13th thermal imaging pixel on their thermal imaging array. The missing pixels are replaced with estimates from the adjacent area. Patents like these shouldn\'t be granted, but it goes to show why when writing a patent application, you should consider how it will be worked around.',
"Step1: Thermal emission. Everything everywhere is constantly emitting photons based on its temperature. The energy distribution of the photons depends on the temperature of the object, but the sheer number of photons depends on the emissivity of the object as well. Things that conduct heat easier have a higher emissivity, so if you have a warm piece of metal and a hot piece of wood, simple cameras that only count photons in a small range could see them as the same temperature. That being said, most cameras operate this way because temperature emissivity separation is hard to do and relative emissivity is typically what you actually want. \n\nStep 1.5: The air is in the way. It both absorbs some of the photons from the object and emits some of its own that you will detect. There's no way around this, but if you know how much air is in the way you can estimate how far off your measurements are. It's not really a step as you basically just do nothing. \n\nStep 2: Reception on the focal plane. Different materials are sensitive to different ranges of photons. Silicon is great for the visible spectrum and near infra red. If you keep going lower in energy (with something like geranium) you start to get to the level where you detect photons emitted by objects around you just due to their temperature/emissivity. As the detectors on the focal plane receive photons they kick off electrons and build up charge. \n\nStep 3: Digitization and processing. The charge on each pixel of the array is read. This is the digital count value. There is some read noise associated with this process, but modern tech is pretty good at keeping it very small. The camera now uses its calibrated look up table to go from digital counts to temperature. If your camera performs temperature emissivity separation, it does that here. Most thermal cameras however just assume everything has the same emissivity and give the temperature that a black body (something that doesn't reflect and only emits based on its temperature) would be to give that number of digital counts.\n\nStep 4. Display. We've decided that the red- blue scale is a good way to convey temperature information to people, so we color the pixels for display between red and blue based on the calculated temperature and show it to a person."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'ffst65',
'query': 'how does thermal imaging work?',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '396723',
'title': 'Diseconomies of scale',
'section': 'Section::::Solutions.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Solutions to the diseconomies of scale for large firms may involve splitting the company into smaller organisations. This can either happen by default when the company is in financial difficulties, sells off its profitable divisions and shuts down the rest; or can happen proactively, if the management is willing.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '35086131',
'title': 'South African company law',
'section': 'Section::::Features.:Separateness.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The separation between the shareholder and the company has one other important consequence. If a company is wound up, its shareholders will lose their stake, but their separateness from the company will prevent its creditors from pursuing them for fulfilment of the its debts. If, on the other hand, an unincorporated business should go bankrupt, its owners, who do not enjoy such separation, will be liable for its debts.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '262293',
'title': 'Public company',
'section': 'Section::::Privatization.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A group of private investors or another company that is privately held can buy out the shareholders of a public company, taking the company private. This is typically done through a leveraged buyout and occurs when the buyers believe the securities have been undervalued by investors. In some cases, public companies that are in severe financial distress may also approach a private company or companies to take over ownership and management of the company. One way of doing this would be to make a rights issue designed to enable the new investor to acquire a supermajority. With a super-majority, the company could then be relisted, i.e. privatized.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '4208886',
'title': 'Bilfinger',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In February 2018 the company announced that it would seek damages from the former directors of the company after alleged breaches in compliance and a series of acquisitions that failed to create shareholder value.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '1619748',
'title': 'Dual-listed company',
'section': 'Section::::Motivations for adopting a DLC structure.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A third motive is the reduction of investor flow-back, which would depress the price of the stock of one of the firms in their own market if the merger route were used instead. That is, some institutional investors cannot own the shares of firms domiciled outside the home country or can only own such shares in limited quantity. In addition, in a merger, the non-surviving firm would be removed from all the indices. Index tracking funds would then have to sell the shares of the surviving company. With the DLC structure, all of this would be avoided.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40522007',
'title': 'Benefit corporation',
'section': 'Section::::Differences from traditional corporations.\n',
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'passage_text': "In the ordinary course of business, decisions made by a corporation's directors are generally protected by the business judgment rule, under which courts are reluctant to second-guess operating decisions made by directors. In a takeover or change of control situation, however, courts give less deference to directors’ decisions and require that directors obtain the highest price in order to maximize shareholder value in the transaction. Thus a corporation may be unable to maintain its focus on social and environmental factors in a change of control situation because of the pressure to maximize shareholder value. If a company does change ownership and the result is no longer in adherence to its initially described benefit goals, the sale could be challenged in court.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12101842',
'title': 'Welsh Highland Railway restoration',
'section': 'Section::::Controversy and complication.:Trackbed Consolidation Ltd.:Financial reconstruction.\n',
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'passage_text': 'With the benefit of hindsight, we now know that this whole strategy was flawed from the outset. For one thing, the Companies Act prevents the transfer of shares/debentures, or the appointment of new directors, once a company becomes subject to a winding-up order – unless ordered by the Court.\n',
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'title': 'When a large company is broken up via anti-Trust litigation, how is it decided who owns the new, smaller companies?',
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'category': 'Economics',
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'answers': ['The same people who owned the larger company get an equal percentage of each of the smaller companies.'],
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'query_id': 'c5z493',
'query': 'when a large company is broken up via anti-trust litigation, how is it decided who owns the new, smaller companies?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '25657577',
'title': 'Urine diversion',
'section': 'Section::::Types of urine diversion devices.:Urinals.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Urine diversion toilet designs generally require men to sit or squat while urinating in order to avoid unhygienic splashing of urine. In cultures where men prefer to stand for urination, urinals are a good complementary solution. Urinals – widely used by men at public toilets, restaurants, schools, etc. – work as urine diversion devices because urine is collected separately from feces. When urinals do not use water for flushing (called "waterless urinals"), they can collect the urine pure, meaning without dilution with water. Suppliers for waterless urinals can easily be found on the internet.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '19283589',
'title': 'Urinal (health care)',
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'passage_text': 'Generally, patients who are able to are encouraged to walk to the toilet or use a bedside commode as opposed to a urinal. The prolonged use of a urinal has been shown to lead to constipation or trouble urinating.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28032864',
'title': 'Squatting position',
'section': 'Section::::Female urination position.\n',
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'passage_text': 'When not urinating into a toilet, squatting is the easiest way for a female to direct the urine stream (although many women find that they can do so standing up). If done this way, the urine will go forward. Some females use one or both hands to focus the direction of the urine stream, which is more easily achieved while in the squatting position.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1053470',
'title': 'Public toilet',
'section': 'Section::::Purposes.:Health aspects.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The inability to satisfy essential physiological needs because no toilet is available contributes to health issues such as urinary tract infections, kidney infections, and digestive problems which can later develop into severe health problems. Inadequate access to a public toilets when required can lead to substantial problems for men with prostate problems, women who are menstruating or going through the menopause and anyone with urinary and fecal incontinence.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1083155',
'title': 'Composting toilet',
'section': 'Section::::Basics.:Components and use.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Some composting toilets divert urine (and water used for anal washing) to prevent the creation of anaerobic conditions that can result from over saturation of the compost, which leads to odors and vector problems. This usually requires all users to use the toilet in a seated position. Offering a waterless urinal in addition to the toilet can help keep excess amounts of urine out of the composting chamber. Alternatively, in rural areas, men and boys may be encouraged just to find a tree. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32833705',
'title': 'Modes of mechanical ventilation',
'section': 'Section::::Spontaneous breathing and support settings.:Positive end-expiratory pressure.\n',
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'passage_text': 'PEEP is a pressure that an exhalation has to bypass, in effect causing alveoli to remain open and not fully deflate. This mechanism for maintaining inflated alveoli helps increase partial pressure of oxygen in arterial blood, and an increase in PEEP increases the PaO.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5048086',
'title': 'Unisex public toilet',
'section': 'Section::::Designs.:Urinals.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The issue of urinals is creating somewhat of a conundrum for many unisex public toilet designers. In many public toilets, the widespread use of urinals for males means that there are more opportunities to meet their needs. Since about 90% of public toilets are used for urination, there are often regular queues in front of female toilets with unused toilet cubicles in the male area. While toilets are usually located in cubicles with lockable doors, urinals are usually installed freely in rows in sex-separated toilet rooms. This construction leads to a smaller space consumption and thus to more possibilities for urinating, while promoting better hygiene and economic efficiency for men/boys at work/school and elsewhere.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'The need to pee and proximety to the toilet?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It has to do with "Pavlovs Dog", basically we\'re so used to or "conditioned" to associate the toilet with urinating.'],
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'query_id': 'aw42l3',
'query': 'the need to pee and proximety to the toilet?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '5398413',
'title': 'Viral vector',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Viral vectors are tools commonly used by molecular biologists to deliver genetic material into cells. This process can be performed inside a living organism ("in vivo") or in cell culture ("in vitro"). Viruses have evolved specialized molecular mechanisms to efficiently transport their genomes inside the cells they infect. Delivery of genes, or other genetic material, by a vector is termed transduction and the infected cells are described as transduced. Molecular biologists first harnessed this machinery in the 1970s. Paul Berg used a modified SV40 virus containing DNA from the bacteriophage λ to infect monkey kidney cells maintained in culture.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '13865571',
'title': 'Vector (epidemiology)',
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'passage_text': 'In epidemiology, a disease vector is any agent who carries and transmits an infectious pathogen into another living organism; most agents regarded as vectors are organisms, such as intermediate parasites or microbes, but it could be an inanimate medium of infection such as dust particles.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23665572',
'title': 'Dispersal vector',
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'passage_text': 'A dispersal vector is an agent of biological dispersal that moves a dispersal unit, or organism, away from its birth population to another location or population in which the individual will reproduce. These dispersal units can range from pollen to seeds to fungi to entire organisms.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40364158',
'title': 'Antibiotic use in livestock',
'section': 'Section::::Concentrated animal feeding operations.:Manure.:Groundwater contamination.:Vectors.\n',
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'passage_text': "A vector, in this context, is an organism that transmits disease to another organism. Insects such as flies and mosquitoes have high amounts of breeding grounds and nests of eggs around manure waste, allowing rapid reproduction and fresh vectors for potential disease. Typically with dense populations of livestock, transmission of disease from one animal to another can be on account of insects, such as flies, mosquitoes or ticks, spreading blood from one animal to another. This can be particularly dangerous for sick animals spreading diseases to healthier animals, promoting general malaise in a concentrated area. Additionally, the animals can be infected from other animals' manure making contact with their food; fecal-oral transmission are one of the largest sources for pathogen transmission. Within concentrated animal farming operations, there is no mandatory testing of novel viruses, only reporting known illnesses to the World Organization for Animal Health. Thus, certain mutations or recombinant bacteria strains, which are more efficient in translation to human to human events, can be unnoticed.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19167679',
'title': 'Virus',
'section': 'Section::::Role in human disease.:Epidemiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 87,
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'passage_text': 'Viral epidemiology is the branch of medical science that deals with the transmission and control of virus infections in humans. Transmission of viruses can be vertical, which means from mother to child, or horizontal, which means from person to person. Examples of vertical transmission include hepatitis B virus and HIV, where the baby is born already infected with the virus. Another, more rare, example is the varicella zoster virus, which, although causing relatively mild infections in children and adults, can be fatal to the foetus and newborn baby.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6706071',
'title': 'List of diseases spread by invertebrates',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "Invertebrates are very common vectors of disease. A vector is an organism which spreads disease from one host to another. Invertebrates spread bacterial, viral and protozoan pathogens by two main mechanisms. Either via their bite, as in the case of malaria spread by mosquitoes, or via their faeces, as in the case of Chagas' Disease spread by Triatoma bugs or epidemic typhus spread by human body lice.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1449983',
'title': 'Natural reservoir',
'section': 'Section::::Disease transmission.:Indirect transmission.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
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'passage_text': 'Vector transmission occurs most often from insect bites from mosquitoes, flies, fleas, and ticks. There are two sub-categories of vectors: "mechanical" (an insect transmits the pathogen to a host without the insect itself being affected) and "biological" (reproduction of the pathogen occurs within the vector before the pathogen is transmitted to a host). To give a few examples, "Morbillivirus" (measles) is transmitted from an infected human host to a susceptible host as they are transmitted by respiration through airborne transmission. "Campylobacter" (campylobacteriosis) is a common bacterial infection that is spread from human or non-human reservoirs by vehicles such as contaminated food and water. "Plasmodium falciparum" (malaria) can be transmitted from an infected mosquito, an animal (non-human) reservoir, to human host by biological vector transmission.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is a viral vector?',
'selftext': "I read Dan Brown's Inferno and was wondering what this is. How does it work? How is it different from a regular virus?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['a viral vector is how a virus transmits. Viral means it duplicates and passes from person-person thing to thing, vector is just a direction, colloquially equivalent to "way".\n\nSo airborne viruses use air as a viral vector, things like aides use bodily fluids. Malaria uses Mosquitos as a viral vector.\n\nSo not different from a regular virus, just how that virus goes from person to person.',
'A vector, terms of biology, is an organism that transmits something from one place to another. In the case of a viral vector, a virus is being used to transmit genetic elements or the production of some biologically-relevant component between cells or organisms.\n\nOne example of a viral vector would be a non-harmful virus (only a small fraction of viruses cause harm during infection), which has been genetically modified to deliver DNA encoding a protein that a person otherwise lacked.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '7y9wxz',
'query': 'what is a viral vector?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '10512779',
'title': 'Iatrophysics',
'section': 'Section::::Iatrophysicists.:Other Iatrophysicists.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 690,
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'passage_text': "Santorio Santorio was a Venetian doctor who, in attempt to quantify human digestion, carefully measured his food/water intake and excretion weight over many years. To establish a mathematical relationship between food/water intake and excretion, Santorius designed a special chair that had a balance that weighed a subject's meal and consequent excrement. Based on these measurements, he then calculated the net change in weight for each day. In addition to knowing what he took in, he also analyzed the contents of his excretions and secretions, categorizing it by type and origin. He also made other clinical instruments to measure other medical quantities such as temperature and pulse.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2281037',
'title': 'Emaciation',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 1360,
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'passage_text': 'Other than treating, curing or remedying the underlying cause of emaciation, it as a symptom is treated by regaining the weight and restoring the tissues. This is done through renourishment, or reintroducing nourishing liquids and foods to the body while increasing the intake of food energy. The process, usually begun in an individual deprived of food for a period of time, must be done slowly to avoid complications such as regurgitation and vomiting. It begins with spoonfuls of water and salted broth, advancing to increased amounts of clear liquids including broth, tea and fruit juices. This soon is advanced to full liquid diet such as milk (if no lactose intolerance is present) and cream-based soups. Once solid food is introduced, an emaciated individual is usually given up to eight small meals per day, at two-hour intervals. Meals may consist of a small milkshake to minor portions of meat with a starchy side item. For the purposes of weight gain and tissue rebuilding, the diet will be focused on proteins, fats and carbohydrates that are rich in vitamins and minerals, and relatively high in energy. Oily foods and high-fiber foods like grains and certain vegetables are discouraged because they are difficult to digest, and filling while lower in energy. Treatment of emaciation also includes much sleep, rest and relaxation, and counseling.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37930465',
'title': 'Fish physiology',
'section': 'Section::::Digestion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
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'passage_text': 'In most vertebrates, digestion is a four-stage process involving the main structures of the digestive tract, starting with ingestion, placing food into the mouth, and concluding with the excretion of undigested material through the anus. From the mouth, the food moves to the stomach, where as bolus it is broken down chemically. It then moves to the intestine, where the process of breaking the food down into simple molecules continues and the results are absorbed as nutrients into the circulatory and lymphatic system.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35799849',
'title': 'Sympathoadrenal system',
'section': 'Section::::Hypertension and obesity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'end_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'Weight gain can be accomplished through the ingestion of and storage of carbohydrates and fat. Under normal conditions, adrenal hormone receptors, type I and type II, mediate the storage of carbohydrates and fats during eating. In some cases, obesity in individuals is due to the overproduction of corticoids leads to the over-activation of receptor type I and type II, causing the deposition of fat and the storage of carbohydrates, respectively; furthermore, activation of either receptor causes the individual to sustain eating.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '165423',
'title': 'Digestion',
'section': 'Section::::Overview of vertebrate digestion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 50,
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'passage_text': 'In most vertebrates, digestion is a multistage process in the digestive system, starting from ingestion of raw materials, most often other organisms. Ingestion usually involves some type of mechanical and chemical processing. Digestion is separated into four steps:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1149933',
'title': 'Weight gain',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': "Weight gain has a latency period. The effect that eating has on weight gain can vary greatly depending on the following factors: energy (calorie) density of foods, exercise regimen, amount of water intake, amount of salt contained in the food, time of day eaten, age of individual, individual's country of origin, individual's overall stress level, and amount of water retention in ankles/feet. Typical latency periods vary from three days to two weeks after ingestion.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '165423',
'title': 'Digestion',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water-soluble food molecules so that they can be absorbed into the watery blood plasma. In certain organisms, these smaller substances are absorbed through the small intestine into the blood stream. Digestion is a form of catabolism that is often divided into two processes based on how food is broken down: mechanical and chemical digestion. The term mechanical digestion refers to the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by digestive enzymes. In chemical digestion, enzymes break down food into the small molecules the body can use.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Describe the process of gaining weight. From ingestion to digestion and so on.',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['When you eat food, your body breaks down the larger nutritious molecules into simple glucose molecules. Glucose is the fuel that your body uses. The body takes a few steps to do this starting with physically grinding up the food with your teeth, then chemical breakdown with your saliva, then further chemical breakdown with stomach acid, and then further breakdown in the small intestine. Each type of nutrient molecule (carbs, fat, protein) is broken down with a different process, but in the end, the molecule is broken up into much smaller glucose molecules, which are absorbed into your blood through the small intestine.\n\nThe glucose molecules travel through the blood to enter individual cells where they are used to perform different functions in the cells. Your body needs a careful balance of glucose in the blood at all times. If glucose levels are low, cells can\'t function. If glucose levels are high, cells can be damaged. \n\nBecause of this, our body has a way of storing glucose molecules for later use. If the glucose levels get too high, the insulin hormone is released. Insulin pulls glucose out of the blood, and stores it in a molecule called glycogen, which is basically lots of glucose molecules chained together. Glycogen molecules get stored in the liver and muscles. Therefore the levels of glucose in the blood will decrease once insulin is released, thus saving your cells from damage.\n\nIf blood glucose levels get too low, the hormone glucagon is released. It does the opposite of insulin. It breaks off glucose molecules from the chains of glycogen, thus bringing your blood sugar levels back up. Glucagon and insulin keep your blood sugar levels balanced.\n\nSo now how do we get fat? There\'s only a finite amount of storage space for glycogen molecules. If they are full, then the body will start converting the medium-term storage glycogen molecules into long-term storage fat molecules. The fat molecules get stored in different locations throughout your body (exactly where is largely determined by genetics and gender). If your glycogen levels get low, then your body will convert fat into glycogen. This process takes a while, which is why it\'s not a good idea for the body to convert fat directly into glucose, and glucose directly into fat.\n\nSo knowing this, what does this tell us about losing weight? We should avoid foods that have lots of glucose molecules. These foods cause our blood sugar to spike, which causes an insulin release, which stores the energy, then causes our blood sugar levels to drop, which causes us to feel hungry again. The glucose molecules don\'t spend enough time in our blood to be used by our cells before being forced into storage. It\'s better to eat foods that "burn" slower, like long-chain carbohydrates (found in fruits, vegetables, and whole wheat bread), fats, and protein. These molecules shed glucose molecules into the blood slowly, thus they don\'t trigger an insulin response. This keeps your blood sugar levels more balanced, and keeps you feeling full longer.',
'You might find this interesting as well:\n\n_URL_0_'],
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'query_id': '7zhdcc',
'query': 'describe the process of gaining weight. from ingestion to digestion and so on.',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '29875101',
'title': 'Care work',
'section': 'Section::::Care work and the market.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
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'passage_text': 'Today, there are four parts of the economy: Business, Household, Public, and Non-profit. Typically, we only think that the business sector creates any wealth, and that the other three serve the business sector and alongside it. The truth is that all four parts of the economy generate wealth, and that wealth flows over into other sections of the economy as well. Part of the reason that unpaid care work is largely ignored is because of this belief that the household does not form wealth. In reality, the household prepares children for the other parts of the economy, and without that, none of the other sectors would flourish.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2512641',
'title': 'War finance',
'section': 'Section::::Borrowing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
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'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 375,
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'passage_text': "The economic consequences of this method of finance is less direct for the population, but equally important. The interests paid can be seen as pure wealth redistribution. Moreover, an accumulation of debt, which is too important, can affect the economy of a country, through its ability of refunding its debt. It can alter the confidence of people in the country's economy.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '339302',
'title': 'Campaign finance',
'section': 'Section::::Regulation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 797,
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'passage_text': 'The concept of political finance can affect various parts of a society\'s institutions which support governmental and social success. Correct handling of political finance impacts a country\'s ability to effectively maintain free and fair elections, effective governance, democratic government and regulation of corruption. The United Nations convention against Corruption, recognizing this, encouraged its members to "enhance transparency in the funding of candidatures for elected public office and, when applicable, the funding of political parties." When conducting a study pursuing and understanding of what international civil society has determined integral to regulation of political finance, Magnus Öhman and Hani Zainulbhai identified several common understandings by certain governments:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2851568',
'title': 'Avner Greif',
'section': 'Section::::Work.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'In "Institutions and the Path to the Modern Economy: Lessons from Medieval Trade" (2006), Greif argues that institutions play a central role in economic development: Studying institutions sheds light on why some countries are rich and others poor, why some enjoy a welfare-enhancing political order and others do not. Socially beneficial institutions promote welfare-enhancing cooperation and action. They provide the foundations of markets by efficiently assigning, protecting, and altering property rights; securing contracts; and motivating specialization and exchange. Good institutions also encourage production by fostering saving, investment in human and physical capital, and development and adoption of useful knowledge. They maintain a sustainable rate of population growth and foster welfare-enhancing peace; the joint mobilization of resources; and beneficial policies, such as the provision of public goods. The quality of these institutional foundations of the economy and the polity is paramount in determining a society’s welfare. This is the case because individuals do not always recognize what will be socially benefi- cial nor are they motivated to pursue it effectively in the absence of appropriate institutions. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1129225',
'title': 'One-Dimensional Man',
'section': 'Section::::Summary.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'Modern industrial societies have furthermore created an "affluent society", which in increasing comfort have disguised the exploitative nature of the system, and have therefore strengthened means of domination and control. Modern "affluent society" therefore limits opportunities for political revolution against capitalism.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15540246',
'title': 'Social Finance Ltd.',
'section': 'Section::::Core activities.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': "Social Finance's core mission is to find better ways of tackling social problems in the UK and beyond. It partners with the government, the social sector and the financial community, to tackle entrenched social problems and bring rigour and capital to the delivery of social change. Social Finance designs financial and advisory services and products for organisations looking to deliver social impact. It looks for structures that offer flexibility and long-term funding, and encourage innovation to deliver maximum social impact.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1103799',
'title': 'Distribution of wealth',
'section': 'Section::::Wealth concentration.:Economic conditions.:Correlation between being rich and earning more.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 78,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 78,
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'passage_text': 'In the first case, being wealthy gives one the opportunity to earn more through high paid employment (e.g., by going to elite schools). In the second case, having high paid employment gives one the opportunity to become rich (by saving your money). In the case of plutocracy, the wealthy exert power over the legislative process, which enables them to increase the wealth disparity. An example of this is the high cost of political campaigning in some countries, in particular in the US (more generally, see also plutocratic finance).\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'how does the finance industry benefit society?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Depends which part you are talking about. You can get a financial advisor which will help you manage your assets and set you up so you can retire. You can deal with people that forecast costs a business will have to spend so you can plan for it. You can buy stocks and bonds which help 1 party get money for a large project and the other party can earn interest. \n\nFinance basically deals with anything related to money and helping manage those. Managing money is a benefit to society because it let's people be more efficient with what they have. ",
"At the most basic level, it would suck if you couldn't deposit money at a bank and had to keep all your money in a room in your house. One fire or break in and you've lost absolutely everything. And then you couldn't borrow any money to start over because, again, no banks.",
'i cant afford a house now.\n\nbut i could pay for it, in time.\n\nso how about a loan, so i can buy a house, and repay you that loan with some extra.\n\nthis means, if done well, that people can afford property where before they could not.\n\n\ni have a great idea, i could be rich if i had the means. what if someone fronted the money, i could start up a company and introduce a new product for everyone to benefit from.\nthis means, if done well, that anyone with a good idea has a chance to make it happen.\n\n\nof course, this is not how it allways works, but that is the general idea. more homeowners and more ideas develop.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '9baj0n',
'query': 'how does the finance industry benefit society?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '14527195',
'title': 'Activision Blizzard',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Background and formation (2007–2008).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': "Kotick proposed the merger to Activision's board, which agreed to it in December 2007. The new company was to be named Activision Blizzard, and would retain its central headquarters in California. Bobby Kotick of Activision was announced as the new president and CEO, while René Penisson of Vivendi was appointed chairman. The European Commission permitted the merger to take place in April 2008, approving that there weren't any antitrust issues in the merger deal. On July 8, 2008, Activision announced that stockholders had agreed to merge, and the deal closed the next day for an estimated transaction amount of US$18.9 billion.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1684763',
'title': 'Bizarre Creations',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'On 16 November 2010, Activision announced it was considering closing Bizarre and "exploring our options regarding the future of the studio, including a potential sale of the business". Activision later stated that no buyer could be found and that the studio would close.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16118202',
'title': 'Univision',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Revamp and competition with Telemundo in the 1990s and 2000s.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
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'passage_text': 'The buyout left the company with a debt level of twelve times its annual cash flow, which was twice the debt incurred in buyouts that occurred over the previous two years. However, Univision\'s shareholders filed two class action lawsuits against Univision Communications and its board members to stop the buyout – one of which claimed that the board members structured the deal to only benefit the company\'s insiders and not average stockholders, while the other was filed on behalf of a shareholder identified as L A Murphy, who claimed that the board put its own personal interests and the interests of the winning bidder ahead of shareholders, and also failed to adequately evaluate the company\'s worth. Additional lawsuits were filed in the meantime, including one against the Univision Records division for heavy-handed tactics, and a suit filed by a winner of a $30,000 makeover prize in a contest held by the network\'s morning program "¡Despierta América!" who alleged that Univision broke its own contest rules.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14527195',
'title': 'Activision Blizzard',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Activision Blizzard, Inc. is an American video game and film holding company based in Santa Monica, California. The company was founded in July 2008 through the merger of Activision, Inc., the holding company of Activision Publishing, and Vivendi Games, the company is traded on the NASDAQ stock exchange under the ticker symbol ATVI, and since 2015 has been one of the stocks that make up the S&P 500. Activision Blizzard currently includes five business units: Activision Publishing, Blizzard Entertainment, King, Major League Gaming, and Activision Blizzard Studios. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14527195',
'title': 'Activision Blizzard',
'section': 'Section::::History.:S&P 500 and new divisions (2015–present).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': "In November 2015, Activision Blizzard announced the formation of Activision Blizzard Studios, a film production arm that would produce films and television series based on Activision Blizzard's franchises. The outfit is co-headed by producer Stacey Sher and former The Walt Disney Company executive Nick van Dyk.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3506426',
'title': 'Major League Gaming',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Acquisition by Activision Blizzard.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Activision Blizzard confirmed the purchase on January 4, 2016. therefore Activision CEO Robert Kotick explained that the main target of the acquisition was MLG\'s streaming operation MLG.tv. Kotick explained to "The New York Times" that their eventual goal was to "build the ESPN of video games"—a television cable channel that would be devoted to e-sports coverage and analysis with "premium" in-house productions that could attract more major advertisers, either produced by Activision\'s staff or by outside producers. Despite the acquisition, MLG will continue to host events relating to games that are not published by Activision Blizzard\'s subsidiaries.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3020679',
'title': 'The London Studios',
'section': 'Section::::ITV.:ITV Studios.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
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'passage_text': "In 1994, Granada Group took over LWT and acquired the building. When ITV franchises were permitted to take one another over in the 1990s (which had previously been restricted), Carlton and Granada, between the two companies, eventually owned all the franchises in England and Wales. By the time the two companies merged in 2004, all of Carlton's studios had either been sold, or were surplus to requirements, so were sold soon after. Although the parent companies merged, and are now one (called ITV plc), Granada Television Ltd still exists as a subsidiary of ITV plc, and owns all ITV plc's studios (wholly in Leeds and London, and formerly as a joint venture with BBC Studios & Post Production in Manchester).\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does a company go about separating, like with Activision Blizzard?',
'selftext': 'How do you get both sides to agree to split?',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['I can’t say In activisions case. But my old company simply bought themselves a majority share. This means the company took all of their profits and bought back their own stock. In my old companies case it took around 10 years to complete but with enough capital a company could do it overnight.',
'The technicalities get incredibly complex with the number of legal issues.\n\nUsing your example, Activision Blizzard is one company. There are no "*both sides*" to agree and "*Activision Blizzard*" is just a name. Blizzard as we knew it is in effect a subsidiary of Activision Blizzard. \n\nNow the term "*splitting*" is too wide. I am assuming you mean a complete split of Blizzard as a separate entity. \n\nOne key idea is that shares = \'ownership\' in a company. So Activision Blizzard ultimately holds enough shares in Blizzard as a separate company to have a decisive say on how it ought to be run. The specifics get very technical, but the general principle is that many issues relating to the running of a company, such as appointment and removal of directors, are empowered on the shareholders. \n\nHow do companies split? Right now, Activision Blizzard owns a controlling share of Blizzard. If Blizzard were to be \'independent\' as its own company, then the Activision Blizzard owned shares in Blizzard would need to go back to \'Blizzard\'. This will probably be by selling its shares to whoever wants or will run Blizzard as an independent company etc. so Activision Blizzard no longer has an interest over it. \n\nOf course the laws, rule, and logistics behind it are much more complex than above, but that is the gist. '],
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'query_id': 'ah7h8e',
'query': 'how does a company go about separating, like with activision blizzard?',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '14703615',
'title': 'Burst mode (photography)',
'section': 'Section::::Use.\n',
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'passage_text': "Cameras capable of high continuous shooting rates are much desired when the subjects are in motion, as in sports photography, or where the opportunities are brief. Rather than anticipate the action precisely, photographers can simply start shooting from right before they believe the action will occur, giving a high chance of at least one frame being acceptable. Most modern digital SLR cameras have continuous shooting rates of between 3 and 8 frames per second, although very high end cameras such as the Canon EOS-1D X Mark II are capable of 14 frames per second with full autofocus, or 16 frames per second when in mirror lock-up mode. The Panasonic Lumix DMC-GH2 is capable of recording 40 still images per second in burst mode, at a slightly reduced resolution. In March 2014, Nikon claims its Nikon 1 V3 mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera has the world's fastest burst mode of 20fps Auto Focus tracking and 60fps at the first shot autofocus, both in 18.4MP full resolution. The claim is among digital cameras with interchangeable lenses (including (its) DSLR).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2119491',
'title': 'Casio Exilim',
'section': 'Section::::Features.:High-speed photography.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': 'Some cameras allow high-speed photography. The EX-FC100 and EX-FS10 allow taking short bursts of 30 pictures per second and shooting video up to 1000 frames per second, the EX-FH20 offers bursts of 40 pictures per second and 1000 frame/s video, and the EX-F1 offers bursts of 60 pictures per second and video of 1200 frame/s. However, the resolution of the video decreases drastically with increasing speed; in case of EX-F1, 300 frame/s are at 512x384 pixels, 600 frame/s at 432x192, and 1200 frame/s at 336x96. The burst shots are at full resolution. The EX-FC100 records 480x360 at 210 frame/s, 224x168 at 420 frame/s, and 224x64 at 1,000 frame/s. The Casio EX-FH25 is able to shoot at up to 1,000 frame/s at 224x64.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1657551',
'title': 'Automatic number-plate recognition',
'section': 'Section::::Components.:Imaging hardware.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 56,
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'passage_text': 'To avoid blurring it is ideal to have the shutter speed of a dedicated camera set to 1/1000 of a second. It is also important that the camera uses a global shutter, as opposed to rolling shutter, to assure that the taken images are distortion-free. Because the car is moving, slower shutter speeds could result in an image which is too blurred to read using the OCR software, especially if the camera is much higher up than the vehicle. In slow-moving traffic, or when the camera is at a lower level and the vehicle is at an angle approaching the camera, the shutter speed does not need to be so fast. Shutter speeds of 1/500 of a second can cope with traffic moving up to 40\xa0mph (64\xa0km/h) and 1/250 of a second up to 5\xa0mph (8\xa0km/h). License plate capture cameras can produce usable images from vehicles traveling at .\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3616597',
'title': 'Digital photography',
'section': 'Section::::Comparison with film photography.:Equivalent features.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 87,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'While some film cameras could reach up to 14 fps, like the Canon F-1 with rare high speed motor drive., professional digital SLR cameras can take still photographs at highest frame rates. While the Sony SLT technology allows rates of up to 12 fps, the Canon EOS-1Dx can take stills at a 14 fps rate. The Nikon F5 is limited to 36 continuous frames (the length of the film) without the cumbersome bulk film back, while the digital Nikon D5 is able to capture over 100 14-bit RAW images before its buffer must be cleared and the remaining space on the storage media can be used.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4252697',
'title': 'Closed-circuit television camera',
'section': 'Section::::Digital still cameras.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'At these resolutions, and with high shutter speeds like 1/125th of a second, it is possible to take jpg pictures on a continuous or motion detection basis that will capture not only anyone running past the camera scene, but even the faces of those driving past.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '444550',
'title': 'Flyball',
'section': 'Section::::Technology.:Pass Calling.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 468,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Some teams use digital video cameras to record the pass, and then review frame-by-frame to develop an estimate of distance, but the traditional frame rate of 30 frames per second (FPS) can present a problem in that it is unlikely to capture a frame of the exact moment the returning dog breaches the plane of the start/finish line. More recently, high-speed consumer cameras such as the Casio Exilim EX-FH100 have been used to record video at much higher frame rates.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1059088',
'title': 'Film look',
'section': 'Section::::Differences between video and film.:Shutter angle.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 321,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'For each frame, video cameras normally expose their sensor as long as they can, while film cameras only expose the negative up to half this time, so that they can transport the negative in the remaining time. Many video cameras now allow adjusting the shutter timing manually, though, so this is no longer a big concern.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If cameras can take videos with fps equaling single shutter speeds, why do photographers take dedicated still shots instead of video recording everything and later just isolating single frames for “photographs?”',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['In some cases you can, but when you take a single frame you have more control over the light. When you take a photo you can balance the depth of field, aperture size and iso- getting the right ratio of the three can give you much needed control in certain scenarios. When you record video- most of those settings become automatic so a lot of work might be needed in post production to get the shot you need. \n\nI’m sure with more expensive technology you can do it easier, but basically the needs for photos and video are not the same to produce an image.',
' > If cameras can take videos with fps equaling single shutter speeds, \n\nThat assumption is not correct.\n\nThe shutter speed is the time the sensor is exposed to light not the time to read out the captured information. A simple camera can capture image in 1/1000 of a second but that do not in any way mean that it can take 1000 pictures per second. It take time to read out the images from the sensor so you talk of single digit number of images per second for most camera.\n\nCameras cant take video at a high fram rate in the same resolution as they can capture a still image. It take time to read out the image from the sensor so you have framerate vs resolution limitation for a sensor\n\n4K video is 3840 \\* 2160 that is only 8 mega pixel and 1080P is 2 mega pixel\n\nFor example a Nikon D7500 DSLR with a 20 mega pixel sensor can do 4k video at 30 FPS and 1080p at 60 FPS but at 20 mega pixel it can only do 8 fps and if you put it in continuous mode it will do that.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nA more expensive and complicates setup might be able to capture 20 mega pixel at 30 FPS but than is also can do 4K at higher FPS. \n\nSo filming video at the same resolution as a still image is simply not at cost efficient. Burst more or continus mode is avalible at the camera and they produce images as fast as posslible and that is a common way take pixture'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'bhnubv',
'query': 'if cameras can take videos with fps equaling single shutter speeds, why do photographers take dedicated still shots instead of video recording everything and later just isolating single frames for “photographs?”',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '51539250',
'title': 'IPhone 7',
'section': 'Section::::Issues.:Hissing noise.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 456,
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'passage_text': 'Some users have reported a strange hissing noise during heavy usage of the phone. "CNET" reports it as "faint buzzes and hums coming from the backside". "The Daily Telegraph" speculates that the iPhone 7\'s new A10 Fusion processor is the source of the noise, linking to tweets that compare the phone\'s hissing sound to "hearing the fans spin up loudly whenever your Mac’s CPU gets used to its actual potential." The issue has been referred to as Hissgate.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7449035',
'title': 'Vibrator (mechanical)',
'section': 'Section::::Vibrators as components.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 369,
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'passage_text': 'When smartphones and pagers vibrate, the vibrating alert is produced by a small component that is built into the phone or pager. Many older, non-electronic buzzers and doorbells contain a component that vibrates for the purpose of producing a sound. Tattoo machines and some types of electric engraving tools contain a mechanism that vibrates a needle or cutting tool.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6585664',
'title': 'Phantom vibration syndrome',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Phantom vibration syndrome or phantom ringing syndrome is the perception that one\'s mobile phone is vibrating or ringing when it is not ringing. Other terms for this concept include ringxiety (a portmanteau of "ring" and "anxiety"), fauxcellarm (a portmanteau of "faux" /fō/ meaning "fake" or "false" and "cellphone" and "alarm" pronounced similarly to "false alarm") and phonetom (a portmanteau of "phone" and "phantom"). According to Dr. Michael Rothberg, the term is not a syndrome, but is better characterised as a tactile hallucination since the brain perceives a sensation that is not actually present. WebMD published an article on phantom vibration syndrome with Rothberg as a source. Several other articles have been published recently, including in NPR, Bustle, CBS News, and Psychology Today. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '61260',
'title': 'Filling station',
'section': 'Section::::Legislation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 153,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 153,
'end_character': 708,
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'passage_text': 'Although urban legends persist that a mobile phone can cause sparks, this has not been duplicated under any controlled condition. Nevertheless, mobile phone manufacturers and gas stations ask users to switch off their phones. One suggested origin of this myth is said to have been started by gas station companies because the cell phone signal would interfere with the fuel counter on some older model fuel pumps causing it to give a lower reading. In the MythBusters episode "Cell Phone Destruction", investigators concluded that explosions attributed to cell phones could be caused by static discharges from clothing instead and also observed that such incidents seem to involve women more often than men.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42319754',
'title': 'Cellphone surveillance',
'section': 'Section::::Detection.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 317,
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'passage_text': 'Some indications of possible cellphone surveillance occurring may include a mobile phone waking up unexpectedly, using a lot of the CPU when on idle or when not in use, hearing clicking or beeping sounds when conversations are occurring and the circuit board of the phone being warm despite the phone not being used.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41024',
'title': 'Pulse dialing',
'section': 'Section::::Pulse rate and coding.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 323,
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'passage_text': 'In some telephones, the pulses may be heard in the receiver as clicking sounds. However, in general, such effects were undesirable and telephone designers suppressed them by mechanical means with off-normal switches on the dial, or greatly attenuated them by electrical means with a varistor connected across the receiver.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60620490',
'title': 'Management of hearing loss',
'section': 'Section::::Assistive devices.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 306,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- A person with hearing loss cannot always hear the phone or distinguish their own ringtone from another. A signaling transmitter can be attached to a phone that will cause a light or a vibration device to activate. Transmitters can also be used to activate visual cues to represent fire alarms.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'When your phone is ringing, why are the electronics around it buzzing?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["I don't think that's what OP is asking. You can have a phone on silent, sitting next to other electronic devices, and you'll often hear very distinct electronic buzzing type noises from the other devices specifically when the cell phone is ringing."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'c2bi0j',
'query': 'when your phone is ringing, why are the electronics around it buzzing?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '20611356',
'title': 'Equator',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': "Locations on the Equator experience the shortest sunrises and sunsets because the Sun's daily path is nearly perpendicular to the horizon for most of the year. The length of daylight (sunrise to sunset) is almost constant throughout the year; it is about 14 minutes longer than nighttime due to atmospheric refraction and the fact that sunrise begins (or sunset ends) as the upper limb, not the center, of the Sun's disk contacts the horizon.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23348',
'title': 'Pytheas',
'section': 'Section::::Discovery of Thule.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 241,
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'passage_text': '... the Barbarians showed us the place where the sun goes to rest. For it was the case that in these parts the nights were very short, in some places two, in others three hours long, so that the sun rose again a short time after it had set.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24873453',
'title': 'Season',
'section': 'Section::::Non-calendar-based reckoning.:Polar.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 75,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 75,
'end_character': 807,
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'passage_text': 'In the weeks surrounding 21 June, in the northern polar region, the sun is at its highest elevation, appearing to circle the sky there without going below the horizon. Eventually, it does go below the horizon, for progressively longer periods each day until around the middle of October, when it disappears for the last time until the following February. For a few more weeks, "day" is marked by decreasing periods of twilight. Eventually, from mid-November to mid-January, there is no twilight and it is continuously dark. In mid January the first faint wash of twilight briefly touches the horizon (for just minutes per day), and then twilight increases in duration with increasing brightness each day until sunrise at end of February, then on 6 April the sun remains above the horizon until mid October.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20020609',
'title': 'Mirage of astronomical objects',
'section': 'Section::::Novaya Zemlya effect.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 328,
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'passage_text': "Due to a normal atmospheric refraction, sunrise occurs shortly before the Sun crosses above the horizon. Light from the Sun is bent, or refracted, as it enters earth's atmosphere. This effect causes the apparent sunrise to be earlier than the actual sunrise. Similarly, apparent sunset occurs slightly later than actual sunset.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14004',
'title': 'Hour',
'section': 'Section::::Counting hours.:Counting from dawn.:Unequal hours.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 41,
'end_character': 608,
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'passage_text': 'Sunrise marked the beginning of the first hour, the middle of the day was at the end of the sixth hour and sunset at the end of the twelfth hour. This meant that the duration of hours varied with the season. In the Northern hemisphere, particularly in the more northerly latitudes, summer daytime hours were longer than winter daytime hours, each being one twelfth of the time between sunrise and sunset. These variable-length hours were variously known as temporal, unequal, or seasonal hours and were in use until the appearance of the mechanical clock, which furthered the adoption of equal length hours.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '191061',
'title': 'Dawn',
'section': 'Section::::Effects of latitude.:Polar regions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 382,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Daytime becomes longer as the summer solstice approaches, while nighttime gets longer as the winter solstice approaches. This can have a potential impact on the times and durations of dawn and dusk. This effect is more pronounced closer to the poles, where the Sun rises at the vernal equinox and sets at the autumn equinox, with a long period of twilight, lasting for a few weeks.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '190933',
'title': 'Sunset',
'section': 'Section::::Occurrence.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 1044,
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'passage_text': "As sunrise and sunset are calculated from the leading and trailing edges of the Sun, respectively, and not the center, the duration of a daytime is slightly longer than nighttime (by about 10 minutes, as seen from temperate latitudes). Further, because the light from the Sun is refracted as it passes through the Earth's atmosphere, the Sun is still visible after it is geometrically below the horizon. Refraction also affects the apparent shape of the Sun when it is very close to the horizon. It makes things appear higher in the sky than they really are. Light from the bottom edge of the Sun's disk is refracted more than light from the top, since refraction increases as the angle of elevation decreases. This raises the apparent position of the bottom edge more than the top, reducing the apparent height of the solar disk. Its width is unaltered, so the disk appears wider than it is high. (In reality, the Sun is almost exactly spherical.) The Sun also appears larger on the horizon, an optical illusion, similar to the moon illusion.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does the sunrise continue to get later after the shortest day?',
'selftext': "I live in the Northern Hemisphere and have noticed that the sunrise is later today than it was on the solstice. I've tried to get my head around it via [this article]( URL_0 ) but still don't really get it, so please can someone ELI5?",
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['From my understanding the solar day, the time it takes for the sun to move around the earth is not 24 hours but slightly less or more. We use a full 24 hour clock so they go out of sync.',
"In short: the length of the day isn't exactly 24 hours. It varies between 24 hours and 30 seconds, and 23 hours, 59 minutes and 30 seconds. However for convenience we always use the average of 24 hours. This means that if the sun rises at 8:00, then the next day it will rise around 24 hours and 30 seconds afterwards, i.e. at 8:00:30, and the next day at 8:01, even though it's December and the Sun should be rising earlier and earlier.\n\nWhy does this happen?\n\nBecause of earth's [sidereal day](_URL_1_) and [synodic day](_URL_0_). The sidereal day is the time is takes Earth to complete one revolution around its own axis, relative to the rest of the stars. This time is approximately 23 minutes, 56 minutes and 4 seconds. So why is the day 24 hours? Well, during that time, Earth also moves approximately 1/365 of its orbit around the Sun. So it needs about 4 more minutes to finish a revolution relative to the Sun, so that it faces the exact same direction as the day before. This is the synodic day, which is what we actually use day to day.\n\nHowever, Earth's orbit is elliptical - during the northern hemisphere's winter months Earth moves a bit faster, so it actually needs around 4.5 minutes extra, making the day 24 hours and half a minute long, and during the summer months Earth moves a bit slower, so it only needs around 3.5 minutes extra, making the day half a minute less than 24 hours."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'eehplg',
'query': 'why does the sunrise continue to get later after the shortest day?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '39375',
'title': 'Space suit',
'section': 'Section::::Requirements.:Operating pressure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
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'passage_text': 'When space suits below a specific operating pressure are used from craft that are pressurized to normal atmospheric pressure (such as the Space Shuttle), this requires astronauts to "pre-breathe" (meaning pre-breathe pure oxygen for a period) before donning their suits and depressurizing in the air lock. This procedure purges the body of dissolved nitrogen, so as to avoid decompression sickness due to rapid depressurization from a nitrogen-containing atmosphere.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39375',
'title': 'Space suit',
'section': 'Section::::Requirements.:Physical effects of unprotected space exposure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
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'passage_text': "The vacuum in space creates zero pressure, causing the gases and processes in the body to expand. In order to prevent chemical processes in the body from overreacting, it is necessary to develop a suit that counteracts against the pressure in space. The greatest danger is in attempting to hold one's breath before exposure, as the subsequent explosive decompression can damage the lungs. These effects have been confirmed through various accidents (including in very-high-altitude conditions, outer space and training vacuum chambers). Human skin does not need to be protected from vacuum and is gas-tight by itself. Instead, it only needs to be mechanically compressed to retain its normal shape. This can be accomplished with a tight-fitting elastic body suit and a helmet for containing breathing gases, known as a space activity suit (SAS).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1614102',
'title': 'Effect of spaceflight on the human body',
'section': 'Section::::Physiological effects.:Space environments.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 1216,
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'passage_text': 'The environment of space is lethal without appropriate protection: the greatest threat in the vacuum of space derives from the lack of oxygen and pressure, although temperature and radiation also pose risks. The effects of space exposure can result in ebullism, hypoxia, hypocapnia, and decompression sickness. In addition to these, there is also cellular mutation and destruction from high energy photons and sub-atomic particles that are present in the surroundings. Decompression is a serious concern during the extra-vehicular activities (EVAs) of astronauts. Current EMU designs take this and other issues into consideration, and have evolved over time. A key challenge has been the competing interests of increasing astronaut mobility (which is reduced by high-pressure EMUs, analogous to the difficulty of deforming an inflated balloon relative to a deflated one) and minimising decompression risk. Investigators have considered pressurizing a separate head unit to the regular 71 kPa (10.3 psi) cabin pressure as opposed to the current whole-EMU pressure of . In such a design, pressurization of the torso could be achieved mechanically, avoiding mobility reduction associated with pneumatic pressurization.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '294387',
'title': 'Airlock',
'section': 'Section::::Use.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 362,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Where a person who is not in a pressure suit moves between environments of greatly different pressures, an airlock changes the pressure slowly to help with internal air cavity equalization and to prevent decompression sickness. This is critical in scuba diving, and a diver may have to wait in an airlock for some hours, in accordance with decompression tables.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1614102',
'title': 'Effect of spaceflight on the human body',
'section': 'Section::::Physiological effects.:Space environments.:Vacuum.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
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'passage_text': "In December 1966, aerospace engineer and test subject Jim LeBlanc of NASA was partaking in a test to see how well a pressurized space suit prototype would perform in vacuum conditions. To simulate the effects of space, NASA constructed a massive vacuum chamber from which all air could be pumped. At some point during the test, LeBlanc's pressurization hose became detached from the space suit. Even though this caused his suit pressure to drop from to in less than 10 seconds, LeBlanc remained conscious for about 14 seconds before losing consciousness due to hypoxia; the much lower pressure outside the body causes rapid de-oxygenation of the blood. “As I stumbled backwards, I could feel the saliva on my tongue starting to bubble just before I went unconscious and that’s the last thing I remember,” recalls LeBlanc. The chamber was rapidly pressurized and LeBlanc was given emergency oxygen 25 seconds later. He recovered almost immediately with just an earache and no permanent damage.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1965',
'title': 'Apollo 1',
'section': 'Section::::Program recovery.:Command module redesign.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 95,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 95,
'end_character': 492,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The environment within the astronauts\' pressure suits was not changed. Because of the rapid drop in cabin (and suit) pressures during ascent, decompression sickness was likely unless the nitrogen had been purged from the astronauts\' tissues before launch. They would still breathe pure oxygen, starting several hours before launch, until they removed their helmets on orbit. Avoiding the "bends" was considered worth the residual risk of an oxygen-accelerated fire within a suit.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56677683',
'title': 'Mars suit',
'section': 'Section::::Suitport for Mars.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 51,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 51,
'end_character': 540,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "The idea is that a person would slide into the suit through an airlock opening while the exterior of suit is outside the vehicle and exposed to the Martian environment. Then, the hatch would be closed, sealing off the interior of the vehicle, and the person would be supported by the suit's life support system. NASA tested the Z-1 space suit for extraterrestrial surface EVA with a suitport design in the 2010s. In the NASA Z-1 design there is a hatch at the rear of the space suit that can be docked with a suitable vehicle or structure.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'what would ACTUALLY happen if you were ejected from an airlock into outer space without a space suit on?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Micheal over at Vsauce does a good take on this.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nJump to 8:30.\n\n...on mobile and cant do all the fancy linking.',
"You would suffocate because there is no air to breathe.\n\nHowever, even if you're rescued slightly before dying, you are still really messed up.\n\nIf you don't close your eyes, the water in your eyes will start to boil due to the difference in pressure so your eyes will dry out. Same thing for the saliva in your mouth.\n\nYou will need freeze instantly, but steadily lose warmth.\n\nYou will get hard sunburn. On Earth, our atmosphere protectes us from a lot of sunlight. In space, you are not protected and will get dangerous burns.\n\nAfter two minutes you will be dead due to a lack of oxygen.\n\nHowever, if you are rescued after a few seconds, you would survive relatively unharmed.\n\nThe closest we ever got to this was in 1966, when NASA technician Jim LeBlanc's space suit had a leak in a vacuum chamber. He lost consciousness after 14 seconds and claims the last thing he remembers before passing out was how the saliva on his tongue started to form bubbles from boiling.",
'The vacuum would drain the liquid from any exposed part of your body. You would quickly suffocate, as there is obviously no air to breathe. \n\nYou would lose heat, but given there is nothing in space to actually conduct heat away from you, this would be far from what you see in fiction where people instantly freeze. To be sure, you would radiate heat out regardless, but it isn\'t nearly as "cold" in a vacuum as an equivalent temperature atmosphere.\n\nYou also would not explode, or anything ridiculous like that. You might have your surface blood vessels begin to get damage if you were outside long enough, but you would be dead long before that.\n\nBecause you would suffocate.',
"All the air would rush out of your lungs, and your ears would be very painful, if your Eustachian tubes were blocked at the time your eardrums would very likely burst.\n\nYour digestive tract would begin to swell up due to trapped gases, and some gasses would begin to leak out of your esophageal sphincter and anus.\n\nAny moisture on the surface of your lungs and other mucous membranes would start to boil off. This would feel chilly, but not cold. EDIT: I was inspired by a comment to do some math, over a minute or two it wouldn't matter much but over a longer period of time you'd get pretty cold. But you be dead so.\n\nDue to the lack of air your lungs would start working backwards and oxygen would start coming out of your blood.\n\nYour body would swell as small gas bubbles started forming in soft tissues, some small capillaries near the surface might burst.\n\nPreviously dissolved gasses would begin to form bubbles in your blood vessels, but your blood would not boil because your blood pressure is high enough to keep the boiling point above your body temperature.\n\nAfter 15 sec enough oxygen would have diffused out of your blood into your lungs that you would pass out.\n\nYour body would continue to swell to somewhere in the region of 2 times your typical volume, at which point your skin would have pulled taut enough to halt further gas formation.\n\n\nYou now have the worst sunburn of your life on whichever side of you has spent the past minute in the radioactive hellhole that is unfiltered sunlight.\n\nAt 1min 30sec brain damage starts to occur. Repressurization anytime prior to this results in full recovery with proper medical intervention.\n\nAt approximately 2min brain damage is extensive enough to be incompatible with life, beyond this point no amount of medical intervention can save you.\n\nEDIT 1: No don't hold your breath, your lungs will burst and you will be extra mega boned.\n\nEDIT 2: Water boils at a lower temperature in space, your body happens to be higher than space boiling.\n\nEDIT 3: We know this cause some poor sap (Jim LeBlanc) mega fucked up by managing to dislodge the air hose on his suit while in a vacuum chamber. For his bravery he earned 87 seconds of vacuum and a bad earache but was otherwise ok. Also some fucked up dudes thought that trying it out on some dogs would be an OK thing to do (another comment further down has the link).\n\nEDIT 4: Omg I get it Total Recall has a scene like this.\n\nEDIT 5: After some questions about the dog tests I have poached the [link](_URL_0_) from u/clocks212 bellow, go show him some love!",
'What if you had a scuba setup, or something like oxygen to keep you alive in space?\n\nEdit: Hey, I know, a space suit it pretty much just a pressurized oxygen setup with some perks like radiation shielding, but I just wanted to know how long you could live with the oxygen taken care of.',
'They\'ve done these tests on dogs in vacuum chambers. They blew up like balloons, but if I remember right if pressure was restored within 90 seconds there were no lasting effects. Longer than that and they died. \n\n/edit why the downvotes? They weren\'t my dogs. Source _URL_0_\n\n"But death is not instantaneous. For example, one 1965 study by researchers at the Brooks Air Force Base in Texas showed that dogs exposed to near vacuum—one three-hundred-eightieth of atmospheric pressure at sea level—for up to 90 seconds always survived. During their exposure, they were unconscious and paralyzed. Gas expelled from their bowels and stomachs caused simultaneous defecation, projectile vomiting and urination. They suffered massive seizures. Their tongues were often coated in ice and the dogs swelled to resemble "an inflated goatskin bag," the authors wrote. But after slight repressurization the dogs shrank back down, began to breathe, and after 10 to 15 minutes at sea level pressure, they managed to walk, though it took a few more minutes for their apparent blindness to wear off."',
"So I've heard a lot of different things about what the radiation would do to you. Apparently it'd be one hell of a sunburn, but I've also heard that going out entirely unprotected would essentially fry you in a few seconds?\n\nJust how dangerous is the unfiltered sunlight and radiation around earth? ",
"So wait, you don't freeze? I know the vacuum is bad but no one is talking about the lack of heat. ",
'[This](_URL_0_) useful video should help explain the effects. \n\n* All the air from your lungs would evacuate rapidly.\n* Your bowels would evacuate.\n* Your skin would swell up.\n* Your saliva and blood would turn to gas. \n* You would get sun-burnt from radiation from the sun. \n* Your capillaries will burst.\n* After a few second, deoxygenated blood would flow to your brain causing you to pass out.',
'This is by far the most realistic video I can find on YouTube\n\n_URL_0_',
"There's a scene in the most recent episode of the expanse where a guy watched his girlfriend? Get blown out of the airlock. Nothing much happens she just breathes out, looks scared/uncomfortable and dies. I'm led to believe this is pretty accurate. Do not use total recall as a frame of reference.",
"The pressure that keeps stuff in your body goes away, so stuff - gas specifically - boils away. Not because it's hot, but because there's nothing pushing it into your body. That pressure starts at about 50k feet. It wouldn't be explosive. It would be painful, but you'd die when you stop breathing out. ",
'IIRC I think the scene in the incredibly terrifying "Event Horizon" where the younger guy is possessed and puts himself out of the airlock is pretty close to what happens. You have a little bit to be retrieved without devastating harm, but several things start happening (like fluids in your body starting to boil away) happening more rapidly the longer you\'re outside. At least I thought I read the scene was pretty accurate somewhere. ',
'Science fiction seems to state either you will explode, or nothing will happen and you suffocate. Neither of these is correct.\n\nThe first noticeable effect you would observe on someone ejected into space would be flushing of the skin. It would quickly turn red as the blood vessels get closer to the surface. Eventually the larger blood vessels with bulge out. Some may rupture leading to bruising. This is not comfortable. Folks on youtube occasionally stick their arms into vacuum chambers, they claim this is very painful. This may cause the victim to shout, exhaling early.\n\nFurther the victim could hold their breath. The vacuum of space is not so strong as to rip the air from their lungs, but holding their breath would be uncomfortable as well due to the negative pressure. this would provide a brief extension to their consciousness, but they would eventually exhale and begin to suffocate.\n\nduring suffocation the victim may indeed move their mouths open and shut, clutch at their throat, or tug at the collar of their shirt, and look *VERY* distressed. They would eventually fall unconscious in likely under a minute (varies)\n\nWhen they fall unconscious they would enter the fetal pose (knees slightly bent, arms loose, head down, as this is the natural position of the body without gravity or conscious interference. They may spasm once more before death, otherwise they will not move again.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '60estn',
'query': 'what would actually happen if you were ejected from an airlock into outer space without a space suit on?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '27988307',
'title': 'Grain',
'section': 'Section::::Historical impact of grain agriculture.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Because grains are small, hard and dry, they can be stored, measured, and transported more readily than can other kinds of food crops such as fresh fruits, roots and tubers. The development of grain agriculture allowed excess food to be produced and stored easily which could have led to the creation of the first permanent settlements and the division of society into classes.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Ancient grains are a grouping of grains and pseudocereals that are considered to have been minimally changed by selective breeding over recent millennia, as opposed to more widespread cereals such as corn, rice and modern varieties of wheat, which are the product of thousands of years of selective breeding. Ancient grains are often marketed as being more nutritious than modern grains, though their health benefits have been disputed by some nutritionists.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '634526',
'title': 'Fodder',
'section': 'Section::::Production of sprouted grains as fodder.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Sprouted grains can increase the nutritional value of the grain compared with feeding the ungerminated grain to stock. In addition, they use less water than traditional forage, making them ideal for drought conditions. Under hydroponic conditions, sprouted fodder at tall with a root mat is at its peak for animal feed. Although products such are barley are grain, when sprouted they are approved by the American Grassfed Association to be used as livestock feed.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '48272700',
'title': 'Ancient grains',
'section': 'Section::::Health benefits.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Proponents of ancient grains say that they are rich in protein, omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidants. Some nutritionists state that they are not inherently more healthy than modern grains, and that ancient and modern grains have similar health benefits when eaten as whole grains. This has led to criticism of the grouping as unscientific and driven by marketing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '533214',
'title': 'Dwarfing',
'section': 'Section::::Plants.:Dwarfing grains.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Dwarfing genes are widely used in creating more productive food plants, such as grains. One condition that results in loss of grain crops is called \'lodging\', where heavy ears of almost ripe grain bend the stalk until the grain touches the ground, becomes wet, and spoils. During the Green Revolution, research that identified wheat reduced-height genes ("Rht") and a rice semidwarf gene ("sd1") resulted in crops that yielded significantly more harvestable grain.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27988307',
'title': 'Grain',
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'passage_text': 'After being harvested, dry grains are more durable than other staple foods, such as starchy fruits (plantains, breadfruit, etc.) and tubers (sweet potatoes, cassava, and more). This durability has made grains well suited to industrial agriculture, since they can be mechanically harvested, transported by rail or ship, stored for long periods in silos, and milled for flour or pressed for oil. Thus, major global commodity markets exist for maize, rice, soybeans, wheat and other grains but not for tubers, vegetables, or other crops.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27989421',
'title': 'Perennial grain',
'section': 'Section::::Advantages of perennial crops.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::4. Sustainable production on marginal lands. Cassman et al. (2003) wrote that for large areas in poor regions of the world, “annual cereal cropping …is not likely to be sustainable over the longer term because of severe erosion risk. Perennial crops and agroforestry systems are better suited to these environments.” Current perennial crops and agroforestry systems do not produce grain. Grain provides greater food security than forage or fruit because it can be eaten directly by humans (unlike forage) and it can be stored (unlike fruit) for consumption during the winter or dry season.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why are sprouted grains touted as being so much healthier than non-sprouted?',
'selftext': 'What is it about sprouting the grains that makes them more nutritious? Does cooking make a difference? How exactly does the sprouting change the nutritional profile?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['sprouting grains increases the bioavailability of their nutrients. Unsprouted grains are harder to digest. Cooking grains can breakdown certain nutrients into more digestable forms but can also destroy some of the nutrients. so thats a toss up. ',
"The stuff that is in the grain is basically nutrient storage for the plant, packed tightly in a format that doesn't easily start rotting. That makes it difficult to digest - which is the reason we have to cook them before getting any nutrients out of there.\n\nNow when the plant starts sprouting, it converts all the starches into sugar and the protein into amino acids, which can then be used to grow the plant cells. The same process makes them easier for us to digest.\n\nThe plant also produces all the vitamins it needs itself, so they are not necessarily stored in the grain. For example, there is basically no vitamin C in the raw grain, but quite a bit in sprouts.\n\nCooking always destroys some of the vitamins, but it's not a big deal. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '6vk7wl',
'query': 'why are sprouted grains touted as being so much healthier than non-sprouted?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '54553783',
'title': 'ARP cache',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'An ARP cache is a collection of Address Resolution Protocol entries (mostly dynamic) that are created when an IP address is resolved to a MAC address (so the computer can effectively communicate with the IP address). An ARP cache has the disadvantage of potentially being used by hackers and cyber attackers. An ARP cache helps the attackers hide behind a fake IP address. Beyond the fact that ARP caches may help attackers, it may also prevent the attacks by "distinguish[ing] between low level IP and IP based vulnerabilities".\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '442736',
'title': 'ARP spoofing',
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'passage_text': "In computer networking, ARP spoofing, ARP cache poisoning, or ARP poison routing, is a technique by which an attacker sends (spoofed) Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) messages onto a local area network. Generally, the aim is to associate the attacker's MAC address with the IP address of another host, such as the default gateway, causing any traffic meant for that IP address to be sent to the attacker instead.\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '13262409',
'title': 'Hypertext caching protocol',
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'passage_text': "Hypertext Caching Protocol (abbreviated to HTCP) is used for discovering HTTP caches and cached data, managing sets of HTTP caches and monitoring cache activity. It permits full request and response headers to be used in cache management and expands the domain of cache management to include monitoring a remote cache's additions and deletions, requesting immediate deletions and sending hints about web objects such as the third party locations of cacheable objects or unavailability of web objects.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1657577',
'title': 'Internet Cache Protocol',
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'passage_text': 'The Internet Cache Protocol (ICP) is a UDP-based protocol used for coordinating web caches. Its purpose is to find out the most appropriate location to retrieve a requested object in the situation where multiple caches are in use at a single site. The ICP is to use the caches as efficiently as possible, and to minimize the number of remote requests to the originating server.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52524151',
'title': 'LDAP injection',
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'passage_text': 'In computer security, LDAP injection is a code injection technique used to exploit web applications which could reveal sensitive user information or modify information represented in the LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol) data stores. LDAP injection exploits a security vulnerability in an application by manipulating input parameters passed to internal search, add or modify functions. When an application fails to properly sanitize user input, it is possible for an attacker to modify an LDAP statement.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1507752',
'title': 'DNS spoofing',
'section': "Section::::Variants.:Redirect the target domain's name server.\n",
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'passage_text': "The first variant of DNS cache poisoning involves redirecting the name server of the attacker's domain to the name server of the target domain, then assigning that name server an IP address specified by the attacker.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1507752',
'title': 'DNS spoofing',
'section': 'Section::::Cache poisoning attacks.\n',
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'passage_text': 'To perform a cache poisoning attack, the attacker exploits flaws in the DNS software. A server should correctly validate DNS responses to ensure that they are from an authoritative source (for example by using DNSSEC); otherwise the server might end up caching the incorrect entries locally and serve them to other users that make the same request.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is ARP Cache Poisoning?',
'selftext': 'Very basic knowledge of computers, networks and associated jargon, so very small words are appreciated.',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Every network device has a MAC address, it's just a number, and every network card is built with it's own unique number. When you connect to a network (like your home Network), your computer asks for an IP (an address on the internet). Unlike a MAC, IPs are made in such a way that you can narrow down where to send data based on just part of the address just like how mail says to Bob, 123 St, NY, NY, you can read it and send it to the NY office and let them figure out where in NY to send it, you don't actually need to find Bob's house on a map.\n\nAnyways, things in your home typically sort data just by MAC, they have a list of every MAC on your network (every computer in your home for example), and what wire it's connected through. Now people access stuff with IPs, so when you go online you need to first take the IP, then find what IP it needs to go to (your modem, to get to the internet), then you need to find the MAC of your modem, and then send the data to the MAC. The ARP cache is the list of IP to MAC mappings for all known devices on your network. The ARP protocol is used to allow other devices to tell you their MAC.\n\nARP cache poisoning is a network attack where you just listen on the network for other people's IP and MAC, and then lie and use the ARP protocol to tell everyone actually you have that IP. This will typically cause all devices to then send data to you, even if it wasn't supposed to be destined to you, you then look at it and or change it, and then using your old list of MAC-IP mappings send it to the right destination. This means that you can connect on WiFi on a home Network and see the traffic destined for the internet, even for devices not on WiFi (so you can force wired devices to transmit their data over WiFi for you to see)."],
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'query_id': '9h7bjy',
'query': 'what is arp cache poisoning?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '40986774',
'title': 'Covert medication',
'section': 'Section::::Medical use.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In the care of paediatric patients, young children may be unwilling to take medication with an unpleasant taste or smell, or due to fear of the unfamiliar. In these cases, the medication is mixed with food or drink to make it more acceptable.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14315108',
'title': 'Dysosmia',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Smell disorders can result in the inability to detect environmental dangers such as gas leaks, toxins, or smoke. In addition to safety, nutritional and eating habits can also be affected. There is a loss of appetite because of unpleasant flavor and fear of failing to recognize and consuming spoiled food. A decreased or distorted sense of smell therefore results in a decreased quality of life. Distortions are believed to have a greater negative impact on people than the complete loss of smell because they are constantly reminded of the disorder and the distortions have a greater effect on eating habits.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2284563',
'title': 'Conditioned taste aversion',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Conditioned taste aversion sometimes occurs when sickness is merely coincidental to, and not caused by, the substance consumed. For example, a person who becomes very sick after consuming vodka-and-orange-juice cocktails may then become averse to the taste of orange juice, even though the sickness was caused by the over-consumption of alcohol. Under these circumstances, conditioned taste aversion is sometimes known as the "Sauce-Bearnaise Syndrome", a term coined by Seligman and Hager.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '311333',
'title': 'Ethmoid bone',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical significance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': 'An ethmoid fracture can also sever the olfactory nerve. This injury results in anosmia (loss of smell). A reduction in the ability to taste is also a side effect because it is based so heavily on smell. This injury is not fatal, but can be dangerous, as when a person fails to smell smoke, gas, or spoiled food. In fact, people with anosmia were more than four times as likely to die in five years compared to those with a healthy sense of smell.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '88988',
'title': 'Anosmia',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Anosmia can have a number of harmful effects. Patients with sudden onset anosmia may find food less appetizing, though congenital anosmics rarely complain about this, and none reports a loss in weight. Loss of smell can also be dangerous because it hinders the detection of gas leaks, fire, and spoiled food. The common view of anosmia as trivial can make it more difficult for a patient to receive the same types of medical aid as someone who has lost other senses, such as hearing or sight.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44472220',
'title': 'Food choice of older adults',
'section': 'Section::::Influences on food preference.:By personal health.:Mental health.\n',
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'passage_text': 'As a result of certain mental health conditions and/or diseases—like Alzheimer\'s—a person\'s food preferences might become affected. With certain diseases, people tend to develop specific preferences or distaste for various types of food. For example, people with Alzheimer\'s (which is the most common form of dementia), experience many big and small changes as a result of their symptoms. One change identified by Suszynski in "How Dementia Tampers With Taste Buds" is a dementia patient\'s taste buds, which contain the receptors for taste. Since they don’t experience flavor the way they once did, people with dementia often change their eating habits and take on entirely new food preferences. In this study, the researchers found that these dementia patients had trouble identifying flavors and appeared to have lost the ability to remember tastes; therefore, leading to a theory that dementia caused the patients to lose their knowledge of flavors. That, in turn, can lead to changes in eating behaviors.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '232495',
'title': 'Motivation',
'section': 'Section::::Psychological theories.:Approach versus avoidance.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Conditioned taste aversion is the only type of conditioning that only needs one exposure. It does not need to be the specific food or drinks that cause the taste. Conditioned taste aversion can also be attributed to extenuating circumstances. An example of this can be eating a rotten apple. Eating the apple then immediately throwing up. Now it is hard to even near an apple without feeling sick. Conditioned taste aversion can also come about by the mere associations of two stimuli. Eating a peanut butter and jelly sandwich, but also have the flu. Eating the sandwich makes one feel nauseous, so one throws up, now one cannot smell peanut butter without feeling queasy. Though eating the sandwich does not cause one to through up, they are still linked.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why does something just smelling/tasting bad make some people physically sick, even though they haven't consumed any of the item in question?",
'selftext': 'Also the fact that some people are much more susceptible to it than others... Thanks!',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It is something called taste aversion. \n\nBasically, you have smelled something similar to the bad smelling thing in your past and it has done some sort of harm to your body, and your brain makes a copy of that smell so that your brain knows "If we smell/taste this again, get it away immediately!".\n',
"It's a defense mechanism. Back before modern food packaging, when our species was young, we hunted and gathered food. If meat was spoiled, or berries were bitter (most likely poisonous), it would smell and taste bad. Our body would reject the potentially harmful food to prevent illness.\n\nOne of the biggest gag inducers is watching someone else throw up. The smell will also trigger a gag reflex. Back when we travelled in groups in the wild, if one member ate something that made them ill, the whole group likely ate that same thing."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6mh15t',
'query': "why does something just smelling/tasting bad make some people physically sick, even though they haven't consumed any of the item in question?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '5721',
'title': 'Coma',
'section': 'Section::::Prognosis.:Recovery.\n',
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'passage_text': 'People may emerge from a coma with a combination of physical, intellectual, and psychological difficulties that need special attention. It is common for coma patients to awaken in a profound state of confusion and suffer from dysarthria, the inability to articulate any speech. Recovery usually occurs gradually. In the first days, patients may only awaken for a few minutes, with increased duration of wakefulness as their recovery progresses and may eventually recover full awareness. That said, some patients may never progress beyond very basic responses.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41907939',
'title': 'Maternal somatic support after brain death',
'section': 'Section::::Brain death vs. similar conditions.:Difference between brain death and coma.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 207,
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'passage_text': 'People in comas have "presence of brain stem responses, spontaneous breathing or non-purposeful motor responses." However, comas can result in brain death, or recovery or even a persistent vegetative state.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5721',
'title': 'Coma',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 403,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A coma is a deep state of prolonged unconsciousness in which a person cannot be awakened; fails to respond normally to painful stimuli, light, or sound; lacks a normal wake-sleep cycle; and does not initiate voluntary actions. Coma patients exhibit a complete absence of wakefulness and are unable to consciously feel, speak or move. Comas can be derived by natural causes, or can be medically induced.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5721',
'title': 'Coma',
'section': 'Section::::Prognosis.:Recovery.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 72,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 72,
'end_character': 555,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A brain-damaged man, trapped in a coma-like state for six years, was brought back to consciousness in 2003 by doctors who planted electrodes deep inside his brain. The method, called deep brain stimulation (DBS) successfully roused communication, complex movement and eating ability in the 38-year-old American man who suffered a traumatic brain injury. His injuries left him in a minimally conscious state (MCS), a condition akin to a coma but characterized by occasional, but brief, evidence of environmental and self-awareness that coma patients lack.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31315770',
'title': 'Disorders of consciousness',
'section': 'Section::::Classification.:Chronic coma.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 510,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Although a coma patient may appear to be awake, they are unable to consciously feel, speak, hear, or move. For a patient to maintain consciousness, two important neurological components must function impeccably. The first is the cerebral cortex which is the gray matter covering the outer layer of the brain. The other is a structure located in the brainstem, called reticular activating system (RAS or ARAS). Injury to either or both of these components is sufficient to cause a patient to experience a coma.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '154349',
'title': 'Diabetic coma',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Identifying the cause.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 204,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Most patients do not reach the point of unconsciousness or coma in cases of diabetic hypoglycemia, diabetic ketoacidosis, or severe hyperosmolarity before a family member or caretaker seeks medical help.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31315770',
'title': 'Disorders of consciousness',
'section': 'Section::::Classification.:Chronic coma.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 386,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A person in a state of coma is described as comatose. In general patients surviving a coma recover gradually within 2–4 weeks. But recovery to full awareness and arousal is not always possible. Some patients do not progress further than vegetative state or minimally conscious state and sometimes this also results in prolonged stages before further recovery to complete consciousness.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Do people calmly wake up from comas?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["I've been in a coma( 2 days) and so have a few of my family members, from what I've seen no, they usually jump up or make a loud gasp, in my case it was screaming.",
'I feel bad for anyone who watched the 2013 YouTube rewind then got into a coma then saw the 2018 YouTube rewind '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'a4r4u3',
'query': 'do people calmly wake up from comas?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '59503751',
'title': 'Twinkle bulb',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 290,
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'passage_text': 'A twinkle bulb is a special type of light bulb which blinks on and off for decorative effect. They are most commonly used on Christmas lights and other string lights, but can also be used for other ornamental purposes like electric jack-o-lanterns for Halloween and replica traffic lights.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6211224',
'title': 'Thermal cutoff',
'section': 'Section::::Thermal switch.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 423,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Thermal switches are included in some light fixtures, particularly with recessed lights, where excessive heat is most likely to occur. This may lead to "cycling", where a light turns off and back on every few minutes. Flashing incandescent Christmas lights take advantage of this effect. Some flasher bulbs interrupt power when heated, while other twinkle/sparkle mini-bulbs momentarily shunt current around the filament. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2925786',
'title': 'Gas-discharge lamp',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Low pressure discharge lamps.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 474,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A flicker light bulb, flicker flame light bulb or flicker glow lamp is a gas-discharge lamp which produces light by ionizing a gas, usually neon mixed with helium and a small amount of nitrogen gas, by an electric current passing through two flame shaped electrode screens coated with partially decomposed barium azide. The ionized gas moves randomly between the two electrodes which produces a flickering effect, often marketed as suggestive of a candle flame (see image).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19911166',
'title': 'Holiday lighting technology',
'section': 'Section::::Control technology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 41,
'end_character': 591,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Holiday lights can be animated using special "flasher" or twinkle bulbs (usually a red-tipped replacement bulb included with the set) or by electronic controller. Flasher bulbs use a bi-metallic strip which interrupts the circuit when the lamp becomes hot. An electronic holiday light controller usually has a diode bridge followed by a resistor-based voltage divider, a filter capacitor and a fixed-program microcontroller. The micro-controller has three or four outputs which are connected to transistors or thyristor which control interleaved circuits, each with lamps of a single color.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '791483',
'title': 'Christmas lights',
'section': 'Section::::Technology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 491,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Christmas lights (also called twinkle lights, holiday lights, mini lights or fairy lights), that are strands of electric lights used to decorate homes, public/commercial buildings and Christmas trees during the Christmas season are amongst the most recognized form of Christmas lighting. Christmas lights come in a dazzling array of configurations and colors. The small "midget" bulbs commonly known as fairy lights are also called Italian lights in some parts of the U.S., such as Chicago.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19911166',
'title': 'Holiday lighting technology',
'section': 'Section::::Sizes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 552,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Christmas lighting began with small C6 bulbs\xa0— where the C means "cone" for the candle flame shape and the 6 indicates the diameter measured in eighths of an inch, ¾\xa0inches (19\xa0mm). These were on a miniature candelabra screw-base, now designated E10 (Edison screw, 10\xa0mm). Replicas of these bulbs are now produced as miniature strings, usually with the entire bulb replaced, but sometimes with a decorative cover with regular bulbs inside. These bulbs tend to be transparent white or colors, and are often ornately designed with crystal-like patterns.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7921845',
'title': 'Toledo Zoo',
'section': 'Section::::Events and Attractions.:The Lights Before Christmas.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 75,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 75,
'end_character': 887,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The Lights Before Christmas is an annual event held by The Toledo Zoo and Aquarium which began in 1986, with only 70,000 bulbs, and hosting just as many guests to the zoo. Most summer attractions are closed, but all the buildings and trees are decorated with Christmas lights. It features over one million Christmas lights, a winter village including an ice slide and ice bumper cars, the Arctic Blast game, a new light show projected on the carnivore cafe, model trains from the Swanton Area Railroad, and Santa Claus. The "Big Tree", an Norway spruce tree contains over 35,000 LED lights, and has been honored as being ranked in the top 10 Christmas Trees to see. The main show, Dancing Lights, is near Cheetah Valley. It is repeated several times every night. It uses LED wide-angle mini lights that flash along with Christmas music. All this is done using nearly of extension cords.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do Christmas lights flash individual bulbs?',
'selftext': "With most Christmas lights, they have a line of LED's. How do they light particular LED's individually?",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Many are done as an arangement of 3 strings. If you look closely you can see three wires on many strings or icicle lights. If you really look closely, there's never a need for the entire string to be off and a individual bulb lit. You can get away with controlling 33% of the string at a time for it to look random.\n\nIt will iluminate each string independantly and it will look like every bulb is independantly flashing but in reality, every third bulb is iluminating at the same time.\n\nSometimes they switch up the order so its not uniformly every third connected for randomness.\n\n\nSome new light strings have a tiny IC on every light which is really interesting. Power, ground and data is shared for all lights and every single bulb understands a giant string of pulsed numbers and what ID it is and what colour and brightness it should be at. This happens every milisecond or quicker. Believe it or not, these are actually cheaper since the entire bulb and silicon processing core is integrated and produced in the billions without manual labor."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'e74z4o',
'query': 'how do christmas lights flash individual bulbs?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '15929501',
'title': 'Performance per watt',
'section': 'Section::::GPU efficiency.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
'end_character': 490,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Graphics processing units (GPU) have continued to increase in energy usage, while CPUs designers have recently focused on improving performance per watt. High performance GPUs may draw large amount of power and hence, intelligent techniques are required to manage GPU power consumption. Measures like 3DMark2006 score per watt can help identify more efficient GPUs. However that may not adequately incorporate efficiency in typical use, where much time is spent doing less demanding tasks.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15929501',
'title': 'Performance per watt',
'section': 'Section::::GPU efficiency.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 30,
'end_character': 547,
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'passage_text': 'With modern GPUs, energy usage is an important constraint on the maximum computational capabilities that can be achieved. GPU designs are usually highly scalable, allowing the manufacturer to put multiple chips on the same video card, or to use multiple video cards that work in parallel. Peak performance of any system is essentially limited by the amount of power it can draw and the amount of heat it can dissipate. Consequently, performance per watt of a GPU design translates directly into peak performance of a system that uses that design.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9535269',
'title': 'Close to Metal',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 485,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Using GPUs to perform computations holds a lot of potential for some applications because of the fundamental differences of GPU microarchitectures compared to CPUs. GPUs achieve much greater throughput (calculations per second) by executing many programs in parallel and restricting flow control (the ability of one program to execute instructions independently of another). Modern GPUs also have addressable on-die memory and extremely high performance multi-channel external memory.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '273703',
'title': 'Power management',
'section': 'Section::::In GPUs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
'end_character': 273,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'All of this do come with some drawbacks, the high computing capability of GPUs comes at the cost of high power dissipation. A lot of research has been done over the power dissipation issue of GPUs and a lot of different techniques have been proposed to address this issue.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13242122',
'title': 'Average CPU power',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 571,
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'passage_text': 'The average CPU power (ACP), is a scheme to characterize power consumption of new central processing units under "average" daily usage, especially server processors, the rating scheme is defined by Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) for use in its line of processors based on the K10 microarchitecture (Opteron 8300 and 2300 series processors). This rating is similar to Intel\'s thermal design power (TDP) used with Pentium and Core 2 processors, measuring the energy consumption of high workloads, which in numbers are slightly lower than the TDP value of the same processor.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39616242',
'title': 'PlayStation 4 technical specifications',
'section': 'Section::::Processors and memory.:APU.:Graphics processing unit.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 453,
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'passage_text': "The graphics processing unit (GPU) is AMD's GPGPU-capable Radeon GCN architecture, consisting of 18 compute units (CUs) for a total of 1,152 cores (64 cores per CU), that produces a theoretical peak performance of 1.84\xa0TFLOPS. This processing power can be used for graphics, physics simulation, or a combination of the two, or any other tasks suited for general purpose compute. GPU is mostly based on the Bonaire architecture using GCN 1.1 technology.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7578564',
'title': 'Power supply unit (computer)',
'section': 'Section::::Development.:ATX standard.:ATX12V standard.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 589,
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'passage_text': 'Modern high-powered graphics processing units do the same thing, resulting in most of the power requirement of a modern personal computer being on the +12\xa0V rail. When high-powered GPUs were first introduced, typical ATX power supplies were "5\xa0V-heavy", and could only supply 50–60% of their output in the form of 12\xa0V power. Thus, GPU manufacturers, to ensure 200–250\xa0W of 12\xa0V power (peak load, CPU+GPU), recommended power supplies of 500–600\xa0W or higher. More modern ATX power supplies can deliver almost all (typically 80–90%) of their total rated capacity in the form of +12\xa0V power.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How does comparable gpu's have completely different power needs?",
'selftext': "I don't know if it's the right subreddit, but I wanna ask: how does nvidia geforce gt 1030 need 30W, and gtx 560 needs 150W, while they have basically the same performance? (In benchmarks gt1030 has 140th place, while gtx560 has 141th)",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['More modern manufacturing process, using smaller transistors that leak less heat during operation, and improvements to the arrangement of those transistors that results in a more efficient architecture.',
'The amount of transistors determines how well the GPU will perform (it is bit more complicated but good for enough for ELI5).\nAs the technology gets better manufacturers are able to made smaller transistors.\nThe transistor use the same voltage but as they are smaller they use less current. \nCurrent*Voltage=Power\nIf you use the same amount of transistors that are smaller you need less current so less power is consumed, but the performance will be the same.\nYou can also use more smaller transistors to keep the power consumption the same and gain proportionally better performance.\n\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'aeoob9',
'query': "how does comparable gpu's have completely different power needs?",
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '211485',
'title': 'Radioisotope thermoelectric generator',
'section': 'Section::::Safety.:Radioactive contamination.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 60,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 60,
'end_character': 611,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The plutonium-238 used in these RTGs has a half-life of 87.74 years, in contrast to the 24,110 year half-life of plutonium-239 used in nuclear weapons and reactors. A consequence of the shorter half-life is that plutonium-238 is about 275 times more radioactive than plutonium-239 (i.e. /g compared to /g). For instance, 3.6\xa0kg of plutonium-238 undergoes the same number of radioactive decays per second as 1 tonne of plutonium-239. Since the morbidity of the two isotopes in terms of absorbed radioactivity is almost exactly the same, plutonium-238 is around 275 times more toxic by weight than plutonium-239.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37257',
'title': 'Radioactive waste',
'section': 'Section::::Sources.:Nuclear fuel cycle.:Proliferation concerns.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 30,
'end_character': 340,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Pu-239 decays to U-235 which is suitable for weapons and which has a very long half-life (roughly 10 years). Thus plutonium may decay and leave uranium-235. However, modern reactors are only moderately enriched with U-235 relative to U-238, so the U-238 continues to serve as a denaturation agent for any U-235 produced by plutonium decay.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22153',
'title': 'Nuclear power',
'section': 'Section::::Life cycle of nuclear fuel.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 127,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 127,
'end_character': 308,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In modern light-water reactors the fuel rods will spend about 3 operational cycles (typically 6 years total now) inside the reactor, generally until about 3% of their uranium has been fissioned, then they will be moved to a spent fuel pool where the short lived isotopes generated by fission can decay away.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2836053',
'title': 'Natural uranium',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 435,
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'passage_text': 'On rare occasions, earlier in geologic history when uranium-235 was more abundant, uranium ore was found to have naturally engaged in fission, forming natural nuclear fission reactors. Uranium-235 decays at a faster rate (half-life of 700 million years) compared to uranium-238, which decays extremely slowly (half-life of 4.5 billion years). Therefore, a billion years ago, there was more than double the uranium-235 compared to now.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27739443',
'title': 'Nuclear transmutation',
'section': 'Section::::Artificial transmutation of nuclear waste.:Long-lived fission products (LLFP).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 39,
'end_character': 488,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Sr-90 and Cs-137, with half-lives of about 30 years, are the largest radiation (including heat) emitters in used nuclear fuel on a scale of decades to ~305 years (Sn-121m is insignificant because of the low yield), and are not easily transmuted because they have low neutron absorption cross sections. Instead, they should simply be stored until they decay. Given that this length of storage is necessary, the fission products with shorter half-lives can also be stored until they decay.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27739443',
'title': 'Nuclear transmutation',
'section': 'Section::::Artificial transmutation of nuclear waste.:Long-lived fission products (LLFP).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 40,
'end_character': 479,
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'passage_text': 'The next longer-lived fission product is Sm-151, which has a half-life of 90 years, and is such a good neutron absorber that most of it is transmuted while the nuclear fuel is still being used; however, effectively transmuting the remaining Sm-151 in nuclear waste would require separation from other isotopes of samarium. Given the smaller quantities and its low-energy radioactivity, Sm-151 is less dangerous than Sr-90 and Cs-137 and can also be left to decay for ~970 years.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31743',
'title': 'Uranium',
'section': 'Section::::Isotopes.:Natural concentrations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 99,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 99,
'end_character': 222,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Uranium-238 is the most stable isotope of uranium, with a half-life of about 4.468 years, roughly the age of the Earth. Uranium-235 has a half-life of about 7.13 years, and uranium-234 has a half-life of about 2.48 years.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If Uranium has a half life of 4.5 billion years, why do Uranium fuel rods used in nuclear reactors need to be replaced every six years?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Because they are being spent. You can keep gasoline in a barrel for a really long time too, but need to refill your car at pretty regular intervals during use.\n\nThe same concept applies to all fuel, Uranium is broken down in the nuclear reaction, leaving less of it than there was before, at a rate much greater than its natural half-life.',
"Because half life is from natural decay, not fission. Inside a nuclear reactor, we're actively causing the fuel atoms to split at a much higher rate than decay would happen in nature.\n\nPlus there's also a significant difference between natural decay and atomic fission.",
"Uranium-238 has a half-life of ~4.5 billion years. However, Uranium-238 is not what drives a nuclear fuel cycle. Uranium-235, which has a half-life of about 700 million years, along with some other isotopes are the primary fuels in most nuclear reactors.\n\nSome nuclear reactors are designed to operate on refined Uranium with its natural isotope balance, while others require the fuel to be enriched by increasing the proportion of Uranium-235 in the fuel. Yet more reactors permit new fuel to be mixed together with old fuel, burning it again.\n\nWhat makes U-235 so different from U-238 is that U-235 is a fissile material whereas U-238 is not a fissile material.\n\nIn the right concentration, and under the right conditions, fissile materials are capable of sustaining a fissile chain reaction.\n\nFissiling is different than simple radioactive decay. Over time, Uranium-235 will naturally undergo alpha decay into Thorium-231 absent any external intervention. However, if a Uranium-235 atom collides with a thermal (slow) neutron, the atom can literally be blown into pieces.\n\nA single Uranium-235 atom may be broken into Barium-141 and Krypton-92 along with three free neutrons. If these neutrons are then slowed down, they can further interact with more Uranium-235 atoms.\n\nOn the other hand, Uranium-238 naturally decays into Thorium-234 over billions of years. However, unlike Uranium-235 Uranium-238 does not fissile with thermal (slow) neutrons. Instead, it captures them and becomes Uranium-239. Uranium-239 Undergoes beta decay into Neptunium-239 which in turn undergoes beta decay into Plutonium-239, a useful isotope in nuclear weapons. However, Plutonium-239 can capture slow neutrons and become Plutonium-240, a temperamental waste product.\n\nJust for the sake of completion, the radioactive particles emitted by alpha decay (two protons, two neutrons, or a helium-4 nucleus) and beta decay (electron) are not sufficient to start or sustain most fissile chain reactions. Spontaneous fission in Uranium isotopes is rare but does occur so care must be taken to keep concentrations of fissile material below a certain threshold.\n\nIn summary, nuclear reactors aren't powered by the natural radioactive decay of their fuel, but rather by a chain reaction caused by neutrons flying around colliding with fissile material causing said fissile material to break into pieces which in turn causes more neutrons to fly around. The rate of this reaction must be carefully controlled."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '78bfiz',
'query': 'if uranium has a half life of 4.5 billion years, why do uranium fuel rods used in nuclear reactors need to be replaced every six years?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2332422',
'title': 'Carcinogenesis',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Non-mainstream theories.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
'end_character': 1545,
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'passage_text': 'A number of authors have questioned the assumption that cancers result from sequential random mutations as oversimplistic, suggesting instead that cancer results from a failure of the body to inhibit an innate, programmed proliferative tendency. A related theory developed by astrobiologists suggests that cancer is an atavism, an evolutionary throwback to an earlier form of multicellular life. The genes responsible for uncontrolled cell growth and cooperation between cancer cells are very similar to those that enabled the first multicellular life forms to group together and flourish. These genes still exist within the genome of more complex metazoans, such as humans, although more recently evolved genes keep them in check. When the newer controlling genes fail for whatever reason, the cell can revert to its more primitive programming and reproduce out of control. The theory is an alternative to the notion that cancers begin with rogue cells that undergo evolution within the body. Instead they possess a fixed number of primitive genes that are progressively activated, giving them finite variability. Another evolutionary theory puts the roots of cancer back to the origin of the eukarote (nucleated) cell by massive horizontal gene transfer, when the genomes of infecting viruses were cleaved (and thereby attenuated) by the host, but their fragments integrated into the host genome as immune protection. Cancer now originates when a rare somatic mutation recombines such fragments into a functional driver of cell proliferation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32706791',
'title': 'Genome instability',
'section': 'Section::::In cancer.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
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'passage_text': 'It is currently accepted that sporadic tumors (non-familial ones) are originated due to the accumulation of several genetic errors. An average cancer of the breast or colon can have about 60 to 70 protein altering mutations, of which about 3 or 4 may be "driver" mutations, and the remaining ones may be "passenger" mutations Any genetic or epigenetic lesion increasing the mutation rate will have as a consequence an increase in the acquisition of new mutations, increasing then the probability to develop a tumor. During the process of tumorogenesis, it is known that diploid cells acquire mutations in genes responsible for maintaining genome integrity ("caretaker genes"), as well as in genes that are directly controlling cellular proliferation ("gatekeeper genes"). Genetic instability can originate due to deficiencies in DNA repair, or due to loss or gain of chromosomes, or due to large scale chromosomal reorganizations. Losing genetic stability will favour tumor development, because it favours the generation of mutants that can be selected by the environment.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60048566',
'title': 'PyClone',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'According to the Clonal Evolution model proposed by Peter Nowell, a mutated cancer cell can accumulate more mutations as it progresses to create sub-clones. These cells divide and mutate further to give rise to other sub-populations. In compliance with the theory of natural selection, some mutations may be advantageous to the cancer cells and thus make the cell immune to previous treatment. Heterogeneity within a single cancer tumour can arise from single nucleotide polymorphism/variation (SNP/SNV) events, microsatellite shifts and instability, loss of heterozygosity (LOH), Copy number variation and karyotypic variations including chromosome structural aberrations and aneuploidy. Due to the current methods of molecular analysis where a mixed population of cancer cells are lysed and sequenced, heterogeneity within the tumour cell population is under-detected. This results in a lack of information on the clonal composition of cancer tumours and more knowledge in this area would aid in the decisions for therapies.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '59627363',
'title': 'Cancer selection',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "Cancer selection can be viewed through the lens of natural selection. The animal host's body is the environment which applies the selective pressures upon cancer cells. The most fit cancer cells will have traits that will allow them to out compete other cancer cells which they are related to, but are genetically different from. This genetic diversity of cells within a tumor gives cancer an evolutionary advantage over the host's ability to inhibit and destroy tumors. Therefore, other selective pressures such as clinical treatments and pharmaceutical treatments are needed to help destroy the large amount of genetically diverse cancerous cells within a tumor. It is because of the high genetic diversity between cancer cells within a tumor that makes cancer a formidable foe for the survival of animal hosts. It has also been proposed that cancer selection is a selective force that has driven the evolution of animals. Therefore, cancer and animals have been paired as competitors in co-evolution throughout time.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55801113',
'title': 'Physical oncology',
'section': 'Section::::The big ancestors and the dust under the carpet.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 125,
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'end_paragraph_id': 125,
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'passage_text': 'Since the 1950s, the genetic paradigm has emerged. Cancers arise from one (or some) mutated cell(s) and progression results from the sequential accumulation of tumor-free random mutations of all homeostatic controls.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13796485',
'title': 'Caretaker gene',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Changes in the genome that allow uncontrolled cell proliferation or cell immortality are responsible for cancer. It is believed that the major changes in the genome that lead to cancer arise from mutations in tumor suppressor genes. In 1997, Kinzler and Bert Vogelstein grouped these cancer susceptibility genes into two classes: "caretakers" and "gatekeepers". In 2004, a third classification of tumor suppressor genes was proposed by Franziska Michor, Yoh Iwasa, and Martin Nowak; "landscaper" genes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '105219',
'title': 'Cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.:Epigenetics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 84,
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'end_paragraph_id': 84,
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'passage_text': 'Cancers usually arise from an assemblage of mutations and epimutations that confer a selective advantage leading to clonal expansion (see Field defects in progression to cancer). Mutations, however, may not be as frequent in cancers as epigenetic alterations. An average cancer of the breast or colon can have about 60 to 70 protein-altering mutations, of which about three or four may be "driver" mutations and the remaining ones may be "passenger" mutations.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why hasn’t cancer been bred out of the gene pool by natural selection?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Because cancer isn't solely genetical in origin. There are various causes, including viruses. Also, some cancers don't normally appear until middle age or after, so victims would have already had children.",
"Because cancer isn't an inherited disease. Cancer isn't even one single disease. You can inherit genes that predispose you to types of cancers, but cancer is just random mutations in cells that make them grow out of control. They can happen in in any person at any time; sometimes in response to carcinogens or mutagens, and sometimes just randomly for no reason at all. ",
'In addition to what the other people have said, most types cancer don’t show up until you are in your 60s or older, long past childbearing age. If you’ve already reproduced, there’s not a whole lot of selective pressure being applied towards any negative traits that appear after you’ve had your kids, and getting cancer at 60 isn’t likely to stop your kids from having their own kids at 25',
"if you wanted cancer to be bred out of a gene pool, you would need to have extremely elderly people continuing to give birth. species that appear to have reduced risks of forming cancers tend to be very long lived creatures, such as elephants and whales, which presumably also feature extended reproductive phases. this means individuals who died of cancer had fewer babies and thus had a smaller impact on the gene pool.\n\nthis is because the risk of cancer increases with time, meaning animals who finish reproducing in fewer years have a reduced risk of ever forming cancer in the first place before it no longer had any effect on the gene pool. so for example, lions and tigers don't usually live long enough for most cancers to be an issue, and their reproductive cycle matches that expectation, with large litters starting young. if one had an extended life (gene pool wise this is like domestic cats) they run risks of developing all sorts of health problems, including cancer. \n\n\nif a creature is likely to get cancer in its old age, but reproduced a lot when it was young, the gene pool will continue to feature genes that result in cancers. if however, old age still is viable reproductively, you would expect to see any individuals who *dont* get cancer influence the gene pool, resulting in a shift of increasing likelihood of an individual having a reduction in cancer rates. this only becomes true however once an animals reproductive phase is long enough in actual years for cancer to be a reasonable concern.\n\n"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '804ppu',
'query': 'why hasn’t cancer been bred out of the gene pool by natural selection?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '47922812',
'title': 'Henri Termeer',
'section': 'Section::::Baxter International.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'From 1979 to 1981 he was executive vice president of the Hyland Therapeutics division of Baxter Travenol in Glendale, California. In the United States, plasma donors were paid for their time as the time commitment for regular donors is over 200 hours per year. Standards for donating plasma are set by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Almost all plasmapheresis in the US is performed by automated methods such as the Plasma Collection System (PCS2) made by Haemonetics or the Autopheresis-C (Auto-C) made by Fenwal, Inc., a former division of Baxter International. Termeer explained, "This was the beginning of biotechnology. You took plasma and pulled it apart, fractionated it. Hyland sold Factor VIII, Factor IX, immunoglobulins, and albumin. The plasma was collected through "plasmapheresis" performed at collection centers all around the country. They paid people for plasma. They returned the red cells and paid for the plasma\xa0... There were ethical concerns about the payments. Very vulnerable people were being paid." At that time Baxter was developing tests for Chagas disease which was very prevalent in Latin America, based on feedback indicating that it would be a big market. Termeer was sent to South America to "figure out a way to set up the connections" which was how Baxter operated. After meeting with the military and with the Center for Disease Control he called off the project as unprofitable.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1002590',
'title': 'Plasmapheresis',
'section': 'Section::::As a manufacturing process.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 58,
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'passage_text': 'In a few countries, plasma (like blood) is donated by unpaid volunteers. In others, including the United States, most plasma donors are paid for their time as the time commitment for regular donors is over 200 hours per year. Standards for donating plasma are set by national regulatory agencies such as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the European Union, and by a professional organization, the Plasma Protein Therapeutics Association (or PPTA), which audits and accredits collection facilities. A National Donor Deferral Registry (NDDR) is also maintained by the PPTA for use in keeping donors with prior positive viral antibody test results from donating at any facility.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2859118',
'title': 'Fresh frozen plasma',
'section': 'Section::::Alternatives.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': 'Evidence indicates that other plasma components (e.g., single-donor plasma) that do not meet the criteria of FFP may have adequate levels of coagulation factors and are suitable for patients in whom FFP is indicated. Single-donor plasma is efficacious in the treatment of mild deficiencies of stable clotting factors. It also is of value in treatment of multiple deficiencies as in reversal of warfarin effects or in liver disease.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29739883',
'title': 'State Policy Network',
'section': 'Section::::Finances.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'In 2013, Sharp told "Politico" that like most nonprofits, SPN keeps its donors private and voluntary. In 2011, "Mother Jones" reported that SPN is largely funded by donations from foundations, including the Lovett and Ruth Peters Foundation, the Castle Rock Foundation, and the Bradley Foundation. A 2013 article by "The Guardian" said that SPN received funding from the Koch brothers, Philip Morris, Kraft Foods and GlaxoSmithKline. Other corporate donors to SPN have included Facebook, Microsoft, AT&T, Time Warner Cable, Verizon, and Comcast. Between 2008 and 2013, SPN received $10 million from Donors Trust, a nonprofit donor-advised fund. In 2011, the approximately $2 million investment from Donors Trust accounted for about 40% of annual revenue.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46406752',
'title': 'Donor-acceptor scheme',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'The donor-acceptor scheme is a numerical scheme for treating the volume of fluid method in the field of computational fluid dynamics. Originally introduced by Ramshaw and Trapp in 1976 and extend by Hirt and Nichols in their VOF article from 1981, the donor-acceptor scheme revolves around the idea of including data from the downwind cell (acceptor cell) of a cell face to predict the volume fraction transported through it during a time step. In addition to this information from the acceptor scheme, information of the availability of the fluids from the upwind cell (donor cell) is required. This approach, known as controlled downwinding, is necessary in order to avoid non-physical volume fraction values smaller than zero or larger than unity. The donor-acceptor scheme has since its introduction served as a basis for compressive differencing schemes and higher order schemes used to treat the advection of the fraction function in the volume of fluid method.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44732488',
'title': 'PragerU',
'section': 'Section::::Funding.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': "Two of PragerU's largest donors are the hydraulic fracturing billionaires Dan and Farris Wilks. Two members of the Wilks family are on PragerU's board. The second-largest donor is the Lynde and Harry Bradley Foundation. Other donors include the Morgan Family Foundation, Fidelity Charitable Gift Fund, Donors Trust, and the Minnesota-based Sid and Carol Verdoorn Foundation, led by former C.H. Robinson CEO Sid Verdoorn.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33582',
'title': 'World Food Programme',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.:Funding.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'In 2016, WFP received from donors in total US$5,933,529,247. The USA was the major donor of WFP with 2 billion US$, followed by the European Commission (894 million US$) and Germany (884 million US$).\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What makes AB+ plasma and platelets a universal donor?',
'selftext': 'I’ve been donating blood regularly for years, and donating plasma and platelets more regularly recently. I understand some basics around blood interoperability, but don’t know what makes AB+ a universal platelet donor. Can someone fill me in?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It get a bit more complicated, but to break it down into just the AB things, because that's what explains this mostly. You have two main blood cell factors, A and B. They interact a bit like puzzle pieces with some clotting factors, such as in a platelet donations. Some of these factors cause any blood cells with an A to clot up and some with a B to clot up and your blood does not have whichever makes your blood clot up. Because an AB donor has both A and B on his or her own blood cells, that person does not have clotting factors that interact with either of them. As a result, your platlet donations aren't going to cause any issue with anyone because you lack either of the two main factors in you platelet donations. \n\n\nNote that the opposite is true with regular blood donations. AB is a universal recepient for the same reason but can't donate to anyone other than another AB.",
'AB+ is a good platelet donor because their platelets dont contain any antibodies towards the other blood types. They have the A, B and + on their red blood cells so they dont see any of those as foreign if a donated cell has one of those on it'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'eba5kp',
'query': 'what makes ab+ plasma and platelets a universal donor?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '28931283',
'title': 'Buddhist cosmology of the Theravada school',
'section': 'Section::::Introduction.:The 31 Planes of Existence.:Kama-Loka (The Sense-Sphere realm).:Lower Kama-Loka.:Human Beings (manussa loka).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 85,
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'passage_text': 'Killing others lead to short life if one becomes reborn in the human plane instead of the four lower States of Deprivation. By abandoning the very acts of killing and harming, one gets to be reborn in a heavenly world. Alternatively, one gets to be reborn in the human world being endowed with long life.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2384297',
'title': 'The Lives of a Cell: Notes of a Biology Watcher',
'section': 'Section::::Summary.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
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'passage_text': 'Death is not supposed to happen in the open, along highways and in sight of others. Everything is in the process of dying all around us, though we keep it hidden from our sight and minds. Death is part of the cycle and we need to understand we are part of a larger process. The process of dying is necessary for the birth of the new and we will all experience it together.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13742021',
'title': 'You Got to Move',
'section': 'Section::::Featured people.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': '"Now I sit back and look at some of the things we did, and I say, \'What in the world came over us,\' you know? But death had nothing to do with what we were doing. If somebody shot us we would be dead. And when people died, we cried. And we went to funerals. And we went and did the next thing the next day, because it was really beyond life and death. It was really like... Sometimes you know what you\'re supposed to be doing, and when you know what you\'re supposed to be doing, it\'s somebody else\'s job to kill you."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1196343',
'title': 'The Five People You Meet in Heaven',
'section': 'Section::::Selected quotations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 43,
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'passage_text': '"It is because the human spirit knows, deep down, that all lives intersect. That death doesn\'t just take someone, it misses someone else, and in the small distance between being taken and being missed, lives are changed." \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43373',
'title': 'Clint Eastwood',
'section': 'Section::::Personal life.:Spiritual beliefs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 92,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 92,
'end_character': 336,
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'passage_text': '"Of course, it would be wonderful to talk with my parents again, who are, of course, deceased. It makes the idea of death much less scary. But then again, if you think that nothing happens after you die, maybe it makes you live life better. Maybe you\'re supposed to do the best you can by the gift you\'re given of life and that alone."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '552085',
'title': 'Reaper Man',
'section': 'Section::::Plot.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'When humankind finally thinks of a New Death, one with a crown and without any humanity or human face, it goes to take Bill Door. Death/Door, having planned for this moment for some time, outwits and destroys it. Having defeated the New Death, Death absorbs the other Deaths back into him, with the exception of the Death of Rats (and ultimately, the Death of Fleas). Death confronts Azrael, the Death of the Universe, and states that the Deaths have to care or they do not exist and there is nothing but Oblivion, which must also end some time.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11544367',
'title': 'Battle of the Lerna Mills',
'section': 'Section::::Battle.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': '"They are many indeed but we few have decided to die and have God on our side... And when the few decide to die, most times win... And if we die today we will die for our country and our religion and this death is a good one". "Tres bien" replied De Rigny.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do people "let go" and choose to die?',
'selftext': 'I\'ve heard countless stories of people waiting until family members show up to finally let go, or hearing about a spouse dying while you\'re both sick and one "lets go" after hearing. I just don\'t understand how anyone can command their body that way.',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["I'm no expert, but I think a lot of the time that person is actively fighting to stay alive for as long as possible whether it's a conscious or subconscious decision. Once they consciously decide that they no longer want to fight then the brain stops trying to coordinate the body's fight and they then slip away.",
'My mom promised my little sister that she\'d wait for her. Even though she\'d been in hospice for 3 days, and hadn\'t been [noticably] conscious for nearly 24 hours, she *knew* when my sister got there and said, "hey, Mom." She died moments later, but she waited. Having watched her die, I can tell you they\'re sometimes capable of partial consciousness even when they\'re really close to death. So I believe she heard her voice, and then chose to stop forcing her body to keep going.\n\nWe\'ve got more control over our autonomic nervous system than we realize/exercise. Think about those people who do extreme stunts where they literally *tell* their heartbeat to slow down enough that they can survive an unbelievable amount of time submerged in super cold water. Similarly, if your system is actively shutting down- but you *tell* your heart to keep beating- your body can use its very last reserves to do so. Not indefinitely, of course, but if I can will my heart to slow down when I begin to panic, then a dying woman can will hers to *keep* beating until she hears her daughter\'s voice.\n\nThat\'s not a very scientific response. But having witnessed what you\'re referring to, I think sometimes we have more control over our basic functions than what a healthy person would choose to exercise or explore (or even know how to, in most cases).',
"My friends grandparents just died last week. His grandma died first, and his grandad just stopped eating due to depression. He only lasted a couple days and passed away in his sleep. I guess it's because at their age it takes a lot of work to stay alive, and when you loose the will to keep that up it can end quickly.",
'It\'s a matter of survival situation. When in danger you release adrenaline to perform better. Here the situation is a psychological state of extreme willingness that activates survival/emergency mechanisms letting you stay alive for longer than if you were peaceful in your mind. After you had what you wanted you have no will to continue releasing those and "let it go".\n\nThink of two copies of the exact same person (physically) running a 10 Km race. At 9km both start to get really exhausted :\n- one is letting go and after 30sec can\'t finish the race cause the body has lost its "high performing" state and is now in resting state. It\'s lost now, even with all the will he can have now, he won\'t be able to make it.\n- the other one is willing to continue no matter what and so is still releasing adrenaline to his body which allows him to finish the race.\n\nThey were both the same exact person but the different psychological states had different influences on their physical states which led to different outcomes.\nThis is the same phenomenon appearing here.',
'I would add an alternative explanation: the (inopportunely named, in this case...) survivorship bias. \n\nFor every person who died at just the right moment to create a memorable and touching story about how they "hung on" until the right time, there are quite possibly 99 other people who died far too early or much later (or not at all!) to make it story-worthy. We only hear about those rare cases where people die at just the right moment, giving something of an illusion that the people may be exerting control over when they die.\n\nNot to say that\'s not what is happening, in some cases. But it is important to consider such observational biases which are often a simpler explanation for the stories we perceive.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'bc78yz',
'query': 'how do people "let go" and choose to die?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3253340',
'title': 'The Green Slime',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'After destroying a huge asteroid that was on a rapid collision course with Earth, a group of astronauts discover they have accidentally returned to their space station with an alien slime creature that feeds on radiation and can reproduce rapidly from its own blood.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '897095',
'title': 'Space and survival',
'section': 'Section::::Risk to humanity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': "Many of the same existential risks to humanity would destroy parts or all of Earth's biosphere as well. And although many have speculated about life and intelligence existing in other parts of space, Earth is the only place in the universe known to harbor life. Eventually the Earth will be uninhabitable, at the latest when the Sun becomes a red giant in about 5 billion years. Mankind, or its intelligent descendants, if they still exist at that point, then has to leave the Solar System long before that to ensure survival of the human species.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8108737',
'title': 'Geisters',
'section': 'Section::::Storyline.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Four hundred years ago, it became certain than an asteroid would collide with Earth and the extinction of the race was at hand. Mankind spent 10 years devising a plan to survive. The Dobias went out to live in space while the Shioru forged a new world underground. Three hundred years ago, mankind returned to the surface from beyond the stars and beneath the ground.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21221594',
'title': 'Global catastrophic risk',
'section': 'Section::::Potential sources of risk.:Non-anthropogenic.:Asteroid impact.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 74,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 74,
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'passage_text': 'Several asteroids have collided with earth in recent geological history. The Chicxulub asteroid, for example, was around 6 miles in diameter and is theorized to have caused the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs 66 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous. No sufficiently large asteroid currently exists in an Earth-crossing orbit; however, a comet of sufficient size to cause human extinction could impact the Earth, though the annual probability may be less than 10. Geoscientist Brian Toon estimates that while a few people, such as "some fishermen in Costa Rica", could plausibly survive a 6-mile meteorite, a 60-mile meteorite would be large enough to "incinerate everybody". Asteroids with around a 1\xa0km diameter have impacted the Earth on average once every 500,000 years; these are probably too small to pose an extinction risk, but might kill billions of people. Larger asteroids are less common. Small near-Earth asteroids are regularly observed and can impact anywhere on the Earth injuring local populations. As of 2013, Spaceguard estimates it has identified 95% of all NEOs over 1\xa0km in size.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47402',
'title': 'Titan (moon)',
'section': 'Section::::Prebiotic conditions and life.:Panspermia hypothesis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 114,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 114,
'end_character': 539,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "It is hypothesized that large asteroid and cometary impacts on Earth's surface may have caused fragments of microbe-laden rock to escape Earth's gravity, suggesting the possibility of transpermia. Calculations indicate that these would encounter many of the bodies in the Solar System, including Titan. On the other hand, Jonathan Lunine has argued that any living things in Titan's cryogenic hydrocarbon lakes would need to be so different chemically from Earth life that it would not be possible for one to be the ancestor of the other.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58921',
'title': 'Natural disaster',
'section': 'Section::::Space disasters.:Impact events and airburst.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 47,
'end_character': 368,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Asteroids that impact the Earth have led to several major extinction events, including one which created the Chicxulub crater 64.9\xa0million years ago and which is associated with the demise of the dinosaurs. Scientists estimate that the likelihood of death for a living human from a global impact event is comparable to the probability of death from an airliner crash.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4649794',
'title': 'Helatrobus',
'section': 'Section::::Implants.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 590,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'People on the planet\'s surface would be kidnapped using a small capsule ""placed at will in space. It shot out a large bubble, the being would grab at the bubble or strike at it and be sucked at once into the capsule. Then the capsule would be retracted into an aircraft."" A victim was implanted for up to six months and the Helatrobans would ""fix him on a post in a big bunch of stuff ... put him on a post and wobbled him around and ran him through this implant of goals on a little monowheel [sic]. Little monowheel pole trap. And it had the effigy of a body on it."" ("State of OT").\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "If every living human body disappeared off the face of the Earth all at once, would anything happen to the planet's orbit?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Yes! There would be change in the orbit of the Earth.\n\nThe Earth does not technically orbit the Sun, rather, the two objects orbit a common point in space, called the barycenter, about 450km from the center of the Sun. (still *well* within the Sun, but the Earth causes a 450km "wobble" of the Sun)\n\nIf all humans were to vanish, the barycenter would change by about 30 nanometers.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '963ytn',
'query': "if every living human body disappeared off the face of the earth all at once, would anything happen to the planet's orbit?",
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '5310412',
'title': 'David Sharp (mountaineer)',
'section': 'Section::::2006 Everest incident.:Problems at high altitudes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'There are significant risks associated with climbing into the "death zone" of Everest, which has claimed many lives, as well as many limbs. One survivor of the 1996 Mount Everest disaster, Beck Weathers, was left on the mountain exposed at a high altitude on the south side of Everest because he was overcome by the elements and initially could not walk any further or be rescued after descending to about during a storm following an unsuccessful summit attempt. He woke up later and was able to stumble into a nearby camp. Although it was a monumental effort to bring him further down the mountain and airlift him off the mountain by helicopter where that was possible at a lower altitude, he would ultimately lose his nose, parts of both feet and his hands due to frostbite. Afterwards, Weathers said that his view on climbing Everest had changed "fairly dramatically" and stated that "if you don’t have anyone who cares about you or is dependent on you, if you have no friends or colleagues, and if you’re willing to put a single round in the chamber of a revolver and put it in your mouth and pull the trigger, then yeah, it’s a pretty good idea to climb Everest”. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35940793',
'title': 'List of people who died climbing Mount Everest',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 479,
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'passage_text': 'The upper reaches of the mountain are in the death zone. The death zone is a mountaineering term for altitudes above a certain point – around , or less than of atmospheric pressure – where the oxygen level is not sufficient to sustain human life. Many deaths in high-altitude mountaineering have been caused by the effects of the death zone, either directly (loss of vital functions) or indirectly (unwise decisions made under stress or physical weakening leading to accidents).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48085382',
'title': 'South Summit (Mount Everest)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'During the 1996 Mount Everest disaster, mountain guide Rob Hall and three other people died at the South Summit while descending from the main summit in an unexpected blizzard. Hall survived overnight, and established radio contact the following day, but froze to death later that day, May 11, 1996. His body remains on the South Summit.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13689383',
'title': 'Mount Tanigawa',
'section': 'Section::::Misc.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 444,
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'passage_text': 'Commonly called the mountain of death, the mountain is bedecked at all levels with commemorative plaques for those who have died on the mountain. Some of these groups have been rather large. In the 1960s there was a famous "rescue" attempt of Japanese climbers on the main face who had died of exposure. Their bodies were eventually brought down when the Japanese Self-Defense Forces cut the rope with gunfire in order to retrieve the bodies. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1682927',
'title': 'List of premature obituaries',
'section': 'Section::::H.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 142,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 142,
'end_character': 760,
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'passage_text': "BULLET::::- Lincoln Hall: In 2006, Lincoln Hall was climbing up Mt. Everest with a group of climbers, one of whom, Thomas Weber, had already died. Although Hall had made it to the summit, he was suffering from what was probably cerebral edema, and on the way down was abandoned for dead by his Sherpas, after beginning to hallucinate and refuse to move. When the rest of the expedition reached ground, the leader, Alexander Abramov reported Hall had died on the way down, and Hall's family was informed. However, the day after the event, Dan Mazur found Hall sitting on a ledge, 28,200 feet up, with no oxygen. Hall had survived the night in the fabled 'death zone,' near the top of Mt Everest. Hall would die of mesothelioma in 2012 at his home in Australia.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5310412',
'title': 'David Sharp (mountaineer)',
'section': 'Section::::2006 Everest incident.:Problems at high altitudes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
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'passage_text': 'For stricken climbers above some experienced climbers have said that if you cannot walk at such a high altitude, you might as well be on the moon in terms of a possible successful rescue. That is why the area above is referred to as the "death zone". Even attempting to move a dead climber\'s body takes significant effort, and the recovery of a dead climber\'s body at high altitude is a monumental effort at a very slow pace. The recovery sometimes must be abandoned, and risks the lives of those attempting the recovery since these attempts have resulted in additional deaths while just attempting to move a dead climber\'s body. That is why bodies of dead climbers high on Everest are left where they died or just moved off the main climbing routes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42179',
'title': 'Mount Everest',
'section': 'Section::::Climbing.:Death zone.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 179,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 179,
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'passage_text': 'A 2008 study noted that the "death zone" is indeed where most Everest deaths occur, but also noted that most deaths occur during descent from the summit. A 2014 article in "The Atlantic" about deaths on Everest noted that while falling is one of the greatest dangers the death zone presents for all 8000ers, avalanches are a more common cause of death at lower altitudes. However, Everest climbing is more deadly than BASE jumping, although some have combined extreme sports and Everest including a Russian who base-jumped off Everest in a wingsuit (he did survive, though).\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What, exactly, happens to the body of the climbers in "The Death Zone" (i.e. on Mount Everest) that causes their death?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['There is not enough oxygen in the air at that altitude to keep a human alive. Climbers carry oxygen in bottles, to supplement the air they breathe. Without enough bottled oxygen, they suffocate.',
"Some of the biggest factors are called HACE and HAPE; high-altitude cerebral edema and high-altitude pulmonary edema. Both of them involve fluid accumulating in a place where it shouldn't due to the body's stress at high altitudes - for HACE, fluid is accumulating in the brain, causing confusion and disorientation, while for HAPE, it's accumulating in the lungs causing shortness of breath. And when you're up on a mountain fighting exhaustion, weather, and the climb itself, either of those can prove quickly fatal. I believe that HAPE-related deaths are one of the most common, specifically, at high altitude.\n\nAnd the scary thing about HACE and HAPE is that they can seemingly happen to anyone, anytime at high altitude. Being physically fit and acclimating to altitude slowly seem to reduce the chances, but even some of the most fit and prepared mountain climbers have died due to those conditions. If you've ever seen the movie *Everest* or read *Into Thin Air,* about the 1996 disaster on Everest, they note that Gary Ball, one of the founders of the Adventure Consultants company, died a few years before that disaster due to HAPE - and he was one of the most physically fit and well-prepared mountaineers in the world. Some of the guides and mountaineers who died on Everest that day were showing possible signs of HACE, possibly impacting their abilities to make decisions and move effectively.",
"There's only about 30% of oxygen in the death zone, when compared to sea level. As altitude increases, the amount of oxygen decreases (also why planes are pressurized, because otherwise you wouldn't have enough oxygen). With the amount of available oxygen in the death zone, you literally can only survive a few minutes. Every moment you are within the death zone, you are slowly suffocating and your cells are dying. This also increases your heart rate(your body trying to get the oxygen from your blood faster), which can increase your chance of heart attack and of stroke.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nRight now, people are dying on Everest because they are waiting for the summit and it is too crowded to go at their normal pace.",
"Falling, hypothermia, hypoxia, high-altitude cerebral edema, high altitude pulmonary edema...take your pick. In the death zone specifically, hypoxia (lack of oxygen) and its effects are common causes of death. Above 8000 meters, there's simply not enough oxygen for humans to survive. Climbers in the death zone without supplemental bottled oxygen are slowly suffocating every minute they spend at this extreme altitude.",
"The air is thinner the higher you go. Above a certain altitude, the air is so thin that each breath of air provides less oxygen than the body needs to survive. Most hikers up Everest bring oxygen tanks to breathe from for that portion of the mountain, but if they don't, their body will gradually use up the oxygen in their blood. Eventually, the cells of the body will die after being deprived of oxygen for too long, and while the body will attempt to prioritize oxygen to the brain, eventually the brain or some other vital organ will have too little oxygen for too long and begin to die off, leading to the person dying."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'bu53a6',
'query': 'what, exactly, happens to the body of the climbers in "the death zone" (i.e. on mount everest) that causes their death?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '5283757',
'title': 'Tearing',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': "Tearing is the act of breaking apart a material by force, without the aid of a cutting tool. A tear in a piece of paper, fabric, or some other similar object may be the result of the intentional effort with one's bare hands, or be accidental. Unlike a cut, which is generally on a straight or patterned line controlled by a tool such as scissors, a tear is generally uneven and, for the most part, unplanned. An exception is a tear along a perforated line, as found on a roll of toilet paper or paper towels, which has been previously partially cut, so the effort of tearing will probably produce a straight line.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5283757',
'title': 'Tearing',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Materials vary in their susceptibility to tearing. Some materials may be quite resistant to tearing when they are in their full form, but when a small cut or tear is made, the material becomes compromised, and the effort needed to continue tearing along that line becomes less.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23988563',
'title': 'Postage stamp paper',
'section': 'Section::::Paper characteristics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 946,
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'passage_text': 'One characteristic of machine-made paper is that it creates a direction or an alignment of the fibers, which directly impacts its strength. This is of particular importance when tearing the paper, as one would do to separate a stamp for use. When the tear is aligned with the direction of the fibers, the paper will tear evenly. When the tear is opposed to the direction of the fibers, the paper will tear unevenly, in a jagged line. Handmade paper disperses the fibers in unpredictable directions and therefore yields a paper with the most overall strength. A paper’s strength had an influence on the separation methods used for a stamp. For example, a stronger paper may have needed a higher number of perforations per inch to best facilitate the separation of the stamps. Similarly, many stamps have two different standards of perforation for its length and width to optimize the ease of separation while minimizing the cost of manufacturing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23989732',
'title': 'Paper splitting',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 425,
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'passage_text': 'Paper splitting is a method of preserving brittle papers often found in library and archival materials. In this process the front and back of a sheet of paper are split apart. A piece of acid-free paper is placed between these two sides of an acidic sheet before the pages are reconnected. The intention is to reduce the acid deterioration in the paper. A paper-splitting machine has been developed, but is not in wide use. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1478084',
'title': 'Staple remover',
'section': 'Section::::Use.:Original ("fast") method.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'The user forcefully clips the front flat side of the staple, causing the folded tabs on the reverse side to open and pull through the entry holes. This method requires much less time. Although this method is quick, it can have the undesirable side effect of tearing the paper when the folded tabs pull through. Tearing usually does not occur when higher quality paper is used or the staple connects three or more sheets.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21699593',
'title': 'Paper and ink testing',
'section': 'Section::::Paper test.:Mechanical properties.:Tear strength / resistance, MD and CD.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 49,
'end_character': 223,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Tearing\xa0strength is the ability of the paper to withstand any tearing force with out break. It is useful to evaluate web runability, controlling the quality of newsprint and characterizing the toughness of packaging paper.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1577006',
'title': 'Loose leaf',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 601,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The chief disadvantage of loose-leaf paper is that individual pages can be easily removed or lost from its storage binder due to tearing or wear of the punched holes. Adhesive reinforcement labels or sheet protectors are available to make pages more durable, and ring binders are often equipped with sheet lifters or other features to reduce wear and damage to their paper contents. Ring binders are sometimes banned from use for written journals, logs, or registers, which may even have pre-numbered permanently bound pages to discourage removal of pages, or at least allow a removal to be detected.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is it easy to tear paper in half but not to pull it apart?',
'selftext': "Paper is super easy to tear in half, but it's incredibly difficult to pull apart. I imagine it has something to do with an increased number of bonds I'm trying to break simultaneously, but I can't find anything on the topic.",
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["You've stumbled onto a key concept in engineering, which is the difference between [normal stress](_URL_1_) and [shear stress](_URL_0_).\n\nIn normal stress (tension or compression), you're pushing or pulling in line with the atomic bonds, like pushing/pulling on a spring. In shear stress, you're forcing lines of atomic bonds to slide *past* one another (like pushing a spring sideways), so you're not fighting them directly. Most everyday materials are less resistant to this sort of stress - paper is a great example. It's far too strong against tension for you to pull apart. But it can be easily torn or sliced by a shear load.",
"That's exactly the case. If you tear (or cut with scissors, knife, etc) you're applying a force to a very small area to break those bonds, whereas if you try to gather it up and pull it apart, there's quite a few more bonds to break simultaneously, so the force will need to be proportionally greater.",
'Imagine having 1000 threads of string. Now put all these threads together and try to pull them apart. Now take a single string and pull it apart, but do that 1000 times. The latter is much easier.\n\nWhen you pull apart a sheet of paper you are trying to snap all the fibers at once. When you tear the paper you break one fiber at a time.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '628vi5',
'query': 'why is it easy to tear paper in half but not to pull it apart?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '17913594',
'title': 'BMW GINA',
'section': 'Section::::Interior.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 363,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'When the car is parked, the car\'s steering wheel and instruments sit in an "idle" position on the centre console to allow the driver easy entry. The steering wheel and instruments assume their correct positions when the driver presses the start button and the headrest rises from the seat once the driver is seated, making it easier to get in and out of the car.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6523884',
'title': 'Lynn Walford',
'section': 'Section::::Bibliography.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 265,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Yahoo Autos: How Can I Play Music from My Phone in the car without Bluetooth or an Input?, Why Does It Seem Like I Can’t Trust Car Dealers?, Can I Drive on Bald Tires?, Which Kid Should I Stick in the Middle Seat? Yahoo Autos Question of the Day Author\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14736662',
'title': 'Forever the Sickest Kids',
'section': 'Section::::Musical style and influences.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 44,
'end_character': 223,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Before his departure, Stewart stated, "Ultimately, when you hear the music, we want it to make you want to dance in your car while you\'re driving. We want it to be easy to sing along to but so catchy you don\'t wanna stop."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '57317732',
'title': 'Grid of Points',
'section': 'Section::::Recording.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 281,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The song "Parking Lot" was inspired by a scene from the film "Zabriskie Point" depicting the California desert, which aligned with Harris\' own impression. "Driving" was inspired by "an image of tree-tunnels over a road, and people driving to a funeral, and some other things too."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19740545',
'title': 'Traffic collision',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Human factors.:Driver impairment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 64,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 64,
'end_character': 590,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Research suggests that the driver's attention is affected by distracting sounds such as conversations and operating a mobile phone while driving. Many jurisdictions now restrict or outlaw the use of some types of phone within the car. Recent research conducted by British scientists suggests that music can also have an effect; classical music is considered to be calming, yet too much could relax the driver to a condition of distraction. On the other hand, hard rock may encourage the driver to step on the acceleration pedal, thus creating a potentially dangerous situation on the road.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1509250',
'title': 'Intelligent Parking Assist System',
'section': 'Section::::How it works.:Functions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 630,
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'passage_text': 'The driver is responsible for checking to see if the representative box on the screen correctly identifies the parking space; if the space is large enough to park, the box will be green in color; if the box is incorrectly placed, or lined in red, using the arrow buttons moves the box until it turns green. Once the parking space is correctly identified, the driver presses OK and takes his/her hands off the steering wheel, while keeping the foot on the brake pedal. When the driver slowly releases the brake, while keeping the foot on the brake pedal, the car will then begin to back up and steer itself into the parking space.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '766946',
'title': 'Parallel parking',
'section': 'Section::::Road infrastructure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 214,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Beyond taking up a lane of traffic, on-street parking further reduces road capacity as remaining traffic slows to interact with cars moving in and out of parallel parking spaces, car doors opening and pedestrians.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does turning the music down in the car help you better find a parking spot',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Fewer senses are being overwhelmed. With lower volume you are focusing solely on seeing now.',
"Your brain finds it easier to process sounds so prioritises them.\n\nWhen you turn the music down it's got less work to do"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'fx31w0',
'query': 'why does turning the music down in the car help you better find a parking spot',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '154985',
'title': 'System administrator',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'A system administrator, or sysadmin, is a person who is responsible for the upkeep, configuration, and reliable operation of computer systems; especially multi-user computers, such as servers. The system administrator seeks to ensure that the uptime, performance, resources, and security of the computers they manage meet the needs of the users, without exceeding a set budget when doing so.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '189021',
'title': 'System software',
'section': 'Section::::Utility software or system support programs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 481,
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'passage_text': 'For historical reasons, some organizations use the term "systems programmer" to describe a job function which is more accurately termed systems administrator. Software tools these employees use are then called system software. This so-called "Utility software" helps to analyze, configure, optimize and maintain the computer, such as virus protection. In some publications, the term "system software" also includes software development tools (like a compiler, linker or debugger).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1162620',
'title': 'Maintenance mode',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'In the world of software development, maintenance mode refers to a point in a program\'s life when it has reached all of its goals and is generally considered to be "complete" and bug-free. Continued development is deemed unnecessary or ill-advised, but occasional bug fixes and security patches are still issued, hence the term maintenance mode. Maintenance mode often transitions to abandonware.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '365264',
'title': 'Systems programming',
'section': 'Section::::Alternate usage.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 871,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'For historical reasons, some organizations use the term "systems programmer" to describe a job function which would be more accurately termed systems administrator. This is particularly true in organizations whose computer resources have historically been dominated by mainframes, although the term is even used to describe job functions which do not involve mainframes. This usage arose because administration of IBM mainframes often involved the writing of custom assembler code (IBM\'s Basic Assembly Language (BAL)), which integrated with the operating system such as OS/MVS, DOS/VSE or VM/CMS. Indeed, some IBM software products had substantial code contributions from customer programming staff. This type of programming is progressively less common, but the term "systems programmer" is still the de facto job title for staff directly administering IBM mainframes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '634625',
'title': 'Installation (computer programs)',
'section': 'Section::::Installer.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 35,
'end_character': 335,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'An "installation program" or "installer" is a computer program that installs files, such as applications, drivers, or other software, onto a computer. Some installers are specifically made to install the files they contain; other installers are general-purpose and work by reading the contents of the software package to be installed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5309',
'title': 'Software',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Purpose, or domain of use.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 473,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Operating systems which are essential collections of software that manage resources and provides common services for other software that runs "on top" of them. Supervisory programs, boot loaders, shells and window systems are core parts of operating systems. In practice, an operating system comes bundled with additional software (including application software) so that a user can potentially do some work with a computer that only has one operating system.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1158591',
'title': 'Windows Installer',
'section': 'Section::::Other features.:Administrative installation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 501,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'An administrative installation creates an uncompressed source image for a product, typically to be used for installing or running an application from a network location. An administrative installation is not a typical installation, in that it does not create any shortcuts, register COM servers, create an Add or Remove Programs entry, and so on. Often an administrative installation enables a user to install the product in such a way that its features run from the uncompressed installation source.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What "Run as administrator" does to a software?',
'selftext': "I've encountered many problems with software (not starting, freezing, crashing, poor performance etc.) that were fixed by simply running the program as administrator. What actually changes when doing it?",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Software runs on top of the operating system. Normally the software should not be altering the operating system that it's running on. Back in the 90s and early 2000s there were LOTS of problems with windows and viruses, mainly because Windows allowed any software to alter itself to whatever needs the software had. Virus makers took advantage of that. But also many legitimate programs did it because it was easy and it allowed them to do things not originally intended by the OS programmers. \n\nCome later versions of windows, Microsoft decided enough was enough and no longer allowed software to run as administrator by default. Not running as administrator forbids the software to make changes to the underlying structure of the operating system (I think this first happened in windows vista).\n\nSo now, software did not run with administrator privileges. This was all well and good. It took some time but most software makers updated their programs so that they did not require administrator privileges to run. \n\nSo what's happening to you is that the software you are trying to run has a legitimate reason to change the OS, or the programmers were lazy and never updated it from the older ways of doing business, or the software is infected with a virus. \n\nMy personal rule is that if software requires administrator privileges to run, it's likely a good idea to just not run that software. ",
"in a word, permissions.\n\nWhen you run a piece of software it does many things from writing new files, running commands, reading files, accessing peripherals, etc.\n\nImagine your computer is an office building where every door you need to use your key card to get past. If you are a new employee your key card isn't going to work on many doors and therefore what you have access to is limited. As you work your way up the food chain you gain access to more and more rooms.\n\nYour computer's operating system is similar in that it tries to compartmentalize as much as possible so applications only have access to what they need. \n\nRunning a program as administrator gives the application access to everything. So if before the computer was trying to read a file it didn't have permissions to, error. Now, no problem, it can read that file. \n\nGenerally you only want to run programs that need administrator rights as admin...not everything."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '60hpsh',
'query': 'what "run as administrator" does to a software?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '143357',
'title': 'Medical ultrasound',
'section': 'Section::::By organ or system.:Urology (urinary).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 62,
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'end_paragraph_id': 62,
'end_character': 1250,
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'passage_text': "Ultrasound is routinely used in urology to determine, for example, the amount of fluid retained in a patient's bladder. In a pelvic sonogram, organs of the pelvic region are imaged. This includes the uterus and ovaries or urinary bladder. Males are sometimes given a pelvic sonogram to check on the health of their bladder, the prostate, or their testicles (for example to distinguish epididymitis from testicular torsion). In young males, it is used to distinguish more benign testicular masses (varicocele or hydrocele) from testicular cancer, which is highly curable but which must be treated to preserve health and fertility. There are two methods of performing a pelvic sonography – externally or internally. The internal pelvic sonogram is performed either transvaginally (in a woman) or transrectally (in a man). Sonographic imaging of the pelvic floor can produce important diagnostic information regarding the precise relationship of abnormal structures with other pelvic organs and it represents a useful hint to treat patients with symptoms related to pelvic prolapse, double incontinence and obstructed defecation. It is used to diagnose and, at higher frequencies, to treat (break up) kidney stones or kidney crystals (nephrolithiasis).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10303394',
'title': 'Abdominal ultrasonography',
'section': 'Section::::Medical uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 426,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Abdominal ultrasound can be used to diagnose abnormalities in various internal organs, such as the kidneys, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen and abdominal aorta. If Doppler ultrasonography is added, the blood flow inside blood vessels can be evaluated as well (for example, to look for renal artery stenosis). It is commonly used to examine the uterus and fetus during pregnancy; this is called obstetric ultrasonography.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4413238',
'title': 'Angiomyolipoma',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 1219,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Three methods of scanning can detect angiomyolipoma: ultrasound, computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Ultrasound is standard and is particularly sensitive to the fat in angiomyolipoma, but less so to the solid components. However, accurate measurements are hard to make with ultrasound, particularly if the angiomyolipoma is near the surface of the kidney (grade III). CT is very detailed and fast, and allows accurate measurement. However, it exposes the patient to radiation and the dangers that a contrast dye used to aid the scanning may itself harm the kidneys. MRI is safer than CT, but many patients (particularly those with the learning difficulties or behavioural problems found in tuberous sclerosis) require sedation or general anaesthesia, and the scan cannot be performed quickly. Some other kidney tumours contain fat, so the presence of fat is not diagnostic. Distinguishing a fat-poor angiomyolipoma from a renal cell carcinoma (RCC) can be difficult. Both minimal fat AMLs and 80% of the clear-cell type of RCCs display signal drop on an out-of-phase MRI sequence compared to in-phase. Thus, a lesion growing at greater than 5\xa0mm per year may warrant a biopsy for diagnosis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48455308',
'title': 'Cranial ultrasound',
'section': 'Section::::Technique.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 295,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A standard cranial ultrasound examination usually involves recording approximately 10 views of the brain from different angles, five in the coronal plane and five in the sagittal or parasaggital planes. This allows all parts of the ventricles and most of the rest of the brain to be visualised.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8483785',
'title': 'Fibrocystic breast changes',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.:Imaging.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 341,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Ultrasounds and MRIs are commonly performed in conjunction with mammographies as they produce clear images of the breast and clearly distinguish between fluid-filled breast cysts and solid masses. The ultrasound and MRI exams can better evaluate dense tissue of the breast; hence it is often undergone by young patients, under 30 years old.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18369319',
'title': 'Urologic disease',
'section': 'Section::::Testing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 1172,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Ultrasound is routinely used in urology. In a pelvic sonogram, organs of the pelvic region are imaged. This includes the uterus and ovaries or urinary bladder. Males are sometimes given a pelvic sonogram to check on the health of their bladder, the prostate, or their testicles (for example to distinguish epididymitis from testicular torsion). In young males, it is used to distinguish more benign masses (varicocele or hydrocele) from testicular cancer, which is highly curable but which must be treated to preserve health and fertility. There are two methods of performing a pelvic sonography – externally or internally. The internal pelvic sonogram is performed either transvaginally (in a woman) or transrectally (in a man). Sonographic imaging of the pelvic floor can produce important diagnostic information regarding the precise relationship of abnormal structures with other pelvic organs and it represents a useful hint to treat patients with symptoms related to pelvic prolapse, double incontinence and obstructed defecation. It is used to diagnose and, at higher frequencies, to treat (break up) kidney stones or kidney crystals (nephrolithiasis).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36442937',
'title': 'McGillivray syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 382,
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'passage_text': "First of all there is physical exam. Doctors examine the baby’s head for abnormalities such as suture ridges and look the facial deformities. Also, they utilizes Computerized Tomography which scan of the baby’s skull. Fused sutures are identifiable by their absences. X-rays also may be used to measure precise dimensions of the baby's skull, using a technique called cephalometry.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How can doctors a see a babies organs like their kidneys with ultrasound?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Sound waves go through soft substances and reflect of surfaces where the density changes. Baby kidneys are a different density than the rest of the baby-inards (not a medical term). That change in density causes a reflection that the ultrasound processor can use to produce a display image.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'e5qevh',
'query': 'how can doctors a see a babies organs like their kidneys with ultrasound?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '5040533',
'title': 'Amnesic shellfish poisoning',
'section': 'Section::::Symptoms and treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 491,
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'passage_text': 'Gastrointestinal symptoms can appear 24 hours after ingestion of affected molluscs. They may include vomiting, nausea, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and haemorrhagic gastritis. In more severe cases, neurological symptoms can take several hours or up to 3 days to develop. These include headache, dizziness, disorientation, vision disturbances, loss of short-term memory, motor weakness, seizures, profuse respiratory secretions, hiccups, unstable blood pressure, cardiac arrhythmia, and coma.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '92409',
'title': 'Shigellosis',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 262,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Signs and symptoms may range from mild abdominal discomfort to full-blown dysentery characterized by cramps, diarrhea, with slimy-consistent stools, fever, blood, pus, or mucus in stools or tenesmus. Onset time is 12 to 96 hours, and recovery takes 5 to 7 days.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '75473',
'title': 'Ricinus',
'section': 'Section::::Toxicity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 52,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 52,
'end_character': 416,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'If ricin is ingested, symptoms may be delayed by up to 36 hours but commonly begin within 2–4 hours. These include a burning sensation in mouth and throat, abdominal pain, purging and bloody diarrhea. Within several days there is severe dehydration, a drop in blood pressure and a decrease in urine. Unless treated, death can be expected to occur within 3–5 days; however, in most cases a full recovery can be made.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '242835',
'title': 'Muscarine',
'section': 'Section::::Toxicology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 33,
'end_character': 657,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The symptoms start early, after one-quarter to two hours, with headache, nausea, vomiting, and constriction of the pharynx. Then salivation, lacrimation, and diffuse perspiration set in, combined with miosis, disturbed accommodation, and reduced vision. Gastric and small bowel colic leads to diarrhea, and there is a painful urge for urination. Bronchoconstriction leads to asthmatic attacks and severe dyspnea, and bradycardia combined with marked hypotension and vasodilation results in circulatory shock. Death after 8 to 9 hours has been reported in about 5% of the cases, but can be avoided completely by prompt diagnosis and treatment with atropine.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '238839',
'title': 'Tetrodotoxin',
'section': 'Section::::Poisoning.:Symptoms and treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 50,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 50,
'end_character': 1045,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Symptoms typically develop within 30 minutes of ingestion, but may be delayed by up to four hours; however, if the dose is fatal, symptoms are usually present within 17 minutes of ingestion. Paresthesia of the lips and tongue is followed by developing paresthesia in the extremities, hypersalivation, sweating, headache, weakness, lethargy, incoordination, tremor, paralysis, cyanosis, aphonia, dysphagia, and seizures. The gastrointestinal symptoms are often severe and include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain; death is usually secondary to respiratory failure. There is increasing respiratory distress, speech is affected, and the victim usually exhibits dyspnea, cyanosis, mydriasis, and hypotension. Paralysis increases, and convulsions, mental impairment, and cardiac arrhythmia may occur. The victim, although completely paralyzed, may be conscious and in some cases completely lucid until shortly before death, which generally occurs within 4 to 6 hours (range ~20 minutes to ~8 hours). However, some victims enter a coma.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19161414',
'title': 'Sandifer syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Symptoms and signs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 349,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Spasms may last for 1–3 minutes and may occur up to 10 times a day. Ingestion of food is often associated with occurrence of symptoms; this may result in reluctance to feed. Associated symptoms, such as epigastric discomfort, vomiting (which may involve blood) and abnormal eye movements have been reported. Clinical signs may also include anaemia.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3657336',
'title': 'Rumination syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 263,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Symptoms can begin to manifest at any point from the ingestion of the meal to 120\xa0minutes thereafter. However, the more common range is between 30\xa0seconds to 1\xa0hour after the completion of a meal. Symptoms tend to cease when the ruminated contents become acidic.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If Digestion Takes 6-8 Hours How Do People Experience Diarhea Symptoms in Hours?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Someone here will provide an answer soon. Just wanted to say, if you find this interesting you will probably love the book Gulp by Mary Roach. It goes into the entire digestive process in playful detail.',
"Diarrhea happens precisely because digestion *hasn't* happened yet. Yes, normally it takes hours for food to make its way through your stomach and intestines to slowly absorb water and nutrients, but diarrhea is bypassing all that. Your gut has a ton of nerves, and when it senses something is amiss for any reason, it triggers your brain to send signals to get whatever is causing the situation out as quickly as possible. That means there's little to no absorption of water or nutrients. In fact, the intestines can actually add water or mucus to get things flowing even faster.",
'You eat something that your body thinks you should not have eaten. Your body thinks this could be a threat, so the best course of action is to get rid of the food. \n\nThe reason you can experience symptoms almost immediately, is because you have food in other sections of the pipeline, so as soon as your body starts sending the signals that you need to get rid of that food, food that you ate hours ago is ready to come out.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'c4fp32',
'query': 'if digestion takes 6-8 hours how do people experience diarhea symptoms in hours?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '20104879',
'title': 'Intermittent fasting',
'section': 'Section::::Research.:Weight loss.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 534,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A 2018 review of intermittent fasting in obese people showed that reducing calorie intake one to six days per week over at least 12 weeks was effective for reducing body weight on an average of ; the results were not different from a simple calorie restricted diet, and the clinical trials reviewed were run mostly on middle-aged women from the US and the UK, limiting interpretation of the results. Intermittent fasting has not been studied in children, the elderly, or underweight people, and could be harmful in these populations.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '187886',
'title': 'Fasting',
'section': 'Section::::In alternative medicine.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 207,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 207,
'end_character': 214,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'There is no scientific evidence that prolonged fasting provides any significant health benefits. Negative health complications from long term fasting include arthritis, abdominal cramp and orthostatic hypotension.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20104879',
'title': 'Intermittent fasting',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Intermittent fasting (intermittent energy restriction or intermittent calorie restriction) is an umbrella term for various eating diet plans that cycle between a period of fasting and non-fasting over a defined period. Intermittent fasting is under preliminary research to assess if it can produce weight loss comparable to long-term calorie restriction.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20104879',
'title': 'Intermittent fasting',
'section': 'Section::::Research.:Adverse effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
'end_character': 473,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Understanding the potential adverse effects of intermittent fasting is limited by an inadequate number of rigorous clinical trials. One 2015 review of preliminary clinical studies found that short-term intermittent fasting may produce minor adverse effects, such as continuous feelings of weakness and hunger, headaches, fainting, or dehydration. Long-term, periodic fasting may cause eating disorders or malnutrition, with increased susceptibility to infectious diseases.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1256165',
'title': 'Calorie restriction',
'section': 'Section::::Health effects.:Risks of malnutrition.:Young or pregnant.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 714,
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'passage_text': 'Long-term caloric restriction at a level sufficient for slowing the aging process is generally not recommended in children, adolescents, and young adults (under the age of approximately 21), because this type of diet may interfere with natural physical growth, as has been observed in laboratory animals. In addition, mental development and physical changes to the brain take place in late adolescence and early adulthood that could be negatively affected by severe caloric restriction. Pregnant women and women trying to become pregnant are advised not to practice calorie restriction, because low BMI may result in ovulatory dysfunction (infertility), and underweight mothers are more prone to preterm delivery.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1256165',
'title': 'Calorie restriction',
'section': 'Section::::Research.:Primates.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 35,
'end_character': 848,
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'passage_text': 'In a 2017 collaborative report on rhesus monkeys by scientists of the US National Institute on Aging and the University of Wisconsin, caloric restriction in the presence of adequate nutrition was effective in delaying the effects of aging. Older age of onset, female sex, lower body weight and fat mass, reduced food intake, diet quality, and lower fasting blood glucose levels were factors associated with fewer disorders of aging and with improved survival rates. Specifically, reduced food intake was beneficial in adult and older primates, but not in younger monkeys. The study indicated that caloric restriction provided health benefits with fewer age-related disorders in elderly monkeys and, because rhesus monkeys are genetically similar to humans, the benefits and mechanisms of caloric restriction may apply to human health during aging.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26434412',
'title': 'Mark Mattson',
'section': 'Section::::Contributions to research.:Intermittent Fasting and Hormesis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 342,
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'passage_text': 'Mattson’s research on animal models and human subjects has resulted in the widespread adoption of intermittent fasting as an intervention to optimize health and reduce the risk of many major chronic diseases including obesity, diabetes, cancer, asthma and other inflammatory disorders, cardiovascular disease and neurodegenerative disorders.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does intermittent fasting lead to "longer living" and healthier aging?',
'selftext': 'In particular I am interested in this article and the first comment which was confusing to me regarding mitochondria. Thank you! URL_0',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It is my understanding that it causes the body to go into more of a survival mode, rid itself of dead cells that were kind of hanging around not doing any good, and jump start creation of new stem cells. But the mechanism of action for this is still being studied and is not fully understood at this time.',
'They are not sure it does. Fasting triggers changing in your body. They are currently researching what those changes mean. As of now some studies show some things. And some people interpret those as positive \n\nFasting can help you lose weight like anything else - reduced caloric intake. ',
'The study was done on worms, are you a worm?\n\nTo date I don’t believe we have enough solid data from human subjects wrt IF.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7axa8x',
'query': 'why does intermittent fasting lead to "longer living" and healthier aging?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '113723',
'title': 'Raisin',
'section': 'Section::::Raisin production.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 529,
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'passage_text': 'Raisins are produced commercially by drying harvested grape berries. For a grape berry to dry, water inside the grape must be removed completely from the interior of the cells onto the surface of the grape where the water droplets can evaporate. However, this diffusion process is very difficult because the grape skin contains wax in its cuticle, which prevents the water from passing through. In addition to this, the physical and chemical mechanisms located on the outer layers of the grape are adapted to prevent water loss.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '546099',
'title': 'Dried fruit',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Today, dried fruit consumption is widespread. Nearly half of the dried fruits sold are raisins, followed by dates, prunes, figs, apricots, peaches, apples and pears. These are referred to as "conventional" or "traditional" dried fruits: fruits that have been dried in the sun or in heated wind tunnel dryers. Many fruits such as cranberries, blueberries, cherries, strawberries and mango are infused with a sweetener (e.g. sucrose syrup) prior to drying. Some products sold as dried fruit, like papaya, kiwi fruit and pineapple are most often candied fruit.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28985511',
'title': 'Traditional dried fruit',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Traditional or conventional dried fruits are types of dried fruits that are either sun-dried such as raisins and dried figs or dehydrated in wind tunnels and other dryers such as dried plums (prunes), apricots (kuraga), peaches, and persimmons (gotgam). It also includes dates, which are considered to be dried fruit because they have naturally low moisture contents. Traditional dried fruit do not include dried fruits infused with a sweetener (e.g. sucrose solution) such as cranberries and dried blueberries, candied dried fruit or dehydrated fruits with very low moisture content such as banana chips.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31167189',
'title': 'Ancient Israelite cuisine',
'section': 'Section::::Foods.:Fruit.:Grapes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 81,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 81,
'end_character': 338,
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'passage_text': 'Grapes are another of the biblical Seven Species and were used mainly for the production of wine, although they were also eaten fresh and dried. Grapes were dried in the sun to produce raisins, which could then be stored for a long time. Raisins were also pressed into clusters and dried as cakes, which kept the interior raisins softer.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12436',
'title': 'Grape',
'section': 'Section::::Raisins, currants and sultanas.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
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'passage_text': 'In most of Europe and North America, dried grapes are referred to as "raisins" or the local equivalent. In the UK, three different varieties are recognized, forcing the EU to use the term "dried vine fruit" in official documents.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1209058',
'title': 'Sultana (grape)',
'section': 'Section::::Raisins.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'In some jurisdictions, seedless dried grapes are classified as sultana and Thompson raisins according to the drying method used. Sultanas are steeped in a solution of water, potassium carbonate, and vegetable oil to hasten the drying process. Thompson raisins are not treated with this solution, but are dried naturally, thus they require more drying time than sultanas. Because of this, Thompsons are a darker colour than sultanas.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '546099',
'title': 'Dried fruit',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Grape cultivation first began in Armenia and the eastern regions of the Mediterranean in the 4th century BC. Here, raisins were manufactured by burying grapes in the desert sun. Very quickly, viticulture and raisin production spread across northern Africa including Morocco and Tunisia. The Phoenicians and the Egyptians popularized the production of raisins, probably due to the perfect environment for sun drying. They put them in jars for storage and allotted them to the different temples by the thousands. They also included them in their breads and their various pastries, some made with honey, some with milk and eggs.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If grapes become raisins when dried, why does mango when dried, remain as dried mango.',
'selftext': 'Same with plums to prunes etc.',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Well with plums to prunes it’s even weirder!!\n\nGrapes dry into raisins. When juiced we say grape juice! No such thing as raisin juice!\n\nPlums dry into prunes. However, there is such a thing a prune juice! How does prune JUICE exist if it’s dry plums? How can you juice something that’s been dried??',
'Its just whether or not someone decided to name it something different. There isn’t anything special that happens to those with special names.',
"word origins.\n\nGrapes and plums both existed in English way before most tropical fruits. They also existed in their dried forms long before as well, so the language was incorporated.\n\nWhat's strange is that many other fruits that were grown way back in English suckling speaking areas *don't* have specific dried names. Or if they did, they didn't survive.",
"Aren't grapes always raisins in French?",
'Because prunes and raisins are the french words for plums and grapes. It\'s worth it to note that cooked food changes names quite often in English. For example, a cooked pig is pork (and a pig in French is "porc"), a cooked cow becomes beef (French : boeuf). Most of these foods were introduced to great Britain at a time where the rich and the aristocrats were French speakers, and that\'s why French words were used for it. Dried mango, on the other side, is a more recent product, and that\'s why its name is just plain English.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'bz5v7q',
'query': 'if grapes become raisins when dried, why does mango when dried, remain as dried mango.',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '61319715',
'title': 'Honey syrup',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The reason for making syrup with the honey is that otherwise it might be too thick to mix well with other ingredients, especially in an ice-filled cocktail shaker (as opposed to, say, a hot tea). An advantage of honey over sugar, for making cocktails, is that it can impart floral notes and also pair well with spirits, citrus, and other cocktail ingredients. The Gold Rush is an example of a cocktail that uses honey syrup. Other ingredients can be added to honey syrup as well, such as lemon juice and lemon zest, e.g. for honey syrup that is to be poured over gingerbread. For mojitos, mint leaves may be added; for a rosemary gimlet, rosemary sprigs; for lavender lemonade, culinary lavender; etc.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14361',
'title': 'Honey',
'section': 'Section::::Physical and chemical properties.:Hygroscopy and fermentation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 51,
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'passage_text': "Honey has the ability to absorb moisture directly from the air, a phenomenon called hygroscopy. The amount of water the honey absorbs is dependent on the relative humidity of the air. Because honey contains yeast, this hygroscopic nature requires that honey be stored in sealed containers to prevent fermentation, which usually begins if the honey's water content rises much above 25%. Honey tends to absorb more water in this manner than the individual sugars allow on their own, which may be due to other ingredients it contains.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14361',
'title': 'Honey',
'section': 'Section::::Physical and chemical properties.:Hygroscopy and fermentation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 52,
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'passage_text': 'Fermentation of honey usually occurs after crystallization, because without the glucose, the liquid portion of the honey primarily consists of a concentrated mixture of fructose, acids, and water, providing the yeast with enough of an increase in the water percentage for growth. Honey that is to be stored at room temperature for long periods of time is often pasteurized, to kill any yeast, by heating it above .\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14361',
'title': 'Honey',
'section': 'Section::::Physical and chemical properties.:Thermal characteristics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 55,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Unlike many other liquids, honey has very poor thermal conductivity of 0.5 W/(m⋅K) at 13% water content (compared to 401 W/(m⋅K) of copper), taking a long time to reach thermal equilibrium. Due to its high kinematic viscosity honey does not transfer heat through momentum diffusion (convection) but rather through thermal diffusion (more like a solid), so melting crystallized honey can easily result in localized caramelization if the heat source is too hot, or if it is not evenly distributed. However, honey takes substantially longer to liquify when just above the melting point than at elevated temperatures. Melting 20\xa0kg of crystallized honey, at , can take up to 24 hours, while 50\xa0kg may take twice as long. These times can be cut nearly in half by heating at . However, many of the minor substances in honey can be affected greatly by heating, changing the flavor, aroma, or other properties, so heating is usually done at the lowest temperature possible for the shortest amount of time.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14361',
'title': 'Honey',
'section': 'Section::::Production.:Adulteration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
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'passage_text': 'In the United States, according to the National Honey Board (an organization supervised by the United States Department of Agriculture), "honey stipulates a pure product that does not allow for the addition of any other substance... this includes, but is not limited to, water or other sweeteners".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14361',
'title': 'Honey',
'section': 'Section::::Classification.:Classification by packaging and processing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 81,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Dried honey has the moisture extracted from liquid honey to create completely solid, nonsticky granules. This process may or may not include the use of drying and anticaking agents. Dried honey is used in baked goods, and to garnish desserts.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14361',
'title': 'Honey',
'section': 'Section::::Physical and chemical properties.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
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'passage_text': 'The physical properties of honey vary, depending on water content, the type of flora used to produce it (pasturage), temperature, and the proportion of the specific sugars it contains. Fresh honey is a supersaturated liquid, containing more sugar than the water can typically dissolve at ambient temperatures. At room temperature, honey is a supercooled liquid, in which the glucose will precipitate into solid granules. This forms a semisolid solution of precipitated glucose crystals in a solution of fructose and other ingredients.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why aren't you supposed to pour boiling water on honey?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Google is your friend mate. Turns out it is mostly a myth. \n\n_URL_0_\n\n > The health benefits of honey are pretty negligible. That said, mixing it with hot water or even heating it directly will not make honey toxic.\n\n > The idea that it would be toxic is because heating foods that contain sugars creates a chemical known as 5-hydroxymethylfurfual or HMF.\n\n > Heating honey can increase its HMF content from about 25 parts per million to as much as 75 parts per million. (1) This is less than you will find in many foods, even something as common as toasted bread can contain over 2,000 ppm of HMF. (2)\n\n > (1) Studies on the physicochemical characteristics of heated honey, honey mixed with ghee and their food consumption pattern by rats\n\n > (2) Effect of toasting time on the browning of sliced bread\n\n > And all that said, there’s nothing even close to definitive that HMF is a significant carcinogen. Current studies suggest that it may be a cancer vector for mice, but is unlikely to affect humans to the same degree.\n\n > “Results obtained in short-term model studies for 5-HMF on the induction of neoplastic changes in the intestinal tract were negative or cannot be reliably interpreted as "carcinogenic". In the only long-term carcinogenicity study in rats and mice no tumours or their precursory stages were induced by 5-HMF aside from liver adenomas in female mice, the relevance of which must be viewed as doubtful. Hence, no relevance for humans concerning carcinogenic and genotoxic effects can be derived.”\n\n > Toxicology and risk assessment of 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural in food.\n\n > “This finding indicated that HMF sulfo conjugation was most substantial in the liver of female mice, a target tissue for HMF-induced neoplastic effects, and that humans may be less sensitive regarding HMF sulfo conjugation compared with the rodent models.”',
'If you believe that honey has healing properties, boiling water supposedly breaks down the enzymes or whatever responsible for those attributes. Like a lot of "natural medicine", it\'s not really based on any science.\n\nIf you just like something sweet in your tea, it doesn\'t make a lick of difference.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '7ohs01',
'query': "why aren't you supposed to pour boiling water on honey?",
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '245481',
'title': 'Job rotation',
'section': 'Section::::Goals.:Why is job rotation beneficial?\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'Some employees are paid more for they are presenting that they are worth a greater amount since they can perform more than one job function and thus makes a higher incentive for more employees to be able to perform better in the workplace. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '730742',
'title': 'Principal–agent problem',
'section': 'Section::::Performance evaluation.:Objective performance evaluation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
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'passage_text': 'The reason that employees are often paid according to hours of work rather than by direct measurement of results is that it is often more efficient to use indirect systems of controlling the quantity and quality of effort, due to a variety of informational and other issues (e.g., turnover costs, which determine the optimal minimum length of relationship between firm and employee). This means that methods such as deferred compensation and structures such as tournaments are often more suitable to create the incentives for employees to contribute what they can to output over longer periods (years rather than hours). These represent "pay-for-performance" systems in a looser, more extended sense, as workers who consistently work harder and better are more likely to be promoted (and usually paid more), compared to the narrow definition of "pay-for-performance", such as piece rates. This discussion has been conducted almost entirely for self-interested rational individuals. In practice, however, the incentive mechanisms which successful firms use take account of the socio-cultural context they are embedded in (Fukuyama 1995, Granovetter 1985), in order not to destroy the social capital they might more constructively mobilise towards building an organic, social organization, with the attendant benefits from such things as "worker loyalty and pride (...) [which] can be critical to a firm\'s success ..." (Sappington 1991,63)\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2942704',
'title': 'Deferred compensation',
'section': 'Section::::Deferred compensation as incentive.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
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'passage_text': '"When agents remain with an employer for a long period of time, there is no necessary reason why the employer should pay the worker his expected marginal product in all periods; instead, workers could be paid better in some periods than in others. One aspect of this that has attracted both theoretical and empirical interest has been \'deferred compensation,\' where workers are overpaid when old, at the cost of being underpaid when young. From this perspective, part of the reason why older workers are better paid than younger workers is not that they are more productive, but simply that they have accumulated enough tenure to garner these contractual returns."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1554529',
'title': 'Skilled worker',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': 'Generally, however, "individual" skilled workers are more valued to a given company than "individual" non-skilled workers, as skilled workers tend to be more difficult to replace. As a result, skilled workers tend to demand more in the way of financial compensation because of their efforts. According to Greenspan, corporate managers are willing to bid up pay packages to acquire skilled workers as they identify the lack of skilled labor as one of today\'s greatest problems.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19288592',
'title': 'Maximum wage',
'section': 'Section::::Implementation.:Relative earnings limit.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': "A weakness in this method is that a company can simply hire outside firms to keep low wage employees off their payroll, while only having the top earning employees on the company's payroll, effectively bypassing the limits. However, the hiring of external employees will come at a higher total cost and will reduce company profits, something against which executives are often measured and compensated.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35231573',
'title': 'Work motivation',
'section': 'Section::::Applications of motivation.:Organizational reward systems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 119,
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'passage_text': "Salaries play a crucial role in the tangible reward system. They are an important factor in attracting new talent to an organization as well as retaining talent. Compensating employees well is one way for an organization to reinforce an employee's value to the organization. If an organization is known for paying their employees top dollar, then they may develop a positive reputation in the job market as a result.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3126360',
'title': "Baumol's cost disease",
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "The rise of wages in jobs without productivity gains is from the requirement to compete for employees with jobs that have experienced gains and so can naturally pay higher salaries, just as classical economics predicts. For instance, if the retail sector pays its managers 19th-century-style salaries, the managers may decide to quit to get a job at an automobile factory, where salaries are higher because of high labor productivity. Thus, managers' salaries are increased not by labor productivity increases in the retail sector but by productivity and corresponding wage increases in other industries.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do employers give new employees higher salaries, rather than rewarding loyalty and giving the better salary to employees already there?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The question you have to ask yourself is why would they.\n\nYour coworker still works there. There is no incentive for your bosses to pay them any better than they currently do. Sure loyalty is virtuous and should be rewarded, but companies dont care about virtue. They care about making money, and every dollar that is given to a worker could go to profits for the owner or pay newer workers who might not work for as cheap. In this sense the only reason to give a worker a raise is to prevent them from quitting or unionizing.',
'"Does loyalty make me money? Can I sell it? Will it help me get promoted? If no, then why would I ever pay for it?"\n\nThat\'s how managers think in business, and it has been the dominant business ideology for several decades. Loyalty is stupidity to them, because they intend to jump ship the second it makes them a dollar, and would be perfectly happy to sell out everyone under them to do it.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'dhia19',
'query': 'why do employers give new employees higher salaries, rather than rewarding loyalty and giving the better salary to employees already there?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '34744336',
'title': 'Attulus distinguendus',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'The spider has four eyes (2 small ones on the sides, 2 large ones in the middle), and is only the second known species to cephalopods to have such vision. The species are gray coloured with brown dots.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28329803',
'title': 'Spider',
'section': 'Section::::Description.:Sense organs.:Eyes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
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'passage_text': 'Spiders have primarily four pairs of eyes on the top-front area of the cephalothorax, arranged in patterns that vary from one family to another. The principal pair at the front are of the type called pigment-cup ocelli ("little eyes"), which in most arthropods are only capable of detecting the direction from which light is coming, using the shadow cast by the walls of the cup. However, in spiders these eyes are capable of forming images. The other pairs, called secondary eyes, are thought to be derived from the compound eyes of the ancestral chelicerates, but no longer have the separate facets typical of compound eyes. Unlike the principal eyes, in many spiders these secondary eyes detect light reflected from a reflective tapetum lucidum, and wolf spiders can be spotted by torch light reflected from the tapeta. On the other hand, jumping spiders\' secondary eyes have no tapeta.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '276115',
'title': 'Jumping spider',
'section': 'Section::::Distinguishing characteristics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'The jumping spiders, unlike the other families, have faces that are roughly rectangular surfaces perpendicular to their direction of motion. In effect this means that their forward-looking, anterior eyes are on "flat faces", as shown in the photographs. Their eye pattern is the clearest single identifying characteristic. They have eight eyes, as illustrated. Most diagnostic are the front row of four eyes, in which the anterior median pair are more dramatically prominent than any other spider eyes apart from the posterior median eyes of the Deinopidae. There is, however, a radical functional difference between the major (AME) eyes of Salticidae and the major (PME) eyes of the Deinopidae; the large posterior eyes of Deinopidae are adapted mainly to vision in dim light, whereas the large anterior eyes of Salticidae are adapted to detailed, three-dimensional vision for purposes of estimating the range, direction, and nature of potential prey, permitting the spider to direct its attacking leaps with great precision. The anterior lateral eyes, though large, are smaller than the AME and provide a wider forward field of vision.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33352793',
'title': 'Portia schultzi',
'section': 'Section::::Senses.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Like all jumping spiders, "P. schultzi" can take in only a small visual field at one time, as the most acute part of a main eye can see all of a circle up to 12\xa0millimeters wide at 20\xa0centimeters away, or up to 18\xa0millimeters wide at 30\xa0centimeters away. A "Portia" spider takes a relatively long time to see objects, possibly because getting a good image out of such tiny eyes is a complex process and needs a lot of scanning. This makes a "Portia" vulnerable to much larger predators such as birds, frogs, and mantises, which it often cannot identify because of the other predator\'s size.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5819937',
'title': 'Phidippus audax',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "Like other jumping spiders, due to their large, forward-facing eyes, they have very good stereoscopic vision. This aids them when stalking prey, and allows some visual communication with others of their species, such as courting 'dances'.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1577330',
'title': 'Portia (spider)',
'section': 'Section::::Vision.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The main eyes focus accurately on an object at distances from approximately to infinity, and in practice can see up to about . Like all jumping spiders, "Portia"s can take in only a small visual field at one time, as the most acute part of a main eye can see all of a circle up to wide at away, or up to wide at away. Jumping spiders\' main eyes can see from red to ultraviolet.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5825705',
'title': 'Clynotis',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'As with most salticidae spiders, members of this genus are known for their ability to jump with agility, and for their strong vision. They are identifiable from the distinct shape of the cephalothorax and their eye patterns. Of their eight eyes, the front row of four feature a dramatically prominent anterior median pair, while the rear row of four eyes may be described as strongly bent, or as being rearranged into two rows, with two large posterior lateral eyes furthest back. These supply lateral vision, while the forward four are adapted to detailed, three-dimensional vision for purposes of estimating the range, direction, and nature of potential prey, permitting the spider to direct its attacking leaps with great precision.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is the vision of spiders depicted as them seeing 8 of the same image as opposed to those 8 eyes merging the images together like human eyes?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Because that\'s literally how they work! It\'s called a compound eye, and it is comprised of many similarly shaped pieces that "see" independently from the others.\n\nAs a result, their vision looks like many repeats of the same image. It\'s actually incredibly useful because they see every tiny movement many, many times and so they can be quick to react. This is what makes it sometimes difficult to swat flies and such.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6hiwlf',
'query': 'why is the vision of spiders depicted as them seeing 8 of the same image as opposed to those 8 eyes merging the images together like human eyes?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '54301172',
'title': 'Well-being contributing factors',
'section': "Section::::Biological factors.:Neuroscience's findings.\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 52,
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'passage_text': 'Neuroscience and brain imaging have shown increasing potential for helping science understand happiness and sadness. Though it may be impossible to achieve any comprehensive objective measure of happiness, some physiological correlates to happiness can be measured. Stefan Klein, in his book "The Science of Happiness", links the dynamics of neurobiological systems (i.e., dopaminergic, opiate) to the concepts and findings of positive psychology and social psychology.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22212295',
'title': 'Paula M. Niedenthal',
'section': 'Section::::Emotion congruence and selective perception.\n',
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'passage_text': 'One particular area of study by Dr. Niedenthal looks at the question of "Are we more tuned to perceive things that are more congruent with our mood?". For example, one study done by Dr. Niedenthal and Marc Setterlund in 1994 suggests that happiness and sadness have emotion-congruent effects upon selective perception. In their 1994 study, participants were given earphones so that they could listen to music throughout the experiment. Half of the participants were given classical music that was intended to induce a happy mood (the allegro from Mozart’s Eine kleine Nachtmusik, and parts of Vivaldi’s Concerto in C Major), and half of the participants were given classical music that was intended to induce sad moods (Adagietto by Mahler and the adagio from the piano from the Piano Concerto No. 2 in C Minor by Rachmaninov). Subjects were then asked to perform a lexical decision task. Letters were flashed on a screen: some were real words and some were non-words or words that are not in the dictionary but can still be pronounced in English, such as "blang". The words were put into five categories, happy words, positive words that are unrelated to happiness, neutral words, negative words that are unrelated to sadness, and sad words.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7257476',
'title': 'Happiness economics',
'section': 'Section::::Metrology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'Some scientists claim that happiness can be measured both subjectively and objectively by observing the joy center of the brain lit up with advanced imaging, although this raises philosophical issues, for example about whether this can be treated as more reliable than reported subjective happiness.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2828828',
'title': 'Hedonic treadmill',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Happiness set point.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
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'passage_text': "The concept of the happiness set point (proposed by Sonja Lyubomirsky) can be applied in clinical psychology to help patients return to their hedonic set point when negative events happen. Determining when someone is mentally distant from their happiness set point and what events trigger those changes can be extremely helpful in treating conditions such as depression. When a change occurs, clinical psychologists work with patients to recover from the depressive spell and return to their hedonic set point more quickly. Because acts of kindness often promote long-term well-being, one treatment method is to provide patients with different altruistic activities that can help a person raise his or her hedonic set point. This can in turn be helpful in reducing reckless habits in the pursuit of well-being. Further, helping patients understand that long-term happiness is relatively stable throughout one's life can help to ease anxiety surrounding impactful events.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1007108',
'title': 'Eye contact',
'section': 'Section::::Social meanings.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': "Eye contact and facial expressions provide important social and emotional information. People, perhaps without consciously doing so, search other's eyes and faces for positive or negative mood signs. In some contexts, the meeting of eyes arouses strong emotions.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44379717',
'title': 'Happiness in Judaism',
'section': 'Section::::Hasidism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 40,
'end_character': 386,
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'passage_text': 'In the teachings of Rabbi Schneur Zalman of Liadi, the founder of Chabad Hasidism, happiness is believed to be an essential element in the struggle between the Godly and Animal souls. When a person is sad or depressed, they are likely to feel lethargic and unable to control negative impulses. By contrast, one who is happy is likely to feel energized and motivated to control oneself.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42576223',
'title': 'World Happiness Report',
'section': 'Section::::Annual report topics.:2015 World Happiness Report.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
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'passage_text': 'Chapter 5, "Neuroscience of Happiness" is written by Richard J. Dawson and Brianna S. Schuyler. This chapter reports on research in brain science and happiness, identifying four aspects that account for happiness: (1) sustained positive emotion, (2) recovery of negative emotion (resilience), (3) empathy, altruism and pro-social behavior, and (4) mindfulness (mind-wandering/affective sickness). It concludes that the brain\'s elasticity indicates that one can change one\'s sense of happiness and life satisfaction (separate but overlapping positive consequences) levels by experiencing and practicing mindfulness, kindness, and generosity; and calls for more research on these topics.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is that we see as happiness/love/desire/sadness/depression in someone else’s eyes? Has then something physically changed in person’s eyeballs or how are those feelings manifested that make us to perceive them so effortlessly?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It's the combination of eyelids, cheeks, and eyebrows. Those three areas of the face are all very close together, and very slight differences in angle and tension can communicate a wealth of information about what the person is thinking/feeling. Cycle through a few emotions and feel how your eyelids shift, how your cheeks lift or lower very slightly, how the angle of your eyebrows change very slightly. We learn to read those slight shifts throughout our lives, and when people are trying to control their expression they tend to focus mostly on what their mouth is doing, rather than their eyes."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8swsfu',
'query': 'what is that we see as happiness/love/desire/sadness/depression in someone else’s eyes? has then something physically changed in person’s eyeballs or how are those feelings manifested that make us to perceive them so effortlessly?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '31019712',
'title': 'Tidal Arms',
'section': 'Section::::Band Name Origin.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': "When two galaxies pass by each other in close proximity, their shapes distort due to each other's gravity. The outside spiral arms splay out into space, often casting stars and dust into the abyss as their host galaxies drift slowly back towards each other in orbit. These spiral distortions are called tidal arms, or more commonly, tidal tails.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45145',
'title': 'Hubble sequence',
'section': 'Section::::Classes of galaxies.:Irregulars.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 204,
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'passage_text': 'Galaxies that do not fit into the Hubble sequence, because they have no regular structure (either disk-like or ellipsoidal), are termed irregular galaxies. Hubble defined two classes of irregular galaxy:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27750631',
'title': 'Void galaxy',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Void galaxies are galaxies which exist in cosmological voids. Few galaxies exist in voids; most galaxies exist in sheets, walls and filaments that surround voids and supervoids. Many of the void galaxies are connected to each other through "void filaments" or "tendrils", lightweight versions of the regular galaxy filaments that surround voids. These filaments are often straighter than their regular counterparts due to the lack of influence by surrounding filaments. These filaments can even be rich enough to form poor groups of galaxies. The void galaxies themselves are thought to represent pristine examples of galactic evolution, having few neighbours, and likely to have formed from pure intergalactic gas.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12558',
'title': 'Galaxy',
'section': 'Section::::Larger-scale structures.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 115,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 115,
'end_character': 300,
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'passage_text': 'Clusters of galaxies consist of hundreds to thousands of galaxies bound together by gravity. Clusters of galaxies are often dominated by a single giant elliptical galaxy, known as the brightest cluster galaxy, which, over time, tidally destroys its satellite galaxies and adds their mass to its own.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43220172',
'title': 'List of largest cosmic structures',
'section': 'Section::::List of largest voids.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'end_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'Voids are immense spaces between galaxy filaments and other large-scale structures. Technically they are not structures. They are vast spaces which contain very few, or no galaxies. They are theorized to be caused by quantum fluctuations during the early formation of the universe.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '273679',
'title': 'Astronomical spectroscopy',
'section': 'Section::::Motion in the universe.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 44,
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'passage_text': 'Stars and interstellar gas are bound by gravity to form galaxies, and groups of galaxies can be bound by gravity in galaxy clusters. With the exception of stars in the Milky Way and the galaxies in the Local Group, almost all galaxies are moving away from us due to the expansion of the universe.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25776254',
'title': 'American Astronomical Society 215th meeting',
'section': 'Section::::Black hole update.:Black hole pairs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
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'passage_text': 'Almost every galaxy has a black hole with a mass of one million to one billion times that of the sun. A super-massive black hole, of more than 4 million solar masses, is located in the center of our own Milky Way galaxy. As the universe has evolved, galaxies often collide and merge, creating larger galaxies. This has led to the supposition that galaxies in mid-merge should have a two great black holes (a pair) orbiting one another. Expectations were, that this should be a common observation, hand in hand with mid merge collisions. However, observation has not validated this supposition; only a few orbiting pairs had been found. When observation did not match expectation, this posed problems for theories of how galaxies merge and grow.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': '1) Why is there gaps or spaces between galaxies? 2) What fills these gaps or spaces? 3) Why aren’t galaxies connect like a web or something?',
'selftext': 'Something I read about earlier and it fascinating me',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Gravity makes matter floating in space lump up. Any two nearby objects will tend to attract each other, and any long string will attract its ends toward the middle, making a tighter cluster.',
"If there was no such thing as gravity, then everything would be kinda evenly spread out yeah (that's one of the posssible end states of the universe). But due to gravity, almost all of this matter clumps up into clusters/galaxies. ",
"Galaxies *are* connected like a web or something [if you zoom out enough to see it](_URL_2_). It's important to note that the blobs of light in that image are *not* galaxies. They're *clusters* of galaxies, or superclusters, which can contain *thousands* of galaxies.\n\nConsider the organization of the solar system. Most of the matter that formed the solar system became the Sun, and the rest spread out over a [huge distance](_URL_0_). That matter is pretty concentrated in local spots, which are the planets. The space between planets is pretty empty, of course, but it still has a lot of stellar dust particles and comets and asteroids and a lot of *stuff*. But compared to the density of matter on Earth, interplanetary space is *really* empty.\n\nThen again, compare the density of matter within the solar system to the space between our solar system and the next one. The solar system has a ton of matter. Several planets' worth. But there's less between us and the Alpha Centauri system. It all seems random and empty until you zoom out and look at the galaxy and see the [spiral arms](_URL_1_) that show the organization of the local groups of solar systems. It doesn't look like there's a lot of stuff between us and Alpha Centauri, and there's not, but when you look at the bigger picture you see that, in fact, there's still a *lot* of stuff pretty close together. And there is a lot of dust and rocks and stuff out there, too.\n\nAnd you can zoom out again to see the nearby galactic local group. Then the Virgo Supercluster. Then, finally, the structure of the universe as far as we know it.\n\nIn the empty voids between galaxy superclusters, there's sparse traces of dust and gas, but that's it. The rest of the matter is concentrated in the superclusters. And within the superclusters, most of the mass is concentrated in the galaxies. And so on.",
'Randomness clumps and clumps coalesce.\n\nAny random phenomenon has some scale at which it is not distributed evenly, but with clumps here and there. \n\nSince gravity permeates all matter, in a random scattering of matter, which is what the universe is, the clumps that do exist will be more attracted to the the other clumps that exist than the less clumpy scattered matter. Then the resulting larger clump will more strongly attract the less clumpy matter. Things eventually coalesce.\n\nGalaxies are elements at one "scale" where they have coalesced as much as they can and there is no more stray matter; everything that was once between galaxies has been sucked up by them. Stars are at the next lower scale, and galactic clusters are at the next higher scale.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7rm41g',
'query': '1) why is there gaps or spaces between galaxies? 2) what fills these gaps or spaces? 3) why aren’t galaxies connect like a web or something?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '699110',
'title': 'Light therapy',
'section': 'Section::::Techniques.:Light boxes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 50,
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'passage_text': 'Light therapy uses either a light box which emits up to 10,000 lux of light at a specified distance, much brighter than a customary lamp, or a lower intensity of specific wavelengths of light from the blue (460 nm) to the green (525\xa0nm) areas of the visible spectrum. A 1995 study showed that green light therapy at doses of 350 lux produces melatonin suppression and phase shifts equivalent to 10,000 lux white light therapy, but another study published in May 2010 suggests that the blue light often used for SAD treatment should perhaps be replaced by green or white illumination, because of a possible involvement of the cones in melatonin suppression.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '267014',
'title': 'List of topics characterized as pseudoscience',
'section': 'Section::::Applied sciences.:Health and medicine.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 69,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 69,
'end_character': 943,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Chromotherapy, sometimes called color therapy, colorology or cromatherapy, is an alternative medicine method, which is considered pseudoscience. Chromotherapists claim to be able to use light in the form of color to balance "energy" lacking from a person\'s body, whether it be on physical, emotional, spiritual, or mental levels. Color therapy is distinct from other types of light therapy, such as neonatal jaundice treatment and blood irradiation therapy which is a scientifically accepted medical treatment for a number of conditions, and from photobiology, the scientific study of the effects of light on living organisms. French skeptic and lighting physicist Sébastien Point considers that LED lamps at domestic radiance are safe in normal use for the general population, he also pointed out the risk of overexposure to light from LEDs for practices like chromotherapy, when duration and time exposure are not under control.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '699110',
'title': 'Light therapy',
'section': 'Section::::Medical uses.:Neonatal jaundice (Postnatal Jaundice).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 43,
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'passage_text': 'Light therapy is used to treat cases of neonatal jaundice. Bilirubin, a yellow pigment normally formed in the liver during the breakdown of old red blood cells, cannot always be effectively cleared by a neonate’s liver causing neonatal jaundice. Accumulation of excess bilirubin can cause central nervous system damage, and so this buildup of bilirubin must be treated. Phototherapy uses the energy from light to isomerize the bilirubin and consequently transform it into compounds that the newborn can excrete via urine and stools. Bilirubin is most successful absorbing light in the blue region of the visible light spectrum, which falls between 460-490\xa0nm. Therefore light therapy technologies that utilize these blue wavelengths are the most successful at isomerizing bilirubin.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6997434',
'title': 'Dark therapy',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Dark therapy is the practice of keeping people in complete darkness for periods of time in an attempt to treat psychological conditions. The human body produces melatonin hormone which is responsible for supporting the circadian rhythms. Dark therapy is claimed to block blue wavelength lights to stop the disintegration of melatonin. Some claim that this process improves the health of human body, such as by minimizing headaches, chronic fatigue syndrome, and insomnia.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '699110',
'title': 'Light therapy',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Light therapy—or phototherapy, classically referred to as heliotherapy—consists of exposure to daylight or to specific wavelengths of light using polychromatic polarised light, lasers, light-emitting diodes, fluorescent lamps, dichroic lamps or very bright, full-spectrum light. The light is administered for a prescribed amount of time and, in some cases, at a specific time of day.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '74555',
'title': 'Acne',
'section': 'Section::::Management.:Procedures.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 85,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 85,
'end_character': 725,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Light therapy is a treatment method that involves delivering certain specific wavelengths of light to an area of skin affected by acne. Both regular and laser light have been used. The evidence for light therapy as a treatment for acne is weak and inconclusive. Various light therapies appear to provide a short-term benefit, but data for long-term outcomes, and for outcomes in those with severe acne, are sparse; it may have a role for individuals whose acne has been resistant to topical medications. A 2016 meta-analysis was unable to conclude whether light therapies were more beneficial than placebo or no treatment, nor how long potential benefits lasted. PDT has the most supporting evidence of all light therapies. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1061913',
'title': 'Chromotherapy',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Color therapy is distinct from other types of light therapy, such as neonatal jaundice treatment and blood irradiation therapy, which are scientifically accepted medical treatments for a number of conditions, as well as from photobiology, the scientific study of the effects of light on living organisms. \n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'how red light therapy works',
'selftext': 'My friend just bought a light from joovv claiming it’s miraculous healing powers. Nothing about it makes sense to me. How does this work?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': [' > \tNothing about it makes sense to me. How does this work?\n\nIt is simple: Saps pay money for a red LED light and believe any pseudoscientific nonsense that is tossed their way. The scam artist makes a load of money off this fad.\n\nOf course it doesn\'t do anything, there is no evidence that the "therapy" works, but that doesn\'t stop them being really popular with those who don\'t have the ability to assess the truth value of health claims. You know, like people who go to chiropractors or take homeopathic remedies.',
'A well known and highly cited study on the matter. [_URL_3_](_URL_3_) \n\nIn a nutshell - " Detailed analysis of the gene expression profiles in human fibroblasts revealed an influence of low-intensity red light with a 628-nm wavelength on 111 different genes that are involved in cellular functions, such as cell proliferation; apoptosis; stress response; protein, lipid and carbohydrate metabolism; mitochondrial energy metabolism; DNA synthesis and repair; antioxidant related functions; and cytoskeleton- and cell-cell interaction-related functions.[`21`](_URL_2_) A specific role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in increasing fibroblast proliferation and motility has recently been reported, suggesting that the elevation of ROS via photodynamic therapy can enhance the cellular functions of dermal fibroblasts through specific mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways *in vitro*.[`22`](_URL_1_) The light-induced free radical formation in human skin has been investigated in detail, demonstrating that red light with 620 and 670\u2009nm wavelengths increases the concentration of ROS even without the influence of external photosensitizers.[`23`](_URL_0_) "\n\nThere are thousands of studies on the effectiveness of this therapy for many different conditions. However, you don\'t need to buy a Joovv to get the benefits. Many fitness centers and tanning salons offer red light therapy for a nominal fee.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'b0g84x',
'query': 'how red light therapy works',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '50449991',
'title': 'Nuclear organization',
'section': 'Section::::Importance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 363,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Each human cell contains around two metres of DNA, which must be tightly folded to fit inside the cell nucleus. However, in order for the cell to function, proteins must be able to access the sequence information contained within the DNA, in spite of its tightly-packed nature. Hence, the cell has a number of mechanisms in place to control how DNA is organized.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56284235',
'title': 'Constructive development (biology)',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanisms of constructive development.:Context-dependent gene expression.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 331,
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'passage_text': 'Although all the cells of an organism contain the same DNA, there can be hundreds of different types of cells in a single organism. These diverse cell shapes, behaviors and functions are created and maintained by tissue-specific gene expression patterns and these can be modified by internal and external environmental conditions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1892841',
'title': 'Cleavage (embryo)',
'section': 'Section::::Types of cleavage.:Indeterminate.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 341,
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'passage_text': 'A cell can only be indeterminate (also called regulative) if it has a complete set of undisturbed animal/vegetal cytoarchitectural features. It is characteristic of deuterostomes – when the original cell in a deuterostome embryo divides, the two resulting cells can be separated, and each one can individually develop into a whole organism.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '54176',
'title': 'Human body',
'section': 'Section::::Composition.:Cells.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 493,
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'passage_text': 'Cells in the body function because of DNA. DNA sits within the nucleus of a cell. Here, parts of DNA are copied and sent to the body of the cell via RNA. The RNA is then used to create proteins which form the basis for cells, their activity, and their products. Proteins dictate cell function and gene expression, a cell is able to self-regulate by the amount of proteins produced. However, not all cells have DNA – some cells such as mature red blood cells lose their nucleus as they mature.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12339',
'title': 'Genetically modified organism',
'section': 'Section::::Production.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 404,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'As only a single cell is transformed with genetic material, the organism must be regenerated from that single cell. In plants this is accomplished through tissue culture. In animals it is necessary to ensure that the inserted DNA is present in the embryonic stem cells. Further testing using PCR, Southern hybridization, and DNA sequencing is conducted to confirm that an organism contains the new gene.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6235',
'title': 'Cell nucleus',
'section': 'Section::::Structures.:Chromosomes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 501,
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'passage_text': "The cell nucleus contains the majority of the cell's genetic material in the form of multiple linear DNA molecules organized into structures called chromosomes. Each human cell contains roughly two meters of DNA. During most of the cell cycle these are organized in a DNA-protein complex known as chromatin, and during cell division the chromatin can be seen to form the well-defined chromosomes familiar from a karyotype. A small fraction of the cell's genes are located instead in the mitochondria.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9880147',
'title': 'Cyclin D',
'section': 'Section::::Introduction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 664,
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'passage_text': 'Once cells reach a critical cell size (and if no mating partner is present in yeast) and if growth factors and mitogens (for multicellular organism) or nutrients (for unicellular organism) are present, cells enter the cell cycle. In general, all stages of the cell cycle are chronologically separated in humans and are triggered by cyclin-Cdk complexes which are periodically expressed and partially redundant in function. Cyclins are eukaryotic proteins that form holoenzymes with cyclin-dependent protein kinases (Cdk), which they activate. The abundance of cyclins is generally regulated by protein synthesis and degradation through an APC/C dependent pathway.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If the DNA of an organism contains all the building plans for the body, how does a single cell know its location and needed function if all the first cells start the same?',
'selftext': 'Does the zygote act as a central construction manager? (Eli15)',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The answer to this quite simply can't be put in a understandable way to a five year old, but I'll have a stab at an analogy.\n\nJust like all people could do *most* jobs with the right training and upbringing, from an early age we are steered in a direction (vocation, education, family, etc.) which will determine our adult life. It's the same for a stem cell in your body starting out - from early on it is influenced with specific chemicals (cytokines) to influence what it will become later.\n\nThe complexity comes in asking how the body knows where to target certain cytokines and co-ordinate them; we still don't fully understand this yet.",
"I grew up on a farm so this might not make sense to you city folk, but on our property we had a house, a chicken house, and a small utility building for tools and tractors.\n\nThink of each cell as being a house, or building, or something. Inside each building is a circuit breaker panel (_URL_0_). This is the DNA and each building has the same circuit breaker panel with the same switches. The switches that power the lights and appliances are the genes. So, the circuit breakers are full of switches and DNA is full of genes.\n\nIn my house's circuit breaker panel, we only turned on the switches for things that the house needed. So for example, we turned on the switches that powered the kitchen, the laundry room, and the bed rooms. We didn't keep chickens in the house, so we turned off the switches for the chicken feeders and chicken water fountain.\n\nIn the chicken house, we turned on the switches for chicken feeders and water fountains, but since there's no bed room, kitchen, or laundry room in there we turned those switches off.\n\nSo far this only describes DNA and genes in the context of a building and it's circuit breaker panel. I ran out of time, so maybe someone else can add to this before I get back to it!\n\n",
'Cells all have the same "building plans", but the cell can detect where in the body it is. "If I\'m part of the lung, then I\'ll only pay attention to the lung plans. If I\'m part of the heart, I\'ll only pay attention to the heart plans." The plans are the same, but which part of the plan the cells actually *use* is different, depending on the environment.\n\nThe tricky part is how the cell figures out where it is. This isn\'t fully understood, but one aspect of it is chemical "gradients" in the body. That is, certain chemicals will be strong in one area, and weak in another, and the cell can detect those chemicals to figure out where it is.\n\nImagine you are a builder in a house. You might say, "Hey, it\'s dark here! My job must be to build the basement." Or maybe, "Hey, I\'m on a floor under open sky. My job must be to build a roof."\n\nOf course, the details are super-complicated, but this is ELI5.',
"The key here is to recognize that while almost all cells in the body contain the same set of genetic information, not all genes (the segments of DNA that codes for a specific protein) are expressed in all cells. **Regulation of gene expression** is at play here.\n\nCells can (and regularly do) receive signals that tell it which genes to express. Different cells receive different signals - > different cells express different genes - > different cells make different proteins. Having different sets of proteins allows one cell to function, look, behave, etc. differently from another.\n\nA cool example that I was taught was how our fingers develop. Early in a developing fetus, the limbs don't have fingers/toes (think stumps). At a certain point though, cells at the extremities get the signal to basically commit cell-suicide. The death of these cells leads to the space between our fingers and toes. A failure in this process is how some people have webbed fingers!",
'Think of the DNA code as an algorythym. It isn\'t just instructions for building proteins that are executed front to back like reading a book. There are different genes that are expressed or suppressed at different times during development. The order that the genes are expressed and repressed lead to the development of the different parts of the body. \n\nThere is no centralized control over the development at the zygote stage. Later when the brain begins to develop it can begin to control development through the use of hormones. In the beginning it\'s more akin to "Do this for 30 cell divisions, then do this" and meanwhile each of those 60 new cells have different instructions that describe their actions, and so on and so forth. It\'s a kind of coordinated dance the cells do based off the rules enforced by the genes being expressed in their common DNA. ',
'You know how a cookbook has recipes for everything, but you only look up the ones you need for tonight\'s meal? Cells are like that with their DNA. Sometimes they look up the recipe for turning into a liver cell or a skin cell, and turn into that. They even chat with each other to say "OK, you be a liver cell and I\'ll be a spleen cell, and he\'ll be small intestines. Let\'s cook us up a digestive tract!"',
"There are multiple ways you can make two identical cells start to develop differently. But all these are based on chemicals that are located either inside the cells or outside the cells that can change which genes are turned on and which are turned off. If its inside the cell then the method is usually that the concentration of the chemical is different on the two ends of the cell, making the cell polarized. Once the cell multiplies the two cells have different concentration of the chemical in them and so the chemical will effect the gene expression of the cells differently. Once you have two different cells you can have many different cells the same way. If the chemical is outside the cells then it usually has different concentration in one end of the environment than the other and that's why it effects the cells differently. There are more complicated methods as well, and the combination of these is what ends up making all the different tissue types during early development.",
'Gradients! The DNA codes information to make a gradient between two sides of the cell. There are molecules that respond and orient based on the gradient, and when they divide you have two cells with the same instruction manual, but different conditions. These conditions can generate new gradients, and so on. Eventually contact with other cells and external signals tell a cell what it is and what to do, and eventually cells start using only subsets of their instruction code. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '65qxz1',
'query': 'if the dna of an organism contains all the building plans for the body, how does a single cell know its location and needed function if all the first cells start the same?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '507728',
'title': 'Photographic filter',
'section': 'Section::::Uses of filters in photography.:Clear and ultraviolet.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
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'passage_text': 'UV filters are used to block invisible ultraviolet light, to which most photographic sensors and film are at least slightly sensitive. The UV is typically recorded as if it were blue light, so this non-human UV sensitivity can result in an unwanted exaggeration of the bluish tint of atmospheric haze or, even more unnaturally, of subjects in open shade lit by the ultraviolet-rich sky.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2235270',
'title': 'International Ultraviolet Explorer',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Motivation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'The human eye can perceive light with wavelengths between roughly 350 (violet) and 700 (red) nanometres. Ultraviolet light has wavelengths between roughly 10\xa0nm and 350\xa0nm. UV light can be harmful to human beings, and is strongly absorbed by the ozone layer. This makes it impossible to observe UV emission from astronomical objects from the ground. Many types of object emit copious quantities of UV radiation, though: the hottest and most massive stars in the universe can have surface temperatures high enough that the vast majority of their light is emitted in the UV. Active Galactic Nuclei, accretion disks, and supernovae all emit UV radiation strongly, and many chemical elements have strong absorption lines in the UV, so that UV absorption by the interstellar medium provides a powerful tool for studying its composition.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '312943',
'title': 'Blacklight',
'section': 'Section::::Safety.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
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'end_paragraph_id': 37,
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'passage_text': 'Although black lights produce light in the UV range, their spectrum is mostly confined to the longwave UVA region, that is, UV radiation nearest in wavelength to visible light, with low frequency and therefore relatively low energy. While low, there is still some power of a conventional black light in the UVB range. UVA is the safest of the three spectra of UV light, although high exposure to UVA has been linked to the development of skin cancer in humans. The relatively low energy of UVA light does not cause sunburn. UVA is capable of causing damage to collagen fibers, however, so it does have the potential to accelerate skin aging and cause wrinkles. UVA can also destroy vitamin A in the skin.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '312943',
'title': 'Blacklight',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 40,
'end_character': 410,
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'passage_text': 'Ultraviolet radiation is invisible to the human eye, but illuminating certain materials with UV radiation causes the emission of visible light, causing these substances to glow with various colors. This is called "fluorescence", and has many practical uses. Black lights are required to observe fluorescence, since other types of ultraviolet lamps emit visible light which drowns out the dim fluorescent glow.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '312943',
'title': 'Blacklight',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'Although many other types of lamp emit ultraviolet light with visible light, black lights are essential when UV-A light without visible light is needed, particularly in observing fluorescence, the colored glow that many substances emit when exposed to UV. Black lights are employed for decorative and artistic lighting effects, diagnostic and therapeutic uses in medicine, the detection of substances tagged with fluorescent dyes, rock-hunting, the detection of counterfeit money, the curing of plastic resins, attracting insects and the detection of refrigerant leaks affecting refrigerators and air conditioning systems. Strong sources of long-wave ultraviolet light are used in tanning beds. Although the low-power UV-A emitted by black lights is not a hazard to skin or eyes and can be viewed without protection, powerful ultraviolet sources present dangers and require personal protective equipment such as goggles and gloves.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '312943',
'title': 'Blacklight',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:LED.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 235,
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'passage_text': 'Ultraviolet light can be generated by some light-emitting diodes, but wavelengths below 380\xa0nm are uncommon and the emission peaks are broad, so only the very lowest energy UV photons are emitted, within predominant not visible light.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27945098',
'title': 'Timeline of United States inventions (1890–1945)',
'section': 'Section::::Great Depression and World War II (1929–1945).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 387,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 387,
'end_character': 232,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- A Black light or UV Light is a lamp emitting electromagnetic radiation that is almost exclusively in the soft ultraviolet range, and emits little visible light. The black light was invented by William H. Byler, in 1935.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If UV light is outside the visible spectrum, how come we see the light emitted off a black light?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Blacklights work via a filter that specifically filters out visible light and allows UV radiation to pass through.\n\nBut they're not perfect, so some visible light gets through the filter and provides that purplish color you see (Because the filters are purple)",
"It overlaps into the spectrum that we can see. That light isn't UV. That's just when looking at the light source itself. If you're talking about objects reflecting it, like how white clothing glows purple under UV light, that light is also part of the visible spectrum.",
'A blacklight emits *mostly* UV light, but it also emits violet light which your eyes can see.',
'The light coming out of those lamps is actually \'near UV\' (345 nanometers \\[nm\\] - 400 nm), not \'real\' UV. It\'s visible because that small segment of the spectrum is *barely* within the visual perception range of the human eye. It\'s why Amazon can sell \'UV Flashlights\' without getting sued... the light is not \'harmful\' on exposure. (You probably shouldn\'t stare into it without eye protection, though.)\n\nThe amount of UV light transmitted will vary dependent on the glass manufacturing method and tinting, which is done for your protection. Technically, you could transmit ***all*** the UV light generated with one of those lamps through a bulb manufactred from specialized crystal glass, but it would result in serious, severe burns. Or cancer after extended exposure. Take your pick.\n\n"Real" UV ranges between 10nm and 345nm. UV-A is between 315-400nm. UV-B is 280-315nm, and is \'hazardous\'. UV-C is 200-280nm, and is considered \'dangerous\'. Below 200nm... well, let\'s just say you don\'t want to be exposed to that part of the spectrum.\n\nSource: I\'m a UV photographer.\n\nTLDR: The lights on UV lamps isn\'t really UV.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8ukzan',
'query': 'if uv light is outside the visible spectrum, how come we see the light emitted off a black light?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '46826189',
'title': 'Google Photos',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Google Photos gives users free, unlimited storage for photos up to 16\xa0megapixels and videos up to 1080p\xa0resolution. The service automatically analyzes photos, identifying various visual features and subjects. Users can search for anything in photos, with the service returning results from three major categories: People, Places, and Things. Google Photos recognizes faces, grouping similar ones together (this feature is only available in certain countries due to privacy laws); geographic landmarks (such as the Eiffel Tower); and subject matter, including birthdays, buildings, animals, food, and more. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16660805',
'title': 'Inside (2007 film)',
'section': 'Section::::Plot.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': "Upon developing her photos, Sarah recognizes the woman in the background of an earlier photo she had taken, indicating she was stalking Sarah. Sarah telephones her employer Jean-Pierre, asking to have the photos enhanced. As she goes to bed, the woman arrives in the bedroom, awakening Sarah with scissors puncturing her pregnant belly. Sarah fights the visitor off and locks herself in the bathroom, where the woman tries to gain entry. The woman makes clear that her intentions are to take Sarah's child for herself.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46826189',
'title': 'Google Photos',
'section': 'Section::::Features.:Updates.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'In June 2016, Google updated Photos to include automatically generated albums. After an event or trip, Photos will group the best photos together and suggest creating an album with them, alongside maps to show geographic travel and location pins for exact places. Users can also add text captions to describe photos. In October, Google announced multiple significant updates; Google Photos will now surface old memories with people identified in users\' recent photos; it will occasionally highlight the best photos when a user has recently taken a lot of images of a specific subject; it will now make animations from videos as well as photos (photo animations have been present since the start), displaying the most memorable moments in videos; and it will now find all sideways photos and help the user easily flip them to normal orientation. For all of these features, Google touts machine learning does the work, with no user interaction required. In November, Google released a separate app - PhotoScan - for users to scan printed photos into the service. The app, released for iOS and Android, uses a scanning process in which users must center their camera over four dots that overlay the printed image, so that the software can combine the photographs for a high resolution digital image with fewest possible defects. Later that month, Google added a "Deep blue" slider feature that lets users change the color and saturation of skies, without degrading image quality or inadvertently changing colors of other objects or elements in photos.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21519455',
'title': 'Ricoh Caplio 500SE',
'section': 'Section::::Models.:Ricoh Caplio 500SE\xa0— GPS and Compass.:Google Earth integration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'As with other geocoded photographs, Google Earth can read the GPS-Information from the Exif header of the images and display pictures at the position they were taken. Even GPS-Tracks can be displayed, showing the route on which the pictures were taken.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40758755',
'title': 'Story of My Life (One Direction song)',
'section': 'Section::::Music video.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 252,
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'passage_text': 'Photos included in the video consist of: Zayn, aged 7, with his little sister; Louis, aged 8, with his grandparents; Harry, aged 4, with his mother; Niall, aged 4, with his brother being aged 10 when the photo was taken; Liam aged 10, with his family.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6825317',
'title': 'Google Image Labeler',
'section': 'Section::::Benefits to Google.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 523,
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'passage_text': 'Without human tagging of images, Google Images search has in the past relied on the filename of the image. For example, a photo that is captioned "Portrait of Bill Gates" might have "Bill Gates" associated as a possible search term. The Google Image Labeler relied on humans that tag the meaning or content of the image, rather than its context looking on at where the image was used. By storing more information about the image, Google stores more possible avenues of discovering the image in response to a user\'s search.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46826189',
'title': 'Google Photos',
'section': 'Section::::Features.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'The Photos service analyzes and organizes images into groups and can identify features such as beaches, skylines, or "snowstorm in Toronto". From the application\'s search window, users are shown potential searches for groups of photos in three major categories: People, Places, and Things. The service analyzes photos for similar faces and groups them together in the People category. It can also track faces as they age. The Places category uses geotagging data but can also determine locations in older pictures by analyzing for major landmarks (e.g., photos containing the Eiffel Tower). The Things category processes photos for their subject matter: birthdays, buildings, cats, concerts, food, graduations, posters, screenshots, etc. Users can manually remove categorization errors.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does google photos recognize my baby pictures?',
'selftext': 'I just uploaded my baby pictures to google photos and it immediately put them into my face’s photo album. My friends can’t even recognize me as a baby so how did Google Photos? It’s so cool! Would love to learn more about it.',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The same way it can distinguish your friends from you. Or your dog from your baby. It scans the photo and compares it to a large large pool of already identified images and decided what its most likely to be. \n\nBig brother is watching and it’s very smart 👀',
"You uploaded them. That means they're tied to your account. \n\nIt's a face. Image recognition systems are good at detecting faces in human portrait shots.\n\nWhether Google knows it's you or some other baby in your family.....that's speculation.\n\nAnd combined with eye color, eye separation to nose to mouth to ears separation, that's some identifying markers that are used for adult biometric tracking."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'e90nlw',
'query': 'how does google photos recognize my baby pictures?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1227284',
'title': 'Pulsar',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'A pulsar (from "pulse" and "-ar" as in quasar) is a highly magnetized rotating neutron star or white dwarf that emits a beam of electromagnetic radiation. This radiation can be observed only when the beam of emission is pointing toward Earth (much like the way a lighthouse can be seen only when the light is pointed in the direction of an observer), and is responsible for the pulsed appearance of emission. Neutron stars are very dense, and have short, regular rotational periods. This produces a very precise interval between pulses that ranges from milliseconds to seconds for an individual pulsar. Pulsars are one of the candidates for the source of ultra-high-energy cosmic rays (see also centrifugal mechanism of acceleration).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12558',
'title': 'Galaxy',
'section': 'Section::::Other types of galaxies.:Active galaxy.:Quasar.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 84,
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'end_paragraph_id': 84,
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'passage_text': 'Quasars (/ˈkweɪzɑr/) or quasi-stellar radio sources are the most energetic and distant members of active galactic nuclei. Quasars are extremely luminous and were first identified as being high redshift sources of electromagnetic energy, including radio waves and visible light, that appeared to be similar to stars, rather than extended sources similar to galaxies. Their luminosity can be 100 times greater than that of the Milky Way.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25239',
'title': 'Quasar',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'A quasar () (also known as a quasi-stellar object abbreviated QSO) is an extremely luminous active galactic nucleus (AGN), in which a supermassive black hole with mass ranging from millions to billions of times the mass of the Sun is surrounded by a gaseous accretion disk. As gas in the disk falls towards the black hole, energy is released in the form of electromagnetic radiation, which can be observed across the electromagnetic spectrum. The power radiated by quasars is enormous: the most powerful quasars have luminosities thousands of times greater than a galaxy such as the Milky Way.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23812495',
'title': 'X-ray transient',
'section': 'Section::::Transient X-ray pulsars.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'For some types of X-ray pulsars, the companion star is a Be star that rotates very rapidly and apparently sheds a disk of gas around its equator. The orbits of the neutron star with these companions are usually large and very elliptical in shape. When the neutron star passes nearby or through the Be circumstellar disk, it will capture material and temporarily become an X-ray pulsar. The circumstellar disk around the Be star expands and contracts for unknown reasons, so these are transient X-ray pulsars that are observed only intermittently, often with months to years between episodes of observable X-ray pulsation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '810077',
'title': 'X-ray pulsar',
'section': 'Section::::Gas supply.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'For still other types of X-ray pulsars, the companion star is a Be star that rotates very rapidly and apparently sheds a disk of gas around its equator. The orbits of the neutron star with these companions are usually large and very elliptical in shape. When the neutron star passes nearby or through the Be circumstellar disk, it will capture material and temporarily become an X-ray pulsar. The circumstellar disk around the Be star expands and contracts for unknown reasons, so these are transient X-ray pulsars that are observed only intermittently, often with months to years between episodes of observable X-ray pulsation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2353934',
'title': 'Hulse–Taylor binary',
'section': 'Section::::Star system.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'The pulsar and its neutron star companion both follow elliptical orbits around their common center of mass. The period of the orbital motion is 7.75 hours, and the two neutron stars are believed to be nearly equal in mass, about 1.4 solar masses. Radio emissions have been detected from only one of the two neutron stars.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5501614',
'title': 'Radio-quiet neutron star',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 351,
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'passage_text': 'In all, ten bodies have been proposed as rotation-powered neutron stars that are not visible as radio sources, but are visible as x–ray and gamma ray sources. Indicators that they are indeed neutron stars include them having a high x-ray to lower frequencies emission ratio, a constant x-ray emission profile, and coincidence with a gamma ray source.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "What's the difference between Neutron Stars, Pulsars, and Quasars?",
'selftext': "I've heard all 3 terms used pretty closely when reading about them, but I've never been sure what the actual difference is.",
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["So a neutron star is what happens when a large star sheds it's outer layer and the internal collapses in on itself after going supernova. These emit a lot of radiation including fast moving neutrons hence the name. \n\nNow if these supernovae happen while rotating fast it gets faster and faster as it shrinks (think of an ice skater spinning and bringing their leg in) if these get fast enough the radiation is emitted only at the poles. This is called a pulsar. \n\nI believe quasars are a result of a large amount of mass falling into a rotating black hole near the centre of a galaxy. As it spins some of the energy of the mass getting ripped appart is kicked out in a similar manner to a pulsar throwing radiation out near the poles.",
"Neutron stars are older stars that have collapsed in on themselves, and now the only thing keeping them from turning into a black hole is the [pressure that neutrons exert](_URL_0_) because they don't like to be squashed into the same place.\n\nPulsars are a type of neutron star spinning very fast in which a beam of radiation is emitted from its magnetic poles. If the magnetic pole is off from the geographic pole (the axis of rotation) it will cause the star to appear to pulsate from certain angles (Imagine a giant laser coming from the north geomagnetic pole in Canada, it would appear to aliens far away that earth was emitting laser late at 24 hour intervals).\n\nA further subtype of pulsar are [magnetars](_URL_1_) which are likely very young pulsars, and are named for their ridiculously strong magnetic fields, strong enough to rip the iron from your blood at a million miles away.\n\nQuasars are a different creature altogether. They are supermassive black holes that existed in the early Universe. We can only see them now because some of them are so far away that their light has only just reached us. They tore through a literally unimaginable amount of material every second, so quickly and with such force that the gas and plasma around it glowed trillions of times brighter than our Sun."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5p5ccj',
'query': "what's the difference between neutron stars, pulsars, and quasars?",
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '11251601',
'title': "Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere",
'section': 'Section::::Past concentration.:Drivers of ancient-Earth carbon dioxide concentration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 665,
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'passage_text': 'In billion-year timescales, it is predicted that plant, and therefore animal, life on land will die off altogether, since by that time most of the remaining carbon in the atmosphere will be sequestered underground, and natural releases of by radioactivity-driven tectonic activity will have continued to slow down. The loss of plant life would also result in the eventual loss of oxygen. Some microbes are capable of photosynthesis at concentrations of of a few parts per million and so the last life forms would probably disappear finally due to the rising temperatures and loss of the atmosphere when the sun becomes a red giant some four billion years from now.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1528711',
'title': 'Human extinction',
'section': 'Section::::Possible scenarios.:Habitat threats.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 412,
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'passage_text': "BULLET::::- In around 1 billion years from now, the Sun's brightness may increase as a result of a shortage of hydrogen and the heating of its outer layers may cause the Earth's oceans to evaporate, leaving only minor forms of life. Well before this time, the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will be too low to support plant life, destroying the foundation of the food chains. See Future of the Earth.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7316',
'title': 'Hypothetical types of biochemistry',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.:Other speculations.:Variable environments.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 90,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 90,
'end_character': 412,
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'passage_text': 'Many Earth plants and animals undergo major biochemical changes during their life cycles as a response to changing environmental conditions, for example, by having a spore or hibernation state that can be sustained for years or even millennia between more active life stages. Thus, it would be biochemically possible to sustain life in environments that are only periodically consistent with life as we know it.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9228',
'title': 'Earth',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 971,
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'passage_text': "Within the first billion years of Earth's history, life appeared in the oceans and began to affect the Earth's atmosphere and surface, leading to the proliferation of anaerobic and, later, aerobic organisms. Some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as early as 4.1\xa0billion years ago. Since then, the combination of Earth's distance from the Sun, physical properties and geological history have allowed life to evolve and thrive. In the history of life on Earth, biodiversity has gone through long periods of expansion, occasionally punctuated by mass extinction events. Over 99% of all species that ever lived on Earth are extinct. Estimates of the number of species on Earth today vary widely; most species have not been described. Over 7.6\xa0billion humans live on Earth and depend on its biosphere and natural resources for their survival. Humans have developed diverse societies and cultures; politically, the world has around 200 sovereign states.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25669714',
'title': 'Health effects of sunlight exposure',
'section': 'Section::::Lifetime sun exposure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
'end_character': 387,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'There are currently no recommendations on a safe level of total lifetime sun exposure. According to epidemiologist Robyn Lucas at Australian National University, analysis of lifespan versus disease shows that far more lives worldwide could be lost to diseases caused by lack of sunlight than to those caused by too much, and it is inappropriate to recommend total avoidance of sunlight.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24179592',
'title': 'Future of Earth',
'section': 'Section::::Solar evolution.:Climate impact.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 54,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 54,
'end_character': 987,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In their work "The Life and Death of Planet Earth", authors Peter D. Ward and Donald Brownlee have argued that some form of animal life may continue even after most of the Earth\'s plant life has disappeared. Ward and Brownlee use fossil evidence from the Burgess Shale in British Columbia, Canada, to determine the climate of the Cambrian Explosion, and use it to predict the climate of the future when rising global temperatures caused by a warming Sun and declining oxygen levels result in the final extinction of animal life. Initially, they expect that some insects, lizards, birds and small mammals may persist, along with sea life. However, without oxygen replenishment by plant life, they believe that animals would probably die off from asphyxiation within a few million years. Even if sufficient oxygen were to remain in the atmosphere through the persistence of some form of photosynthesis, the steady rise in global temperature would result in a gradual loss of biodiversity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28863514',
'title': 'Last Day of the Dinosaurs',
'section': 'Section::::Plot.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 581,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'But life on Earth was not completely destroyed: fish and crocodiles surviving underwater; small mammals, snakes, insects, arachnids, and lizards hid underground; birds flew or swam away from the disaster. Three years pass before sunlight finally reaches the planet again, and plant life finally carpets the Earth again, setting the stage for a new era: the era of mammals. Mammals now multiply and diversify, with countless species of mammals evolving, until 10,000 species explode across the planet and one species, humans, eventually rule the planet like the dinosaurs once had.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Life on Earth has existed for millions of years, growing and adapting. So why do small amounts of exposure to the sun still harm its organisms?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Because for most of the world, while it's harmful, it doesn't kill you before you reproduce. So there's little evolutionary pressure that favors a mutation that has a characteristic that makes sun less harmful.\n\nUnless you live near equator like Africa...where your skin tone is ...dark. some say it could be even called black!",
'Your premise is false. Small amounts of exposure to the sun usually do *not* harm organisms. \n\nThe exceptions are organisms that have evolved to live in non-sunny locations.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6kfip5',
'query': 'life on earth has existed for millions of years, growing and adapting. so why do small amounts of exposure to the sun still harm its organisms?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3332449',
'title': 'Black Gate (capacitor)',
'section': 'Section::::Production.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 275,
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'passage_text': 'Once the capacitors will become unavailable, or the current stocks become too old to be used due to deterioration, alternatives will have to be found. The Black Gate was very affordable when comparing it to some other similar-performing capacitors, and was easily available.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3507748',
'title': 'Nichicon',
'section': 'Section::::Early 2000s capacitor issues.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 567,
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'passage_text': 'From 2001 to 2004, Nichicon produced defective capacitors (series HM and HN) that ended up being used by major computer manufacturers, including Dell, Hewlett-Packard, and Apple. No overall reason was ever proven for the production runs of defective capacitors, but some sources claimed that these capacitors were either overfilled with electrolyte, or were constructed using electrolyte fluid that was prone to pop and leak fluid, causing premature failure in any equipment using them. This issue was not related to the contemporaneous Taiwanese "Capacitor Plague".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22748103',
'title': 'Microwave cavity',
'section': 'Section::::Comparison to LC circuits.:Losses in LC resonant circuits.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
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'end_paragraph_id': 32,
'end_character': 270,
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'passage_text': 'Conventional capacitors use air, mica, ceramic or perhaps teflon for a dielectric. Even with a low loss dielectric, capacitors are also subject to skin effect losses in their leads and plates. Both effects increase their equivalent series resistance and reduce their Q.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1342988',
'title': 'Capacitor plague',
'section': 'Section::::History.:First announcements.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 412,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Faulty capacitors have been a problem since capacitors\' initial development, but the first flawed capacitors linked to Taiwanese raw material problems were reported by the specialist magazine "Passive Component Industry" in September 2002. Shortly thereafter, two mainstream electronics journals reported the discovery of widespread prematurely failing capacitors, from Taiwanese manufacturers, in motherboards.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '467585',
'title': 'PC1512',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 890,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Whereas IBM's PC (and almost all PC compatibles) had a power supply in a corner of the main case, the PC1512's power supply was integrated with that of its monitor. The monitor had sufficient venting to cool itself by convection, instead of needing a fan. The PC1512 was therefore quieter than other PCs. Rumours circulated that an Amstrad PC would overheat, and while existing owners would note that this did not happen, new buyers were discouraged. As a result, later models had a cooling fan integrated into the main case. Another example of rumour was the suggestion that there were issues with the 'unshielded' power supply in the monitor affecting an optional hard drive that could be installed at the back of the base unit and further that this would be solved by taping tin foil or aluminum foil over the back of the base unit or the bottom of the monitor to shield the hard drive.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21152701',
'title': 'Applications of capacitors',
'section': 'Section::::Hazards and safety.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 50,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 50,
'end_character': 797,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'High-voltage capacitors may catastrophically fail when subjected to voltages or currents beyond their rating, or as they reach their normal end of life. Dielectric or metal interconnection failures may create arcing that vaporizes dielectric fluid, resulting in case bulging, rupture, or even an explosion. Capacitors used in RF or sustained high-current applications can overheat, especially in the center of the capacitor rolls. Capacitors used within high-energy capacitor banks can violently explode when a short in one capacitor causes sudden dumping of energy stored in the rest of the bank into the failing unit. High voltage vacuum capacitors can generate soft X-rays even during normal operation. Proper containment, fusing, and preventive maintenance can help to minimize these hazards.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3332449',
'title': 'Black Gate (capacitor)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 220,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The quality of capacitors may vary considerably depending on their construction and the type of insulating materials used. They are also known to deteriorate (or "drift") over time, just like any electrolytic capacitor.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why do capacitors in CRT TVs from 50 years ago still work, but every LCD I've had blew a capacitor in less than 5 years?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Probably not the answer you're looking for but I'd guess it was them intentionally installing cheaper/lower quality ones they know will fail so you upgrade sooner. Planned obsolescence... But that's just my opinion... No facts or anything to back this up. Lol",
"Planned obsolescence. When the model T was invented, people would buy one and it would last a lifetime. Companies had to start making their cars intentionally shit so you'd pay more to maintain and replace them. ",
"people like to parrot *planned obsolescence* but there is a much simpler explanation that does not require the assumption of any malice on the part of manufacturers.\n\nit is just cheaper to make and more profitable to sell a product which works exactly as long as it is warrantied for and not much longer. the buyer is promised a certain expectation and the seller meets it. if the product exceeds the specified life, it is over engineered and the next round of cost cutting in the manufacturing process will identify and eliminate the expensive step (I.e. capacitors , or any other part for that matter, will be iterated down the quality hierarchy until the product fails minimum lifetime requirements). over years and decades of design and engineering the build quality settles to the minimum demanded by the market. in is an art that separates the small players from the industry juggernauts.\n\nthat's right. it takes two hands to clap. TVs don't last 20 years because no one is willing to pay for one that does. besides, they are going to upgrade in a few yrs time anyway and the old one is going to the landfill so it better be cheap. people want the latest tech bells and whistles which come along every 1-2 yrs (any electronic devices come to mind?) at an affordable price . incidentally, that's how long things tend to last. because neither buyer nor seller really needs it to last."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8z2z5m',
'query': "why do capacitors in crt tvs from 50 years ago still work, but every lcd i've had blew a capacitor in less than 5 years?",
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2357908',
'title': 'Automotive lighting',
'section': 'Section::::Light sources.:Light-emitting diodes (LED).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 147,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 147,
'end_character': 704,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are increasingly used in automotive lamps. They offer very long service life, extreme vibration resistance, and can permit considerably shallower packaging compared to most bulb-type assemblies. LEDs also offer a potential safety benefit when employed in stop lights, because when power is applied they rise to full intensity approximately 250 milliseconds (¼ second) faster than incandescent bulbs. This fast rise time not only improves the intentional conspicuity of the stop lamp, but also provides following drivers more time to react to stop lamps. However, this faster rise time has not been shown to make cars with LED stop lamps less likely to be struck from behind.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18290',
'title': 'Light-emitting diode',
'section': 'Section::::Considerations for use.:Advantages.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 115,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 115,
'end_character': 249,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Cycling: LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike incandescent and fluorescent lamps that fail faster when cycled often, or high-intensity discharge lamps (HID lamps) that require a long time before restarting.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9910525',
'title': 'LED lamp',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 317,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Similar to incandescent lamps (and unlike most fluorescent lamps), LEDs come to full brightness immediately with no warm-up delay. Frequent switching on and off does not reduce life expectancy as with fluorescent lighting. Light output decreases gradually over the lifetime of the LED (see Efficiency droop section).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18290',
'title': 'Light-emitting diode',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Indicators and signs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 141,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 141,
'end_character': 791,
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'passage_text': 'Because of their long life, fast switching times, and visibility in broad daylight due to their high output and focus, LEDs have been used in automotive brake lights and turn signals. The use in brakes improves safety, due to a great reduction in the time needed to light fully, or faster rise time, up to 0.5 second faster than an incandescent bulb. This gives drivers behind more time to react. In a dual intensity circuit (rear markers and brakes) if the LEDs are not pulsed at a fast enough frequency, they can create a phantom array, where ghost images of the LED appear if the eyes quickly scan across the array. White LED headlamps are beginning to appear. Using LEDs has styling advantages because LEDs can form much thinner lights than incandescent lamps with parabolic reflectors.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '59636913',
'title': 'Light-emitting diode physics',
'section': 'Section::::Efficiency and operational parameters.:Efficiency droop.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
'end_character': 251,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In addition to being less efficient, operating LEDs at higher electric currents creates more heat, which can compromise LED lifetime. High-brightness LEDs often operate at 350\xa0mA, which is a compromise between light output, efficiency, and longevity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18290',
'title': 'Light-emitting diode',
'section': 'Section::::Considerations for use.:Advantages.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 117,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 117,
'end_character': 226,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the form of IR that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as heat through the base of the LED.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '303071',
'title': 'Neon lamp',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 521,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'When the current through the lamp is lower than the current for the highest-current discharge path, the glow discharge may become unstable and not cover the entire surface of the electrodes. This may be a sign of aging of the indicator bulb, and is exploited in the decorative "flicker flame" neon lamps. However, while too low a current causes flickering, too high a current increases the wear of the electrodes by stimulating sputtering, which coats the internal surface of the lamp with metal and causes it to darken.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Does LED burn out faster similar to how light bulb burn out faster from 'strobe lighting' them?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["No. LEDs generate light differently from incandescent bulbs. They don't get nearly as hot and so they don't suffer from the damage that comes with rapid heat/cool cycles. ",
"The answer is yes, depending upon the wattage of the LED and how rapidly it's cycled (some LEDs are targeted specifically for strobe applications). For a lot of applications, however, there will be negligible impact.\n\nIncandescent bulbs rely on a piece of metal heating up to a high temperature in order to provide light. LEDs basically allow for electrons to flow, and this creates light. There is still heat produced, but it's not the primary mode of light being created."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '70dxz7',
'query': "does led burn out faster similar to how light bulb burn out faster from 'strobe lighting' them?",
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '8170717',
'title': 'Signs and symptoms of radiation poisoning',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 501,
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'passage_text': 'The amount of time between exposure to radiation and the onset of the initial symptoms may be an indicator of how much radiation was absorbed. Symptoms appear sooner with higher doses of exposure. The symptoms of radiation sickness become more serious (and the chance of survival decreases) as the dosage of radiation increases. A few symptom-free days may pass between the appearance of the initial symptoms and the onset of symptoms of more severe illness associated with higher doses of radiation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '151196',
'title': 'Acute radiation syndrome',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 631,
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'passage_text': 'Acute radiation syndrome (ARS), also known as radiation sickness, is a collection of health effects due to exposure to high amounts of ionizing radiation over a short period of time. Within the first days symptoms may include nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite. This may then be followed by a few hours or weeks with little symptoms. After this, depending on the total dose of radiation, people may develop infections, bleeding, dehydration, and confusion, or there may be a period with few symptoms. This is finally followed by either recovery or death. The symptoms can begin within one hour and may last for several months.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8170717',
'title': 'Signs and symptoms of radiation poisoning',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 351,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The symptoms of radiation poisoning includes a phenomenon where, following a dose of ionizing radiation, a person may have a period of apparent health, lasting for days or weeks, despite a terminal illness. The lag time of the effects of even severe radiation poisoning are a result of many biological processes, manifesting damage in different ways.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '53683',
'title': 'Nuclear fallout',
'section': 'Section::::Effects.:Long term.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 37,
'end_character': 488,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Late or delayed effects of radiation occur following a wide range of doses and dose rates. Delayed effects may appear months to years after irradiation and include a wide variety of effects involving almost all tissues or organs. Some of the "possible" delayed consequences of radiation injury, with the rates above the background prevalence, depending on the absorbed dose, include carcinogenesis, cataract formation, chronic radiodermatitis, decreased fertility, and genetic mutations.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3247662',
'title': 'Project 4.1',
'section': 'Section::::Results about effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'Most of the individuals exposed did not immediately show signs of radiation sickness, though within a few days other effects of significant radiation exposure manifested: loss of hair and significant skin damage, including "raw, weeping lesions", among the Rongelap and Ailinginae groups. The lesions healed quickly, however, consistent with radiation exposure. The report abstract concluded that "estimates of total body burden indicate that there is no long term hazard."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1106055',
'title': 'Linear no-threshold model',
'section': 'Section::::Mental health effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 52,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 52,
'end_character': 453,
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'passage_text': 'The consequences of low-level radiation are often more psychological than radiological. Because damage from very-low-level radiation cannot be detected, people exposed to it are left in anguished uncertainty about what will happen to them. Many believe they have been fundamentally contaminated for life and may refuse to have children for fear of birth defects. They may be shunned by others in their community who fear a sort of mysterious contagion.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '244601',
'title': 'Effects of nuclear explosions',
'section': 'Section::::Survivability.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 72,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 72,
'end_character': 944,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'With medical attention, radiation exposure is survivable to a 200 rems acute dose exposure. If a group of people is exposed to a 50 to 59 rems acute (within 24 hours) radiation dose, none will get radiation sickness. If the group is exposed to 60 to 180 rems, 50% will become sick with radiation poisoning. If medically treated, all of the 60–180 rems group will survive. If the group is exposed to 200 to 450 rems, most if not all of the group will become sick. 50% of the 200–450 rems group will die within two to four weeks, even with medical attention. If the group is exposed to 460 to 600 rems, 100% of the group will get radiation poisoning. 50% of the 460–600 rems group will die within one to three weeks. If the group is exposed to 600 to 1000 rems, 50% will die in one to three weeks. If the group is exposed to 1,000 to 5,000 rems, 100% of the group will die within 2 weeks. At 5,000 rems, 100% of the group will die within 2 days.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'For people that have been exposed to high level of radiation, after the initial bouts of symptoms why does it look like they seem to be in recovery but in reality are not. The next stage with the symptoms coming back worst and eventually dying?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Many of the symptoms of illness are products of the body's attempts to fight off the problem. For example if someone gets a viral or bacterial infection they will develop a fever, an increase in body temperature which is uncomfortable and can even be life-threatening. This response though is evolved as it usually helps reduce the growth rate of the invaders and gives the body crucial time to develop a defensive response.\n\nIf the body is losing the fight it will at some point be unable to mount an effective defense. Failure of various systems of the body will mean that those responses that would serve to fight the illness no longer take place; someone who is still infected might stop having a fever but that doesn't mean they are recovered.",
"It depends on the dose. At high enough doses, there is no latency period because your cells have been completely destroyed. At lower doses that are still fatal, what's happening is that the radiation has destroyed the DNA of cells, making them unable to replicate. These cells will continue to live for some time, but once they start dying, there's nothing to replace them. This becomes apparent as rapidly diving cells begin to die. For example, damaged bone marrow is unable to make new blood cells, which results in profound anemia, low white cell count, and low platelet count as new cells are not made to replace ones that have died. This can lead to rapid onset of major infections and uncontrollable bleeding as there are no white cells to fight infections and no platelets to clot wounds.\n\nCells of the gastrointestinal system also divide rapidly, so gastrointestinal symptoms are usually early and severe. As the cells that line the digestive tract die, they slough off and are expelled as vomit and diarrhea. The body is then unable to absorb any nutrients as the digestive system is essentially dead. This also allows the bacteria that live in our digestive tracts to enter our bloodstream and cause sepsis.\n\nEssentially, it's that at certain doses, the radiation exposure isn't enough to kill cells right away but is enough to make them unable to replicate. Once they die, which can take days or weeks, the latent phase ends and profound illness begins."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'bu69xx',
'query': 'for people that have been exposed to high level of radiation, after the initial bouts of symptoms why does it look like they seem to be in recovery but in reality are not. the next stage with the symptoms coming back worst and eventually dying?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2244264',
'title': 'Rat-bite fever',
'section': 'Section::::Prevention.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 310,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Improved conditions to minimize rodent contact with humans are the best preventive measures. Animal handlers, laboratory workers, and sanitation and sewer workers must take special precautions against exposure. Wild rodents, dead or alive, should not be touched and pets must not be allowed to ingest rodents.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10536491',
'title': 'Nuisance wildlife management',
'section': 'Section::::Characteristics of nuisance species.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 391,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Second, these animals are not tied to eating a specific type of food. For example, lynx do not thrive in human impacted environments because they rely so heavily on snowshoe hares. In contrast, raccoons have been very successful in urban landscapes because they can live in attics, chimneys, and even sewers, and can sustain themselves with food gained from trashcans and discarded litter. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4476218',
'title': "Tyzzer's disease",
'section': 'Section::::Prevention.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 360,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In laboratory animals, prevention includes a low-stress environment, an adequate amount of nutritional feed, and appropriate sanitation measurements. Because animals likely ingest bacterial spores from contaminated bedding and feed, regular cleaning is a helpful method of prevention. No prevention methods are currently available for wild animal populations.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6173994',
'title': 'Cannibalism',
'section': 'Section::::Costs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 209,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Animals which have diets consisting of predominantly conspecific prey expose themselves to a greater risk of injury and expend more energy foraging for suitable prey as compared to non-cannibalistic species. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3884731',
'title': 'Pet food',
'section': 'Section::::Feeding human foods to animals.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 212,
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'passage_text': 'Prepared foods and some raw ingredients may be toxic for animals, and care should be taken when feeding animals leftover food. It is known that the following foods are potentially unsafe for cats, dogs and pigs:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4899489',
'title': 'Three-toed box turtle',
'section': 'Section::::Diet.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'As pets, they have been reported to eat mealworms, corn, melon, crickets, waxworms, tomatoes, cooked eggs, fruit, and even moist dog food. They can be shy about being watched while eating, and may stop and stare back motionless if this happens.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '991169',
'title': 'Rodenticide',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Besides being directly toxic to the mammals that ingest them, including dogs, cats, and humans, many rodenticides present a secondary poisoning risk to animals that hunt or scavenge the dead corpses of rats.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do animals in the wild know what’s safe to eat?',
'selftext': 'Animals in the wild at some point must come in contact with plants that are not safe to eat (like poisonous mushrooms). How do they know not to eat those?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Some level of smell/taste (bitter for humans, for example, tends to be toxic) is in play, and probably some instinct, however many, say, dogs do occasionally eat very toxic organisms that either kill them or seriously make them ill. How much that happens in the wild is difficult to measure, but there are plenty of cases of pet dogs eating toxic mushrooms/plants.',
"Some animals don't learn preferences, they just have the instinct to eat grass or leaves or meat. Many will have natural instincts to avoid rotting food based on smell and taste.\n\nBut other species (including humans) learn some of their preferences. This is done partly by trial and error, and also by social learning. There are cool experiments in rats where they smell the breath of conspecifics who have been fed a particular food. The rat is then given a choice of foods. They tend to pick the one they smelled on their friends' breath.",
'The same way we do, taste and experience. The plant wants to avoid being eaten. Most arent so toxic that one bite will kill so they make themselves bitter. When it\'s toxic, the herbivore wont continue consumption because its gross. Plant is spared extra damage and herbivore likely has an unpleasant night ahead of it. It may take just 1 or several times before they make the link "eat this and get sick" but once the lesson is learned, they dont keep at it. \n\n[You ever seen a bird vomit?](_URL_0_) : > This is the bare version. This jay was often fed Vice Roy butterflies. Then they gave him a monarch. Monarchs are toxic so he vomited and stopped accepting Vice Roys. Toxic animals often give that visual cue but predators cant discern minute changes in mimicry and just leave everything alone that reminds them of "that night".',
'There are two main mechanisms, and both usually coexist, each providing a certain portion of the picture: (a) what I\'ll call "instinct" and (b) learned preferences.\n\nFirst, I\'ll talk about the "instinct" part. You might be familiar with natural selection and what it can achieve. Amongst all the things it can achieve, there\'s the selection of chemical and physical cell receptors that react to certain stimuli. For example, have you ever smelled rotten meat? Most likely you had a particular reaction where you almost vomited and it made you cry a little. Those are mechanisms that have been selected during generations. Those organisms that smelled rotten or toxic food and had a bad reaction were more likely to not consume it. On the other hand, those that did consume it, were more likely to get sick or straightforward die.\n\nSomething important to keep in mind while thinking about this is that selection occurs mainly with things with which we interact frequently. So, if you\'re a type or organisms that consumes meat, you\'ll be more likely to know for sure if certain meat is bad than, say, some berries being toxic. That\'s why even though some plants or other edible things might seem appetising, even though they can be deadly.\n\nThen, we have the learned preferences. A set of organisms acquires a particular knowledge and passes it to the next generation or neighbour organisms. For example, if you live in certain parts of the US were deadly berries grow, it\'s likely that they\'ve told you "beware, those are deadly berries, don\'t eat them". But, if you were someone from somewhere else, saw those same berries, you would find them appetising, you would consume and you\'ll either get sick or die.\n\nSomething similar happens in the wild. Other animals besides humans are capable of transmitting this type of knowledge to their offspring or group mates. I don\'t remember right now the specifics, but there\'s some types of apes that know that the root of a certain plant is safe to eat, but the leaves will cause a stomachache. [There\'s even some Japanese monkeys that have learnt to wash their potatoes on salty water for enhanced flavour](_URL_0_). This leads us to believe that if they ever were to discover that a certain type of food is dangerous, they would be able to pass that knowledge from one another.\n\nFinally, there\'s an evolutive dynamic going on called "[arms race](_URL_1_)". It happens when species A, let\'s say, a certain leafy plant is consumed by species B, let\'s say, a gorilla. The gorilla lives its life happily eating the plant. The plant begins to produce a chemical that deters the herbivore behaviour by causing a stomach ache or diarrhea if consumed. Some gorillas stop eating it but some evolve resistance to the chemical. After a few generations, the plant evolves a stronger chemical to stop the second group of gorillas from eating it. Some gorillas stop consuming it but some evolve resistance. This process repeats indefinitely. That\'s why you might find that some people and some other animals consume a particular food and they don\'t have any problem with it, but others avoid it altogether.',
'When animals arent sure they will do the same as humans, let one eat whatever and watch if it dies'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'cgdjbw',
'query': 'how do animals in the wild know what’s safe to eat?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '14361',
'title': 'Honey',
'section': 'Section::::Production.:Adulteration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
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'passage_text': 'In the United States, according to the National Honey Board (an organization supervised by the United States Department of Agriculture), "honey stipulates a pure product that does not allow for the addition of any other substance... this includes, but is not limited to, water or other sweeteners".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42581360',
'title': 'Speyer wine bottle',
'section': 'Section::::Wine preservation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'While scientists have considered accessing the liquid to further analyze the content, as of 2018 the bottle remained unopened, because of concerns about how the liquid would react when exposed to air. The museum\'s curator, Ludger Tekampe, has stated he has seen no variation in the bottle in the last 25 years. Oenology professor Monika Christmann of Hochschule Geisenheim University has said, "Micro-biologically it is probably not spoiled, but it would not bring joy to the palate."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1084968',
'title': 'Decontamination foam',
'section': 'Section::::Mixing and use.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'Decon foam often comes in multiple bottles, that, when mixed, combine to form the decontamination solution. The bottles should be kept separate until needed as the foam may begin to lose effectiveness after mixing. After these bottles are mixed together, the foam can be applied by spraying it on a contaminated area or by manual application.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '402923',
'title': 'Bottled water',
'section': 'Section::::Concerns.:Health concerns.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 125,
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'end_paragraph_id': 125,
'end_character': 473,
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'passage_text': 'Studies show that the plastics used for bottles contain chemicals having estrogenic activity, even when they claim otherwise. Although some of the bottled water contained in glass were found polluted with chemicals as well, the researchers believe some of the contamination of water in the plastic containers may have come from the plastic containers. Leaching of chemicals into the water is related to the plastic bottles being exposed to either low or high temperatures.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1178986',
'title': 'Hypertufa',
'section': 'Section::::Manufacture.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': 'After water is added to the mixture, it is packed into a previously constructed mold, then sealed or covered in plastic and allowed to cure for up to two months. The object may be temporarily removed from its wrapping after 24 hours for trimming and/or distressing, after which it is re-wrapped. After the hypertufa object is completely cured, it is removed from the plastic, rinsed thoroughly, and allowed to sit exposed to the elements for several more weeks to reduce its otherwise-toxic surface alkalinity. It can then be used to hold plants.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29631466',
'title': 'Low plastic water bottle',
'section': 'Section::::Recycling.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': "Companies like Aquafina have also taken recycling into consideration. Previously when water bottles were bought in packs of 24, there was a plastic wrap around the bottles and there was a cardboard base. This packaging wasn't recyclable, but now some water companies have made the packaging totally recyclable, and also have eliminated the cardboard base. Just eliminating the cardboard base saves 20 million pounds of corrugated material annually. The plastic reduction in the bottles themselves saves 75 million pounds of plastic.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1467246',
'title': 'Solar still',
'section': 'Section::::Methods.:Transpiration method.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'Water can be obtained by placing clear plastic bags over the leafy branch of a "non-poisonous" tree and tightly closing the bag\'s open end around the branch. Any holes in the bag must be sealed to prevent the loss of water vapour.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'They said "the water doesn\'t have an expiration date, the plastic bottle does" so how come honey that comes in a plastic bottle doesn\'t expire?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['I used to work in regulatory compliance in a honey processing plant.\n\nHoney does not expire. IIRC there is evidence of 500+ years old honey found in clay pots that is perfectly safe to eat.\n\nThe date is a best before date.\nThis is because the Codex Alimentarius (from the WHO) ((on which the FDA and CFIA base their regulations) define honey as "liquid".\nEventually honey will crystallise. The time it takes to start crystallisation can vary between 2 to 4 years depending on a multitude of factors (temp a bottling, quality of seals, amount in container, floral origin, etc).',
'I was always told that bottled water gets stored in direct sunlight quite often and that the sunlight causes the plastic to break down and release BPA and other toxins into the water.',
'Well as a honey producer I can’t tell you shit about water expiring, I’m sure it varies drastically. Honey doesn’t expire. It does have different flavors or colors, and it will crystallize. (Heat it up). Our plastic bottles sell better for now just because they have a nice handle on them I think. We have tried to convert a portion (basically at our expense) to glass and it doesn’t sell as well. We are beekeepers, and I personally think that has something with trying to do the right thing in a way. My grandpa used to sell to people who would come in with their own pails or jars of sorts and I’d like to reinstate that a little bit as well. But on the shelf, yeah way she goes. People seriously should consider what they are buying even or just so it isn’t the lowest tier. You could probably buy China/Argentina/Canadian honey for less. Because it’s probably mixed with corn syrup. Loopholes in the laws bro I fucking hate it. I’m pretty sure the law says it only has to be certain % honey to be labeled pure. Bullshit, and it makes the company I work for have to dive into that level of bullshit to an extent by importing much cheaper honey and mixing it, thus losing any proper pollination resistance or other health benefits you might have received at a local level. I’m not on the board of Sue Bee but I do sent a lot of my PURE honey to them, and I wish this was a bigger issue with the popular contest, but price wins at the end of the day. I’d still recommend it above others because it’s definitely more pure, it’s just the price comparison is impossible without tariffs or changes. \n\nWoof sorry about that. It’s my job and apparently I’m a little passionate about what’s fucked up about it.',
'Is it true honey never goes out of date? If so, why aren’t we using honey to preserve foods longer?',
'Plastic is air permeable to a degree, so water in it can pick up scents and some chemicals from the environment, so that may be a factor.',
'There’s two concepts of foods “expiring” One is how long can you guarantee it doesn’t go bad, and the other is how long can you guarantee it doesn’t change at all. For example, milk will spoil and be undrinkable within a few days of the expiry date. Honey in itself will never rot or go bad per se, but eventually itll crystallize and you won’t be able to use it anymore. Or the water in your bottle will taste bad due to the bottle or otherwise, even though it’s technically just the same water. \n\nCompanies will put an expiration date because they prefer you throw out their product than to use something that isn’t the best that it can be. If you drank water that was past it’s “expiry date” and it tasted bad, you probably wouldn’t buy it again. If they scared you off from drinking it you might just go and buy more.\n\nEDIT: Yeah ok, so apparently crystallized honey is still usable TIL, but the point still stands. Eventually, it will become something that they did not originally intend to sell in one way or another. My bottle of honey I have at home has a best before date, its in about 2 years. In 2 years it will still be honey, just maybe not in a form that someone would find appealing to grab off a shelf.',
'Whoever said that is wrong.\n\nThe FDA and IWBA can\'t find any evidence that age matters to plastic water bottles. The FDA has ruled that there is no limit to the shelf life of bottled water, and no company has even insinuated that the expiration is related to the plastic.\n\nIn 1987, New Jersey passed a law requiring all bottles of water to be stamped with an expiration date 2 years after the bottling date. Since you can\'t identify which bottles will wind up shipped to NJ, companies just stamped all bottles with a 2-year expiration to ensure compliance.\n\nThey never passed that law for Honey, which is why plastic honey bottles don\'t have an expiration.\n\nAlthough the law was repealed in 2006, companies had figured out people will throw out "expired" water and buy more, it actually increases sales, so they kept printing it "voluntarily".',
"Took a tour of a Pepsi plant where they bottle Aquafina. It's more for quality control. It's difficult to eliminate 100% of bacteria and other things that can grow over time. Part of the testing is to put some of the water into a petri dish and accelerate growth, to see if there is anything nasty is in there. The water will most likely be fine after expiry but, in case there is something in there, the expiration date will provide a good idea of how long it will be safe to drink and to safeguard the company from liability.",
"Honey is a super saturated sugar solution. The reason it's so resistant to spoiling is that it is so saturated that it draws all the water out of any bacteria effectively killing it. The only real exception is botulinum, which can live dormant as a spore which is resistant to those forces. This is why you can't give honey to babies under 1 year old, they are not immune to it yet",
'It\'s my understanding that the reason they really have expiration dates is a law made in New Jersey that made all edibles/potables have expiration dates. Regardless if they actually expired in that time or not. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nGenerally speaking though, the plastic is porous to air so your water can get smelly or "stale" depending on how it\'s stored.',
'It may depend on the plastic. The plastic used for single use bottled water are single use plastic (generally PET) and although it has good durability, it does not age well, especially when heated. \n\nThere are some rumors that it release carcinogens to the water when heated (or apparently freezed according to [this](_URL_0_)). The research on this subject is controversial but if the honey is in a different version of plastic container (probable because lower quantity and higher price may mean higher margin for container cost), the producer may be more confident with the plastic not releasing chemicals with health effects.\n\nGeneraly plastic containers have some sort of marking (on the bottom with a number inside a mark) stating the material. You may compare the properties of these materials if they are different. \n\nIn addition to that, water is a good solvent and may help if there is a possible chemical reaction with the walls of the bottle. \n\nLastly, a water bottle is more prone to be used after refilled, as plastic containers are generally a welcoming place for bacteria, the producer may discourage the users from refilling and reusing the bottle for a long time.',
'They can only guarantee freshness for the amount of time tested. Many canned goods are usable well past the date on the package.',
'I can understand why bottles that sit full of water might be harmful, but why do soda stream bottles have expiration dates? Mine generally sit empty in a dark cabinet.',
'In Denmark we have a “best before often good after” expiration date to tell consumers not to stress about the date, but use their senses in stead.\n\nEdit:Yes yes, I spelled senses wrongly. Thanks for the great scrip!',
"The plastic doesn't expire.\n\nThe water doesn't expire.\n\nThe integrity of the caps seal is guaranteed for said period of time under normal conditions. \n\nWhat after this date it will leak? no it will not.\n\nIt's how long they're willing to say it will keep most off tastes out under normal storage conditions. \n\nWhat does that mean? The bottles are not hermetically sealed ;) so you can migrate quite a few disgusting flavors into them if stored improperly. Keep a bottle of water near say kitty litter and you'll end up with kitty litter flavored water.... mmm dank and musty... which is due to an abnormal storage condition.\n\nso why the date? regulation - depending on where you live either current or expired. They needed something so they oft chose the seal which is the source of this confusion additionally some companies chose to just put the maximum possible date as per regulations. \n\nThey kept it for assorted reasons if the regulation has been lifted, one being that people will chuck it and another being it's cheaper and faster to produce with one set of bottles than multiple. Additionally it's easier to track production and so forth... \n\nWhat about plastic taste in water if the bottle is left in the hot sun.\n\nThat's from prolonged exposure to direct UV light via sunlight which is not a normal storage condition. \n\nWhy doesn't honey expire? \n\nlow water content vs high sugar content. It basically exist in a state where what would decompose it can't live. Decomposition is merely something else eating it.",
'Any food or drink sold within EU has an expiration date. Yes, even honey, sugar, oil and water.',
"The reason most shit has an expiration date is because otherwise, old people will try to return that shit 10 years later. And no, I'm not joking",
'There is a bit of psychology to this employed by food manufacturers. The ones I worked with intentionally labelled products with much shorter expiry dates than the product actually has. This is to subtly communicate that the product is high quality and to stop big retailers buying years of product at once at cripplingly low discounts . There are other reasons for it like legal requirements from state or country level causing blanket labelling procedures as well however.',
'Plastic that is in sunlight does have a relatively fast "expiration date". What happens is sunlight hits the plastic, destabilizes it and causes what are called plasticizers to leach into the water which will give it the plastic taste, as you are likely drinking minute amounts of microplastics. If properly stored, the shelf life of water bottles is likely extremely long. \nThis does not happen which thick walled plastic bottles such as reusable nalgene bottles as they are made of a different type of plastic that is not nearly as likely to emit the plasticizers.',
"Water will often grow things in it if exposed to light, even in a sealed bottle. Honey doesn't grow things in it (because there isn't enough water in it).",
'Unless the water has been sterilised, it can start growing things in it. In Finland we stamp dates on it because over time the microbes have grown to a level that there is a health risk. The problem is not water, but microbes. \n\nHoney is actively anti-microbial, also it is basically just sugar, to the point basically nothing will grow on it.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'f6bvzb',
'query': 'they said "the water doesn\'t have an expiration date, the plastic bottle does" so how come honey that comes in a plastic bottle doesn\'t expire?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '172121',
'title': 'Phonograph record',
'section': 'Section::::Current status.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 222,
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'passage_text': 'In spite of their flaws, such as the lack of portability, records still have enthusiastic supporters. Vinyl records continue to be manufactured and sold today, especially by independent rock bands and labels, although record sales are considered to be a niche market composed of audiophiles, collectors, and DJs. Old records and out-of-print recordings in particular are in much demand by collectors the world over. (See Record collecting.) Many popular new albums are given releases on vinyl records and older albums are also given reissues, sometimes on audiophile-grade vinyl.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24471',
'title': 'Phonograph',
'section': 'Section::::Dominance of the disc record.:First all-transistor phonograph.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Records themselves became an art form because of the large surface onto which graphics and books could be printed, and records could be molded into unusual shapes, colors, or with images (picture discs). The turntable remained a common element of home audio systems well after the introduction of other media, such as audio tape and even the early years of the compact disc as a lower-priced music format. However, even though the cost of producing CDs fell below that of records, CDs remained a higher-priced music format than either cassettes or records. Thus, records were not uncommon in home audio systems into the early 1990s.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '172121',
'title': 'Phonograph record',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.:Vinyl quality.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 137,
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'passage_text': "Since most vinyl records contain up to 30% recycled vinyl, impurities can accumulate in the record and cause even a brand-new record to have audio artifacts such as clicks and pops. Virgin vinyl means that the album is not from recycled plastic, and will theoretically be devoid of these impurities. In practice, this depends on the manufacturer's quality control.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '172121',
'title': 'Phonograph record',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.:Vinyl quality.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 135,
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'passage_text': 'The sound quality and durability of vinyl records is highly dependent on the quality of the vinyl. During the early 1970s, as a cost-cutting move, much of the industry began reducing the thickness and quality of vinyl used in mass-market manufacturing. The technique was marketed by RCA Victor as the Dynaflex (125\xa0g) process, but was considered inferior by most record collectors. Most vinyl records are pressed from a mix of 70% virgin and 30% recycled vinyl.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8055239',
'title': 'Record restoration',
'section': 'Section::::Preservation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
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'passage_text': 'Each medium - including digital media - has benefits and drawbacks and over the long term, vinyl records may even have advantages over digital media. Due to the nature of the medium, playback of "hard" records, e.g.: LPs, causes gradual degradation of the recording. CDs, however, can also have degradation due to "CD rot" and other abnormalities. CDs\' shelf life has been disputed as to whether it is to be the equivalent of vinyl- which actually can last for years of playback. CDs also can have shortcomings such as skips and clicks. This is due to problems with the laser reading the discs. On the other hand, a vinyl record will play under most any circumstance because it is an analog medium. The recordings are best preserved by transferring them onto more stable media and playing the records as rarely as possible. They need to be stored on edge, and do best under environmental conditions that most humans would find comfortable. The medium needs to be kept clean — but alcohol should only be used on PVC or optical media, not on 78s. The equipment for playback of certain formats (e.g. 16 and 78\xa0rpm) is manufactured only in small quantities, leading to increased difficulty in finding equipment to play the recordings.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11007002',
'title': 'Oral history preservation',
'section': 'Section::::Medium.:Current way to save oral histories.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'Recordable compact discs are commonly used over magnetic tape for the preservation of oral histories over a long period of time. Compact Cassette tapes and Videotape were popular but have been almost completely replaced by optical media such as CD-R and DVD media. CD-R is a successful technology that has proven its reliability over period of time, but it should be viewed with caution for long term storage as the media is easily scratched. The safest way is to make a "gold master" CD that is not ever checked out for use from the library, and duplicate copies of this for use by people wishing to access it. The Folk Heritage Collections, at the Library of Congress, set a standard for 24 bits when digitizing music. This creates "superb" sound and has a high level of detail (Danielson, 2001). The Library of Congress uses CD-R as one of its storage methods. The Library of Congress has a higher budget than many university or archives, therefore they are able to store materials in multiple places. But, the Library of Congress has stated that they do believe storing sound on CD-R is a safe storage method (Danielson, 2001). One can assume if it is considered safe by the Library of Congress it is a relatively safe method of preservation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8975473',
'title': 'LP record',
'section': 'Section::::Fidelity and formats.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The composition of vinyl used to press records (a blend of polyvinyl chloride and polyvinyl acetate) has varied considerably over the years. Virgin vinyl is preferred, but during the 1970s energy crisis, it became commonplace to use recycled vinyl. Sound quality suffered, with increased ticks, pops, and other surface noises. Other experiments included reducing the thickness of LPs, leading to warping and increased susceptibility to damage. Using a biscuit of 130\xa0grams of vinyl had been the standard. Compare these to the original Columbia 12-inch LPs (ML 4001) at around 220\xa0grams each. Besides the standard black vinyl, specialty records are also pressed on different colors of PVC/A or picture discs with a card picture sandwiched between two clear sides. Records in different novelty shapes have also been produced.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why are records still made of vinyl? I know they're more of a collector's item nowadays, but haven't we invented any materials that are more durable or would otherwise be better for the job?",
'selftext': "My boyfriend is really into records and he's tired of me pestering him about this. I've heard that records used to be made of something called shellac and then it turned into vinyl around the 1930s. But that only caught on when they started using lighter needles that didn't damage the record. It's almost 90 years later now, haven't they made a material better suited for the job? Maybe something that's more durable so they don't scratch as easily, for example. Edit: I'm adding this because it seems to be coming up in the comments a lot: I am well aware that CDs and other digital media (mp3s, Spotify etc) exist. What I'm curious about it the reason why vinyl is being used for the big black records my hipster boyfriend likes.",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Vinyl is another name for PVC (Polyvinyl chloride). PVC is the world's third-most widely produced synthetic plastic polymer, after polyethylene and polypropylene.",
"Due to the biggest advantage of Vinyl being that it is an analogue recording of the sound, the biggest issue is any record material needs to be light enough so that the recording needle can actually scratch down all the fine nuances and details of an audio recording yet also be durable for multiple playback. I'm no expert but I would imagine that there are few materials that can fulfill both criteria, too heavy of a material (like an ultra durable composite polymer) would not be able to adequately be abraded to capture the fine details while something light like Shellac has obvious disadvantages. \n\nIf RnD persevered, I would imagine they would've refined the medium to some kind of composite polymer in the end but with the advent of CDs, it was not financially viable to keep refining analogue records so Vinyl kinda stuck.",
"\nAudio for records is recorded to a surface that is scratched, then a mold is made, then a metal cast is made, called a master, then that metal mold is used to press vinyl into the shape of the recording. \nVinyl is used because it is easier to get a good copy of the mold without sticking to the metal. \nIt's just cheaper and easier, and lasts long enough that most people don't notice the quality degrading. \nEdit: a couple of people have objected to me leaving out an electroplating step. I will say, my explanation is basically correct. I am not an expert, this is ELI5, one part of the casting step used is electroplating, the terms used vary widely. The part I called a master, is also called a couple of other things at the same step. Enjoy the ELI5 it is technically correct, the best kind of correct, and terms differ in use.\n",
"Also, you want a material that doesn't damage the needle, so something soft but stiff. Vinyl does that well. Shellac is actually brittle, and flakes off easily. The very first records were was, which has obvious problems. If you made aluminum records, the needle would flake and chip, and wear out quickly.",
"So people are talking about the quality of vinyl's sound, but I don't think that is the main factor at play really, as audiophiles are too busy spending money on daft cables to rebirth the vinyl industry.\n\nThe reality is that vinyl still exists because it faded from popularity, this meant it was cheaper for underground scenes like punk or techno to press records and sell their music because the pressing plants weren't being used by the major labels any more. So no one invested any money (or progressed the tech) because no one was making any real profit or seeing any real market interest outside of tiny niche scenes. Fast forward a few years and vinyl is now super cool again and getting money invested in it, i'm sure in the next few years there will be alternatives, especially as needle-less turntables get better. \n\n\nSimilar things happened/happening with cassettes but on a much smaller scale.",
'I can\'t quote any of it well enough, but look up "Adam Savage Third man records". Adam goes to Jack White\'s record printing shop, and they explain why vinyl is still used. Super interesting watch.\n\n & #x200B;\n\n[I\'m feeling generous](_URL_0_)',
"No, they haven't made any materials better suited.\n\nMainly because the market has mostly moved to digital storage, so there is not a high enough financial incentive to do the research and development it would take to find such a material much less the cost to rebuild the infrastructure to make records in the new materials. \n\nSecondly PVC is still one of the mostly widely used materials on earth that has gained more uses over the years rather than being replaced, so its not like the material is in trouble of raising in cost due to lower demand for mass manufacturing.\n\n",
'Even though there is a resurgence of interest, all the present recording equipment is designed for use with vinyl plastic. You have a material that has a specific melting point, and specific viscosity (runnyness) when hot to flow into the grooves on the master.\n\nA new material would require a new setup for stamping the disks. I doubt there is sufficient demand for this.',
'There really can\'t be because there\'s no real scientific criteria by which one can assign a set of objective "wants" or "goals" where vinyl is ideal in the first place. In other words, if you want to say "this would be better if..." then it\'s always been true that the way to address that "want" would be simply to not use vinyl at all.\n\nSide-stepping the obvious digital-analog debate, not only is vinyl not the ideal analog format for audio, but vinyl records aren\'t even the highest fidelity point in the analog CHAIN that leads/led to making a vinyl album. When a band used to record a song in the studio, (before the digital age) the sound WASN\'T laid down on a vinyl as they sang, it was laid down on analog TAPES, like these:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nIt was from these tapes that editing and such was done and tracks overlapped and then a final master tape made and then, finally, was it mass produced onto vinyl. So a vinyl recording can never be better than the quality of these tapes to begin with. Because THEY are the "original" sound "as it was intended". And of course, the reason for such tapes is that, as analog formats go, their fidelity is much HIGHER than vinyl. They more faithfully capture the sound (that and one can do multi-tracking). And in that case there is a down-grade when pressing to vinyl and of course an uncompressed digital format could produce higher quality reproductions of the contents of these original tapes than vinyl can.\n\nBut people want vinyl BECAUSE it\'s a kinda nonsensical status item. From an engineering perspective there\'s no rationale. Like I said, if people wanted as exactly close to the original recording as possible, they\'d ask for direct copies of the studio tapes. Sure, they\'re deeply impractical for consumer use, but in the modern day so is vinyl, so it\'s a meaningless point. But people don\'t want that.\n\nSo could we make a vinyl with a different resin or what have you that would scratch less? Sure. But to what end, assuming vinyl lovers would even accept them as "authentic"? What is one trying to accomplish? If one tries to get specific then the answer is going to be "oh, yeah, sure, we can fix that, just use this \\* non-vinyl \\* format".\n\nEDIT: Another way of putting it is, despite the rhetoric that vinyl-lovers say, what they are really looking to purchase is a historical replica. Is a historical replica "improved" by using a new modern-age resin? (I mean, new vinyls are undoubtedly made using non-historically authentic polymers, but crucially vinyl-lovers don\'t really know that or, because they haven\'t really internalized their like for the product in that way, haven\'t really thought about it in that way for it to diminish their enjoyment of the product).\n',
'CDs are the "new vinyl" and there likely won\'t be any physical technology that will top that one, because most music is going digital now. People like the "velvet sound" of records (caused by the physicality of the grooves), but it\'s not a part of the original sound that was produced, so it\'s definitely more of a hipster thing in that regard.\n\nWhere vinyl can be better than digital formats (including CDs) is with the "Loudness Wars" (Wikipedia that...very interesting research for audiophiles). Records can\'t be "maxed out" on volume like CDs and online formats can, so they tend to maintain the sound profile that was originally mixed for a piece of music. ',
'I haven\'t seen a good response that actually talks about the properties of vinyl, so I\'ll give it a shot...\n\nThe reason vinyl is still used is because it is really perfectly suited to this task. It\'s cheap, readily available, very consistent, easy to mold, and most importantly - it\'s very quiet as a medium. We have stronger plastics, sure. But getting that clean impression from the stamper is important and vital for getting a record that sounds good. Old shellac records were noisy - lots of hiss, the surface was as good as it could have been for the time - but it\'s still not great. Not to mention, heavy, brittle... shellac was a lousy material for records.\n\nEnter vinyl - it\'s soft, flexible, and durable. Vinyl, as a material, is incredibly stable. It does not break down, and it\'s immune to most chemicals. I remember a forum post years ago where a guy tested various cleaning products on a Milli Vanilli album, in an attempt to see what could dissolve it. He eventually did find something - but he did find just how hard it is to chemically damage vinyl. This is also why records pressed in the 60\'s still sound perfect (assuming well cared for) - the plastic is long term stable.\n\nVinyl is very durable. Despite the fact that it can be easily scratched, it stands up to the weight of the stylus well, and an album can be played thousands of times on properly set up equipment without degrading. It\'s also very flexible - you can hold a vinyl record and "wobble" it back and forth and it won\'t damage it. Sure, you can break a vinyl record, but it\'s kind of hard to do this accidentally. It survives shipping well.\n\nThe surface of a vinyl record is very quiet, because the material is so smooth and soft. Making a record out of something like polycarbonate - the stuff they make CD\'s out of - would function, but the hard, brittle plastic would likely be very noisy, and it would probably be susceptible to the grooves chipping and breaking. Despite the fact that the stylus tracks at only about 2 grams, it\'s very tiny, and a diamond. The pressure at the tip is actually pretty high.\n\nShellac and vinyl are NOT the only materials that were used for records. Polystyrene was also widely used. This is what they made most 45 RPM records out of, back in the 60\'s and 70\'s. Hold one up to the light - if you can see reddish through it, it\'s polystyrene, not vinyl. This is a hard, brittle plastic somewhat like polycarbonate. These records perform poorly, and wear out quickly. The surface is noisier than vinyl, and the grooves don\'t hold up to the stylus like vinyl does. This material was used for 45\'s not because it was cheaper - but because polystyrene can be liquefied and injection molded. This meant that the stampers didn\'t wear out as fast, so they could crank out more records with less overall costs. They wore out quickly, but - 45 RPM singles were viewed as disposable, and sold cheaply. The wear problem was known at the time, and sometimes they would make vinyl runs of the same single for jukebox and DJ use.',
'Would anyone be able to download a 3d model of a vinyl and 3d print it? Or are the grooves too fine for a 3d printer to replicate?',
'When I was around 8 years old I had a toy record player that came with mini records (a little smaller than a 45rpm). They were made out of hard plastic, thicker than a nickel. They were hard, you could use them as a frisbee. They played songs like "twinkle twinkle little star". That\'s the only one I really remember atm.\n\nu/rhodesc answered your question (cause vinyl is cheaper), but I thought I would add this memory since you brought it up for me, and as an example of how they can be made out of other materials.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nNow I\'m sure these little plastic records worked a bit differently. They were designed to work like a music box. If you\'ve ever taken one of those apart, you\'ll find a metal cylinder with raised dots on it, like braille, and they play a song. But all of these things work on a similar theory of using bumps in the material to decode the melody.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nThe album we sent into space (1977) was made of Gold plated copper so it could withstand some extreme elements.',
"This is just an opinion on my part but I think it makes sense...\n\nThe biggest reason that vinyl records still exist is because of nostalgia and audio purists think the sound of vinyl is the best. If you change the material, you'd be taking away the core reason why vinyl records are still made to begin with. If you take that away, you take away the market and there's no need for records anymore anyway.",
"They've made records out of all sorts of stuff. Coated aluminum, wax, shellac, etc. Most dried out and became brittle quickly. Vinyl is more sturdy, easier to pour and recycle, and more space efficient. I'm sure you could formulate something else now but it would be some other derivative plastic and wouldn't really fill a need.",
'You can and many plastics are much harder and would do much better absolutely. But to keep the mass production costs as low as possible, and the molding process as simple as possible while making the record as durable as it needs to be is a fine balance. While new records are being pressed the machines used to press them are many decades old and switching materials would require a different and certainly more complex chain of machinery. And lets not get started on stylus wear',
'So, fun fact: CDs are a lot more similar to vinyl than you’d realize - there is a waveform burnt into the physical media of the disk in a series of bumps and grooves (1s and 0s) which are then read by a laser in the same manner that the needle on a record player reads the waveform on a vinyl. \n\n\nThe digital/analog differentiation can be made by seeing what happens when a signal is pushed past 0; digital signals clip and data is lost - analog signals distort and take on new characteristics.',
'Vinyl is a generic term. There are many many formulations. Red "vinyl" from Japan (Toshiba) is considered superior to black "vinyl" of any kind from anywhere. I have a couple. There is a semi opaque brown vinyl from Japan that is supposed to be even better. I\'ve never seen one. \n\nvi·nyl\n\n/ˈvīnl/ noun\n\n1. synthetic resin or plastic consisting of polyvinyl chloride or a related polymer, used especially for wallpapers and other covering materials and for phonograph records.\n\n"light-reflecting vinyls can be hung in the usual way"\n\n2. CHEMISTRY\n\nof or denoting the unsaturated hydrocarbon radical —CH=CH2, derived from ethylene by removal of a hydrogen atom.\n',
'Probably get buried, however vinyl is really good for music because of fundamental limitations. \nMusic cannot be pushed too loud, inconsistent bass is difficult and seldom cut in stereo, digital top end is somewhat softer.\nIn my opinion the flaws and limitations of the material directly contribute to the positives of the medium. ',
"I am going to come off as a bit pretentious, so fair warning.\n\nThat being said, here we go.\n\n1. They did invent a more durable material. Plastic. The CD and DVD were far denser and could fit higher quality audio. A vinyl does not have the same quality audio as a digital file. That is impossible given that a needle record player is an analog player and a CD player is digital with a laser. Vinyl was replaced by a cheaper, volume alternative.\n2. Vinyl is experiencing a resurgence, however, because of what I am about explain below:\n 1. That being said, people like Vinyl because of the AESTHETIC of the needle brushing on the imperfect nooks and crannies of ever valley in the record. Because of Vinyl's imperfect method of being made, no two records will sound 100% alike and this gives a uniqueness that CDs or DVDs can't come close to. 100 CDs will all sound the same. 100 Records will have unique imperfections in sound that make it your record. You notice certain parts of the track because of the way the needle rubs your vinyl.\n\nVinyl was never improved because CDs were so cheap to make, the music industry moved on to higher profits. And as I said above, Vinyl's imperfections give a distinctly different sound that audiophiles love for its uniqueness and special properties (scratching noise).",
'Seems like you think vinyl isn’t a good material because it’s “old”\n\nBut it is a good material and the appropriate one for this purpose \n\nIn fact vinyl products of all kinds get shit on a lot when people are comparing different kinds, but it’s a pretty awesome material depending on how it’s treated/what grade it is ',
'We still make houses out of wood and brick. And knives out of steel. Tires have been rubber since they’ve existed. And we still drink out of glass. \n\nIt’s hard to improve on some materials. ',
"Why is vinyl used?\n\nease of pressing, comparative durability, single materials used, cost effectiveness, shelf life and the fact it doesn't harbor mold. \n\nA wax cylinders often became unreadable due to mold.\n\nShellac records broke and required fillers.\n\nHas more durable materials been invented? yes.\n\nWhy haven't they been applied.\n\n1) Cost - they're more expensive. You can use assorted resins to make records but they're quite expensive and would require a lot more steps and you would require a vacuum chamber. There is a video on the most expensive way to steal music where a youtuber makes a crude casting of a record using modern resins and a silicon mold.\n\n2) difficulty of production - production of a record is stamping a puck of soft vinyl on a master which is simple, cheap and fast whereas say a polyester resin casting would require multiple molds, degassing chambers, curing racks to product a single record and time for curing in mold.\n\n3) this is a revived technology. It has been revived skipping over it's digital replacement, which was more durable, in part due to a desire to interact with a physical medium instead of a blinking screen. People want it so companies make it.\n\n\n",
" > haven't we invented any materials that are more durable or would otherwise be better for the job?\n\nInasmuch as this could be asked about anything, from rubber gloves to dentures, the answer is nope, not yet. Once we find a cost-effective material/process that makes some kind of remarkable improvement -- even though it's not clear what that would mean since the concept of vinyl records isn't even broken -- you can rest assured that you'll notice the substitution taking place rather quickly.",
"Because vinyl is good and vinyl is cheap:\n\n & #x200B;\n\nIn the old-old days record were made of shellac and paper. This worked ok, but it took a lot of work and it was not cheap. Record makers had to pay many workers and buy a lot of shellac. As time went buy new things got invented and one of them was vinyl. Vinyl records need less work to make then shellac and are tougher. Also vinyl is a lot cheaper then shellac. The people who made records wanted to make more money, so they had the record factory try to find a cheaper material. The record factory found vinyl and it worked great. Like really great. At the same time vinyl was a new invention and everyone loved it, so records got a new name: vinyl.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nSince then, new things have been invented that might work better then vinyl. But vinyl is made of salt, dirt, ash, metal, and oil. All of those ingredients make vinyl cheap. The new materials all are mostly made of oil, so they are much more expensive then vinyl and the record makers don't want to use them. The newer materials are not easy or cheap to press into records. Finally the people who love records like listening to a song recorded on vinyl. They are experiencing the history of vinyl; what it was when its name was new. So that's another reason we still make records of vinyl.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nAlso vinyl is cheap, like dirt cheap, cheaper then some of the more expensive dirt.",
'Can we get one answer that does not talk about why vinyl is good?\n\nCan someone speak about a a better material without comparing it to vinyl?\n\nWe know vinyl is good, but what is better?'],
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'query': "why are records still made of vinyl? i know they're more of a collector's item nowadays, but haven't we invented any materials that are more durable or would otherwise be better for the job?",
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'passage_text': 'In 2002, Nestlé insisted on a smaller container to increase profits and so the standard US half gallon (2 quarts) container (1.89 L) was downsized to 1.75 quarts (1.65 L) container. In May 2008, the 1.75 quart container was further downsized to 1.5 quarts (1.42 L). Most other ice cream manufacturers, with the notable exception of Blue Bell, followed the downsizing move.\n',
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'passage_text': 'One litre of liquid water has a mass of almost exactly one kilogram, because the kilogram was originally defined in 1795 as the mass of one cubic decimetre of water at the temperature of melting ice (0°C). Subsequent redefinitions of the metre and kilogram mean that this relationship is no longer exact.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Required daily and weekly stored energy: The cost of the storage tanks is a significant factor in the total cost of a pumpable ice system. Typically, storage tanks are designed with a stored energy value 10–20% higher than that required for production. Furthermore, it has to be remembered that 100% ice concentration in the tank is impossible.\n',
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'title': 'Nonresidential water use in the U.S.',
'section': 'Section::::Water use in major CII categories.:Supermarkets/food sales.\n',
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'passage_text': "Water used in food stores and supermarkets represents about 1 percent or less of total CII use. Supermarkets use considerable quantities of water to cool the condensers units for the refrigeration systems, such as display coolers and freezers, storage coolers and freezers, butcher shops, delis, and bakeries. In addition, water is used in the cleaning and preparation of the fresh produce, meats, and fish before the products are put onto the shelves. Data on the intensity of water use include the estimate of 113 g/ksf/d in Santa Fe and a range from 161 to 295 g/ksf/d in other Southwestern U.S. locations. EPA's Portfolio Manager reported median use of 66 g/ksf/d. Other metrics include estimated 2.6 to 4.5 gallons per transaction. In the U.S., there are 177 thousand buildings involved in food sales. These include convenience stores, grocery stores and supermarkets with the total floor space of 1,252 million square feet. Given the total floor space and assuming average use intensity (WUI) of 65 g/ksf/d, as representing average use in the U.S., the total use in food sales would be 81 mgd or 0.7 percent of CII use.\n",
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'passage_text': 'An ice tank is a ship model basin whose purpose is to provide a physical modeling environment for the interaction of ship, structures, or sea floor with both ice and water. Ice tanks may take the form of either a towing tank or maneuvering basin.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A litre of liquid water has a mass almost exactly equal to one kilogram. An early definition of the kilogram was set as the mass of one litre of water. Because volume changes with temperature and pressure, and pressure uses units of mass, the definition of a kilogram was changed. At standard pressure, one litre of water has a mass of 0.999975\xa0kg at , and 0.997\xa0kg at .\n',
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'passage_text': 'While the M-26-M remained a water ballasted design, it also incorporates 300 pounds of fixed ballast which improves stability when the water ballast tanks are empty. At 2550 pounds empty (1160\xa0kg), it can be towed by most light trucks, SUVs, and minivans equipped with towing packages. The MSRP for the base model M-26-M, with aluminum trailer (new for 2007, replacing the previous steel trailers), was US$22,500.\n',
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'title': 'Would a gallon of water weigh the sams as a gallon of ice?',
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'answers': ['No because a gallon is a measure of volume and weight in a constant gravitational field is related to mass not volume (force of gravity, or weight = mass*gravitational acceleration). \n\nImagine if you melted that gallon of ice so it decreased in volume. You would have less than a gallon of water. A gallon of water does not weigh the same as less than a gallon of water. ',
'Water in its liquid state occupies less space than in its solid state. This is why if you freeze a water bottle it can burst. \n\nIf you have a gallon container filled with ice, and let it melt, it will no longer fill the container. The same volume of ice will always weigh less because it is less dense. \n\nThe why of this is that water molecules are bent, so they form structures that brace against each other.\n\nThe answer to this question also explains why ice floats.',
'no. when water turns into ice it expands. a gallon is a measure of space, not weight. so that little bit of expansion would have to be shaved off of the ice to make it take up the same amount of space as the water, making it a little lighter.',
'Your subject and the text in the post ask two difference questions,\n\n\n > Would a gallon of water weigh the sams as a gallon of ice?\n\n > I mean if you take a gallon of water and weigh it, then take that same gallon of water and freeze it.\n\nThe subject is a gallon of water and a gallon of ice, That is not the same as if you freeze a gallon of water because water expand when it freezes. So when you freeze a gallon of water the ice volume is larger then a gallon.\n\nA gallon of ice and a gallon of water does not weigh the same because ice float. If the weight per volume ie density was the same ice would not float but could be suspended in the water at any depth.\n\n ',
"It depends on precisely what you mean.\n\nIf you took one gallon of water and froze it, then it would weigh the same.\n\nHowever, if you took one gallon of water and compared it to one gallon of ice, then it gets more complicated, and ultimately depends on the temperature of each; it's quite possible that the gallon of water may weigh more than the gallon of ice.\n\nThe reason for this is because the density of substances changes with temperature, and water has a kind of strange set of changes as it actually expands when it freezes."],
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'passage_text': 'The idea of a time crystal was first described by Nobel laureate Frank Wilczek in 2012. Later work developed a more precise definition for time crystals. It was proven that they cannot exist in equilibrium. Then, in 2014 Krzysztof Sacha predicted the behaviour of discrete time crystals in a periodically-driven many-body system. and in 2016, Norman Yao et al. proposed a different way to create time crystals in spin systems. From there, Christopher Monroe and Mikhail Lukin independently confirmed this in their labs. Both experiments were published in "Nature" in 2017.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A time crystal or space-time crystal is a structure that repeats in time, as well as in space. Normal three-dimensional crystals have a repeating pattern in space, but remain unchanged as time passes. Time crystals repeat themselves in time as well, leading the crystal to change from moment to moment. A time crystal never reaches thermal equilibrium, as it is a type of non-equilibrium matter, a form of matter proposed in 2012, and first observed in 2017. This state of matter cannot be isolated from its environment—it is an open system in non-equilibrium.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Time crystals do not violate the laws of thermodynamics: energy in the overall system is conserved, such a crystal does not spontaneously convert thermal energy into mechanical work, and it cannot serve as a perpetual store of work. But it may change perpetually in a fixed pattern in time for as long as the system can be maintained. They possess "motion without energy"—their apparent motion does not represent conventional kinetic energy.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Existence of time crystals (2012–2016): In 2016, the idea of time-crystals was proposed by two groups independently Khemani et al. and Else et al. Both of these groups showed that in small systems which are disordered and periodic in time, one can observe the phenomenon of time crystals. Norman Yao et al. extended the calculations for a model (which has the same qualitative features) in the laboratory environment. This was then used by two teams, a group led by Christopher Monroe at the University of Maryland and a group led by Mikhail Lukin at Harvard University, who were both able to show evidence for time crystals in the lab-setting, showing that for short times the systems exhibited the dynamics similar to the predicted one.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In response to Wilczek and Zhang, Patrick Bruno, a theorist at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility in Grenoble, France, published several articles in 2013 claiming to show that space-time crystals were impossible. Also later Masaki Oshikawa from the University of Tokyo showed that time crystals would be impossible at their ground state; moreover, he implied that any matter cannot exist in non-equilibrium in its ground state.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Several realizations of time crystals, which avoid the equilibrium no-go arguments, were later proposed. Krzysztof Sacha at Jagiellonian University in Krakow predicted the behaviour of discrete time crystals in a periodically driven system of ultracold atoms. Later works suggested that periodically driven quantum spin systems could show similar behaviour.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '43174898',
'title': 'Matter wave clock',
'section': 'Section::::Matter waves as clocks.:Applications.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In his paper, "Quantum mechanics, matter waves and moving clocks", Müller has suggested that "The description of matter waves as matter-wave clocks ... has recently been applied to tests of general relativity, matter-wave experiments, the foundations of quantum mechanics, quantum space-time decoherence, the matter wave clock/mass standard, and led to a discussion on the role of the proper time in quantum mechanics. It is generally covariant and thus well-suited for use in curved space-time, e.g., gravitational waves."\n',
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'title': 'The newly discovered state of matter, "Time Crystals." What are it\'s properties, and what does it mean for scientific advancements?',
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'answers': ["I'm far from an expert on this, but this is what I understood when I read about them.\n\nA regular crystal is a physical structure that does not change through time. A time crystal is a structure that does change through time, but does so predictably, on a cycle. If you have one that is on a 3 second loop, then at every time the cycle hits 1 second the crystal looks exactly the same as every other time it hits one second. The same for 2 seconds and 3 seconds.",
'I’m not specifically in this field but I am in a related field. A “time crystal” is a physical state where an object loses “time translation symmetry”. That means that a the object no longer randomly moves about, but can be used as a clock, ie it has a periodic motion. \n\nNow one might ask, “How come a regular old clock is not a time crystal?”\n\nThat is a very delicate issue which is still being sorted out. The problem is historical. The first time the word “time crystal” was used it was discussed in terms of thermal equilibrium. That means that this state could arise without external energy being put in. This nicely separates clocks from time crystals. However, it was later shown that time crystals cannot exist in equilibrium.\n\nWhat does work is if you input energy, ie time crystals can exist as a nonequilibrium state. So the line between clock and time crystals is a little blurry. ',
'While I don’t have expert level depth, from the top level this is what I can provide:\n\nCrystals are physical structures that have patterns repeating over space, i.e. diamond is a set, repeating, structure of carbon atoms. \n\nTime Crystals have patterns that repeat over time, on a loop. This means that instead of having the same pattern at two points in space, it will have the same pattern at two moments in time. This means for a time crystal, at the start of its loop it will always have the same structure, and two seconds after the start of one loop it will have an identical structure to two seconds after the start of any other loop by that same crystal.\n\nAs far as what it means for science, I honestly have no idea and hope someone can respond to this to shed more light on that.',
'Ever seen Conway’s Game of Life? It’s a computer simulation with a grid of squares that can be “on” or “off” and then the on/off state of squares mutates according to a set of rules based on the current state of a cell and its neighbors. It produces some very interesting patterns. I found a browser-based version [here](_URL_0_).\n\nThe interesting parts for purposes of this ELI5 is that some clusters of cells are completely stable. The rules don’t require them to change at all, so you just have a little blob of pixels sitting there, permanently unchanging (unless another, more variable blob ends up changing an adjacent cell). That’s like a regular crystal.\n\nThen there are other blob arrangements such that the rules make them cycle through a set of states. A becomes B, B becomes C, and then C becomes A again, so (again, unless interrupted from outside) the pattern will cycle through these three (or more or less) states forever. That’s like a time crystal. It’s still stable, but you have to consider its stability over time, not as a fixed arrangement from one moment to the next.',
'Does this count as "newly discovered" still? ',
'A crystal is a repeating structure through 3 dimensions. A time crystal repeats that structure through 4 dimensions. So think of how you can paint a wave, but an actual wave (think in a stadium, THE WAVE) repeats through time',
'Could one entangle a time crystal system with an atom or molecule with quantum mechanics? If so, what would happen to the entangled object?',
'Where the hell are time crystals? We got some shape-shifting diamonds floating around in space? How long before I can buy one off Amazon prime? Which soundcloud rapper will be the first to have a chain made with time crystals? ',
'Would this be a 4 dimensional object, the crystal is stable over set units of time just like regular crystals are stable over units of space? ',
"Now I just need somebody to explain what this does for us. What's the use? ",
'Usually the structure of a crystal cant be the same its always unique and the only way to change it is to destroy part of the structure, but time crystals change forth and back without destroying its structure therefore being several unique crystals that dont define themself as new ones',
'I don’t work in condensed matter physics, but I am a graduate student, so here is an attempt to explain.\n\nA crystal as such means it has a periodic nature.\nIn a “normal” crystal we see that atoms repeat themselves after a fixed distance.\nIn a time crystal one would expect the spacing to repeat itself in time as well. This I believe has been said.\n\nNow the thing is, you could take a “normal” crystal and drive it periodically, meaning move it back and forth (with say a spring) that does not make it a time crystal.\n\nA time crystal is not driven, it is an unstable state, meaning it does not settle into an equilibrium state.\n\nHope this helps.',
'Follow up question. Do we know how long loops can be with time crystals?',
'Ok so it\'s not a crystal if you look at it now, or 5 minutes from now, or 20 minutes from now, but when you look at all of those times together, you see there is a crystalline structure.\n\nImagine a gas that moved in a repeating pattern. At any given moment it just looks like gas, but over time you realize there\'s an actual structure it\'s moving in, in recognizable shapes, that repeat in a uniform pattern over time.\n\nEdit for all those wanting to make sure this is accurate, here\'s a direct quote from the wiki to confirm:\n\n"A time crystal or space-time crystal is a structure that repeats in time, as well as in space. Normal three-dimensional crystals have a repeating pattern in space, but remain unchanged as time passes. Time crystals repeat themselves in time as well, leading the crystal to change from moment to moment."\n\nDouble edit: Holy crap I got a gold! So thanks. Such wow.',
'Coming from my friend who worked on the project at UMUC under the professor who conducted the experiments:\n\n"It is a neat little thing. Effectivly it\'s just a weird quantum system. Normal ones are easy and simple enough, they follow a pattern, you do something to them and they change their pattern. Eventually they will return to the original pattern, and you can alter them again. It\'s how we are able to run our experiments. But he [the professor] somehow managed to disassociate the time element of the system. I won\'t even pretend I understand the math behind it, it is WAY veyond me. But the thing [time crystal] is still effectivly just a cool trick. I AM interested to see what becomes of the math though."\n\nEdit: I said UMUC... but that might be incorrect. I should specify it was University of Maryland College Park',
'OKay, let\'s say you\'re looking at an empty hourglass. There\'s nothing weird about it, it is just sitting there doing nothing. You can recognize the shape of it, you can see that it is not moving, or alive, or anthing weird like that. \n\nNow, imagine that you have some kind of weird vision problem so that you can only see one thin horizontal slice of the hourglass at a time. So I show you the hourglass but you only see the slice right near the bottom. You don\'t see an hourglass shape, you just see this ring made out of glass. But still, nothing special, nothing magical. \n\nBut then, I start to slowly move the hourglass, and you start to see the slices that are higher up on the glass. Except again, you can\'t see the whole thing, you just see one thin slice. But to you, it now looks like that ring made out of glass is shrinking. It\'s getting smaller and smaller. And then, for no reason at all, it starts getting bigger again. You\'re freaked out, because you\'ve seen glass before, and you\'ve never seen it do something like that before. \n\nThese "time crystals" are basically like that. They look like they are moving or changing over time, and then changing back again. But we think what\'s really going on is that they just have this one static shape, but it exists in more dimensions than we can see. These crystals have a shape that stretches across the time dimension. And since we can only see one "thin slice" of time in any given moment, we only see one slice of this crystal at a time and those slices are not all the same. In fact, they repeat in a pattern.\n\nWhat is weird here is that everything you see is actually stretched out through time too: you, me, that pencil, this cup of coffee; and we are always only seeing one thin "time slice" of them in any given moment. The difference is that these other objects seem to either have the same structure through time, or they only change in one direction - the coffee gradually gets cold, it doesn\'t get cold for a little while and then start heating back up again. \n\nIn nature when we do see some kind of material that has a repeating pattern to its structure, we call that a crystal - like a sugar crystal or a diamond. Since this "time repeating" material has a repeating pattern to what it is made out of, and it is repeating across time, we are calling it a "time crystal."\n\nEDIT: Thanks for the gold, kind stranger!!! ',
'The time crystals. Change but on a loop. This new discovery will allow the avengers to combat Thanos.'],
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '24358244',
'title': 'Child bone fracture',
'section': 'Section::::Types of fractures.:Less common fractures.:Displaced fracture.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A fracture where the bone cracks completely in two or more pieces, and the pieces move out of alignment (this type of fracture might require surgery to make sure the pieces are aligned before casting).\n',
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'title': 'Conservation and restoration of ceramic objects',
'section': 'Section::::Deterioration of ceramics.:Physical degradation.:Manufacturing defects.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Also known as inherent vice, the intrinsic instability of the fabric and components of an objects can lead to its own physical degradation. This is difficult to prevent because it occurs within the fabric of the material and therefore is a natural occurrence. Deterioration of an object can happen even before the object is used. How the piece is created can instil manufacturing defects in the piece. This means that objects can be damaged even before they are used. This would include a body that contains inadequate qualities of (filler (materials)). A second typical defect is from poor design and construction. An example of this would be a ceramic piece with a handle that is too thin to support the weight of the cup. A third manufacturing defect includes careless firing. A ceramic piece that has been fired too rapidly or allowed to dry too fast will crack or break.\n',
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'title': 'Dayakattai',
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.\n',
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'passage_text': "Pieces can 'cut' other pieces by landing on the same spot that they are in. A 'cut' piece is sent home. However, while in one of the safe zones (marked by an X), a piece cannot be cut. After completing one lap, a piece starts to move up the outer edge of the right side of its owner's leg of the game board. It stays on the corners instead of the spaces. The piece then needs to move the exact number of spaces to get to the center of the board. While at the corner of the home, a piece can be cut by another piece getting to the corner of its home. Players win by getting all of their pieces to the center of the board. This game has 8 steps.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1722616',
'title': 'Physical object',
'section': 'Section::::In common usage.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The material in an object may change over time. For example, a rock may wear away or have pieces broken off it. The object will be regarded as the same object after the addition or removal of material, if the system may be more simply described with the continued existence of the object, than in any other way. The addition or removal of material may discontinuously change the boundary of the object. The continuation of the objects identity is then based on the description of the system by continued identify being simpler than without continued identity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '452582',
'title': 'Arimaa',
'section': 'Section::::Rules.:Movement.:Pushing and pulling.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Friendly pieces may not be dislodged. Also, a piece may not push and pull simultaneously. For example, the gold elephant on d3 could not simultaneously push the silver rabbit on d2 to e2 and pull the silver rabbit from c3 to d3. An elephant can never be dislodged, since there is nothing stronger.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Breaking (martial arts)',
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'passage_text': 'Breaking is a martial arts technique that is used in competition, demonstration and testing. Breaking is an action where a martial artist uses a striking surface to break one or more objects using the skills honed in their art form. The striking surface is usually a hand or a foot, but may also be a fingertip, toe, head, elbow, knuckle, or knee. The most common object is a piece of wood or brick, though it is also common to break cinder blocks, glass, or even a piece of metal such as steel bars. Glass is usually discouraged, since its shards may cause injury when broken.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Shogi',
'section': 'Section::::Rules.:Movement.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Normally when moving a piece, a player snaps it to the board with the ends of the fingers of the same hand. This makes a sudden sound effect, bringing the piece to the attention of the opponent. This is also true for capturing and dropping pieces. On a traditional "shogi-ban", the pitch of the snap is deeper, delivering a subtler effect.\n',
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'title': "Why an object such as a piece of china won't stick back together on it's own after breaking",
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'category': 'Chemistry',
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'answers': ["So explaining this in actual ELI5 terms might be a little hard, so to keep things simple we'll just talk about failure of brittle materials which is what you're talking about in your example with a ceramic like a piece of china. My materials professor used to say that if you don't know the answer for why a physical phenomena happens, just say lower energy, and you've got a 50% chance of being right.\n\nIt's important to understand that atoms like to arrange themselves into stable, low energy configurations. You could think of it as them wanting to fall into the easiest arrangement for them. Now through imparting energy using heat and pressure, we can force atoms arrange themselves in ways that require more effort than they would normally put in on their own. Once they are set, they tend to be very stable and seemingly content staying there. However, they are always waiting for an opportunity get back down to a lower energy configuration. When you break a piece of china, you are imparting enough energy to disrupt the bonds in the material at a specific location. This is where the crack occurs. You've basically released the atoms in that area from the configuration they were stuck in, and they settle into a lower energy configuration, namely not being attached to their partner on the other side of the crack. Now they are in a happier, lazier arrangement. So when you try to put them back together, they have no incentive to rebond with their neighbors. Hence why you can slap two pieces of china together and nothing happens. Both halves are happier the way they are now.",
'Most of the substances that break or shatter like you describe have a fairly ordered structure. Think of a metal chain. A chain can be really strong, but if one link breaks, it will fall apart into two pieces. \n\nThe links between molecules (mulecular bonds) are essentially like little links on a chain. They usually need to be formed when the material is liquid and maliable. As the material is hardened, the bonds between atoms/molecules form. \n\nWhen the links break, they need to be reformed to make it stick together. This usually requires energy of some sort. Additionally for things like metal, when a piece is broken, the exposed material gets a thin layer of oxidation that makes a sort of coating that prevents the bonds from reforming. Interestingly, in a vacuum, it is possible to weld perfectly clean sheets of metal together by just touching them. [Here is a video explaining that](_URL_0_). '],
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'query': "why an object such as a piece of china won't stick back together on it's own after breaking",
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2530844',
'title': 'Abscission',
'section': 'Section::::In plants.:Mechanisms.:Lack of chlorophyll as a trigger.\n',
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'passage_text': 'why some leaves turn yellow. However, the yellow color can attract aphids, so some trees turn the leaves red instead by injecting a bright pigment. The loss of chlorophyll may also contribute to the abscission process.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '6021465',
'title': 'Biological pigment',
'section': 'Section::::Pigments in plants.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A particularly noticeable manifestation of pigmentation in plants is seen with autumn leaf color, a phenomenon that affects the normally green leaves of many deciduous trees and shrubs whereby they take on, during a few weeks in the autumn season, various shades of red, yellow, purple, and brown.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'passage_text': 'The leaves of the "Sedum rubrotinctum" plant change colour from green to red during the summer months as a protective adaptation They sprout bright yellow flowers from between the leaves in mid-spring.\n',
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'title': 'Chromoplast',
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'passage_text': 'When leaves change color in the autumn, it is due to the loss of green chlorophyll, which unmasks preexisting carotenoids. In this case, relatively little new carotenoid is produced—the change in plastid pigments associated with leaf senescence is somewhat different from the active conversion to chromoplasts observed in fruit and flowers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56941462',
'title': 'Liquidambar acalycina',
'section': 'Section::::Characteristics.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The leaves start as a burgundy color when they first emerge in the spring but as they grow and mature into summer, they turn into a deep green which indicates their increasing ability to photosynthesize. When nearing fall the colors turn back into a red to purple color.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18942056',
'title': 'Oxalis hedysaroides',
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'passage_text': 'The plant gets its common name from the fact that its leaves, while starting green, turn a deep purple red with exposure to sun. "Oxalis hedysaroides" is a very mobile plant and will rotate its foliage significantly to follow the sun. At dusk, the plant can seem to quiver slightly as the red leaves partially close by folding in half.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '75473',
'title': 'Ricinus',
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'passage_text': 'The glossy leaves are long, long-stalked, alternate and palmate with five to twelve deep lobes with coarsely toothed segments. In some varieties they start off dark reddish purple or bronze when young, gradually changing to a dark green, sometimes with a reddish tinge, as they mature. The leaves of some other varieties are green practically from the start, whereas in yet others a pigment masks the green color of all the chlorophyll-bearing parts, leaves, stems and young fruit, so that they remain a dramatic purple-to-reddish-brown throughout the life of the plant. Plants with the dark leaves can be found growing next to those with green leaves, so there is most likely only a single gene controlling the production of the pigment in some varieties. The stems and the spherical, spiny seed capsules also vary in pigmentation. The fruit capsules of some varieties are more showy than the flowers.\n',
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'title': 'Why do leaves turn yellow (And other colors )?',
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'answers': ["short answer, time of year changes amount of sun. Leaves are full of colors, we usually see green cause theres a bunch of chlorophyll being activated by sun. When theres less sun the plant cuts off supply of sugars to the leaf. Chlorophyll leaves, the other colors show. Theres also other factors that make the colors red or yellow but that's the gist",
"Maintaining green leaves costs resources. In the summer, it's worth it, because those leaves provide energy via photosynthesis. In the autumn and winter, it's no longer worth it to maintain them, so they stop water and nutrients getting to the leaves, and the leaves die.",
"Usually called chlorosis or anthocyanescence (when going red or purple). It's a stress reaction usually, but some plants are just yellow or red. Plants use this reaction to all sorts of problems."],
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '25259540',
'title': 'Freezing behavior',
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'passage_text': 'Freezing behavior or the freeze response is a reaction to specific stimuli, most commonly observed in prey animals. When a prey animal has been caught and completely overcome by the predator, it may respond by "freezing up" of in other words by staying complety still. Studies typically assess a conditioned freezing behavior response to stimuli that typically or innately do not cause fear, such as a tone or shock. Freezing behavior is most easily characterized by changes in blood pressure and lengths of time in crouching position, but it also is known to cause changes such as shortness of breath, increased heart rate, sweating, or choking sensation. However, since it is difficult to measure these sympathetic responses to fear stimuli, studies are typically confined to simple crouching times. A response to stimuli typically is said to be a "fight or flight", but is more completely described as "fight, flight, or freeze." In addition, freezing is observed to occur before or after a fight or flight response.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8595464',
'title': 'Cat behavior',
'section': 'Section::::Reflexes.:Freeze reflex.\n',
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'passage_text': "Adult cats are able to make use of pinch-induced behavioural inhibition to induce a 'freeze reflex' in their young which enables them to be transported by the neck without resisting. This reflex can also be exhibited by adults. This is also known as 'clipnosis'.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1859140',
'title': 'Fainting goat',
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'passage_text': 'The myotonic goat, otherwise known as the fainting goat, is a domestic goat that temporarily seizes when it feels panic. If startled by sudden movements or loud noises, they will attempt to escape from the disturbance, generally followed by a startle reaction. In more severe cases, this reaction results in strong tetanic contractions of the agonist and antagonist muscles, causing an uncontrolled stiffness that may cause the goat to remain “frozen” in the position that it was in previous to the attack, or cause it to fall to the ground on its side. During an attack, which may last from 5-20 seconds, the goat can often be picked up without any bending or movement occurring in its body. In the case of goats that are less severely affected with the condition, there may be some minor localized stiffness observed in the legs, however, they are still capable of running away. This behaviour is caused by a hereditary genetic disorder called myotonia congenita. The myotonic goat, similar to humans with congenital myotonia, exhibits no obvious muscle wasting, is rarely incapacitated by the condition, and lives a normal and healthy life span.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '155176',
'title': 'Shrew',
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'passage_text': 'They do not hibernate, but are capable of entering torpor. In winter, many species undergo morphological changes that drastically reduce their body weight. Shrews can lose between 30% and 50% of their body weight, shrinking the size of bones, skull, and internal organs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12938',
'title': 'Greyhound',
'section': 'Section::::Health and physiology.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Greyhounds do not have undercoats and thus are less likely to trigger dog allergies in humans (they are sometimes incorrectly referred to as "hypoallergenic"). The lack of an undercoat, coupled with a general lack of body fat, also makes Greyhounds more susceptible to extreme temperatures (both hot and cold); because of this, they must be housed inside. Some greyhounds are susceptible to corns on their paw pads, a variety of methods are used to treat them.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '470843',
'title': 'Fight-or-flight response',
'section': 'Section::::Other animals.:Varieties of responses.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Animals respond to threats in many complex ways. Rats, for instance, try to escape when threatened, but will fight when cornered. Some animals stand perfectly still so that predators will not see them. Many animals freeze or play dead when touched in the hope that the predator will lose interest.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Greyhound adoption',
'section': 'Section::::Care.:Behavior of adopted greyhounds.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Greyhounds have very thin skin and very short fur. They can be easily harmed by biting or scratching from other dogs or accidentally running into sharp objects. Combined with their low body fat, coats or sweaters are required when outside in cold weather. Some owners also put boots on their Greyhounds in very cold temperatures.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do goats totally freeze and lock up their bodies in times of stress or fear?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Not all goats do this, just myotonic goats. It's a neurological disorder. It can be fatal. This happens in other species as well. ",
"It's only a certain type of goat that does that. They're generally bred that way then included in herds so that if a predator comes, that one collapses and distracts it while the others can get away.",
'There is a breed of goat that does this, no one knows 100% why but the running theory is that they have deficiency in an ion channel. This prevents the "go" signal in neurones connected to muscles from reducing during times of stress. so when the animals are frightened they have constant active muscle neurones and so their muscles all contract at the same time and they seize and fall over.\n\nThere are other theories about their muscles not clearing calcium properly however I think there was some group studies showing a link to ion channels in the nerve cells.\n\nEdit: spelling (some dayum hot clearing;)'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '64wi82',
'query': 'why do goats totally freeze and lock up their bodies in times of stress or fear?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1108210',
'title': 'Antlion',
'section': 'Section::::Ecology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': 'Since the sides of the pit consist of loose sand at its angle of repose, they afford an insecure foothold to any small insects that inadvertently venture over the edge, such as ants. Slipping to the bottom, the prey is immediately seized by the lurking antlion; if it attempts to scramble up the treacherous walls of the pit, it is speedily checked in its efforts and brought down by showers of loose sand which are thrown at it from below by the larva. By throwing up loose sand from the bottom of the pit, the larva also undermines the sides of the pit, causing them to collapse and bring the prey with them. Thus, it does not matter whether the larva actually strikes the prey with the sand showers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '518397',
'title': 'Angle of repose',
'section': 'Section::::Exploitation by antlion and wormlion (Vermileonidae) larvae.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
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'passage_text': 'The larvae of the antlions and the unrelated wormlions Vermileonidae trap small insects such as ants by digging conical pits in loose sand, such that the slope of the walls is effectively at the critical angle of repose for the sand. They achieve this by flinging the loose sand out of the pit and permitting the sand to settle at its critical angle of repose as it falls back. Thus, when a small insect, commonly an ant, blunders into the pit, its weight causes the sand to collapse below it, drawing the victim toward the center where the predator that dug the pit lies in wait under a thin layer of loose sand. The larva assists this process by vigorously flicking sand out from the center of the pit when it detects a disturbance. This undermines the pit walls and causes them to collapse toward the center. The sand that the larva flings also pelts the prey with so much loose, rolling material as to prevent it from getting any foothold on the easier slopes that the initial collapse of the slope has presented. The combined effect is to bring the prey down to within grasp of the larva, which then can inject venom and digestive fluids.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '369232',
'title': 'Leafcutter ant',
'section': 'Section::::Ant-fungus mutualism.:Parasitism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 237,
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'passage_text': "When the ants are out collecting leaves, they are at risk of attack by some species of phorid flies, parasitoids that lay eggs into the crevices of the worker ants' heads. Often, a minim will sit on a worker ant and ward off any attack.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31603740',
'title': 'Azteca andreae',
'section': 'Section::::Predatory behavior.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'When an insect lands on the leaf, three to ten of the closest ants immediately attack and drive the prey to the leaf margin, where more ambushing ants will congregate and attack. Large prey was only captured if on the edge of the leaf, because the ants use their specialized legs to hold onto the velvety surface underneath ‘’C. obtusa’’ leaves. This mechanism essentially acts like Velcro, with the many small hooks on the legs of the ant gripping onto the velvet of the underside of the leaf. Because only the bottom of the leaf has this surface, the ants can only really capture prey when they are holding onto the leaf from the underside. This is the main factor that allows the ants to capture such massive prey. After catching their prey, they will either start tearing it to shreds on the spot or take it back to the colony and cut it up into smaller pieces.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '425938',
'title': 'Animal cognition',
'section': 'Section::::Research questions.:Tool and weapon use.:Invertebrates.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 93,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 93,
'end_character': 218,
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'passage_text': 'Ants of the species "Conomyrma bicolor" pick up stones and other small objects with their mandibles and drop them down the vertical entrances of rival colonies, allowing workers to forage for food without competition.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15704241',
'title': 'Tool use by animals',
'section': 'Section::::In invertebrates.:Insects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 139,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 139,
'end_character': 218,
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'passage_text': 'Ants of the species "Conomyrma bicolor" pick up stones and other small objects with their mandibles and drop them down the vertical entrances of rival colonies, allowing workers to forage for food without competition.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31603740',
'title': 'Azteca andreae',
'section': 'Section::::Predatory behavior.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 348,
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'passage_text': '"A. andreae" use ambush predation to hunt insects many times their own size. The ants will actually position themselves side-by-side next to each other underneath the edge a leaf. There, they are invisible from above except for their mandibles, which hang outside the edge waiting for prey. Many times, the ants will occupy each leaf of the plant.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do ants and insects get trapped in pen circles?',
'selftext': '[Example]( URL_0 ) [Another example]( URL_1 )',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The ink has a solvent in it and the ant doesn't want to get solvent on itself. It's feelers detect it is getting close to the solvent, so it turns.",
"There are a few different explanations for this, depending on what the circle is made of. Ants will get trapped in chalk and baking soda circles, as well. A big contender is that ants travel largely by a scent trail left behind by other ants. If you watch ants coming for pieces of food left on the floor or the sidewalk, you'll see that they take the same route. A circle made of something like ink or sodium bicarbonate or chalk can disrupt this scent trail and cause almost a wall of sorts. ",
'Red inked pens and termites is a good example of the ink having a chemical in it that mimics termite follow pheramones. Its really cool to make termites do figure eights...not that i have ever done this.....noooooo (/s)',
"Ants are not smart. Not even close. Imagine they're like toy robots.\n\nThey follow smells. The first workers to find food bring some back to the colony. They lay down a trail of smell. The next workers follow that smell trail and lay down their own. That's how mistakes like this happen. _URL_0_\n\nA pen's ink is a mixture of chemicals. Some evaporate very quickly and also can dissolve other chemicals. If you were an ant, that line of pen would smell very strongly. Possibly strong enough to hide or break the smell of the correct trail.\n\nBy the way, chalk can have a different effect. Diatomaceous powder can kill insects. Chalks are similar. And many 'ant' chalks from China have real insecticides in them. So with chalk, and especially ant chalks, the insects might be avoiding something really noxious. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7k8mo2',
'query': 'why do ants and insects get trapped in pen circles?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '30075',
'title': 'Tiger',
'section': 'Section::::Taxonomy and genetics.:Hybrids.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
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'passage_text': 'The liger is a cross between a male lion and a tigress. Ligers are typically between in length, and weigh between or more. Because the lion sire passes on a growth-promoting gene, but the corresponding growth-inhibiting gene from the female tiger is absent, ligers grow far larger than either parent species.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60788011',
'title': 'Lion-tiger hybrids',
'section': 'Section::::Growth and Size.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': "Typically, the size of a liger is more likely to be larger and heavier than all of other existing feline animals. Some biologists believe that the causes of its irregular large size, or 'gigantism', are resulting from the lack of certain genes, those genes could limiting the growth of lion. The male lion's genes are tend to maximizing the growth of its progeny, as the larger size represents greater competitiveness, so that the male lions could compete with other male lions. In order to control the size of the offspring within a certain range, the gene of the lioness will offset the growth-maximizing gene of the male lion, the genes of female tiger, however, are not adapted to limiting the growth, which allows ligers to grow extremely large, far more larger and heavier than its parent species. In general, most of ligers grow more than 3.3 meters (10.8 feet) and weigh more than 400 kg (900 pounds). According to the Guinness world records, up to 2013, the record holder of the largest feline, was the adult male liger Hercules, from Myrtle Beach Safari, a wildlife reserve in South Carolina, USA. He was measured as 3.33 m (131 in), stands 1.25 m (49 in) at the shoulder, and weighs 418.2 kg (922 lb). Hercules eats approximately 13.6 kg (30 lb) of meat per day, and drink several liters of water per day. \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '299049',
'title': 'Liger',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'The liger is a hybrid offspring of a male lion ("Panthera leo") and a female tiger ("Panthera tigris"). The liger has parents in the same genus but of different species. The liger is distinct from the similar hybrid called the tigon, and is the largest of all known extant felines. They enjoy swimming, which is a characteristic of tigers, and are very sociable like lions. Notably, ligers typically grow larger than either parent species, unlike tigons.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60788011',
'title': 'Lion-tiger hybrids',
'section': 'Section::::Appearance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': 'Ligers and tigons look just like their parents, only bigger or smaller. They have huge teeth，about two inches long. Their genes include the genetic components of tigers and lions，therefore they may very similar to tigers and lions, and even difficult to identify, and range from gold to brown to white, have or not have spots or stripes. An adult male liger usually have smaller mane than a male lion.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2389770',
'title': 'Panthera hybrid',
'section': 'Section::::Lion and tiger hybrids.:Liger.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 38,
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'passage_text': 'A liger is the offspring between a lion and a tigress, which is larger than its parents because the lion has a growth inhibiting gene and the tigress, unlike the lioness, has no growth inhibiting gene.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '299049',
'title': 'Liger',
'section': 'Section::::Size and growth.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 696,
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'passage_text': "It is wrongly believed that ligers continue to grow throughout their lives due to hormonal issues. It may be that they simply grow far more during their growing years and take longer to reach their full adult size. Further growth in shoulder height and body length is not seen in ligers over six years old, as in both lions and tigers. Male ligers also have the same levels of testosterone on average as an adult male lion, yet are azoospermic in accordance with Haldane's rule. In addition, female ligers may also attain great size, weighing approximately and reaching long on average, and are often fertile. In contrast, pumapards (hybrids between pumas and leopards) tend to exhibit dwarfism.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '299049',
'title': 'Liger',
'section': 'Section::::Size and growth.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'The liger is often believed to represent the largest known cat in the world. Males reach a total length of , which means that they rival even large male lions and tigers in length. Imprinted genes may be a factor contributing to the large size of ligers. These are genes that may or may not be expressed on the parent they are inherited from, and that occasionally play a role in issues of hybrid growth. For example, in some dog breed crosses, genes that are expressed only when maternally-inherited cause the young to grow larger than is typical for either parent breed. This growth is not seen in the paternal breeds, as such genes are normally "counteracted" by genes inherited from the female of the appropriate breed.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why are ligers typically much larger and heavier than both lions and tigers?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Built into your genes is code to *stop* growing. That's important because, for example, just making your heart *bigger* does not make it *better* at pumping blood. It takes additional muscle and different structure to be efficient. So if you get too big, your heart can't keep up with the need to pump blood farther and farther away from your lungs, and it gives out.\n\nAs a result, humans with gigantism tend to die in their 30s and 40s to heart failure. Similarly, ligers tend to die young relative to their parent species due to heart failure.\n\nAnyway, it just so happens that the gene to stop growing in lions is found in genes that come from the mother, while gene to stop growing in tigers comes from the father. (More accurately, they are *activated* based on the parent's sex.)\n\nLigers have lion fathers and tiger mothers. So they get neither of the species' genes to stop growing, so they don't stop growing. Tigons - hybrids with a tiger father and a lion mother - grow to be about as big as, well, lions and tigers. They don't get like, *extra* stopping genes, they just have two sets that turn on about when they're supposed to so they get as big as either of their parents should be.\n\nSide note, the portmanteau word for a hybrid depends on which is the mother and which is the father. Fathers form the first part of the word, mothers the second. For example, a Zorse is a hybrid male zebra and female horse; a hebra is a hybrid male horse and female zebra."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'fyoa9n',
'query': 'why are ligers typically much larger and heavier than both lions and tigers?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1856203',
'title': 'Monster Energy',
'section': 'Section::::Ingredients.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'The caffeine content of most Monster Energy drinks is approximately 10\xa0mg/oz (33.81\xa0mg/100ml), or 160\xa0mg for a 16\xa0oz can. The packaging usually contains a warning label advising consumers against drinking more than 48\xa0oz per day (16\xa0oz per day in Australia). The drinks are not recommended for pregnant women or people sensitive to caffeine. The ingredients include carbonated water, sucrose, glucose, citric acid, natural flavors, taurine, sodium citrate, color added, panax ginseng root extract, -carnitine, -tartarate, caffeine, sorbic acid, benzoic acid, niacinamide, sodium chloride, Glycine max glucuronolactone, inositol, guarana seed extract, pyridoxine hydrochloride, sucralose, riboflavin, maltodextrin, and cyanocobalamin.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1856203',
'title': 'Monster Energy',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Monster Energy is an energy drink introduced by Hansen Natural Company (now Monster Beverage Corporation) in April 2002. There are 34 different drinks under the Monster brand in North America, including its core Monster Energy line, Java Monster, Extra Strength, Import, Rehab and Muscle Monster.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6214025',
'title': 'Monster Beverage',
'section': 'Section::::Finances.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': "For the fiscal year 2017, Monster Beverage reported earnings of US$821 million, with an annual revenue of US$3.369 billion, an increase of 10.5% over the previous fiscal cycle. Monster Beverage's shares traded at over $51 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at US$29.9 billion in November 2018.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1856203',
'title': 'Monster Energy',
'section': 'Section::::Health concerns.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'In December 2011, 14-year-old Anais Fournier died of "cardiac arrhythmia due to caffeine toxicity" after drinking two 710 ml (24 US fl oz) cans of Monster Energy drink containing a combined amount of ~475\xa0mg caffeine. Fournier had a pre-existing heart condition, as well as Ehlers–Danlos syndrome. In October 2012, her parents sued the company. Monster has insisted that its energy drink played no role in Fournier\'s death. A Freedom of Information Request revealed that from 2003 to 2012 the Food and Drug Administration had received reports of five deaths occurring after drinking Monster Energy. The reports did not prove a causal link between the drink and any health problems.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2423276',
'title': 'Full Throttle (drink)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "On June 12, 2015, Monster Beverage closed on the deal to acquire The Coca-Cola Company's energy drinks line. Coca-Cola transferred ownership of all of its worldwide energy businesses including NOS, Full Throttle and nine smaller brands to Monster. Monster transferred all of its non-energy drink businesses to Coca-Cola, including Hansen's natural sodas, Peace Tea, Hubert's Lemonade, and Hansen's juice products.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '77120',
'title': 'Aquafina',
'section': 'Section::::Litigation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 341,
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'passage_text': 'Charles Joyce and James Voigt won a $1.26 billion judgment against PepsiCo after saying that the company had created Aquafina by stealing their idea to sell purified bottled water. This judgment was vacated on November 6, 2009, when it was discovered that PepsiCo had failed to respond to the lawsuit due to a misplacement of the paperwork.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1856203',
'title': 'Monster Energy',
'section': 'Section::::In popular culture.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 41,
'end_character': 361,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Christine Weick, a controversial and outspoken American Christian activist and author, created a video that argued that Monster Energy sports drinks is associated with Satan. The November 2014 video was published on YouTube, garnering over eleven million views as of 2018. The "success" of the video got her attention on Comedy Central\'s Tosh.0 Web Redemption.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'this was posted about 4 years, but I was wondering if there was updated information. Are Monster Energy Zero Ultra drinks bad for me? If so, why?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["If you're not experiencing side effects like high blood pressure or heart palpations, if you're not shaky and your decisions aren't impaired, and if you're not interfering with any medication, you're probably just fine. Are you having one, or several each day? Are you otherwise hydrating? Sleeping ok on average? Again, you're probably ok. \n\n There are tons of studies about caffeine and long term effects. But in my 36 years I have seen those studies contradict each other a dozen times. Everyone is different. If you feel gross, switch to something with less caffeine. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'aaoyz3',
'query': 'this was posted about 4 years, but i was wondering if there was updated information. are monster energy zero ultra drinks bad for me? if so, why?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '160125',
'title': 'Mitochondrial disease',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanisms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 48,
'end_character': 375,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The effective overall energy unit for the available body energy is referred to as the daily glycogen generation capacity, and is used to compare the mitochondrial output of healthy individuals to that of afflicted or chronically glycogen-depleted individuals. This value is slow to change in a given individual, as it takes between 18 and 24 months to complete a full cycle.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '346821',
'title': 'Carbohydrate loading',
'section': 'Section::::Short workout.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 585,
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'passage_text': 'A new carbo-loading regimen developed by scientists at the University of Western Australia calls for a normal diet with light training until the day before the race. On the day before the race, the athlete performs a very short, extremely high-intensity workout (such as a few minutes of sprinting) then consumes of carbohydrate per kilogram of lean mass over the next 24 hours. The regimen resulted in a 90% increase in glycogen storage when compared to before the carbo-load, which is comparable to or higher than the results achieved with other 2 day – 6 day carbo-loading regimes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '57276769',
'title': 'Physiology of marathons',
'section': 'Section::::Energy pathways during exercise.:Anaerobic.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': "The Anaerobic Glycolytic Energy Pathway is the source of human energy after the first 30 seconds of an exercise until 3 minutes into that exercise. The first 30 seconds of exercise are most heavily reliant on the Phosphogenic Pathway for energy production. Through Glycolysis, the breakdown of carbohydrates from blood glucose or muscle glycogen stores yields ATP for the body without the need for oxygen. This energy pathway is often thought of as the transitional pathway between the Phosphogenic Energy Pathway and the Aerobic Energy Pathway due to the point in exercise this pathway onsets and terminates. An example of exercise most heavily using this pathway would be a 300-800 meter run as these are typically higher intensity than endurance exercise and are only sustained for 30–180 seconds depending on one's level of training.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1437871',
'title': 'Cori cycle',
'section': 'Section::::Cycle.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 411,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Overall, the glycolysis part of the cycle produces 2 ATP molecules at a cost of 6 ATP molecules consumed in the gluconeogenesis part. Each iteration of the cycle must be maintained by a net consumption of 4 ATP molecules. As a result, the cycle cannot be sustained indefinitely. The intensive consumption of ATP molecules indicates that the Cori cycle shifts the metabolic burden from the muscles to the liver.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '346821',
'title': 'Carbohydrate loading',
'section': 'Section::::Without depletion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 261,
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'passage_text': 'Research in the 1980s led to a modified carbo-loading regimen that eliminates the depletion phase, instead calling for increased carbohydrate intake (to about 70% of total calories) and decreased training for three days before the event is the correct regimen.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '84139',
'title': 'Ketosis',
'section': 'Section::::Controversy.:Adaptation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 562,
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'passage_text': 'While it is believed that carbohydrate intake after exercise is the most effective way of replacing depleted glycogen stores, studies have shown that, after a period of 2–4 weeks of adaptation, physical endurance (as opposed to physical intensity) is unaffected by ketosis, as long as the diet contains high amounts of fat, relative to carbohydrates. Some clinicians refer to this period of keto-adaptation as the "Schwatka imperative" after Frederick Schwatka, the explorer who first identified the transition period from glucose-adaptation to keto-adaptation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36324652',
'title': 'BodyAttack',
'section': 'Section::::Research.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
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'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Few published studies have investigated the BodyAttack program scientifically. One study investigated the energy expenditure and oxygen consumption of three male and three female participants (mostly instructors) during a typical 55-minute BodyAttack class, undertaken in a controlled laboratory setting. Average energy expenditure was 660kcal for the male participants and 602kcal for the female participants.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How long does your body take to stsrt using the carbohydrates you consume for energy?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["What exactly do you mean? You are constantly using carbohydrates for energy, there is no start up time/period where you don't use carbohydrates.\n\nIs your question about the time it takes from ingesting food to using the carbohydrates contained in it specifically?"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'assnux',
'query': 'how long does your body take to stsrt using the carbohydrates you consume for energy?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '441392',
'title': 'Trade war',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "A trade war is an economic conflict resulting from extreme protectionism in which states raise or create tariffs or other trade barriers against each other in response to trade barriers created by the other party. Increased protection causes both nations' output compositions to move towards their autarky position.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32101249',
'title': 'International trade and state security',
'section': 'Section::::The argument about trade and conflict.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
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'passage_text': 'The relationship between international trade and conflict has been a source of controversy among international relations scholars. Some scholars argue that trade does not reduce conflict even though conflict reduces trade; while others report that international trade fosters a peaceful disposition among states, which are less likely to resort to armed conflict in times of crisis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22134363',
'title': 'Domestic sourcing',
'section': 'Section::::Disadvantage of Domestic sourcing.:Trade war / Price war.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
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'passage_text': 'Domestic sourcing campaign may trigger trade war globally. When one country starts to encourage their citizens to buy domestic goods, there are usually resistances from other countries. As result of that, poorer countries with significant disadvantage may be forced to add levy against a certain country. The most recent example of trade war happened in 2013 when EU claimed that China is selling solar panels below the average cost which resulted in lesser demand for solar panels made in Europe, which then led to trade war between China and EU.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22937795',
'title': 'Value-form',
'section': 'Section::::Genesis of the forms of value.:Marketisation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 109,
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'end_paragraph_id': 109,
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'passage_text': 'Wars are generally bad for business (except for the military industry and its suppliers), nobody likes them, and governments try to prevent them, but in reality the marketisation of the world has often been a very aggressive, violent process. Typically, therefore, the advocates of peaceful market trade blame "everything but the market" for the explosions of mass violence that occur, with the promise that, if people would just sit down and negotiate a deal, they wouldn\'t have to use force to get what they want. This assumes that market trade is something quite "separate" from political power, "because" it is market-trade, i.e. a free negotiation between trading partners who are equals in the marketplace.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4121015',
'title': 'Beggar thy neighbour',
'section': 'Section::::Extended application.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'These trade policies can lead to trade wars between countries. These trade wars follow the prisoner\'s dilemma game theory analysis developed through Nash equilibrium in which two countries are poised against each other to produce in the market. Production requires export subsidies for the domestic firm to capture the market, effectively deterring the competing entity. Imagine two companies: Boeing and Airbus, one American, one European firm. They can either choose to "produce" or to "not produce". The matrix follows that if both produce both will lose market share (−5,−5) as they compete in the industry. If they both do not produce (0,0) nobody benefits. If one produces whilst the other does not (100,0) the producing company will capture the industry and have 100% share (0,100). Game theory states that the first mover, or the initial firm in the industry, will always win. The competing firm will have no incentive to enter the market once the competitor has the advantage and thus will be deterred. However, with a strategic trade policy of an export subsidy, the matrix changes as the protecting government covers some of the costs. The matrix now changes from (−5,−5) to (−5,20) in favour of the domestic firm with the subsidy. This will see the protected firm "win" in the game and capture more of the market share as the subsidies burden the costs, which would otherwise deter the company. The game does not finish here, as the other company, being usurped on the second move, will then itself become protected through export subsidies, leading to a trade war between countries. Ergo, beggar-thy-neighbour is evident in trade wars as it increases the domestic welfare at the expense of the competing country.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3413454',
'title': 'Danish India',
'section': 'Section::::History.:The Golden Age of Danish India (1772–1807).\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The growth in both international trade and the increase in wars between the trading nations of England, France and Holland. This meant that during these wars, trade from the warring nations would be carried by neutral nations like Denmark to avoid seizure by the warring parties.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28077066',
'title': 'Trading with the Enemy Act',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Trading with the Enemy Acts is also a generic name for a class of legislation generally passed during or approaching a war that prohibit not just mercantile activities with foreign nationals, but also acts that might assist the enemy. While originally limited to wartime, in the 20th century these Acts were applied in cases of national emergency as well. For example, in 1940, before the United States entry into World War II the president imposed broad prohibitions on the transfer of property in which Norway or Denmark, or any citizen or national of those countries, or any other person aiding those countries, had any interest, with the exception of transfers which were licensed under the regulations of the Department of the Treasury.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does a trade war work? What are the local and global repercussions?',
'selftext': "What does a trade war involve? What steps are taken? How does one side 'win' the war? I'm not looking for a commentary specific to current events, I'm curious about the concept of a trade war and some historical examples would be grear. Thank you, this is my first ELI5, I look forward to this thread being locked for breaching some kind of esoteric formatting rule.",
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["A trade war is when countries begin placing tariffs on imports that specifically target certain countries.\n\nSo, imagine Country A exports loads of imaginarium at a low price. Country B also produces a lot of imaginarium too, but it's used domestically rather than being exported and it costs the domestic producers more to produce a tonne of imaginarium than it does to import a tonne of it from Country A. The imaginarium producers in Country B don't like this, as it threatens their livelihoods.\n\nSo, in response, Country B could place a tariff (a tax) on imports of imaginarium. This will raise the price, making Country A no longer competitive. Country B's domestic imaginarium producers will get a boost, but it will hurt Country A's economy. Country A responds by placing a tariff on something that Country B exports. This process then goes on and on until one side backs down.\n\nThe problem with trade wars is that, theoretically, they lead to inefficient markets. If you don't face any serious competition, then why bother innovating? Your industry is always going to be protected by your government. Ultimately, consumers are the ones who are affected. In my hypothetical, it will lead to poor quality, expensive imaginarium.\n\nWhat's important to remember is that trade wars are just rounds of tariffs placed on certain commodities and items. In the end, nobody really wins, except for the people whose jobs are saved."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '82ok9o',
'query': 'how does a trade war work? what are the local and global repercussions?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3185688',
'title': 'Nuclear reactor physics',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Most nuclear reactors use a chain reaction to induce a controlled rate of nuclear fission in fissile material, releasing both energy and free neutrons. A reactor consists of an assembly of nuclear fuel (a reactor core), usually surrounded by a neutron moderator such as regular water, heavy water, graphite, or zirconium hydride, and fitted with mechanisms such as control rods that control the rate of the reaction. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22054',
'title': 'Nuclear fission',
'section': 'Section::::Physical overview.:Fission bombs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 57,
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'passage_text': 'While the fundamental physics of the fission chain reaction in a nuclear weapon is similar to the physics of a controlled nuclear reactor, the two types of device must be engineered quite differently (see nuclear reactor physics). A nuclear bomb is designed to release all its energy at once, while a reactor is designed to generate a steady supply of useful power. While overheating of a reactor can lead to, and has led to, meltdown and steam explosions, the much lower uranium enrichment makes it impossible for a nuclear reactor to explode with the same destructive power as a nuclear weapon. It is also difficult to extract useful power from a nuclear bomb, although at least one rocket propulsion system, Project Orion, was intended to work by exploding fission bombs behind a massively padded and shielded spacecraft.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21785',
'title': 'Nuclear weapon',
'section': 'Section::::Types.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'There are two basic types of nuclear weapons: those that derive the majority of their energy from nuclear fission reactions alone, and those that use fission reactions to begin nuclear fusion reactions that produce a large amount of the total energy output.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22054',
'title': 'Nuclear fission',
'section': 'Section::::Physical overview.:Fission bombs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 55,
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'passage_text': 'One class of nuclear weapon, a "fission bomb" (not to be confused with the "fusion bomb"), otherwise known as an "atomic bomb" or "atom bomb", is a fission reactor designed to liberate as much energy as possible as rapidly as possible, before the released energy causes the reactor to explode (and the chain reaction to stop). Development of nuclear weapons was the motivation behind early research into nuclear fission which the Manhattan Project during World War II (September 1, 1939 – September 2, 1945) carried out most of the early scientific work on fission chain reactions, culminating in the three events involving fission bombs that occurred during the war. The first fission bomb, codenamed "The Gadget", was detonated during the Trinity Test in the desert of New Mexico on July 16, 1945. Two other fission bombs, codenamed "Little Boy" and "Fat Man", were used in combat against the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in on August 6 and 9, 1945 respectively.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '920548',
'title': 'Mission critical',
'section': 'Section::::Examples.:Nuclear reactor safety system.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'Nuclear reactor is a system that controls and contains the sustained nuclear chain reaction. It is usually used for generating electricity, but can also be used for conducting research and producing medical isotopes. Nuclear reactors have been one of the most concerned system for the safety worldwide because malfunction of nuclear reactor can cause serious disaster to the society. Controlling the nuclear system is stopping, decreasing, or increasing the chain reaction inside the nuclear reactor. Varying the water level in the vertical cylinder and moving adjuster rods are the methods of controlling the chain reaction when the reactor is operating. Temperatures, reactor power levels, and pressure are constantly monitored by the sensitive detectors. If nuclear power plant system malfunctions, it can cause in various accidents such as radioactive leakage due to continued chain reaction. This can cause acute radiation syndrome to the people around the area.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22151',
'title': 'Nuclear reactor',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "A nuclear reactor, formerly known as an atomic pile, is a device used to initiate and control a self-sustained nuclear chain reaction. Nuclear reactors are used at nuclear power plants for electricity generation and in nuclear marine propulsion. Heat from nuclear fission is passed to a working fluid (water or gas), which in turn runs through steam turbines. These either drive a ship's propellers or turn electrical generators' shafts. Nuclear generated steam in principle can be used for industrial process heat or for district heating. Some reactors are used to produce isotopes for medical and industrial use, or for production of weapons-grade plutonium. As of early 2019, the IAEA reports there are 454 nuclear power reactors and 226 nuclear research reactors in operation around the world.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '172911',
'title': 'Nuclear weapon design',
'section': 'Section::::Nuclear reactions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'In some ways, fission and fusion are opposite and complementary reactions, but the particulars are unique for each. To understand how nuclear weapons are designed, it is useful to know the important similarities and differences between fission and fusion. The following explanation uses rounded numbers and approximations.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Explain to me the difference between something as a nuclear reactor and something like a nuclear weapon, how are they different, and how are they the same?',
'selftext': 'Sorry, I don’t know if this belongs under the flair, “chemistry”, “engineering”, or “physics”. I would think all three but it only allows me to choose one.',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['In short, weapons are constructed to release the stored energy in the fuel all at once whereas reactors are designed to do so slowly over the course of decades. Technically a reactor can never explode like a bomb can and movies really exaggerate. It can explode but it’s more so because of intense pressures than a nuclear reaction.',
"Basically the difference between a nuclear reactor ans weapon is in the speed and level of control. A reactor carefully controls the rate of the reaction to maintain safe levels of operation in order to produce energy. A weapon doesn't need to be as controlled and so the materials can release the same amount of energy but over the course of seconds rather than weeks or months.\n\nAnalogy. Stare at a lightbulb for 1 second. See how that affects your vision? Now imagine how much light/energy that bulb would put out if left on for an entire week. Now imagine that same amount of light/energy is built up and released in 1 second and you happen to be looking at the bulb during that second. Imagine what that would do to your vision.\n\nNow imagine a similar thing, except with enough heat energy to produce enough electricity to power a neighborhood. Imagine what that release of heat energy would do.\n\nEdit: I'm not a nuclear engineer, so the exact scale of things are likely off, but the concept should be accurate."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'dxhqg8',
'query': 'explain to me the difference between something as a nuclear reactor and something like a nuclear weapon, how are they different, and how are they the same?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '874626',
'title': 'Glitter',
'section': 'Section::::Subculture.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Glitter can be seen as a tool of fashion used various subcultures, as it allows for a visible statement to be worn and seen on the body. This is because it has been theorized to be a "flickering signifier", or something that destabilizes known notions of popular culture, identity, and society. Glitter is associated with "fringe cultures", which often use excessive glam and glamor such as glitter to evoke a deeper understanding between the relationships of commercialized popular culture and "high" culture, or "high-brow" art.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '874626',
'title': 'Glitter',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
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'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 284,
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'passage_text': 'Glitter is used in cosmetics to make the face and nails shiny or sparkly. Additionally, it is commonly used in arts and crafts to color, accessorise and texture items. The small, brightly colored particles often stick to clothing, skin, and furniture, and can be difficult to remove.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '874626',
'title': 'Glitter',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Glitter describes an assortment of small, reflective particles that come in a variety of shapes and colors. Glitter particles reflect light at different angles, causing the surface to sparkle or shimmer. Glitter is similar to confetti, sparkles, or sequins, but somewhat smaller.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '874626',
'title': 'Glitter',
'section': 'Section::::Subculture.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
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'end_character': 401,
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'passage_text': 'Glitter is also used by nail artists and make-up artists to make statements about femininity and beauty standards. The flashy, sparkling nature of glitter allows users to push standard ideas of beauty and what is and isn\'t considered "excessive" in terms of make-up. Glitter is usually associated with nightlife and not professionalism, but wearing it in different settings can push these boundaries.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '874626',
'title': 'Glitter',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 563,
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'passage_text': 'Due to its unique characteristics, glitter has also proven to be useful forensic evidence. Because of the tens of thousands of different commercial glitters, identical glitter particles can be compelling evidence that a suspect has been at a crime scene. Forensic scientist Edwin Jones has one of the largest collections of glitter consisting of over 1,000 different samples used in comparison of samples taken from crime scenes. Glitter particles are easily transferred through the air or by touch, yet cling to bodies and clothing, often unnoticed by suspects.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '874626',
'title': 'Glitter',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Since prehistoric times, glitter has been made from many different materials including stones such as malachite, and mica, as well as insects and glass. Modern glitter is usually manufactured from plastic and is rarely recycled leading to calls from scientists for bans on plastic glitter.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50164757',
'title': 'Glitter (Perfume song)',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': '"Glitter" (capitalized as "GLITTER") is a song recorded by Japanese recording girl group Perfume for their third studio album, "JPN" (2011). It was written, composed, arranged, and produced by Japanese musician and Capsule member Yasutaka Nakata. The song was included as a B-side track for the group’s single, "Spice". Musically, "Glitter" was described as a technopop song, influenced by dance music. Two versions were released; the original composition, and the remix that appeared on the parent album. It has appeared as the theme song for one commercial and television series in Japan.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does glitter stick to everything even if it isnt really sticky?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Glitter is made of a plastic that can easily create **"static electricity"**. \n\nIn short, the **"static electricity"** makes the glitter more easily able to be stuck on surfaces. And as they\'re very small, they can go everywhere and be very hard to take care of.\n\n#For more details on static electricity, read more below;\n\nAll electricity is made up of two different types of energy; **Positive** and **Negative**.\n\n**Positive Energy** pushes things away.\n\n**Negative Energy** pulls things in.\n\nSo what is Static Electricity?\n\n**Static Electricity** occurs when an object is charged with too much **Negative Energy** or too much **Positive Energy**.\n\nWhen this happens, the energy in that object cannot move (in other words, becomes **static**) until it becomes attached to another object that can take that "overload" of energy.\n\nSo, when an object is charged with a lot of negative energy, it can easily become stuck to things since the negative energy is making the object "stuck" to the other.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'elzcfn',
'query': 'why does glitter stick to everything even if it isnt really sticky?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '25056597',
'title': 'Operating point',
'section': 'Section::::Stable and unstable operating points.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The middle point on the curve in the third picture on the right is an unstable point, too. However the above-mentioned assumptions are not valid here. Torque and speed are the same but in case the speed will be increased only little then the torque of the drive will be much higher than the counter-torque of the machine. The same but vice versa applies when reducing the speed. For this reason this operating point does not have a stabilizing effect on the speed. The speed will run away to the left or the right side of the point and the drive will run stable there.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '206242',
'title': 'Differential (mechanical device)',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'In automobiles and other wheeled vehicles, the differential allows the outer drive wheel to rotate faster than the inner drive wheel during a turn. This is necessary when the vehicle turns, making the wheel that is traveling around the outside of the turning curve roll farther and faster than the other. The average of the rotational speed of the two driving wheels equals the input rotational speed of the drive shaft. An increase in the speed of one wheel is balanced by a decrease in the speed of the other.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '444649',
'title': 'Four-wheel drive',
'section': 'Section::::Design.:Differentials.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
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'passage_text': 'Two wheels fixed to the same axle turn at the same speed as a vehicle goes around curves. This either forces one to slip, if possible, to balance the apparent distance covered, or creates uncomfortable and mechanically stressful wheel hop. To prevent this the wheels are allowed to turn at different speeds using a mechanical or hydraulic differential. This allows one driveshaft to independently drive two output shafts, axles that go from the differential to the wheel, at different speeds.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1766517',
'title': 'Mousetrap car',
'section': 'Section::::Design.:Distance Car.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 844,
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'passage_text': "Making this type of car revolves around having the most force from the spring transferred to the lever arm and making the drive axle rotate. In order to get the most distance out of your car, you must make the lever arm long. This allows the car to get more rotation out of the wheels because of the longer string that will come along with a longer lever arm. Then make the drive wheels larger because the higher the diameter of the wheel the more ground it covers. Along with this make sure to have the axles smaller than the wheel so there can be more pulling distance. Reduce the most friction you can because the more friction the more energy is lost in propelling the car. Mass should also be taken into account, the more the car weighs the more energy from the mousetrap spring will be used so it'll be best to make the car light weight.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '206242',
'title': 'Differential (mechanical device)',
'section': 'Section::::Functional description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 45,
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'passage_text': 'Thus, for example, if the car is making a turn to the right, the main ring gear may make 10 full rotations. During that time, the left wheel will make more rotations because it has farther to travel, and the right wheel will make fewer rotations as it has less distance to travel. The sun gears (which drive the axle half-shafts) will rotate at different speeds relative to the ring gear (one faster, one slower) by, say, 2 full turns each (4 full turns relative to each other), resulting in the left wheel making 12 rotations, and the right wheel making 8 rotations.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '263228',
'title': 'Handbrake turn',
'section': 'Section::::Physics involved.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'In a normal turn, rear wheels follow the front ones because resistance to motion in the forward direction (in which the wheels turn) is significantly less than in the sideways direction. The latter provides the centripetal force that makes the rear end of the car follow the turn. When the driver locks the rear wheels with the handbrake, both directions offer the same resistance, so the rear end tends to keep moving in the existing direction (due to inertia) and thus slides out.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2632709',
'title': 'Carver (automotive company)',
'section': 'Section::::Dynamic Vehicle Control system.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'end_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'When turning, any object is subject to a certain amount of centrifugal force, directed away from the center around which the object is moving. As speed increases, the amount of force applied to the object also increases. As a result, standard narrow vehicles with a narrow wheel base, can only take turns up to relatively low speeds before tipping over, compared to a conventional car. For this reason, conventional cars have a relatively wide wheel base. A wide wheel base however, also leads to a high frontal area leading to high drag.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is it that the slower I go in a car, the tighter the turn is? Even though my wheels are at the exact same angle.',
'selftext': 'Sorry if this is the wrong flair, I was stuck between maths and physics.',
'category': 'Mathematics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["That would be due to slippage, and is called understeer. It happens because, when the wheels have to push very hard to change your car's direction, they start to lose traction. At lower speeds they don't have to push as hard, so they slip less.",
"I'm not science savvy, but from what I know it's not necessarily that you are going slower, but that your are not excellerating; when you're turning you're essentially redirecting your momentum, so that momentum is still trying to push straight ahead while your wheels are cut to make a turn. Thus, it affects how sharp the turn will be."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'b1un02',
'query': 'why is it that the slower i go in a car, the tighter the turn is? even though my wheels are at the exact same angle.',
'query_type': 'Mathematics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1255059',
'title': 'Manual therapy',
'section': 'Section::::Use and method.:Techniques.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 488,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Friction massage is said to increase mobilization of adhesions between fascial layers, muscles, compartments and other soft tissues. They are thought to create an inflammatory response and instigate focus to injured areas. A 2012 systematic review found that no additional benefit was incurred from the inclusion of deep tissue friction massage in a therapeutic regimen, although the conclusions were limited by the small sample sizes in available randomized clinical trials.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '244103',
'title': 'Tendinopathy',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
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'passage_text': 'Symptoms can vary from aches or pains and local joint stiffness, to a burning that surrounds the whole joint around the inflamed tendon. In some cases, swelling occurs along with heat and redness, and there may be visible knots surrounding the joint. With this condition, the pain is usually worse during and after activity, and the tendon and joint area can become stiff the following day as muscles tighten from the movement of the tendon. Many patients report stressful situations in their life in correlation with the beginnings of pain which may contribute to the symptoms.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41218229',
'title': 'History of medicine in the Philippines',
'section': 'Section::::Folk medicine.:Manghihila.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 42,
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'passage_text': 'The manghihila (the "puller") uses the technique known as "panghihila" (the "pulling"), wherein the patient is rubbed with coconut oil accompanied by the use of a mirror, strips of cellophane paper that were used as wrappers of cigarette boxes, strips of banana frond, or wrappings of medicinal leaves. The type of "pull" felt during the massage therapy becomes the basis of what causes the ailment (i.e. the "smoothness" of the pull of the material used or the lingering or hovering or the strength of resistance of the applied material on a specific spot of the patient\'s body).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1626362',
'title': 'Myofascial trigger point',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Myofascial trigger points, also known as trigger points, are described as hyperirritable spots in the skeletal muscle. They are associated with palpable nodules in taut bands of muscle fibers. They are a topic of ongoing controversy, as there is limited data to inform a scientific understanding of the phenomenon. Accordingly, a formal acceptance of myofascial "knots" as an identifiable source of pain is more common among bodyworkers, physical therapists, chiropractors, and osteopathic practitioners. Nonetheless, the concept of trigger points provides a framework which may be used to help address certain musculoskeletal pain.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '867815',
'title': 'Petrissage',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Petrissage (from French "pétrir", "to knead") are massage movements with applied pressure which are deep and compress the underlying muscles. Kneading, wringing, skin rolling and pick-up-and-squeeze are the petrissage movements. They are all performed with the padded palmar surface of the hand, the surface of the finger and also the thumbs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30707',
'title': 'Temporomandibular joint dysfunction',
'section': 'Section::::Management.:Physiotherapy, biofeedback and similar non-invasive measures.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 155,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 155,
'end_character': 414,
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'passage_text': 'It has been suggested that massage therapy for TMD improves both the subjective and objective health status. "Friction massage" uses surface pressure to causes temporary ischemia and subsequent hyperemia in the muscles, and this is hypothesized to inactivate trigger points and disrupt small fibrous adhesions within the muscle that have formed following surgery or muscular shortening due to restricted movement.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '504841',
'title': 'Osteoarthritis',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 743,
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'passage_text': 'The main symptom is pain, causing loss of ability and often stiffness. The pain is typically made worse by prolonged activity and relieved by rest. Stiffness is most common in the morning, and typically lasts less than thirty minutes after beginning daily activities, but may return after periods of inactivity. Osteoarthritis can cause a crackling noise (called "crepitus") when the affected joint is moved, especially shoulder and knee joint. A person may also complain of joint locking and joint instability. These symptoms would affect their daily activities due to pain and stiffness. Some people report increased pain associated with cold temperature, high humidity, or a drop in barometric pressure, but studies have had mixed results.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'what is the "crunchy" feeling when a muscle knot is being massaged?',
'selftext': 'I get really bad knots in my neck and shoulders. What the heck is that crunching?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['As I understand (from my massage therapist and physio), it\'s the muscle fascia sort of "slipping" past the skin, with just enough friction to "catch" and release repeatedly, such as when you rub your hands together when they\'re slightly wet. The effect is more pronounced if you\'re dehydrated. Working on the muscle fascia is the key component to the "myofascial release" (MFR) technique in some schools of massage therapy, which is a controversial technique not supported by good evidence (but with a risk of harm).'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7zn6v1',
'query': 'what is the "crunchy" feeling when a muscle knot is being massaged?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '5292585',
'title': 'Crowdsourcing',
'section': 'Section::::Historical examples.:Timeline of major events.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 39,
'end_character': 249,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- 2009 – Waze, a community-oriented GPS app, allows for users to submit road info and route data based on location, such as reports of car accidents or traffic, and integrates that data into its routing algorithms for all users of the app\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '369646',
'title': 'Automatic vehicle location',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': "Automatic vehicle location (AVL or ~locating; telelocating in EU) is a means for automatically determining and transmitting the geographic location of a vehicle. This vehicle location data, from one or more vehicles, may then be collected by a vehicle tracking system to manage an overview of vehicle travel. As of 2017, GPS technology has reached the point of having the transmitting device be smaller than the size of a human thumb (thus easier to conceal), able to run 6 months or more between battery chargings, easy to communicate with smartphones (merely requiring a duplicate SIM card from one's mobile phone carrier in most cases) — all for less than $20 USD.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2852956',
'title': 'Market sentiment',
'section': 'Section::::Theory of investor attention.:Fourth road.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 2850,
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'passage_text': 'The fourth road is an important source of information about investor attention is the Internet search behavior of households. This approach is supported by results from Simon (1955), who concludes that people start their decision making process by gathering relevant information. Publicly available data on search volumes for most Internet search services starts from the year 2004. Since that time many authors showed the usefulness of such data in predicting investor attention and market returns (Da "et al." (2014), Preis "et al." (2013), and Curme "et al." (2014)). Most studies are using Google Trends (GT) service in order to extract search volume data and investigate investor attention. The usefulness of Internet search data was also proved based on Yahoo! Corporation data (Bordino "et al." (2012)). The application of Internet search data gives promising results in solving different financial problems. The authors in Kristoufek (2013b) discuss the application of GT data in portfolio diversification problem. Proposed in the paper diversification procedure is based on the assumption that the popularity of a particular stock in Internet queries is correlated with the riskiness of this stock. The author reports that such diversification procedure helps significantly improve portfolio returns. Da "et al." (2014) and Dimpfl & Jank (2015) investigate a predictive power of GT data for two most popular volatility measures: realized volatility (RV) and CBOE daily market volatility index (VIX). Both studies report positive and significant dependence between Internet search data and volatility measures. Bordino "et al." (2012) and Preis "et al." (2010) reveal the ability of Internet search data to predict trading volumes in the US stock markets. According to Bordino "et al." (2012), "...query volumes anticipate in many cases peaks of trading by one day or more." Some researchers find the usefulness of GT data in predicting volatility on foreign currency market (Smith (2012)). An increasingly important role of Internet search data is admitted in cryptocurrency (e.g. BitCoin) prices forecasting (Kristoufek (2013a)). Google Trends data is also reported to be a good predictor for daily mutual fund flows. Da "et al." (2014) concludes that such type of sentiment data "...has significant incremental predictive power for future daily fund flow innovations of both equity and bond funds." One more promising source of Internet search data is the number of visits of finance-related Wikipedia pages (Wikipedia page statistics) (Moat "et al." (2013) and Kristoufek (2013a)). To sum up, the Internet search behavior of households is relatively new and promising proxy for investor attention. Such type of sentiment data does not require additional information from other sources and can be used in scientific studies independently.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '351365',
'title': 'RoadShow',
'section': 'Section::::Programming.:Future development on programming.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 58,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 58,
'end_character': 373,
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'passage_text': 'KMB is now undertaking an experimental project to introduce the Global Positioning System (GPS) on bus tracking and bus fleet management. Apart from the traffic management purpose, the usage of GPS on the fleet can also provide real time information to RoadShow, which means that real time news, weather and traffic information will be available in RoadShow in the future.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3788418',
'title': 'Roads in the United Kingdom',
'section': 'Section::::Road network.:Administration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 405,
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'passage_text': "Since 2008, location marker posts have appeared on motorways and major A roads in England, situated generally at intervals of 500 metres (though the units are not given). These repeat the information given on the co-sited surveyors' marker post which, since the 1960s, have reported distances on such roads in kilometres from a datum—usually the start of the road, or the planned start-point of the road.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40208',
'title': 'Transport in Albania',
'section': 'Section::::Public transportation.:Driving in Albania.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 56,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 56,
'end_character': 656,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'It is strongly recommended to have an up-to-date GPS, as many new roads have been recently added to the Albanian road network. In case the GPS does not work, its good to have an alternative paper or internet-based map. Street names on the ground do not always coincide with maps, as the current address system has only recently been introduced. In the mountains, some roads can be narrow and windy with hairpins/serpentines and some missing guardrails. Drivers are encouraged to check engine liquid levels to avoid overheating in the summer months. Some roads still have few road signs or misleading ones. Its strongly advised to always keep a spare tire.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10078385',
'title': 'GPS wildlife tracking',
'section': 'Section::::Software.:Analytical.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 288,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Locational data provided by GPS devices can be displayed using GIS packages such as the open-source GRASS or plotted and prepared for display on the World Wide Web using packages such as Generic Mapping Tools (GMT), FollowDem (developed by Ecrins national Park to track ibex) or Maptool.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do GPS apps such as Maps or Waze know the new formation of roads after construction?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It first important to understand how Google Maps gets all if it's data. Some of it's data is pre-programmed into their systems. This is usually used as initial data, especially for testing. Google provides many more features, however. They also show traffic and other information for your daily traveler.\n\nA few years back, Google acquired Waze and they use data from the Waze app to enhance Google maps. Waze is backed by a community of users who report cops, traffic, accidents, etc. But Google also injects tracking into their software. Google can access the speed of your car by checking it's locations at two different points and dividing it by the time between those two points. If the speed limit on a road is 50 mph, but every car on the road using Google maps is moving only 10 mph, then there is obviously traffic.\n\nUsing the same technique Google will track a cars movement. If a car is going off course, then Google will ignore the data, but still store it for later use. If 50 cars go off course, Google's map algorithm will detect this as an unknown road. Google will run several Artificial intelligence tasks to determine what is going on and will adjust their data accordingly.",
'Mostly, they get the information from various government sources, road databases, maps, traffic regulation databases and so on. Exactly what source that is depends on which country it is. In some cases, they also use OpenStreetMap as a source.\n\nThat update cycle is usually kind of slow, though, maybe just a few times a year, so they also track vehicles. If enough vehicles move along the same line where there shouldn\'t be a road, they assume there is a road.\n\nOnce they get a proper source for one of the "car track generated" roads, though, it\'s replaced by the proper road. Remember, roads are much more than just a line, it\'s traffic regulations, speed limits, lanes and so on.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '70si9o',
'query': 'how do gps apps such as maps or waze know the new formation of roads after construction?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '12198880',
'title': 'Broken heart',
'section': 'Section::::Psychology.:Depression.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'A broken heart is a major stressor and has been found to precipitate episodes of major depression. In one study (death of a spouse), 24% of mourners were depressed at two months, 23% at seven months, 16% at 13 months and 14% at 25 months.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12198880',
'title': 'Broken heart',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Broken heart (also known as a heartbreak or heartache) is a metaphor for the intense emotional—and sometimes physical—stress or pain one feels at experiencing great and deep longing. The concept is cross-cultural, often cited with reference to a desired or lost lover.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '51289352',
'title': 'Widowhood effect',
'section': 'Section::::Possible causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
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'passage_text': 'In April 2016, the American Heart Association published an article regarding phenomenon referred to as "broken heart syndrome". This particular syndrome seems to occur when a person experiences an overwhelming amount of stress in their life in a short period of time. The cases mentioned involved both positive events like winning the lottery as well as negative events like experiencing the death of a spouse. Though broken heart syndrome has been misdiagnosed as a heart attack, the differences between the two phenomena are clear. Heart attacks are the result of a blockage of arteries, but broken heart syndrome is the result of a hormone induced enlargement of a portion of the heart. The enlarged region of the heart is less effective in regards to pumping blood, and the normal sized regions of the heart are forced to work harder as a result.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12198880',
'title': 'Broken heart',
'section': 'Section::::Psychology.:Psychological trauma.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
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'passage_text': "In severe cases, the depression of a broken heart can create a sustained type of stress that constitutes an emotional trauma which can be severe enough to leave an emotional imprint on individuals' psychobiological functioning, affecting future choices and responses to rejection, loss, or disconnection. A contributing factor to the trauma-producing event is that 'being left' can trigger primal separation fear – the fear of being left with no one to take care of one's vital needs.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12198880',
'title': 'Broken heart',
'section': 'Section::::Medical complications.:Broken heart syndrome.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
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'passage_text': 'In many legends and fictional tales, characters die after suffering a devastating loss; however, even in reality people die from what appears to be a broken heart. "Broken heart syndrome" is commonly described as a physical pain in the chest or heart or stomach area, which is due to the emotional stress caused by a traumatic breakup or the death of a loved one.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34693138',
'title': 'Break Your Heart (Natalie Merchant song)',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': '"Break Your Heart" sings about the saddening social injustices of the world and human nature. Merchant sings that "I know that it will hurt/I know that it will break your heart/The way things are/The way they\'ve been/And the way they\'ll always be".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20556798',
'title': 'Myocardial infarction',
'section': 'Section::::Society and culture.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 123,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 123,
'end_character': 302,
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'passage_text': 'Depictions of heart attacks in popular media often include collapsing or loss of consciousness which are not common symptoms; these depictions contribute to widespread misunderstanding about the symptoms of myocardial infarctions, which in turn contributes to people not getting care when they should.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How can a broken heart hurt so much psychically?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It's a great question. I was so hung up on this one girl that after she left, I was in torment mode for at least six months. I physically felt torn up, lethargic, and exhausted. Cold sweats at night. \n\nEventually you grow out of it but damned if the physical toll isn't hardcore.",
"The mind and body are deeply linked. Mental pain becomes whole body pain. For example, say you are frightened of something, your heart rate and blood pressure increase and your pupils dilate. if you're looking for a reason why a broken heart feels so bad, it's because your deeper mind can't tell the difference between that and your mother suddenly stopping breastfeeding and disappearing. Our earliest mental patterns endure.",
"Because the pain is infact not just emotional but also physical. Few reasons:\n\n\n1)Hormones.\nWhen you're in love, the body produces elevated levels of feel- good chemicals (hormones like dopamine). You kinda get addicted to these chemicals.\nWhen your heart breaks , these chemicals are no longer produced and so you experience 'withdrawl syndromes' like anxiety,nausea etc.\n\n2) Stress\n\n\nOn heartbreak, the feel good hormones get replaced by stress hormone( cortisol). Its increaed levels activate the fight or flight responses which can cause chest pain and other heart attack kind symptoms.",
'This is actually a medical condition called [Broken Heart Syndrome](_URL_0_) also known as Takotusubo cardiomyopathy. A persons reaction to a negative event causes the release of stress hormones that negatively effect the way the heart pumps. \n\nEdit: a word and formatting.',
'Because you are holding-on so tightly still. One needs to learn the “release motion.”\n\nThe hardest part of letting go of someone is to release the attachment of the investment your heart has made into that of the other person.\n\nWe are social beings. In the human form, here as people we need the company of others, both socially (one to one, intimately) and culturally (as a group).\n\nBeyond this, a relationship is a living, breathing thing made of our connections. A relationship is perhaps one-third of who/what we are.',
'People are answering about the physical responses we have to a breakup. But I think it\'s more than just that. So much of our culture, the stories we see is about perfect love. It\'s either the entire point of the story, or the reward. \n\nI think when we are young, we have absorbed a lot of the romantic ideas of various media, and project those ideals of destiny and true love over our own narrative. So we really struggle to accept when life doesn\'t pan out like that. This can lead to extended inability to get over a breakup, or even have proper perspective on our own actions.\n\nSo with the world not working out the way you expected, with no chance of "getting them back", you often look for closure... from your ex. Just naturally continuing to expect that person to be the solution to your pain. \n\nBut trying to find closure generally just opens up wounds more. The real solution to heartbreak is to realise that this person is no longer there for you, and you need to find your happiness and direction forward for yourself.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'f36o64',
'query': 'how can a broken heart hurt so much psychically?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '16416558',
'title': 'Business idea',
'section': 'Section::::Meaning of innovation.:Examples of innovation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': "These successful companies were built on sheer innovation and we can see how valuable they have become in the short time they have been around or have been focusing on innovation. When Tesla's value is compared to that of General Motors, we see that the market capitalization of General Motors is $53.98 billion today in which the company has been around since 1908 whereas Tesla was founded in 2003 and has achieved 50% of General Motors value within 12 years.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29691020',
'title': 'Tesla Model X',
'section': 'Section::::Production and sales.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
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'end_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': 'Tesla produced 507 Model X in the fourth quarter of 2015, of which 206 were delivered to customers. Model X sales totaled 2,400 units during the first quarter of 2016. According to Tesla Motors, deliveries were lower than expected because production was impacted by severe Model X supplier parts shortages in the first two months of 2016, and because Tesla had been too ambitious in wanting advanced features (committed "hubris"). The first Model X that didn\'t need corrections was made in April 2016.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '51237650',
'title': 'History of Tesla, Inc.',
'section': 'Section::::IPO and Model S.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': 'Tesla announced in November 2015 that during the third quarter of 2015 it produced a record 13,091 vehicles, and also revised its target sales for 2015 to between 50,000 and 52,000 vehicles, including both of its models available for retail sales. The company expects to achieve an average production and deliveries of 1,600 to 1,800 vehicles per week for Model S and Model X combined during 2016, adding up to 80,000 to 90,000 new Model S and Model X vehicles in 2016. As a result of the high demand for Model 3, in May 2016 Tesla Motors announced its decision to advance its 500,000 total unit build plan (combined for Model S, Model X, and Model 3) to 2018, two years earlier than previously planned, in order to accelerate its target for Model 3 output. This in turn can allow more Model 3 buyers to benefit from the $7,500 tax credit before the limit of 200,000 cars per maker since 2010 reduces the credit.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29691020',
'title': 'Tesla Model X',
'section': 'Section::::Production and sales.\n',
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'passage_text': "According to Tesla, with 5,428 units sold in the U.S. in the third quarter of 2016, the Model X captured a 6% market share of the luxury SUV market segment, outselling Porsche and Land Rover, but behind seven SUV models manufactured by Mercedes, BMW, Cadillac, Volvo, Audi, and Lexus. With an estimated 9,500 units delivered worldwide during the fourth quarter of 2016, global sales in 2016 totaled 25,312 Model X cars, allowing the Model X to rank seventh among the world's top ten best-selling plug-in cars just in its first full year in the market.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43311976',
'title': 'Tesla Model 3',
'section': 'Section::::Reception.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 52,
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'passage_text': 'Automotive-industry analyst Toni Sacconaghi of AllianceBernstein said after driving one of the early Tesla vehicles in November 2017 that "Overall, we found the Model 3 to be a compelling offering, and believe it is likely to further galvanize the overall Electric Vehicle category." He was less impressed with build quality of the test samples. "Fit and finish on the two demo cars we saw—perhaps not surprisingly—was relatively poor." He said that there were quality issues at first with the Model X which led to some concern. "This is going to be a much, much higher-volume car, and if there are any quality issues, that could overwhelm the service centers and undermine the Tesla brand." Nonetheless, Sacconaghi was impressed with the ride quality, performance and interior space, and concluded that the 3 "risks cannibalizing the [very expensive] Model S going forward." \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18215937',
'title': 'Tesla Model S',
'section': 'Section::::Sales and markets.:Global.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 119,
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'passage_text': "Initially Tesla expected its annual production to increase by over 50% in 2014 to 35,000 units, but in November 2014 reduced its sales target to 33,000 units due to a deficit in production of 2,000 units during the third quarter of 2014. The company expected its annual production to increase another 50% in 2015. Tesla set a target of between 50,000 and 52,000 deliveries for Model S and Model X cars in 2015, and delivered 50,658 units. Tesla sold more than 50,000 Model S cars globally in 2016, making it the world's top selling plug-in electric that year. In 2017, it became only the second EV to sell more than 200,000 units behind the Nissan Leaf.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5533631',
'title': 'Tesla, Inc.',
'section': 'Section::::Sales.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
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'passage_text': "Tesla's global sales since 2012 totaled over 532,000 units at the end of 2018, of which, over 245,000 were delivered in 2018, up almost 138% from 2017. Year over year Tesla U.S. vehicle sales from 2017 to 2018 increased by 280% from 48,000 to 182,400. , Tesla's sales represented about 20% of the all-electric cars on the world's roads, according to Navigant Research. In July 2017, Tesla said their vehicles had traveled 5 billion miles (8 billion km).\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is Tesla having higher networth than Ford or GM, when the former hardly produces a small percentage of cars than latter?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['I don’t understand this either. Hype maybe?',
"The main reason is that the share price is based on what they are going to do in the future, not just what they are doing now.\n\nFord and GM are big companies who sell lots of product, but a lot of the cars they make are cars that people used to buy in the past, and in order to remain in business and make profits in the future, they will need to make big, expensive changes to start making cars that people will want to buy in the future. There is a strong possibility that they will fail to make those changes, will have their lunch eaten by other companies that do or new ones set up to make the cars people are going to want. Ford and GM could be on a path to complete irrelevance over the next decade.\n\nIn addition, both Ford and GM are supporting a number of loss-making sectors and brands around the world.\n\nTesla is one of those companies who are setting themselves up now to make the cars people are going to buy in the future. In the short term, they are working flat out to build cars that are already sold, they have order books covering all the cars they will make in the next few years, and are ramping up fast. The upside for Tesla is immense. \n\nBut the downside, too, is there. They came close to missing with the Model 3, but now it is on the street and ramping to full production and is reviewing so well, Tesla is going to be cash profitable shortly, the short-term outlook is very good. But they are heading back into the development and spending cycle with the new Roadster, Semi and pickup, and at some time they are going to have solid competition from whatever of the major auto makers really take the plunge into battery-electric vehicles.\n\nLastly, it is pretty clear that the share price is driven by a bit of irrationality. What they are achieving is astounding, and people want in on it, and are paying more than what they are really worth. But if Tesla keeps up the results, there is no reason why even the current price mightn't be sustainable as they continue to grow.",
'It has a higher perceived value because many investors expect that one day Tesla will make more money.\n\nWhether this turns out to be the case is another story...\n\nThere’s a lot of examples out there like this, especially in the tech industry.',
'Tesla does *not* have a "higher networth" than Ford or GM, it has a higher *market capitalization*. That is a very different thing and has a large speculative component, i.e. people are hoping that Tesla will take over a large segment of the car market *in the future*.',
"As u/robbak said, the share price is based on how people think the company will do.\n\nAn extremely simplified example would be:\n\nWould you rather give my company $10 today and have $20 next year, or give me $10 today, get 0 next year, and get $1000 the following year?\n\nThe idea is that when Tesla becomes profitable, it'll become super profitable"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '98rlpc',
'query': 'why is tesla having higher networth than ford or gm, when the former hardly produces a small percentage of cars than latter?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '12888669',
'title': 'Herbal viagra',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'Herbal viagras often carry a number of dangerous side effects. Primarily, they cause abnormally low blood pressure and can restrict blood flow to vital organs. There is also evidence to suggest some preparations may be toxic if taken in larger doses. Additional side effects and dangers of common herbal viagra adulterants, such as sulfoaildenafil, acetildenafil and other analogs, are unknown because these ingredients have not had thorough review in human clinical trials.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '243513',
'title': 'Alprazolam',
'section': 'Section::::Contraindications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 214,
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'passage_text': "Like all central nervous system depressants, alprazolam in larger-than-normal doses can cause significant deterioration in alertness and increase drowsiness, especially in those unaccustomed to the drug's effects.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1670037',
'title': 'Bufagin',
'section': 'Section::::Effects of bufagins.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 688,
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'passage_text': 'Some bufagins have effects similar to poisoning by digitalis, having effects on the cardiac muscle, causing ventricular fibrillation. Some also have local anesthetic action. The analgesic effects have also been proven, by acting as Na+/K+-ATPase inhibitors on the binding sites of the cell membrane. The anti-cancer properties in leukemia and melanoma cells, and the inhibition of the proliferation of prostate cancer cells, have also been investigated in cellular models. Some of the bufagin toxins are used in low doses in traditional Chinese medicine for similar applications as digoxin is used for in Western medicine (i.e. treatment of heart conditions such as atrial fibrillation).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32565',
'title': 'Sildenafil',
'section': 'Section::::Nonmedical use.:Recreational use.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 35,
'end_character': 764,
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'passage_text': "Sildenafil's popularity with young adults has increased over the years. Sildenafil's trade name, Viagra, is widely recognized in popular culture, and the drug's association with treating erectile dysfunction has led to its recreational use. The reasons behind such use include the belief that the drug increases libido, improves sexual performance, or permanently increases penis size. Studies on the effects of viagra when used recreationally are limited, but suggest it has little effect when used by those not suffering from erectile dysfunction. In one study, a 25-mg dose was shown to cause no significant change in erectile quality, but did reduce the postejaculatory refractory time. This study also noted a significant placebo effect in the control group.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12888669',
'title': 'Herbal viagra',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'The name "herbal viagra" is taken from the brand name Viagra, under which drug company Pfizer sells sildenafil citrate, a drug that is used to treat erectile dysfunction. Viagra has become a generic term for many people discussing drugs designed to treat erectile dysfunction, even those which do not contain sildenafil.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32565',
'title': 'Sildenafil',
'section': 'Section::::Society and culture.:Marketing and sales.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 71,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 71,
'end_character': 332,
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'passage_text': "In 2000, Viagra sales accounted for 92% of the global market for prescribed erectile dysfunction pills. By 2007, Viagra's global share had plunged to about 50% due to several factors, including the entry of Cialis and Levitra, along with several counterfeits and clones, and reports of vision loss in people taking PDE5 inhibitors.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '243513',
'title': 'Alprazolam',
'section': 'Section::::Pharmacology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 72,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 72,
'end_character': 394,
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'passage_text': 'Alprazolam is a positive allosteric modulator of the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) type A receptor. When it binds to the receptor, effects of GABA are enhanced leading to inhibition of neurones in the brain. This results effects including reduced anxiety, muscle relaxant, antidepressant and anticonvulsant activity. The activity of alprazolam in the central nervous system is dose dependant.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do drugs like Kamagra and Viagra affect the body?',
'selftext': 'Hello! I was wondering how these work. I heard that originally it was used for other medicinal purposes and the primary use of it now days was just a side effect. How do they work in the human body? Thank you in advance!',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Your question was so interesting that I looked it up. Thanks for making me learn something interesting\n\nI\'ll try to explain Viagra (active ingredient sildenafil). Wikipedia says:\n\n > \n"Sildenafil is a potent and selective inhibitor of [cGMP-specific phosphodiesterase type 5](_URL_0_) (PDE5), which is responsible for degradation of cGMP in the [corpus cavernosum](_URL_1_). "\n\nHere\'s what this means:\n\nThere\'s an compound called cGMP. It does a couple things, but the one that interests us is that it increases bloodflow to the area in the body where it\'s released (for example an erect penis...). Of course, it\'s not active forever. There\'s an enzyme called cGMP that breaks it down and makes it inactive. Sildenafil (the active ingredient in viagra) blocks (or "inhibits") the enzyme. So, if you take sildenafil (viagra), the enzyme takes wayyyyy longer to break down cGMP, making it easier to achieve an erection. \n\n\nAnd yes, it was originally developed for (and is still used for) cardiovascular disease treatment. So if you hear of a child who takes viagra, it\'s not as weird as one may think.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9kit58',
'query': 'how do drugs like kamagra and viagra affect the body?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '377055',
'title': 'Frostbite',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 57,
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'passage_text': 'Individuals with frostbite or potential frostbite should go to a protected environment and get warm fluids. If there is no risk of re-freezing, the extremity can be exposed and warmed in the groin or underarm of a companion. If the area is allowed to refreeze, there can be worse tissue damage. If the area cannot be reliably kept warm, the person should be brought to a medical facility without rewarming the area. Rubbing the affected area can also increase tissue damage. Aspirin and ibuprofen can be given in the field to prevent clotting and inflammation. Ibuprofen is often preferred to aspirin because aspirin may block a subset of prostaglandins that are important in injury repair.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9869631',
'title': 'Underwater ice hockey',
'section': 'Section::::Risks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
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'passage_text': 'Frostbite: With the frozen temperatures, medical teams must be on alert for any signs of frostbite. While there have been no recorded incidents, risk of frostbite is very high. Most are not fully aware of the signs of frostbite as they could come off as typical discomforts. Frost-nip is the earliest of frostbite, where skin may get irritated and turn red. Other signs include itchiness or a burning feeling in the afflicted area. Affected skin may turn shiny or hard before going into the final stages of frostbite. Most are unaware of when they are at risk for frostbite because the affected area eventually loses feeling and people suffering from frostbite may feel warm even though their skin is cold to the touch. Medical teams must be wary of early signs of frostbite before the final stage where skin turns blue and nerve damage occurs. Treatment for frostbite is to immediately choose means that increase blood flow in those areas to minimize damage. Dead skin must be removed and the subject must be warmed. Pain medication is typically administered for nerve pain that can occur during the warming process. For minor frostbitten conditions, ibuprofen pain relievers may be used to reduce inflammation. Blood thinners may also be taken to help prevent damage to nerves. First response treatment of frostbite is to dry skin off and take the patient indoors to warm up.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1274206',
'title': 'Cold hardening',
'section': 'Section::::Insects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': "Cold hardening has also been observed in insects such as the fruit fly and diamondback moth. The insects use rapid cold hardening to protect against cold shock during overwintering periods. Overwintering insects stay awake and active through the winter while non-overwintering insects migrate or die. Rapid cold hardening can be experienced during short periods of undesirable temperatures, such as cold shock in environment temperature, as well as the common cold months. The buildup of cryoprotective compounds is the reason that insects can experience cold hardening. Glycerol is a cryoprotective substance found within these insects capable of overwintering. Through testing, glycerol requires interactions with other cell components within the insect in order to decrease the body's permeability to the cold. When an insect is exposed to these cold temperatures, glycerol rapidly accumulates. Glycerol is known as a non-ionic kosmotrope forming powerful hydrogen bonds with water molecules. The hydrogen bonds in the glycerol compound compete with the weaker bonds between the water molecules causing an interruption in the makeup of ice formation. This chemistry found within the glycerol compound and reaction between water has been used as an antifreeze in the past, and can be seen here when concerning cold hardening. Proteins also play a large role in the cryoprotective compounds that increase ability to survive the cold hardening process and environmental change. Glycogen phosphorylase (GlyP) has been a key protein found during testing to increase in comparison to a controlled group not experiencing the cold hardening. Once warmer temperatures are observed the process of acclimation begins, and the increased glycerol along with other cryoprotective compounds and proteins are also reversed. There is a rapid cold hardening capacity found within certain insects that suggests not all insects can survive a long period of overwintering. Non-diapausing insects can sustain brief temperature shocks but often have a limit to which they can handle before the body can no longer produce enough cryoprotective components.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1251647',
'title': 'Yukon Quest',
'section': 'Section::::Weather.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 58,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The extreme temperatures pose a serious health hazard. Frostbite is common, as is hypothermia. In the 1988 Yukon Quest, Jeff King suffered an entirely frozen hand because of nerve damage from an earlier injury which left him unable to feel the cold. King said his hand became "like something from a frozen corpse". In 1989, King and his team drove through a break in the Yukon River in temperatures. Frozen by the extreme cold, King managed to reach a cabin and thaw out. Other racers have suffered permanent damage from the cold: Lance Mackey suffered frostbitten feet during the 2008 Yukon Quest, and Hugh Neff lost the tips of several toes in the 2004 race.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7435880',
'title': 'The Sims 2: Seasons',
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.:Weather and temperature.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 768,
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'passage_text': 'For example, heat in summer may cause a Sim to experience heatstroke or receive a sunburn. Sims who are outside during the winter may feel cold, though they can be warmed in various ways. Sims can die due to heatstroke and they can also freeze to death. Other Sims have the option of a "thaw" interaction, provided their relationship is high enough. Children who are allowed to get too cold or too hot do not die, but are instead taken away by social services. Rarely, Sims who go outside during a rainstorm can be struck by lightning, but this more commonly happens to trees or other objects. A Sim who survives gets blackened hair and skin that do not come off until the Sim\'s next shower or bath. Also, if a Sim stays out in a hailstorm for too long they will die.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1528350',
'title': 'Cold-weather warfare',
'section': 'Section::::Operational factors – land.:Medicine.:Frostbite.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 92,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 92,
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'passage_text': 'Frostbite is localized damage to skin and other tissues due to freezing. At or below , blood vessels close to the skin start to constrict, and blood is shunted away from the extremities. The same response may also be a result of exposure to high winds. This constriction helps to preserve core body temperature. In extreme cold, or when the body is exposed to cold for long periods, this protective strategy can reduce blood flow in some areas of the body to dangerously low levels. This lack of blood leads to the eventual freezing and death of skin tissue in the affected areas. Frostbite was responsible for over one million casualties in wars in the 20th century. Adequate insulation from clothing is the best way to avoid hypothermia in the field.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26020545',
'title': 'Triple response of Lewis',
'section': 'Section::::Hunting response of Lewis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'end_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'The underlying pathophysiology of frostbite is a combination of freezing, vascular insufficiency (constriction and occlusion) and damage due to inflammatory mediators. As extremities cool, the ‘hunting response of Lewis’ (alternating vasoconstriction and vasodilation) occurs, ending with vasoconstriction.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is it best for someone with frostbite to warm up slowly?',
'selftext': 'It seems like the best idea would be to warm them up as quickly as possible, but I’ve heard that’s not the right course of action. Why should you warm them up slowly? And what happens if they warm up too quickly? I’m from the Southeastern US, so I have no experience with extreme cold or frostbite, I’m merely curious',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It's not about you warming up too quickly. A very cold hand is also a numb hand, so you can't tell how hot the water you're putting on yourself actually is, so it would be very easy to burn yourself without realizing it until you've done serious damage. \n\nMeanwhile it's not really important to have the hottest water possible to warm you up quickly. Whether you're trying to heat or cool something, moving water will get the job done quicker than standing water. It's all about heat transfer. If you combine something hot with something cold, heat will flow from the hot into the cold until both items are the same temp. Moving water maximizes contact, which allows for much faster heat transfer.",
'Frostbite or hypothermia? In hypothermia, or low body temperature, you rewarm slowly because a rapid change would put stress on the heart.',
"Because the amount of oxygen (blood flow) a cell needs is directly proportional to how warm it is. When you warm someone up by putting them in warm water or in front of a fire you warm them up from the outside in. Their body's core temperature is still low so their blood vessels in their extremities will still be constricted even if you warm their hands up. Their hands are warm and need blood flow but their core is still cold and wants to conserve heat so it will still reduce blood flow to the hands which will result in more cell damage.",
"When your extremities are very cold, your body restricts the blood flow to them, but at the same time, the cold also slows their cell's metabolism, almost to a stop. If you heat the area up too quickly, the cells wake up, but because they have no supply of blood, they die. Heating the frostbitten area slowly makes sure blood flow returns in time.\n\nA similar thing happens with hypothermia. Your body restricts blood flow to the surface to maintain warmth in your core. If you heat someone up too fast, the blood travels through those surface areas and brings the cold back to your core where it can damage organs.",
'I’ve been frost bitten before. Putting your hands under running water feels like getting hit repeatedly with hammers. Horrible pain.',
"Weird, now I'm wondering if I believe an urban legend. I was taught it was because frostbite is frozen tissue and ice crystals at a cellular level can cause havoc. So you thaw out the frostbite so it melts rather than having jagged crystals moving. Some cells rupture from water expansion while freezing and without the ability to move anything your body can't repair or mitigate freezing damage."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'f21pdq',
'query': 'why is it best for someone with frostbite to warm up slowly?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '459471',
'title': 'Breathing gas',
'section': 'Section::::For diving and other hyperbaric use.:Individual component gases.:Oxygen.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
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'passage_text': "Oxygen (O) must be present in every breathing gas. This is because it is essential to the human body's metabolic process, which sustains life. The human body cannot store oxygen for later use as it does with food. If the body is deprived of oxygen for more than a few minutes, unconsciousness and death result. The tissues and organs within the body (notably the heart and brain) are damaged if deprived of oxygen for much longer than four minutes.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8221',
'title': 'Death',
'section': 'Section::::Reperfusion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 62,
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'passage_text': '"One of medicine\'s new frontiers: treating the dead", recognizes that cells that have been without oxygen for more than five minutes die, not from lack of oxygen, but rather when their oxygen supply is resumed. Therefore, practitioners of this approach, e.g., at the Resuscitation Science institute at the University of Pennsylvania, "aim to reduce oxygen uptake, slow metabolism and adjust the blood chemistry for gradual and safe reperfusion."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '529870',
'title': 'Control of ventilation',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'The most important function of breathing is the supplying of oxygen to the body and the removal of its waste product of carbon dioxide. Under most conditions, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2), or concentration of carbon dioxide, controls the respiratory rate.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22303',
'title': 'Oxygen',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Medical.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 85,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "Uptake of from the air is the essential purpose of respiration, so oxygen supplementation is used in medicine. Treatment not only increases oxygen levels in the patient's blood, but has the secondary effect of decreasing resistance to blood flow in many types of diseased lungs, easing work load on the heart. Oxygen therapy is used to treat emphysema, pneumonia, some heart disorders (congestive heart failure), some disorders that cause increased pulmonary artery pressure, and any disease that impairs the body's ability to take up and use gaseous oxygen.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20903424',
'title': 'Breathing',
'section': 'Section::::Gas exchange.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The primary purpose of breathing is to bring atmospheric air (in small doses) into the alveoli where gas exchange with the gases in the blood takes place. The equilibration of the partial pressures of the gases in the alveolar blood and the alveolar air occurs by diffusion. At the end of each exhalation, the adult human lungs still contain 2,500–3,000 mL of air, their functional residual capacity or FRC. With each breath (inhalation) only as little as about 350 mL of warm, moistened atmospherically is added, and well mixed, with the FRC. Consequently, the gas composition of the FRC changes very little during the breathing cycle. Since the pulmonary capillary blood equilibrates with this virtually unchanging mixture of air in the lungs (which has a substantially different composition from that of the ambient air), the partial pressures of the arterial blood gases also do not change with each breath. The tissues are therefore not exposed to swings in oxygen and carbon dioxide tensions in the blood during the breathing cycle, and the peripheral and central chemoreceptors do not need to "choose" the point in the breathing cycle at which the blood gases need to be measured, and responded to. Thus the homeostatic control of the breathing rate simply depends on the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the arterial blood. This then also maintains the constancy of the pH of the blood.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1096360',
'title': 'Oxygen saturation',
'section': 'Section::::In medicine.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'In medicine, oxygen saturation refers to "oxygenation", or when oxygen molecules () enter the tissues of the body. In this case blood is oxygenated in the lungs, where oxygen molecules travel from the air and into the blood. Oxygen saturation (() sats) measure the percentage of hemoglobin binding sites in the bloodstream occupied by oxygen. Fish, invertebrates, plants, and aerobic bacteria all require oxygen for respiration.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52242569',
'title': 'Biofluid dynamics',
'section': 'Section::::Elements of Blood and Blood Rheology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 37,
'end_character': 398,
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'passage_text': "Carrying the oxygen and nutrients to various tissues and organs of our body, delivering carbon dioxide to the lungs and accepting oxygen, bringing the metabolic by products to the kidneys, regulating the body's defence mechanism, that is, the immune system and facilitating an effective heat and mass transfer across the body are some of the major functions which blood performs in the human body.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How are we able to hold our breath for so long? How do our vitals still receive oxygen?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Also remember that if you stopped breathing right now, there is enough oxygen in your blood for you to have little to no brain damage for 10 minutes, *as long as your heart keeps pumping*. Sanjay Gupta wrote about this in the CPR chapter of his book Cheating Death. This is why CPR works even if you don't do mouth-to-mouth. If you are taking in zero oxygen, as long as your heart is still pumping, your vitals are still getting the oxygen that is in your blood.",
"You do not consume all of the oxygen in the air you take in during one breath. Inhaled air contains about 21% oxygen, exhaled contains about 16%. So you can see how you would have enough oxygen in a single breath for a while (minutes). The actual urge to take fresh air comes from wanting to get rid of the CO2, which decreases blood pH if accumulated. It's all simple chemistry, gas exchange is governed by rules of diffusion (it's a little more complex when you consider hemoglobin and how tightly you're holding on to oxygen and CO2, but at the fundamental level it's diffusion). So if your blood contains 5X O2 and 10X CO2 (random units), and the breath has 20X O2 and 0X CO2, these two will go down their concentration gradients raising blood O2 and lowering CO2. As you continue exposing your blood to this air in the lungs, you continue to exchange, but as the CO2 is on the rise in the lungs and O2 is dropping, and you keep producing more CO2 and using more O2, you reach a limit and need to take fresh air to re-establish steep enough gradients."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'fejovi',
'query': 'how are we able to hold our breath for so long? how do our vitals still receive oxygen?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '10397339',
'title': 'Coltivirus',
'section': 'Section::::Other characteristics.:Pathogenesis and viral reproduction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "The virus replicates in those bone marrow cells, which disrupts the development and replication of leukocytes (white blood cells), eosinophils, and basophils. Because of this, thrombocytopenia could also a potential result. Erythrocytes, which are enucleated red blood cells, seem to be infected while they are erythroblasts, their nucleated precursor stage. The virus stays in these red blood cells without harming it for up to four months. Here, it is protected from the immune system's attacks. Antibody to the virus is found only about two weeks after symptoms begin to show, but the virus can still be found in blood cells for about six weeks.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '368736',
'title': 'Misconceptions about HIV/AIDS',
'section': 'Section::::HIV infection.:HIV cannot be the cause of AIDS because the body develops a vigorous antibody response to the virus.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'This reasoning ignores numerous examples of viruses other than HIV that can be pathogenic after evidence of immunity appears. Measles virus may persist for years in brain cells, eventually causing a chronic neurologic disease despite the presence of antibodies. Viruses such as "Cytomegalovirus", "Herpes simplex" virus, and "Varicella zoster" may be activated after years of latency even in the presence of abundant antibodies. In other animals, viral relatives of HIV with long and variable latency periods, such as visna virus in sheep, cause central nervous system damage even after the production of antibodies.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19572217',
'title': 'Influenza',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism.:Transmission.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 87,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 87,
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'passage_text': 'As the influenza virus can persist outside of the body, it can also be transmitted by contaminated surfaces such as banknotes, doorknobs, light switches and other household items. The length of time the virus will persist on a surface varies, with the virus surviving for one to two days on hard, non-porous surfaces such as plastic or metal, for about fifteen minutes from dry paper tissues, and only five minutes on skin. However, if the virus is present in mucus, this can protect it for longer periods (up to 17days on banknotes). Avian influenza viruses can survive indefinitely when frozen. They are inactivated by heating to 56°C (133°F) for a minimum of 60 minutes, as well as by acids (at pH 2).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50603',
'title': 'Multiple sclerosis',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Infectious agents.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'Evidence for a virus as a cause include the presence of oligoclonal bands in the brain and cerebrospinal fluid of most people with MS, the association of several viruses with human demyelination encephalomyelitis, and the occurrence of demyelination in animals caused by some viral infections. Human herpes viruses are a candidate group of viruses. Individuals having never been infected by the Epstein–Barr virus are at a reduced risk of getting MS, whereas those infected as young adults are at a greater risk than those having had it at a younger age. Although some consider that this goes against the hygiene hypothesis, since the non-infected have probably experienced a more hygienic upbringing, others believe that there is no contradiction, since it is a first encounter with the causative virus relatively late in life that is the trigger for the disease. Other diseases that may be related include measles, mumps and rubella.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '337196',
'title': 'Neuroanatomy',
'section': 'Section::::Tools.:Viral-based methods.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 39,
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'passage_text': 'Certain viruses can replicate in brain cells and cross synapses. So, viruses modified to express markers (such as fluorescent proteins) can be used to trace connectivity between brain regions across multiple synapses. Two tracer viruses which replicate and spread transneuronal/transsynaptic are the Herpes simplex virus type1 (HSV) and the Rhabdoviruses. Herpes simplex virus was used to trace the connections between the brain and the stomach, in order to examine the brain areas involved in viscero-sensory processing. Another study injected herpes simplex virus into the eye, thus allowing the visualization of the optical pathway from the retina into the visual system. An example of a tracer virus which replicates from the synapse to the soma is the pseudorabies virus. By using pseudorabies viruses with different fluorescent reporters, dual infection models can parse complex synaptic architecture.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37220',
'title': 'Infection',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.:Disease.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 61,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 61,
'end_character': 564,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Persistent infections occur because the body is unable to clear the organism after the initial infection. Persistent infections are characterized by the continual presence of the infectious organism, often as latent infection with occasional recurrent relapses of active infection. There are some viruses that can maintain a persistent infection by infecting different cells of the body. Some viruses once acquired never leave the body. A typical example is the herpes virus, which tends to hide in nerves and become reactivated when specific circumstances arise.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55059510',
'title': 'Immunological memory',
'section': 'Section::::Development of immunological memory.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 1191,
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'passage_text': 'Immunological memory occurs after a primary immune response against the antigen. Immunological memory is thus created by each individual, after a previous initial exposure, to a potentially dangerous agent. The course of secondary immune response is similar to primary immune response. After the memory B cell recognizes the antigen it presents the peptide: MHC II complex to nearby effector T cells. That leads to activation of these cells and rapid proliferation of cells. After the primary immune response has disappeared the effector cells of the immune response are eliminated. However, there remain antibodies previously created in the body that represent the humoral component of immunological memory and comprise an important defensive mechanism in subsequent infections. In addition to the formed antibodies in the body there remains a small number of memory T and B cells that make up the cellular component of the immunological memory. They stay in the body in a resting state and at the second or next encounter with the same antigen these cells are able to respond immediately and eliminate the antigen. Memory cells have a long life and last up to several decades in the body.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does the measles virus wipe out your body\'s "memory" of immunity to other viruses and why is this not common in other viruses?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The virus has a proclivity for immune memory cells as targets for infection. This causes the death of the immune memory cells from the action of the virus itself and from elimination by the healthy aspects of the immune system in fighting the infection. This widespread destruction of the immune memory cells, which are responsible for an individual's immune memory, therefore leads to a loss of said immune memory. The loss of immune memory is then compounded by damage to the skin, respiratory and gastrointestinal tract tissues, which are components of the passive immune system. This combined damage to both the adaptive and passive immune systems results in a higher vunerabiltiy to other pathogens."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'e7acv9',
'query': 'how does the measles virus wipe out your body\'s "memory" of immunity to other viruses and why is this not common in other viruses?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '25096340',
'title': 'Effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance',
'section': 'Section::::Attention.:Selective attention.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'Sleep deprivation has been shown to negatively affect picture classification speed and accuracy, as well as recognition memory. It results in an inability to avoid attending to irrelevant information displayed during attention-related tasks. (Norton) It also decreases activation in the ventral visual area and the frontal parietal control regions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '252866',
'title': 'Altered state of consciousness',
'section': 'Section::::Induction methods.:Pathologies/other.:Sleep deprivation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 68,
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'passage_text': "Sleep deprivation is also associated with ASC, and can provoke seizures due to fatigue. Sleep deprivation can be chronic or short-term depending on the severity of the patient's condition. Many patients report hallucinations because sleep deprivation impacts the brain. An MRI study conducted at Harvard Medical school in 2007, found that a sleep-deprived brain was not capable of being in control of its sensorimotor functions, leading to an impairment to the patient's self-awareness. Patients were also prone to be a lot clumsier than if had they not been experiencing sleep deprivation.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25096340',
'title': 'Effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance',
'section': 'Section::::Attention.:Visuospatial attention.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'By contrast, other studies have indicated that the effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance, specifically, sustained visual attention, are more global and bilateral in nature, as opposed to more lateralized deficit explanations. In a study using the Choice Visual Perception Task, subjects were exposed to stimuli appearing in various locations in visual space. Results indicate that sleep deprivation results in a general decline in visual attention. It is also suggested that the sleep-deprived brain is able to maintain a certain level of cognitive performance during tasks requiring divided attention by recruiting additional cortical regions that are not normally used for such tasks.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '888915',
'title': 'Hypnagogia',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Tetris effect.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'People who have spent a long time at some repetitive activity before sleep, in particular one that is new to them, may find that it dominates their imagery as they grow drowsy, a tendency dubbed the "Tetris" effect. This effect has even been observed in amnesiacs who otherwise have no memory of the original activity. When the activity involves moving objects, as in the video game "Tetris", the corresponding hypnagogic images tend to be perceived as moving. The "Tetris" effect is not confined to visual imagery, but can manifest in other modalities. For example, Robert Stickgold recounts having experienced the touch of rocks while falling asleep after mountain climbing. This can also occur to people who have travelled on a small boat in rough seas, or have been swimming through waves, shortly before going to bed, and they feel the waves as they drift to sleep, or people who have spent the day skiing who continue to "feel snow" under their feet. People who have spent considerable time jumping on a trampoline will find that they can feel the up-and-down motion before they go to sleep. Many chess players report the phenomenon of seeing the chess board and pieces during this state. New employees working stressful and demanding jobs often report feeling the experience of performing work-related tasks in this period before sleep.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '795209',
'title': 'Desloratadine',
'section': 'Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacokinetics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 201,
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'passage_text': 'It exhibits only peripheral activity since it does not readily cross the blood-brain barrier; hence, it does not normally cause drowsiness because it does not readily enter the central nervous system.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18345264',
'title': 'Neural correlates of consciousness',
'section': 'Section::::Forward versus feedback projections.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 375,
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'passage_text': 'It seems possible that visual zombie modes in the cortex mainly use the dorsal stream in the parietal region. However, parietal activity can affect consciousness by producing attentional effects on the ventral stream, at least under some circumstances. The conscious mode for vision depends largely on the early visual areas (beyond V1) and especially on the ventral stream.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '318049',
'title': 'Fibromyalgia',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.:Sleep disturbances.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 704,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Poor sleep is a risk factor for fibromyalgia. In 1975, Moldofsky and colleagues reported the presence of anomalous alpha wave activity (typically associated with arousal states) measured by electroencephalogram (EEG) during non-rapid eye movement sleep of "fibrositis syndrome". By disrupting stage IV sleep consistently in young, healthy subjects, the researchers reproduced a significant increase in muscle tenderness similar to that experienced in "neurasthenic musculoskeletal pain syndrome" but which resolved when the subjects were able to resume their normal sleep patterns. Mork and Nielsen used prospective data and identified a dose-dependent association between sleep problems and risk of FM.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why does sleep deprivation make you see spiders/bugs on your peripheral vision?',
'selftext': 'ETA: I’m bipolar and have put myself through bad sleep deprivation during episodes of mania (don’t do this, kids), as well as talked to people who have undergone the same and it seems most people have a similar experience: Spiders > phantom sensations > loss of depth perception > some weird music that feels like it comes from outside your head > shadow people > even more shadow people',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["I'm pretty sure you are asking why sleep deprivation causes hallucinations, well, sleeping is important for your body, but it's the most important thing for your brain, because during a sleep cycle the brain gets rid of toxins that have accumulated. If you don't sleep these toxins don't go away and grow in number instead, these toxins can disturb neurons activity and therefore make your brain slower and inefficient. On the hallucination side, this means that your brain is not able to correctly interpret an image and it compensates this by relying more heavily on your eyes' input (which makes it even worse, because there are more things for your brain to not see well) [source](_URL_0_)"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'edo6go',
'query': 'why does sleep deprivation make you see spiders/bugs on your peripheral vision?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '154242',
'title': 'PH meter',
'section': 'Section::::Design and use.:Principle of operation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'The design of the electrodes is the key part: These are rod-like structures usually made of glass, with a bulb containing the sensor at the bottom. The glass electrode for measuring the pH has a glass bulb specifically designed to be selective to hydrogen-ion concentration. On immersion in the solution to be tested, hydrogen ions in the test solution exchange for other positively charged ions on the glass bulb, creating an electrochemical potential across the bulb. The electronic amplifier detects the difference in electrical potential between the two electrodes generated in the measurement and converts the potential difference to pH units. The magnitude of the electrochemical potential across the glass bulb is linearly related to the pH according to the Nernst equation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '154242',
'title': 'PH meter',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'Advances in the instrumentation and in detection have expanded the number of applications in which pH measurements can be conducted. The devices have been miniaturized, enabling direct measurement of pH inside of living cells. In addition to measuring the pH of liquids, specially designed electrodes are available to measure the pH of semi-solid substances, such as foods. These have tips suitable for piercing semi-solids, have electrode materials compatible with ingredients in food, and are resistant to clogging.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '154242',
'title': 'PH meter',
'section': 'Section::::Types of pH meters.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
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'passage_text': 'Specialty meters and probes are available for use in special applications, such as harsh environments and biological microenvironments. There are also holographic pH sensors, which allow pH measurement colorimetrically, making use of the variety of pH indicators that are available. Additionally, there are commercially available pH meters based on solid state electrodes, rather than conventional glass electrodes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '154242',
'title': 'PH meter',
'section': 'Section::::Design and use.:Principle of operation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'Potentiometric pH meters measure the voltage between two electrodes and display the result converted into the corresponding pH value. They comprise a simple electronic amplifier and a pair of electrodes, or alternatively a combination electrode, and some form of display calibrated in pH units. It usually has a glass electrode and a reference electrode, or a combination electrode. The electrodes, or probes, are inserted into the solution to be tested.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9765126',
'title': 'Quinhydrone electrode',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'The quinhydrone electrode is a type of redox electrode which used to measure the hydrogen ion concentration (pH) of a solution in a chemical experiment. It provides an alternative to the commonly used glass electrode in a pH meter.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9765126',
'title': 'Quinhydrone electrode',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'Other electrodes commonly used for measuring pH are the glass electrode, the hydrogen electrode, the antimony – antimony oxide electrode, and the ion-sensitive field effect transistor ISFET electrode,\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '154242',
'title': 'PH meter',
'section': 'Section::::Design and use.:Principle of operation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': 'The pH meter is calibrated with solutions of known pH, typically before each use, to ensure accuracy of measurement. To measure the pH of a solution, the electrodes are used as probes, which are dipped into the test solutions and held there sufficiently long for the hydrogen ions in the test solution to equilibrate with the ions on the surface of the bulb on the glass electrode. This equilibration provides a stable pH measurement.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do electronic pH sensors work?',
'selftext': 'This is pretty much what I wonder about every kind of sensor - electronic scales, cameras, etc. - but the one I especially don\'t get is an electronic pH probe. What exactly is it that "senses" the H+ ions present in a solution, differentiates from any other kind of dissolved cation, and translates the intensity of the "H+ signal", whatever that is, into an electric signal picked up by a computer of some sort? And how does it detect the total volume of the solution that the pH probe is submerged in, in order to calculate the H+ concentration that is prerequisite to calculate the pH?',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['An electric pH meter is essentially just a voltmeter. An acid solution is essentially half of a battery, so the pH meter brings the rest of the battery along and measures the potential difference between the two leads on the probe. Once you\'ve determined the voltage of your "battery" the Nernst equation gives you the relationship between voltage and hydrogen ion concentration. \n\nVolume is irrelevant to figuring the pH out in this way because volume does not affect voltage of a battery, just the life of the battery. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5rw7yt',
'query': 'how do electronic ph sensors work?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '11664784',
'title': 'Fizeau experiment',
'section': 'Section::::Fresnel drag coefficient.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'Assume that water flows in the pipes with speed "v". According to the non-relativistic theory of the luminiferous aether, the speed of light should be increased when "dragged" along by the water, and decreased when "overcoming" the resistance of the water. The overall speed of a beam of light should be a simple additive sum of its speed "through" the water plus the speed "of" the water.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26962',
'title': 'Special relativity',
'section': 'Section::::Optical effects.:Dragging effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 122,
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'end_paragraph_id': 122,
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'passage_text': 'According to the theories prevailing at the time, light traveling through a moving medium would be a simple sum of its speed "through" the medium plus the speed "of" the medium. Contrary to expectation, Fizeau found that although light appeared to be dragged by the water, the magnitude of the dragging was much lower than expected. If formula_134 is the speed of light in still water, and formula_69 is the speed of the water, and formula_136 is the water-bourne speed of light in the lab frame with the flow of water adding to or subtracting from the speed of light, then\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3850488',
'title': 'Slow light',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Slow light is the propagation of an optical pulse or other modulation of an optical carrier at a very low group velocity. Slow light occurs when a propagating pulse is substantially slowed down by the interaction with the medium in which the propagation takes place.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42964',
'title': "Snell's law",
'section': 'Section::::Explanation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'As light passes the border between media, depending upon the relative refractive indices of the two media, the light will either be refracted to a lesser angle, or a greater one. These angles are measured with respect to the "normal line", represented perpendicular to the boundary. In the case of light traveling from air into water, light would be refracted towards the normal line, because the light is slowed down in water; light traveling from water to air would refract away from the normal line.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '282998',
'title': 'Prism',
'section': 'Section::::How prisms work.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'end_character': 1175,
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'passage_text': 'Light changes speed as it moves from one medium to another (for example, from air into the glass of the prism). This speed change causes the light to be refracted and to enter the new medium at a different angle (Huygens principle). The degree of bending of the light\'s path depends on the angle that the incident beam of light makes with the surface, and on the ratio between the refractive indices of the two media (Snell\'s law). The refractive index of many materials (such as glass) varies with the wavelength or color of the light used, a phenomenon known as "dispersion". This causes light of different colors to be refracted differently and to leave the prism at different angles, creating an effect similar to a rainbow. This can be used to separate a beam of white light into its constituent spectrum of colors. A similar separation happens with iridescent materials, such as a soap bubble. Prisms will generally disperse light over a much larger frequency bandwidth than diffraction gratings, making them useful for broad-spectrum spectroscopy. Furthermore, prisms do not suffer from complications arising from overlapping spectral orders, which all gratings have.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3850488',
'title': 'Slow light',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'Slow light refers to a very low group velocity of light. If the dispersion relation of the refractive index is such that the index changes rapidly over a small range of frequencies, then the group velocity might be very low, thousands or millions of times less than , even though the index of refraction is still a typical value (between 1.5 and 3.5 for glasses and semiconductors).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3850488',
'title': 'Slow light',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'When light propagates through a material, it travels slower than the vacuum speed, . This is a change in the phase velocity of the light and is manifested in physical effects such as refraction. This reduction in speed is quantified by the ratio between and the phase velocity. This ratio is called the refractive index of the material. Slow light is a dramatic reduction in the group velocity of light, not the phase velocity. Slow light effects are not due to abnormally large refractive indices, as which will be explained below.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If light slows down in water, how does it speed back up again when it comes out?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["There's a way to think about this problem that was--IIRC--in Stephen Hawking's *A Brief History of Time*. \n\nImagine a big famous actor walking through a room. They travel at a constant speed that we'll call A. The actor always moves at speed A, no matter what. When the room is empty, they're able to walk into the room and out of it easily in a straight line. \n\nHowever, if the room is full of people then the actor can't walk in and out of the room in a straight line. They keep moving at A, but because of the people they have to bounce around and take a much more circuitous path to get out of the room. This means that despite remaining at A the entire time, it took them *longer* to get out of the full room than the empty room.\n\nThe same is true with light. The light doesn't 'slow down' in water. The light's still moving at c. However, water is much more dense than air or a vacuum, so in order to make it through the water, the light has to take a much more circuitous path. Despite never changing speed, we as an outside observe perceive the light taking more time to cross through the same distance as a difference in speed, rather than what it actually is: the distance having changed. \n\nThen again, I'm not a physicist, so this could be wrong, but I think it serves as a good ELI5. \n\nEdit: I’m seeing a lot of comments that this explanation is either wrong, too oversimplified or some combination of the two. As I said, I’m not a physicist, and am only repeating what I’ve heard from what I believed to be a reputable source. I would encourage anyone reading this to also look at the discussion underneath this comment and in the rest of the comments as well. Just because I got the most upvotes doesn’t mean I’m right. ",
"It's not losing speed or gaining speed, it's interacting with the water molecules with each interaction requiring a bit of time to complete.",
"I'm sorry, but I have to step in. I have a degree in physics, however, I was never a good student. But I'm pretty sure that light actually do slow down.\n\nI don't know how to eli5 this, but the speed of light is not constant. It depends on Permittivity, Permeability of the medium. Basically, how easy electric and magnetic field 'travel' through the medium. [equation 9](_URL_0_)\n\nIn water, or any other medium that is not vacuum, the Permittivity and Permeability are higher, and thus the speed of light is slower. I'm not a good enough physics student to actually understand why.\n\n",
'A lot of people on here saying things that are decent analogies but aren’t true, others are simply sharing flat out false misunderstandings. \n\nThe light goes into the water. The water is made up of molecules and empty space between them. When traveling between molecules, light is traveling at its universal speed of c. \n\nHowever when a photon of light hits a molecule, it is absorbed. The energy spends some time affecting the molecule—maybe with movement, or electron energy level alterations, etc. Then the photon continues, popping out the other side at speed c. \n\nSo yeah if you measure entry time and exit time you would say, “light slowed down in the water.” But thats not true at all. It simply took some breaks to hang out with the local folks on its path. \n\nTL;DR—Light is just bar-hopping, always driving the same speed but stopping for a drink at a few molecules. \n\nSource: _URL_0_',
"The Feynnman lectures have a good example.of this. Don't have time to search for a link but it's on the refractive index or permittivity stuff. \n\nIt comes down to the light wave cause atoms in the new medium to oscillate at the same frequency as the incoming wave. They oscillate out of phase however. It turns out the addition of the original wave and the induced waves sum up through super posistion to be a new wave with a lower wave speed in the medium."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '7tgzkc',
'query': 'if light slows down in water, how does it speed back up again when it comes out?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
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'title': 'Thermal lag',
'section': 'Section::::Examples.\n',
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'passage_text': "The slow night-time cooling of a home after its external brick wall has been heated by the sun is one example of thermal lag. Thermal lag is the reason the high temperatures in summer continue to increase after the summer solstice (in this case, it is termed seasonal lag), and it is the reason a day's high temperature peaks in the afternoon instead of when the Sun is at its peak (12 noon).\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '476842',
'title': 'San Miguel de Tucumán',
'section': 'Section::::Climate.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Summers are the hottest and most humid time of year. The average temperature during the summer ranges from . In the summer, one can expect daytime highs ranging from ; at night, are the norm. Much of the rainfall that the city receives occurs during the summer months and cloudy weather tends to be more common, averaging 11–13 overcast days and only 2–4 clear days per month. Heat waves can push temperatures up to . However, some relief is possible after cold fronts from the south caused by Pampero winds which brings in cooler air. These winds can be strong following a hot day in advance of the cold fronts.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '136630',
'title': 'Sonora, Texas',
'section': 'Section::::Geography and climate.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Summers are long and hot, often with higher humidity, though a good breeze often moderates the heat. Fall through spring months are often pleasant, though winter can experience brief periods of cold or cloudy weather.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '64203',
'title': 'Zaragoza',
'section': 'Section::::Climate.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Temperatures are hot in summer reaching up to , and in winter are cool, either because of the fog (about twenty days from November to January ) or a cold and dry wind blowing from the northwest, the "Cierzo" (related to other northerly winds such as the "Mistral" in the SE of France) on clear days. Frost is common and there is sporadic snowfall. The Cierzo can cause a \'wind chill factor\' as low as during cold spells.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3045982',
'title': 'Sandbridge, Virginia Beach, Virginia',
'section': 'Section::::Weather.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The summer months average from lows of to highs of , with water temperatures rising from to around by August. The spring and fall are typically milder seasons. The fall and winter are usually warmer than areas inland, while the spring and the summer are often slightly cooler due to the moderating effects of being surrounded by water.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1566210',
'title': 'Climate of Salt Lake City',
'section': 'Section::::Temperatures.\n',
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'passage_text': "Summer temperatures are hot, although are moderated somewhat by the cool breezes from the Great Salt Lake and by the city's elevation. The lack of cold fronts in summer allows the temperatures to become consistently hot due to powerful, long-lasting high pressure . Occasional thunderstorms give almost the only relief in temperatures. In an average year, 5 days hotter than , 23 days greater than , and 56 days greater than can be expected. . However, such days also have very low humidity. The low humidity and the altitude create ideal conditions for radiational cooling, and hence, large swings in temperature. Summer nights are rather cool; the record low even in July is . July is the warmest month, with an average temperature of . Salt Lake City's record high minimum temperature is , set on July 18, 2016, and its record high temperature is , first set on July 26, 1960 and again on July 13, 2002 (although the temperature in 2002 was slightly higher). The last summer-like weather is typically experienced in mid-September; the latest 90\xa0°F (32\xa0°C) temperature was recorded on September 30. Temperatures cool down rapidly in fall. The first major cold fronts typically arrive anytime from mid-September to early October. The first winter-like weather is usually experienced in early-to-mid November.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '74598',
'title': 'Kielce',
'section': 'Section::::Geography.:Climate.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Summer is warm and lasts from June to early September, and is characterized by abundant sunshine, but also severe weather, particularly early in the season. Though temperatures average in the low-to-mid 20s (70s Fahrenheit), they are rather variable with frequent hot spells reaching approximately interrupted by cold fronts, which frequently bring violent thunderstorms and several days of cool and sometimes chilly weather. Although hot weather is frequent and many summers experience a few oppressively hot days of around , summer temperatures in the city are never extreme and have not exceeded in recent decades.\n',
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'title': "why does the same setting in the shower feel warmer in the summer than in the winter? I've noticed on a warm day, I need to turn the shower down because it feels too hot, but surely it's the same temperature?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The water starts warmer in warm weather.\n\nImagine the heater raises the water temp by 20 degrees. If it's 90 outside, it goes to 110. If it's 50 outside, it goes to 70.\n\nThis is a gross oversimplification, of course. But that's the gist of it.",
"The quick answer is, because in winter the cold water coming from your cold water feed is usually a **lot** colder. I don't know about where you live, but where I live (UK) in winter the water coming out the tap makes your hand go numb very quickly. In summer you can hold it under there all day. \n\nIf you have a standard electric shower, the sort that normally has a Off/Eco/Low/High dial and then a numbered temperature dial, they work like this: \n\nThe first 'power' control (off/eco/low/high) of course switches the water on and off, but also puts the power to the heater to one of three states, low medium or high. Naturally three temperature settings isn't enough, you normally want something between, so that's where the other dial comes in. \n\nThe other 'temperature' dial is just a valve that controls the water flow. The higher you turn it the slower it allows the water to flow. The slower the water is flowing the longer it's spending going through the heater, so the hotter it comes out. Turn it down, the water flow increases, it spends less time going through the heater and comes out cooler. \n\nThe reason you have to crank the dial up in winter to get the same temperature is because, that's literally what's happening. The water is colder coming in, because the water supply pipes are colder - the water itself is colder, and it takes more heating up. Simple as that really. \n\nIf you have a standard mixer shower that works off hot and cold water feeds, the same is happening. The cold water is colder in winter, so you need more crank on the temperature dial to get the same temperature coming out the shower head. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '69x23k',
'query': "why does the same setting in the shower feel warmer in the summer than in the winter? i've noticed on a warm day, i need to turn the shower down because it feels too hot, but surely it's the same temperature?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '22141040',
'title': 'LED-backlit LCD',
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'passage_text': 'A LED-backlit LCD is a flat panel display that uses LED backlighting instead of the cold cathode fluorescent (CCFL) backlighting. LED-backlit displays use the same TFT LCD (thin-film-transistor liquid-crystal display) technologies as CCFL-backlit displays, but offer reduced energy consumption, better contrast and brightness, greater color range (using more expensive RGB LEDs, blue LEDs with RG phosphors, or quantum dot enhancement film (QDEF)), more rapid response to changes in scene (with dynamic backlight dimming), and photorefractive effects.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22141040',
'title': 'LED-backlit LCD',
'section': 'Section::::Technology.\n',
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'passage_text': 'LED-backlit LCDs are not self-illuminating (unlike pure-LED systems). There are several methods of backlighting an LCD panel using LEDs, including the use of either white or RGB (Red, Green, and Blue) LED arrays behind the panel and edge-LED lighting (which uses white LEDs around the inside frame of the TV and a light-diffusion panel to spread the light evenly behind the LCD panel). Variations in LED backlighting offer different benefits. The first commercial full-array LED-backlit LCD TV was the Sony Qualia 005 (introduced in 2004), which used RGB LED arrays to produce a color gamut about twice that of a conventional CCFL LCD television. This was possible because red, green and blue LEDs have sharp spectral peaks which (combined with the LCD panel filters) result in significantly less bleed-through to adjacent color channels. Unwanted bleed-through channels do not "whiten" the desired color as much, resulting in a larger gamut. RGB LED technology continues to be used on Sony BRAVIA LCD models. LED backlighting using white LEDs produces a broader spectrum source feeding the individual LCD panel filters (similar to CCFL sources), resulting in a more limited display gamut than RGB LEDs at lower cost.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26697376',
'title': 'Nanoco',
'section': 'Section::::Displays.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The backlighting technology in conventional LCD screens currently uses white LEDs. One of the shortcomings of this technology is that the white LEDs provide insufficient emission in the green and red areas of the visible spectrum, limiting the range of colours that can be displayed. One solution is to integrate QDs into LCD backlight units to improve the colour quality. Green and red QDs can be used in combination with blue LED backlights; the blue light excites the QDs, which convert some of the light into highly pure green and red light to expand the range of colours that the LCD screen can display.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '293396',
'title': 'Flat-panel display',
'section': 'Section::::Common types.:Liquid crystal displays with light-emitting diode (LED) backlighting.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Some LCD screens are backlit with a number of light-emitting diodes (LEDs). LEDs are two-lead semiconductor light sources. This form of LCD is the most prevalent in the 2010s. The image is still generated by the LCD.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '952677',
'title': 'Backlight',
'section': 'Section::::Usage.:CCFL backlights.\n',
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'passage_text': 'For several years (until about 2010), the preferred backlight for matrix-addressed large LCD panels such as in monitors and TVs was based on a cold-cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL) by using two CCFLs at opposite edges of the LCD or by an array of CCFLs behind the LCD (see picture of an array with 18 CCFLs for a 40-inch LCD TV). Due to the disadvantages in comparison with LED illumination (higher voltage and power needed, thicker panel design, no high-speed switching, faster aging), LED backlighting is becoming more popular.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '952677',
'title': 'Backlight',
'section': 'Section::::Usage.:LED backlights.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
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'passage_text': 'Most LED backlights for LCDs are "edge-lit", i.e. several LEDs are placed at the edges of a lightguide, which distributes the light behind the LC panel. Advantages of this technique are the very thin flat-panel construction and low cost. A more expensive version is called "full-array" or "direct" LED and consists of many LEDs placed behind the LC panel (an "array" of LEDs), such that large panels can be evenly illuminated. This arrangement allows for "local dimming" to obtain darker "black" pixels depending on the image displayed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Backlight',
'section': 'Section::::Usage.:LED backlights.\n',
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'passage_text': 'RGB LEDs can deliver an enormous color gamut to screens. When using three separate LEDs (additive color) the backlight can produce a color spectrum that closely matches the color filters in the LCD pixels themselves. In this way, the filter passband can be narrowed so that each color component lets only a very narrow band of spectrum through the LCD. This improves the efficiency of the display since less light is blocked when white is displayed. Also, the actual red, green, and blue points can be moved farther out so that the display is capable of reproducing more vivid colors.\n',
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'title': 'Difference between LED, AMOLED, LCD, and Retina Display?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Retina display refers to a display with pixels small enough that the human eye is physically incapable of distinguishing the difference between adjacent pixels, at a given distance. This is kind of funky because our eyes don't work with pixels but it's probably a decent approximation.\n\nLCD stands for liquid crystal display and basically works by having pixels made of liquid crystals and by applying a certain voltage they will let through different amounts of red green and blue light. The light comes from a backlight (typically one or many LEDs these days). \n\nOLED stands for organic light emitting diode and has tiny colored LEDs in each pixel. This is why a black pixel can emit zero light unlike an LCD which just attempts to block all light from the backlight. \n\nI'm not sure what AMOLED is and I just came here for karma, not to do work.",
'LCD and LED are screens with white backlights, which have moving lens (pixels) that physically move to bend the light from the backlight and produce color\n\nAMOLED have no backlight. The pixels are organic and produce their own light. This allows the screen to be thin as well as produce true blacks.\n\nRetina is nothing more than a marketing term. Apple uses regular LCD/LED and slaps on Retina to make it sound more appealing',
'So these are terms that refer to some fundamentally different things. I\'ll throw a few other terms in the mix that will hopefully clarify things:\n\n###Display Technology\n\n* Cathode ray tube (CRT) where an electron beam is used to excite colored phosphors on the inside of a glass screen. You may have heard it referred to as a "tube TV". This is pretty old stuff, and is the earliest display technology for TVs.\n\n* Plasma displays, where a gas inside each pixel is made to glow. This is now pretty outdated, but still way newer than CRTs. It was especially common back when LCD TVs were new, and lower quality than they are today.\n\n* LCD (liquid crystal display). This is the most common type of display tech for televisions. There are three different colors of pixels (red, green, and blue) that can be made more or less opaque to let through light being created by a backlight behind the screen. The combinations of red, green, and blue can be used to form millions of different colors.\n\n* AMOLED (active matrix organic light emitting diode). Each pixel is made of of individual little lights that don\'t need a backlight. This is newer, and is being used in a lot of newer phones, but is still very expensive for large TVs.\n\n###Backlight technology\n\nNote that backlights are only needed for LCD displays\n\n* Cold cathode. This uses a light similar to the overhead fluorescent lights used in stores and office buildings.\n\n* LED. This uses LEDs (light emitting diodes) to provide the backlight. Newer TVs will have hundreds of individual LEDs to provide even lighting and the ability to dim different sections of the screen to provide better contrast.\n\n###Other stuff\n\n* Retina Display. This is just a fancy Apple buzzword for having lots of pixels that are really tiny, so you can\'t see the individual pixels on the screen even when you look pretty closely.',
"LCD and LED are mostly the same, both being LCD panels. The difference is the backlight technology. Displays listed as LCD use fluorescent tubes to light them where as LED displays use LED lights to light them. They have their strengths and weaknesses, LED is generally considered better as they are often brighter, more energy efficient, and can sometimes utilize dimming zones to improve contrast.\n\nAMOLED is Samsung's OLED technology. OLED is unique where instead of the image being lit by a light behind the screen, each pixel produces its own light. The main advantage to this is near perfect blacks since pixels showing darker parts of an image can show less or even no light at all unlike LCD or LED. They can also be very energy efficient, only turning on parts of the screen that are needed.\n\nRetina display is Apple's term for a high PPI/DPI display, which means more than average pixels per inch. A retina display is usually LCD or in the case of the iPhone X, AMOLED. A higher DPI generally means more detail for the size of screen. It's not anything special, there are many displays out there that are higher DPI than Apple's retina displays, Apple just has a special word for it. ",
'Retina Display is not a technical designation, it\'s a marketing term. There are numerous display resolutions available in PCs (FHD, QHD UHD, etc) and Apple wanted to have a trademarked way to describe their display resolution that nobody else could legally use to make it sound like a unique offer. Depending on the device and screen size the term "Retina Display" can refer to significantly different resolutions and varying pixel density, though generally it means the pixel density is high enough that you cannot make out individual pixels at standard viewing distance. The Microsoft version of this is "PixelSense", which is again a marketing term rather than anything that has technical meaning.\n\n',
"Something relevant that hasn't been explicitly mentioned is that AMOLED black = nothing. That's why blacks look so good. It's in Samsung products but also Google and Apple",
'As an Electrical Engineering student and avid graphics geek, I love this stuff! Great question :D\n\n\n**Displays**\n\nComputer screens are made up of a grid of "pixels", which are little tiny colored squares. Think back to [Super Mario 8-bit](_URL_3_), see how you can see all of the squares in his body? That\'s because your GameBoy\'s pixels were pretty huge. The pixels in your computer now are really tiny, which is why we get smooth round shapes.\n\nIn [old computer screens](_URL_1_), pixels used to either be "on" or "off", either lit up or dark. This meant you could only have black and white images on the screen. **Nowadays, our pixels light up in any combination of colors.** How do they do this?\n\nOne way to create any set of colors is to use different combinations of [Red, Green, and Blue light](_URL_0_). You can make just about any color by combining these three colors.\n\nSo a trick that you can use to create a colored light is by shining a red light, a green light, and a blue light right next to each other at different intensities. If they\'re small enough that your eye can\'t tell them apart, all your eye will see is the light combination. In fact, [that\'s what pixels look like up close](_URL_4_).\n\n**The difference between types of displays is how they use those tiny colored lights to create colors.** \n\n* An **LCD** display has a backlight behind everything, and it controls the color by blocking different amounts of each color of light. This means that "black" on an LCD display still looks kind of bright.\n* An **OLED** display is dark by default, and turns on tiny little colored lights in different amounts to create different colors.\n* An **AMOLED** display is a type of OLED display. It allows you to access and control pixels faster than other types of OLEDs (PMOLEDs), which allows you to have bigger displays.\n* A **retina** display is a fancy Apple marketing term, meaning the [pixel density](_URL_2_) is higher. Basically, this means everything is higher resolution, so your eyes are even less able to see the little tiny pixels. It\'s like going from 8-bit to 16-bit.\n\n',
'There\'s a whole bunch of different display technologies out there today. LCD (liquid crystal display) being the most common. As the name suggests, you have some electrically sensitive crystals that can polarize light when you pass a current through them. Sort of like a high tech Venetian blind. LCDs don\'t produce light on their own though. (Think the original Gameboy.) So they need a backlight to make the screen visible. Originally they used bulky CCFLs (sort of a cross between a neon lamp and a florescent tube), but were eventually replaced with LEDs. These were marketed as LED TVs to differentiate them, and make an easier upsell. The main advantage with LEDs is you can make thinner, more energy efficient displays. Nearly all LCD displays use them now. \n\nThe problem with LCDs is they can\'t display true black. The best ones can block most, but not all light from the backlight. So blacks will always look a bit washed out, resulting in reduced contrast ratio and colour accuracy. CRT and plasma displays can produce true black, but they have their own shortcomings in regards to size and power consumption. OLED is the next gen technology to replace them.\n\nOLED stands for organic light emitting diode. They\'re tiny LEDs made using an organic material that emits light in response to electrical current. An AMOLED display is a matrix of these, with each sub pixel (the red, green, or blue bits of a pixel) being its own individual OLED. They generate their own light, so a backlight isn\'t needed. And since you can turn them off completely, it can display true black. Hence better colour accuracy and contrast. Using organic materials also allows for thin and flexible displays. They do have some shortcomings though. They consume more power than LCD panels when showing a lot of white, like a text document. There\'s also lifespan issues with blue OLEDs. Lastly, they\'re quite a bit more expensive than LCD displays. Though prices have dropped significantly in the last 10 years. \n\nA Retina display is just a marketing term Apple used when the iPhone 4 first came out, to differentiate it from older devices. Basically anything with a 264ppi (pixels per inch) display or higher. Which is basically every phone now. At that point, the individual pixels are so small that that the average person would be unable to see the individual pixels at the closest comfortable viewing distance. A lot of low resolution LCD displays had a noticeable "screen door" effect, including early iPhones and the OG iPad, which is what the high PPI displays sought to address. ',
'Which kind is good for Vegans?',
'Retina is just marketing bullshit.\n\nBasically every non-super-budget android Phone out there has higher pixel density than iPhones, and retina only refers to pixel density.',
'"retina" is merely a term coined by Apple that is essentially 300ppi. Pixels per inch. \n\nBack when the iPhone 4 (I think) came out. It was highly praised for it\'s high resolution and super clear display. \n\nBasically most phones, even budget phones nowadays are "retina" displays because the screen has so many pixels that it\'s very clear and sharp. \n\nThis is a term coined by Apple. So if you see shit like "it doesn\'t have a retina display" it\'s a load of BS.',
"I have to deal with display technologies all the time in my line of work. Here's the major points:\n\n\n**LCD** is like an image being illuminated by a backlight. The backlight can mean that the viewing angles aren't necessarily fantastic and if the backlight is poorly done it can be viable around the edge. This also means a true black isn't achievable. However, more recent LCD display technologies like IPS and PLS, use larger RGB sub pixels and vastly improve uppon the technology.\n\n\n**LED** just means the backlight being used is LED lighting.\n\n\n**OLED and AMOLED** are essentially the same, the only difference being the way the transistors are handled. These screens don't need backlights- they make the light themselves. These are a hot newish technology because we can make them bright and we can make them thin. But they have some huge problems. The blue diodes we use in OLED decay at a very rapid rate. Have a Samsung Galaxy S5 and beyond? Pull up a full screen all grey image and you'll see the issues: burn in and a warmer (orange) color shift. Have an iPhone X? You'll see these problems more and more the longer you have your phone. It's a pretty bad technology in that regard. Far worse than we had with Plasma. It's important to note that OLED screens are not built to last. And though they're touted as high end, we have still not created a great version of OLED. OLED does have the advantage, like laser projection, of being able to display a true black.\n\n\n**Retina Display** doesn't mean anything. It's a silly Apple marketing term that just means more pixel density, but it's not even properly defined. Basically by Retina, Apple means any display technology (and they do mix them) in a device, but with pixels small enough to look smooth. It doesn't mean more resolution (because their phones actually have pretty poor resolution.) It just means decent resolution per inch.\n\n\n**Quantum dot** isn't one you asked about, but it's one to keep an eye out for. It can't, in its current consumer state, display a true black like OLED. But it has better accuracy at high brightness, it can get brighter, and most importantly, it doesn't suffer from burn in. With more development, it has the potential to be the OLED killer.",
'Here\'s an actual ELI5 without technical jargon:\n\nLCD = A panel of dots blocks light in certain areas to make a picture. Behind the panel, the screen is all white all the time. That\'s called the "backlight".\n\n(Side note: "LED" without the O refers to using a LED backlight on an LCD display, unlike previous displays that used a fluorescent light bulb for the same thing - more energy efficient. Fancy LED-lit LCDs can actually dim certain areas of the backlight so it\'s not "all white all the time", mostly to save even more energy.)\n\nOLED = instead of blocking the light, a panel of millions of tiny lights makes up the image directly. That\'s why they\'re so crisp and clear. But because they\'re individual lights, lights left on all the time will become dimmer over time, leaving a "burn-in".\n\n(Side note: you ever seen an electronic billboard on the road? Those are LED, using millions of full size LEDs (like those indicator lights on your TV and modem) to make a picture, but since you\'re viewing it so far away, it looks like a single big image. It\'s fun to get close to one some day! OLED is just a really, really tiny version of the same idea.)\n\nRetina = just a display (of any type) that has individual dots so small that your eye (retina) can\'t tell the difference between them.',
'Retina != a display. It\'s marketing. Anyway. \n\nLCD == Liquid Crystal Display. A large lightsource, in the back of the display (a backlight) or around the edges provides white, multicolored light. Each pixel, or rather color sub pixel, is controlled by a pair of polarizers. Think of polarization as a direction, it goes through a polarizer, it has a polarized direction, call it up or left (it\'s actually quantum blah blah blah not important right now). \nNow that it\'s gone through one polarizer, it\'s chance of going through the second depends on the "direction" of the second polarizer. If the second polarizer\'s direction is parallel to the photon\'s (they\'re both "up) the photon goes through. If it\'s perpendicular (the photon is up and the polarizer is left) the photon doesn\'t. If the direction is "somewhere in between" the photon has a chance of going through, dependent on how close its direction is to the polarizer\'s. If the polarizer\'s direction is halfway in between, it let\'s half of the "up" photons through and blocks the other half.\n\nA liquid crystal display has controllable polarizers. Each little pixel has 3, one for red, green, and blue, that change to let in however much red, green, or blue light you want going through to the users eyes. All this complexity means you get lightleak, or photons bouncing around and through pixels you don\'t want and blah blah blah. But it works.\n\nOLED, or AMOLED (Same thing really, for this purpose) uses something far simpler. Run a current through an organize compound (the O stands for organic) and it emits a specific color of light, easy. The brighter you want it the more current you run through it. You can turn it off completely by not running any, no lightleak. Just same as above, you run three colors (red, green, and blue) per pixel (dependent) and combine to get whatever color you want.',
"LCD is the layer on the front that makes the colours basically, and it has a light behind it that shines through so you can see it. It's called a backlight and is the reason why when you go outdoors you have to turn the brightness up. It has to comepte with the light coming from the sun in front of it and be brighter. LED means an LCD display that used LEDs (the lights) to backlight it instead of cathode tubes which are liek flourescent lights like someone else already said. LEDs can be indivdually switched on or off or dimmmed to make differrent parts of the screen darker than other whereas cathode tubes usually only have the one and the screen has to be entirely dimmed or switched off. \n\nAMOLED displays combat this by having the one layer that providdes both colour and it's own light. Each pixel can be dimmed or brighteneed individually giving you the ultimate contrast and abaility to turn off indivudual pixels to go completely black while having neighbouring pixels at max brightness. Also now that you dont have a backlight layer that has to have the light spread evenly means you can bend the display without having backlight issues so that's why basically all curved or edge to edge or even displays with cutouts are usually AMOLED. \n\nRetina Display is just a marketing term for apple devices with a higher than a certain amount DPI, so a certain pixel density that's so high they say you can't distinguish individual pixels with the naked eye.",
'So which one has the best display? ',
'AMOLED is a Samsung trademark in some regions. Retina Display is an Apple marketing term. We’ll come back to these.\n\nLCD is a type of light filter. In an LCD display, there is a white backlight and a sheet of thousands or millions of tiny filters for Red, Green, and Blue. Each little filter is a subpixel and a group of them (typically a full RGB set) makes up a pixel, the smallest addressable picture element of a display. By adjusting the amount of light let through for Red, Green, and Blue in a coordinated way, specific colors are produced.\n\nAn LED is a Light Emitting Diode. They can be white or colored. LEDs can now be made extremely small in continuous sheets. Some LCD displays use a sheet of white LEDs as a backlight, so that they don’t have to rely on the RGB LCD filters to filter out all the light, to achieve darker darks. (Earlier tech for LCD backlighting was usually one or more fluorescent tubes with material to evenly spread out the light)\n\nIf you make a sheet of colored LEDs, you can make a display without a backlight. An Samsung-branded AMOLED display is just that. AMOLED is an Active Matrix Organic LED. Every phone or computer “OLED” display is Active Matrix, so Samsung having “AMOLED” as a trademark is kinda garbage (and too generic in some regions, thus “Super AMOLED” etc).\n\nRetina Display is a marketing term Apple came up with when they started shipping displays with enough pixels that they couldn’t be distinguished by eye at normal viewing distances, approximately 60 pixels per degree. Previously, it was common for displays to have so few pixels that if you tried, you could easily see each little square making up an image. Still fairly common for computer displays, but phones are now generally well over that threshold.\n\nIf you want to talk about a display, the basic type would be LCD or OLED.\n\nSaying Samsung displays are different because they are AMOLED is wrong, all OLEDs these days are Active Matrix.\n\nSaying only Apple displays are Retina is mostly wrong, because nearly all phone displays these days are greater than 60 pixels-per-degree in normal usage (although it is trivially true that non-Apple displays don’t use the Apple trademarked term).',
'Okay, so while you\'re not explicitly saying it, I assume you\'re referring to display technologies. Lets run through your list with a little bit of background.\n\n* LED: LEDs are **L**ight **E**mitting **D**iodes. They\'re a technology that was invented in the 1950ies and 1960ies. Essentially every red, green or yellow indicator light on electronics from that period onward, and essentially every indicator light on electronics from the 1990ies onward (when LEDs with other colors became available) are LEDs. \nLEDs are derivatives of a simple semiconductor device called a diode, that is in essence a one-way valve for electrons. You can imagine it a bit like a waterfall, where water from a high place can flow down to a low place, but not the other way around. In LEDs, the energy that is normally lost as heat in that process gets converted into photons and emitted. The "one-way valve" thing isn\'t actually important in any way for the application of LEDs, it just happens to be used as energy source. \nIn displays, LEDs are usually (with the exception of AMOLED, see below) used as back light for an LCD display. So lets look at that for a moment\n\n* LCD stands for **L**iquid **C**rystal **D**isplay. What it does is act like a switch for light. If you ever held two polarizing sunglasses in front of each other, you\'ve seen the polarization effect. Light can be filtered such that it moves just in one plane (that\'s a bit simplified, but will do for this explanation) - normally light is a mix of all orientations - by something called a polarization filter, and if you put a second one beind it with the wrong orientation, it will block out the light from the first because it\'s the wrong orientation. A bit like two mail slots you try to push a sheet of paper through. That only works if the mail slots are oriented in the same direction, or the paper direction imposed by the first mail slot won\'t get through the second. \nNow there\'s also ways to rotate that orientation (that\'s where the mail slot analogy stops working), and that\'s what\'s used in LCD displays. You have two sheets of polarization filter that are oriented such that they normally block the light, and something between that can rotate the light such that it will get through the second after all. What makes this useful is the ability for this substance in-between, that\'s the eponymous liquid crystals, be switchable by electricity, that is the property "rotates the light polarization plane" can be switched on and off by putting a electric voltage to these liquid crystals or not. You can probably see how this is useful: Each of these units is an electrically switchable light valve that will let light through or not. And, what makes this even more useful is that these valves can be built really tiny, tiny enough to be used as pixel on a screen. So what you do is you have a grid of many many many of these light valves, each one switchable by an electric voltage, and then some control circuitry that translates the video signal from the computer into the individual signals for each of these valves. \nSo far so good, but there\'s two more puzzle pieces needed here. One is where does the light you\'re turning on and off come from. Of course you could just make the back of your LCD screen transparent and use the natural light around you, or put a small mirror behind it and use the light from the front by passing it through twice. That is being done in really small LCD displays, the ones that need you to shine a light on them so you can see something. But for a computer monitor that is supposed to show a high-quality uniform picture, that\'s not good enough. So you put a back light behind it, a uniform white light source. The older technology is [cold cathode fluorescent tubes](_URL_1_), which works like the green letters on old calculators, just larger and instead of a green phosphor they used a white one. Or, you use LEDs, which is where we\'re back at the last section. For the operation of the LCD, it doesn\'t really matter where the light it turns on and off comes from though \nThe second puzzle piece is color. You want a color monitor, after all. But that\'s solved easily. You just shine white light through, and then put a grid of alternating red, green and blue color filters in front of the pixels. The electronics converting the video signal for your monitor just need to know which pixel has which filter, and you\'re set.\n\n* Retina Display: That\'s just Apple marketing speech for an LCD display with small pixels. The number of pixels per area on a monitor is called the resolution. Traditional monitors used 72 or 96 dpi (**d**ots **p**er **i**nch), which means on a 1 inch by 1 inch grid, you get 72x72 or 96x96 pixels. That\'s okay...ish. But the human eye is still able to see the individual pixels if you look closely. For a long time, that was the end of the line in display technology. But, in recent years, it became possible to up the pixel density. For reference, book printing often uses 300 dpi, and many modern computer printers can do even 600 or 1200 dpi or more. It\'s generally accepted that somewhere between 300 and 600 dpi, it becomes impossible to see the individual pixels at a normal viewing distance. And retina displays are trying to reach that point with their pixel density. Other than that they\'re just ordinary LCD panels.\n\nOkay, amost there, one more thing to talk about:\n\n* AMOLED: AMOLEDs are **A**ctive **M**atrix **O**rganic **L**ight **E**mitting **D**iode (displays), sometimes just called [OLED](_URL_0_) displays. At some point above, you might have asked yourself "Why the complicated stuff with the back light and the light valves, why not just use a bunch of LEDs and put them in a grid and turn them on and off? Wouldn\'t that be easier?" And of course you\'re right there. And that *is* being done and works well, for large screens like stadium displays and outdoor ad displays. But, the catch is, you can\'t make an LED made out of traditional inorganic semiconductors (i.e. the usual semiconductors we know which are made from metals like silicon, or germanium and some others) small enough to be usable as pixel in a conventional computer screen. \nBut over the last 20 or so years, a new technology appeared on the scene: Organic semiconductors. *Organic* in this context refers to the definition of organic used in chemistry, that is molecules with a carbon back bone. Carbon is an interesting molecule, that has a *huge* range of properties it can be made to exhibit. I could ramble on about how that is, and I happily will if you want, but for now lets just leave it at carbon is extremely versatile. And, as it happens, it was found carbon compounds can also be used to do what traditional inorganic LEDs do, that is turn electric energy into light of a specific color. These devices are called Organic LEDs. And, crucially, it is possible to make these devices *much* smaller while they\'re still bright enough to be useful. So that\'s where displays come in, since we can now make (organic) LEDs small enough for the usual pixel size in computer displays, companies started doing that. OLEDs don\'t work exactly like traditional LEDs, but their functional principle is close enough that the name *LED* has stuck around. \nSo far the technology is still young, and still has its problems. One is that we can\'t make large displays well and cheaply yet, the production technology just isn\'t good enough yet to make large cost-effective displays (but you can bet there\'s people working on that as we speak). But the size of cell phone displays is already doable at a competitive price today. Which is why you can buy cell phones with AMOLED displays. And the other snag is that so far, these organic molecules aren\'t quite as stable as inorganic semiconductors. Which translates to pixels in AMOLED displays malfunctioning earlier, AMOLED displays becoming less bright over time and so on. Again, something that is being worked on, as AMOLED is seen a break-through technology in the industry.\n\nAlright, that\'s it. If you got any follow-up questions let me know.',
"LED: Light Emitting Diode. These are typically used for backlighting in modern non-OLED displays. They're capable of emitting a very pure, white light, they're very power efficient, and they turn on instantly, unlike older cold cathode backlighting. \n\nAMOLED: Active Matrix Organic Light-Emitting Diode. This is a screen which is comprised of what are essentially many tiny green, red, and blue LEDs. Because these light up on their own, no backlight is required - and they can be turned off completely, giving them the deep blacks they're renowned for.\n\nLCD: Liquid Crystal Display, which is a more conventional type of screen technology. Liquid crystals get manipulated by electricity to change their color. They do not emit light by themselves, necessitating a backlight. Because of this, you cannot get perfect blacks with them. \n\nRetina's basically just a marketing term Apple uses for a certain amount of PPI (Pixels per Inch) on a panel/monitor. In most of their products, Apple uses IPS displays, which are a type of LCD panels. IPS panels are unmatched in terms of color reproduction, but since they require a backlight, you cannot get perfect blacks with them. \n\nIPS and (AM)OLED panels both have their advantages and disadvantages. As I previously mentioned, IPS panels have more accurate color reproduction, while OLED panels have deep blacks and more vibrant colors. However, unlike IPS panels, OLED panels are also more susceptible to burn-in and mura (uneven colors). OLED panels also tend to use a Pentile grid, which uses twice as many green subpixels as red and blue ones. This effectively lowers your resolution by one-third, and many people argue that you don't truly get the advertised resolution on, say, a 1440p Pentile AMOLED panel. [Here's a traditional RGB grid next to an AMOLED grid. RGB looks much better.](_URL_0_) Thankfully, resolutions on phone screens are so high nowadays that this is practically a non-issue. \n\nI might've gotten some of this wrong, but it should be mostly correct!"],
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'query': 'difference between led, amoled, lcd, and retina display?',
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'title': 'Animal rights',
'section': 'Section::::Philosophical and legal approaches.:Utilitarianism.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Scientific publications have made it clear since the 1980s that the majority of researchers do believe animals suffer and feel pain, though it continues to be argued that their suffering may be reduced by an inability to experience the same dread of anticipation as humans, or to remember the suffering as vividly. The problem of animal suffering, and animal consciousness in general, arose primarily because it was argued that animals have no language. Singer writes that, if language were needed to communicate pain, it would often be impossible to know when humans are in pain, though we can observe pain behavior and make a calculated guess based on it. He argues that there is no reason to suppose that the pain behavior of nonhumans would have a different meaning from the pain behavior of humans.\n',
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'title': 'Pain in animals',
'section': 'Section::::In different species.:Pain.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Many animals also exhibit more complex behavioural and physiological changes indicative of the ability to experience pain: they eat less food, their normal behaviour is disrupted, their social behaviour is suppressed, they may adopt unusual behaviour patterns, they may emit characteristic distress calls, experience respiratory and cardiovascular changes, as well as inflammation and release of stress hormones.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '52499440',
'title': 'Animal grief',
'section': 'Section::::How Long Do Animals Feel Grief?\n',
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'passage_text': "One of the questions that can be asked aside from do animals grieve is how long do they grieve for or if these animals show signs of mourning. Anthropologist Barbra J King mentions how animals might sleep less or change their ways in their daily life styles. These animals might also end up staying close to their companion's corpse for a long time as well (Safina, 2015). Something we know is that emotions in a human can change, one day they can be sad and the other happy. Actions are taken days after one of our loved ones die, such as time of school, work or any social interaction (Safina, 2015). It is actually the same for animals. An example that can be shown is in chimpanzees.\n",
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'title': 'Culling',
'section': 'Section::::Culling and ethics.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Jaak Panksepp, an American neuroscientist, concludes that both animals and humans have brains wired to feel emotions, and that animals have the capacity to experience pleasure and happiness from their lives. For this reason, there are those who believe that culling animals is morally wrong.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '7746391',
'title': 'Denialism',
'section': 'Section::::Scientific.:Animal pain and suffering.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The denial of animal pain and suffering is often inconsistent between related species. Such beliefs have led to the publication of books such as "Why We Love Dogs, Eat Pigs, and Wear Cows" written by social psychologist Melanie Joy in which she popularised the term "carnism".\n',
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'title': 'Animal grief',
'section': 'Section::::Implications of Research.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Though grief in animals may seem questionable, evidence shows it is abundant. From chimpanzees to otters to sea lions, animals grieve just like humans do. Researchers like Bekoff, Fashing, Nguyen, and others, are studying every day to help better understand how and why animals grieve. With increased knowledge, humans can have better relationships with animals. For example, zoo caretakers can study chimpanzee grief habits and better notice when a chimpanzee mother is mourning. The caretakers can then help the mother cope and live a healthy and successful life. Research shows grief in animals, and understanding that can help humans form closer, healthier connections with them.\n',
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'title': 'Animal consciousness',
'section': 'Section::::Scientific approaches.:Pain or suffering.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Further arguments revolve around the ability of animals to feel pain or suffering. Suffering implies consciousness. If animals can be shown to suffer in a way similar or identical to humans, many of the arguments against human suffering could then, presumably, be extended to animals. Others have argued that pain can be demonstrated by adverse reactions to negative stimuli that are non-purposeful or even maladaptive. One such reaction is transmarginal inhibition, a phenomenon observed in humans and some animals akin to mental breakdown.\n',
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'title': 'Why do we often feel more sad when viewing or hearing about animal suffering/death, than we do about the equivalent in humans?',
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'answers': ["There's a thing called the [Just-World Hypothesis](_URL_0_). Humans want to think that the world is a fair place; so when we hear about something bad happening to someone, there's a tendency to think of a reason they *deserved* it.\n\nThe most common moral frameworks don't hold animals accountable for their actions, so they aren't capable of deserving what happens to them.",
'There are several possible reasons:\nLooks: we have the tendency to classify things as "cute" or "funny" or "innocent" based on appearance and favourise those, and in turn would want to protect those, so seeing most animals that we in turn believe are "cute" hurt we instantly think that its something bad happening to something that we don\'t want it happening to. This is not true for all animals, like rhinos yet we feel that taking their horn\'s ivory is bad because its like taking someone\'s bone for profit without their consent; unthinkable.\nJustice-belief: when a something bad happens to a human it tends to come from another human which means that whatever caused that sad event must be related to their previous actions (that\'s our first assumption) like if you got punched then you probably annoyed someone first. Animals who could not have purposefully done something bad, like a robbery, obviously don\'t deserve something bad happening to them.\nPopulation: there are more humans than other mammals combined so who would care if one human, even a little child, died of starvation(?) when it doesn\'t do much harm to us overall whereas a starving red panda is a catastrophe because dying out is a serious threat to them\nProtection: humans are more well legally protected by organisations so if a gang was to kill someone, they would get arrested. The International Whale Alliance who want to stop illegal whaling might see a whaling ship but not be allowed to arrest it or even expect a reaction from authorities because eventhough illegal whaling is illegal, there are not actuall punishments for it and no law enforcement group to ensure it doesn\'t happen (imagine murder being illegal but there are not police and no prisons; it\'s basically legal at this point). Because of that we see it as unfair that this MAY have been avoided\n'],
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'query': 'why do we often feel more sad when viewing or hearing about animal suffering/death, than we do about the equivalent in humans?',
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'title': 'Penalty kick (association football)',
'section': 'Section::::Infringements.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In the case of a player repeatedly infringing the laws during the penalty kick, the referee may caution the player for persistent infringement. Note that "all" offences that occur before kick may be dealt with in this manner, regardless of the location of the offence.\n',
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'title': 'Penalty kick (association football)',
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'passage_text': 'In case of an infringement of the laws of the game during a penalty kick, most commonly entering the penalty area illegally, the referee must consider both whether the ball entered the goal, and which team(s) committed the offence.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3120845',
'title': 'Laws of Australian rules football',
'section': 'Section::::Officiation.:Tribunal.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Onfield infractions considered to warrant a more severe penalty than a free kick are handled off-field by a league tribunal. Such incidents include deliberate or reckless acts of violence, such as striking, punching, tripping, kicking or endangering the head of an opponent, as well as misconduct such as abusing umpires or other players. Field umpires, boundary umpires and goal umpires are all permitted to "report" players for such infractions; in matches where there is video footage and where league rules permit, players may also be reported based on video evidence. For players who are found guilty of reportable offences, tribunals can issue fines or suspend players for a certain number of games.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '989586',
'title': 'Floor hockey',
'section': 'Section::::Rules.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Penalties for illegal actions are enforced. A player committing a major infraction is required to sit out of the game for two minutes, resulting a power play, but a minor infraction may result in a free hit. Penalties are typically given for the following actions:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2176922',
'title': 'Ejection (sports)',
'section': 'Section::::Conditions.:Cricket.\n',
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'passage_text': "In the event of a Level 3 or Level 4 offence, they will instruct the captain to remove the offending player from the field; if the offending player's captain refuses to comply with an instruction to remove a player, the umpires will award the match to the opposition, or if both captains are involved and both refuse to comply, abandon the match.\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '58128665',
'title': 'Tournoi Indoor de Paris-Bercy',
'section': 'Section::::Rules.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The offside rule did not apply. A shot on goal could only be made from the opposing side. Indoor football courts are delimited by walls instead of lines, and there are no player throw-ins. Therefore, players were allowed to play with the walls. If the ball flew over the walls or contacted the ceiling, play was stopped and the team opposing the one that most recently touched the ball was awarded a free kick at the location where the ball left the arena or made contact with the ceiling. In case of a foul in the penalty area, the shot is taken from the penalty mark, which is 9 meters from the goal line. Goals are also smaller than in standard football and the penalty area is also smaller. The field is commonly 61m by 26m.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '13061016',
'title': 'Glossary of rugby union terms',
'section': 'Section::::P.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 230,
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'passage_text': 'Penalties are awarded for serious infringements like dangerous play, offside and handling the ball on the ground in a ruck. Penalties are signalled by the referee with a straight arm raised in the air. Players can also receive red and yellow cards, as in Association football.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do football clubs know who in a stadium has committed an offence in order to ban them?',
'selftext': "As in [the man being banned from Tottenham games for throwing a banana at a black player on the pitch]( URL_0 ), and numerous other incidents of people being banned from football grounds for offences including shouting racist/homophobic abuse and throwing things on the pitch, how are the clubs able to find and identify who amongst the tens of thousands of spectators committed the abuse in order to ban them? They can't have cameras pointed at all areas of the stadium in enough detail to know who did what, or be able to hear who shouted what, surely?",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['CCTV surveillance and a security staff.\n\nThere is usually at least one guard per section watching the crowd.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'a2uuu6',
'query': 'how do football clubs know who in a stadium has committed an offence in order to ban them?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '8676888',
'title': 'Sodium permanganate',
'section': 'Section::::Preparation and properties.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'Sodium permanganate behaves similarly to potassium permanganate. It dissolves readily in water to give deep purple solutions, evaporation of which gives prismatic purple-black glistening crystals of the monohydrate NaMnO·HO. The potassium salt does not form a hydrate. Because of its hygroscopic nature, it is less useful in analytical chemistry than its potassium counterpart.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1558567',
'title': 'Oral rehydration therapy',
'section': 'Section::::Physiological basis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
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'passage_text': 'Sodium absorption occurs in two stages. The first is via intestinal epithelial cells (enterocytes). Sodium passes into these cells by co-transport with glucose, via the SGLT1 protein. From the intestinal epithelial cells, sodium is pumped by active transport via the sodium-potassium pump through the basolateral cell membrane into the extracellular space.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9020298',
'title': 'Pump leak model',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Sodium is passively transported from the tubular fluid into the tubular cells at the apical membrane (via ion channels), and then actively pumped out of the tubular cells at the basolateral membrane (via Na+/K+ ATPase), which then enters the blood.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1605200',
'title': 'Salt',
'section': 'Section::::Edible salt.:Sodium consumption and health.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
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'passage_text': 'Table salt is made up of just under 40% sodium by weight, so a 6g serving (1teaspoon) contains about 2,300mg of sodium. Sodium serves a vital purpose in the human body: via its role as an electrolyte, it helps nerves and muscles to function correctly, and it is one factor involved in the osmotic regulation of water content in body organs (fluid balance). Most of the sodium in the Western diet comes from salt. The habitual salt intake in many Western countries is about 10 g per day, and it is higher than that in many countries in Eastern Europe and Asia. The high level of sodium in many processed foods has a major impact on the total amount consumed. In the United States, 75% of the sodium eaten comes from processed and restaurant foods, 11% from cooking and table use and the rest from what is found naturally in foodstuffs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '666',
'title': 'Alkali metal',
'section': 'Section::::Production and isolation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 150,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 150,
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'passage_text': 'Sodium occurs mostly in seawater and dried seabed, but is now produced through electrolysis of sodium chloride by lowering the melting point of the substance to below 700\xa0°C through the use of a Downs cell. Extremely pure sodium can be produced through the thermal decomposition of sodium azide. Potassium occurs in many minerals, such as sylvite (potassium chloride). Previously, potassium was generally made from the electrolysis of potassium chloride or potassium hydroxide, found extensively in places such as Canada, Russia, Belarus, Germany, Israel, United States, and Jordan, in a method similar to how sodium was produced in the late 1800s and early 1900s. It can also be produced from seawater. However, these methods are problematic because the potassium metal tends to dissolve in its molten chloride and vaporises significantly at the operating temperatures, potentially forming the explosive superoxide. As a result, pure potassium metal is now produced by reducing molten potassium chloride with sodium metal at 850\xa0°C.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11787655',
'title': 'Alkali soil',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 986,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::3. Many sodium salts are used in industrial and domestic applications such as Sodium carbonate, Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda), Sodium sulphate, Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), Sodium hypochlorite (bleaching powder), etc. in huge quantities. These salts are mainly produced from Sodium chloride (common salt). All the sodium in these salts enter into the river / ground water during their production process or consumption enhancing water sodicity. The total global consumption of sodium chloride is 270 million tons in the year 2010. This is nearly equal to the salt load in the mighty Amazon River. Man made sodium salts contribution is nearly 7% of total salt load of all the rivers. Sodium salt load problem aggravates in the downstream of intensively cultivated river basins located in China, India, Egypt, Pakistan, west Asia, Australia, western US, etc. due to accumulation of salts in the remaining water after meeting various transpiration and evaporation losses.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1514075',
'title': 'Sodium phosphates',
'section': 'Section::::Di- and polyphosphates.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 248,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Beyond the diphosphates, sodium salts are known triphosphates, e.g. sodium triphosphate and tetraphospates. The cyclic polyphosphates, called metaphosphates, include the trimer sodium trimetaphosphate and the tetramer, NaPO and NaPO, respectively.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'how does half sodium salt work?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It's something that is trying to approximate the taste of salt, but has less sodium chloride in it. \n\nThe LoSalt product uses potassium chloride. Potassium is right below sodium on the periodic table of elements, so it will bond to chlorine in the same way. It has a salt like taste, but no sodium."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7nw6np',
'query': 'how does half sodium salt work?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '679192',
'title': 'Superior oblique muscle',
'section': 'Section::::Function.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'The great importance of intorsion and extorsion produced by the two oblique muscles can only be understood when it is considered with regards to the other muscle actions present. The two obliques prevent the eye from rotating about its long axis (retina to pupil) when the superior and inferior rectus muscles contract. This is because the orbit does not face directly forwards- the centre-line of the orbit is a little over 20 degrees out from the mid-line. But because the eyes do face forwards, when acting alone, as well as making the eye look up, superior rectus causes it to rotate slightly about the long axis, so the top of the eye moves medially (intorsion). Similarly, in addition to making the eye look down, inferior rectus would cause the eye to rotate about the long axis so the top of the eye moves slightly laterally (extorsion), if acting alone. Clearly this is undesirable as our vision would rotate when we looked up and down. For this reason, these two rectus muscles work in conjunction with the two obliques. When acting alone, superior oblique causes intorsion, inferior oblique, extorsion. Hence, when inferior rectus contracts so we look down, superior oblique also contracts to prevent extorsion of the eye, and when superior rectus contracts so we look up, inferior oblique contracts to prevent intorsion, thus the undesired rotatory actions of the inferior and superior recti about the long axis of the eye are cancelled out. This keeps our vision horizontally level, irrespective of eye position in the orbit.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1070221',
'title': 'Human eye',
'section': 'Section::::Vision.:Extraocular muscles.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 457,
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'passage_text': 'Each eye has six muscles that control its movements: the lateral rectus, the medial rectus, the inferior rectus, the superior rectus, the inferior oblique, and the superior oblique. When the muscles exert different tensions, a torque is exerted on the globe that causes it to turn, in almost pure rotation, with only about one millimeter of translation. Thus, the eye can be considered as undergoing rotations about a single point in the center of the eye.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1157448',
'title': 'Accommodation reflex',
'section': 'Section::::Convergence.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 607,
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'passage_text': 'Convergence is the ability of the eye to simultaneously demonstrate inward movement of both eyes toward each other. This is helpful in effort to make focus on near objects clearer. Three reactions occur simultaneously; the eyes adduct, the ciliary muscles contract, and the pupils become smaller. This action involves the contraction of the medial rectus muscles of the two eyes and relaxation of the lateral rectus muscles. The medial rectus attaches to the medial aspect of the eye and its contraction adducts the eye. The medial rectus is innervated by motor neurons in the oculomotor nucleus and nerve.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1894873',
'title': 'Eye movement',
'section': 'Section::::Anatomy.:Muscles.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'Six extraocular muscles facilitate eye movement. These muscles arise from the common tendinous ring in the orbit, the eye cavity, and attach to the eyeball. The six muscles are the lateral, medial, inferior and superior rectus muscles, and the inferior and superior oblique muscles. The muscles, when contracting, cause movement of the eyeball, by pulling the eyeball towards the muscle. For example, the lateral rectus is on the lateral side of the eyeball. When it contracts, the eyeball moves so that the pupil looks outwards. The medial rectus causes the eyeball to look inwards; the inferior rectus downwards and the superior rectus upwards. The superior oblique muscle and inferior oblique muscle attach at angles to the eyeball.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2088203',
'title': 'Abducens nucleus',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical significance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 477,
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'passage_text': 'In contrast, damage to the area of the nucleus results in binocular lateral gaze paralysis: loss of the ability to move the eyes together in the direction of the side with the lesion. This is due to damage to both the motoneurons and interneurons projecting through the medial longitudinal fasciculus to the contralateral medial rectus neurons. Note, however, that the eye contralateral to the lesion can still move in the direction of the lesion during convergence movements.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '679192',
'title': 'Superior oblique muscle',
'section': 'Section::::Function.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 955,
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'passage_text': 'The depressing action of superior oblique (making the eye look down towards the mouth) is most effective when the eye is in an adducted position. This is because as the eye is abducted (looks laterally), the contribution made by superior oblique to depression of the eye decreases, as the inferior rectus muscle causes this movement more directly and powerfully. The main muscle for abduction is the lateral rectus, so although superior oblique contributes to a downwards and lateral eye movement, testing this motion would not be specific enough as inferior and lateral recti muscles would also be tested. Therefore, during neurological examinations, the superior oblique is tested by having the patient look inwards and downwards, testing only the depressing action of the muscle. This is a source of confusion on the subject as although clinical testing asks the patient to adduct and depress the eye, anatomically the muscle depresses and abducts it.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2351872',
'title': 'Scleral buckle',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'The scleral buckle is secured around the eyeball under the conjunctiva. This moves the wall of the eye closer to the detached retina. It also may move the retina closer to the vitreous. This alteration in the relationships of the tissues seems to allow the fluid which has formed under the retina to be pumped out, and the retina to re-attach. The physics or physiology of this process are not fully understood.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do both eyes move in the exact same way? And why does it cause strain when they don’t (e.g crossing your eyes for too long)',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['When the nerve going to one eye is stimulated, somewhere along the way that same nerve stimulates the nerve of the opposite eye. So essentially both nerves for each eye are stimulated at the same time when your brain decides to look a certain way.',
"I can answer the first part. There's a pathway of nerves that control our eyes that cross the midline of the brainstem in various areas. The right and left eyes are connected by this pathway and it is responsible for reflexes that control the lateral and medial (to the side and to the middle) muscles of our eyes. This keeps the eyes moving in the same directions. (For more info search Edinger Westphal Nucleus and superior colliculus)\nI'm not sure about crossing the eyes. I'm sure it's extra work for the brain to process the images, so that's probably why it causes headaches after extended periods.\n\nI'm also 3 jack and cokes in though..."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'chibyp',
'query': 'how do both eyes move in the exact same way? and why does it cause strain when they don’t (e.g crossing your eyes for too long)',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2293916',
'title': 'Tide table',
'section': 'Section::::Dates and times.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'The cycle of tides is dependent on the phase of the moon, with the highest tides (spring tides) occurring near full moon and new moon. As the lunar cycle is about 29.5 days, successive tides are approximately 24/29th of an hour later each day or about 50 minutes but many other observations and considerations are required to develop accurate tide tables. On the Atlantic coast of northwest Europe, the interval between each low and high tide averages about 6 hours and 10 minutes, giving two high tides and two low tides each day, with the highest tides about 2 days after full moon.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18842323',
'title': 'Sea',
'section': 'Section::::Physical science.:Tides.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
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'passage_text': 'Most places experience two high tides each day, occurring at intervals of about 12 hours and 25 minutes. This is half the 24 hours and 50 minute period that it takes for the Earth to make a complete revolution and return the Moon to its previous position relative to an observer. The Moon\'s mass is some 27\xa0million times smaller than the Sun, but it is 400 times closer to the Earth. Tidal force or tide-raising force decreases rapidly with distance, so the moon has more than twice as great an effect on tides as the Sun. A bulge is formed in the ocean at the place where the Earth is closest to the Moon, because it is also where the effect of the Moon\'s gravity is stronger. On the opposite side of the Earth, the lunar force is at its weakest and this causes another bulge to form. As the Moon rotates around the Earth, so do these ocean bulges move around the Earth. The gravitational attraction of the Sun is also working on the seas, but its effect on tides is less powerful than that of the Moon, and when the Sun, Moon and Earth are all aligned (full moon and new moon), the combined effect results in the high "spring tides". In contrast, when the Sun is at 90° from the Moon as viewed from Earth, the combined gravitational effect on tides is less causing the lower "neap tides".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '54962',
'title': 'Geophysics',
'section': 'Section::::Physical phenomena.:Gravity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'The gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun give rise to two high tides and two low tides every lunar day, or every 24 hours and 50 minutes. Therefore, there is a gap of 12 hours and 25 minutes between every high tide and between every low tide.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30718',
'title': 'Tide',
'section': 'Section::::Tidal constituents.:Principal lunar semi-diurnal constituent.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
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'passage_text': 'The Moon orbits the Earth in the same direction as the Earth rotates on its axis, so it takes slightly more than a day—about 24 hours and 50 minutes—for the Moon to return to the same location in the sky. During this time, it has passed overhead (culmination) once and underfoot once (at an hour angle of 00:00 and 12:00 respectively), so in many places the period of strongest tidal forcing is the above-mentioned, about 12 hours and 25 minutes. The moment of highest tide is not necessarily when the Moon is nearest to zenith or nadir, but the period of the forcing still determines the time between high tides.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30718',
'title': 'Tide',
'section': 'Section::::Observation and prediction.:Timing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 93,
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'passage_text': 'The tidal forces due to the Moon and Sun generate very long waves which travel all around the ocean following the paths shown in co-tidal charts. The time when the crest of the wave reaches a port then gives the time of high water at the port. The time taken for the wave to travel around the ocean also means that there is a delay between the phases of the Moon and their effect on the tide. Springs and neaps in the North Sea, for example, are two days behind the new/full moon and first/third quarter moon. This is called the tide\'s "age".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30718',
'title': 'Tide',
'section': 'Section::::Observation and prediction.:Example calculation.\n',
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'passage_text': "Because the Moon is moving in its orbit around the Earth and in the same sense as the Earth's rotation, a point on the Earth must rotate slightly further to catch up so that the time between semidiurnal tides is not twelve but 12.4206 hours—a bit over twenty-five minutes extra. The two peaks are not equal. The two high tides a day alternate in maximum heights: lower high (just under three feet), higher high (just over three feet), and again lower high. Likewise for the low tides.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1169299',
'title': 'Pororoca',
'section': 'Section::::Explanation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'During new and full moons, when the ocean tide is highest, water flows in from the Atlantic, rather than the other way around. The Amazon’s flow reverses, the distance of which depends largely on the rainwater-generated outflow of the Amazon, and a water bulge speeds upstream often with great force, forming a tidal bore with an audible noise. The tidal phenomenon is best observed on biannual equinoxes in September and March during a spring tide. On an equinoctial spring tide, the Moon and Sun fall into direct alignment with the Earth, and their gravitational pull is combined, bringing the Pororoca and others around the world to their peak.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How does the ocean go through two tide cycles in a day, where the moon only passes 'overhead' once every 24 hours?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["To grossly oversimplify, one tide is caused by the gravity of the Moon, the other is caused by the centrifugal force of Earth orbiting the shared centre of gravity of the Earth-Moon system. \n\nBoth are delayed from when you'd expect them to happen by the friction with the bottom of the ocean. ",
"The moon has a stronger pull on objects close to it and a weaker pull on objects farther from it.\n\n* The water between the earth and moon is closest to the moon\n* The Earth's body is at a moderate distance from the moon\n* And the water on the opposite side is farthest from the moon.\n\nThe moon pulls these three parts at different strengths and cause them to separate from each other.\n\nThe moon pulls the body of water close to it, causing high tide where the moon is. The moon also pulls the earth toward it, but not as much. And since the earth is being pulled towards the moon, it leaves behind a body of water on the opposite side where the moons pull is weakest.\n\nSo there is a high tide on the area close to the moon and another high tide on the opposite side of the earth. As the moon orbits the earth we experience these two high tides.\n\n---\n\n**Edit:** Help me improve this answer by discussing below and upvoting good explanations! There are a few issues with this answer and there are several excellent details in the comments below that I'd like to give visibility to\n\n* Is there a good illustration of this explanation?\n* What about moon phases? is there a difference in tide height when there's a full moon vs a new moon? (hint: Syzygy)\n* Is the moon being pulled by the earth? Or is the earth being pulled by the moon? Upvote the best explanation below.\n* The two high tides on each end of the earth are not the same height - why?\n* There are some areas where the tides barely rise and fall. What are these areas and why? (hint: tilt, geography)\n* Other than water, are there other stuff that is affected by the moon's gravity? (hint: fluids other than water)\n* Sometimes there's only one high tide in a day - why?\n* If tides are caused by gravity, what about other stuff that has gravity? Do they affect the tides at all?\n* My answer implies that the earth is moving towards the moon which is not the case. Can someone help me clarify this?\n\n\nComment your clarification and additional information below and upvote those that you like! Have a nice day everyone!\n\nEdit2: added more hints",
"Imagine a baby that likes to collect toys but can't crawl yet, put in the middle of a room with a lot of toys spread evenly about. The baby grabs all the toys it can reach and has them with them.\n\nHow are the toys distributed? There is the highest concentration of toys right near the baby, then a patch of fewer toys where the baby has been collecting and then a middle amount of toys further away where the baby can't reach. \n\nThe moon is like the baby, and the water in the oceans is like the toys. Gravity acts with less force the further away the two things are, so the moon can pull the water on its side of the earth more than the water elsewhere.\n\nThe low tide in between is where water is pulled away to the moon's side, and the high tide at the other side is water that's too far away to be pulled by the moon.",
"I'll add, in addition to the useful replies already given, that there are some parts of Earth that do in fact only have a single tide per day (one high, one low). For example, according to the NOAA, some parts of the Gulf of Mexico (_URL_0_)",
'The earth and the moon constantly attract each other. This means that, in a way, the earth is constantly falling towards the moon. \n\nNow the closer to an attracting body you are, the more you get attracted to it and thus the faster you fall towards it. The water that is on the side of the earth that is closest to the moon gets attracted the most and thus creates tide there. The ground right underneath the water however gets held back by the part of the earth that is further away from the moon and thus falls slower than the water above it. \n\nOn the other side of the planet, we have the opposite: the ground right underneath the water gets pulled more by the part that is _closer_ to the moon than the water above it. So earth "falls away" from to water on it, and thus a tide gets created on that side as well. As a result, we see the tide twice. ',
'The Moon also pulls the Earth away from the water on the opposite side, so that water gets deeper. \n\nOther answers here are more comprehensive but I thought this was a good literal eli5.',
'Just skip all of the comments that mention centrifugal force: they are not correct.\n\nI have to leave for work, so I\'ll have to add more later, but even if the Earth and moon were not orbiting each other (they could be moving in any fashion whatsoever), there would still be 2 tidal bulges on either side of the Earth (and moon, for that matter). \n\nTides are a purely gravitational effect: a relative stretching across an object, due to the differential of gravitational force caused as the strength of gravity falls off with increasing distance.\n\nEDIT: At work and trying to answer when it\'s slow.\n\nFirst: a [visual](_URL_0_).\n\nThe bright smudges are two galaxies which are in the early stages of a galaxy collision and merger. Between them, a bridge of stars is forming, as each galaxy gravitationally rips stars off of the nearby edge of the other galaxy. On the outer edges of each galaxy, there are streamers of stars ( called tidal tails) that look like they\'re being ejected *away* from the centers of the galaxies, as well. This is what tidal forces look like on large scales.\n\nThe galaxies used to look like this ("A" and "B" for the centers, "s" for stars at the edges):\n\nsssAsss .......... sssBsss\n\n\nNow, they look like this:\n\n s s s A s s s s s s B s s s\n\nThe strength of gravity weakens with distance, so stars on the near edge of galaxy B are accelerated towards galaxy A more than the center of galaxy B is accelerated towards galaxy A. The near-side stars, then, are pulled away from the center of the galaxy.\n\nThis is also true for the center of the galaxy and the stars on the *far* side, but in reverse. The center of galaxy B is accelerated towards galaxy A more than the stars on the *far* side of galaxy B are accelerated towards galaxy A. The center of galaxy B, then, is pulled away from the stars on the far edge of galaxy B.\n\nFrom the perspective of the center of galaxy B, then, it looks like the stars on either side are being pushed *away* from you in opposite directions.\n\nTides in the Earth-moon system work the same way. In this case, though, it\'s the water on the surface of the Earth that\'s being pushed away from the center of the Earth (the moon is also stretched into a slight potato-shape because of this effect). \n\nThe easiest way to see why the centrifugal-force explanation doesn\'t work is to notice that the sun contributes to the tidal forces the Earth feels as well. When the sun and moon are aligned with the Earth ( new moon and full moon) their effect add, and we experience *spring tides*. These tidal forces are the same, whether it\'s new moon:\n\nS-M-E\n\nor full moon:\n\nS-E-M\n\nFor the new moon configuration, the centrifugal-force thing kinda works: the bulge on the near side of the Earth is a result of the addition of the gravity of the Earth and moon (they\'re on the same side). The far-side bulge is similarly the result of the addition of the centrifugal forces from the earth-moon and earth-sun orbits. \n\nNothing obviously wrong so far, but this reasoning falls apart when you look at the full moon configuration, when the sun and moon are on opposite sides of the Earth. Now, the centrifugal-force contributions from the Earth-sun and Earth-moon orbits are pointing in *opposite* directions, partially cancelling each other out. You would predict that tides would be much *lower* in the S-E-M configuration than the S-M-E configuration, but that\'s not what we observe.\n\n',
'There is another tide on the far side of the earth. This is because the moon attracts all the water on earth. The water closest to the moon is attracted more than the water on the far side of the earth. In effect, the water "stretches".\n\nSo you have two bulges of water, directly in line with the moon. The bulge on the near side of the earth to the moon is bigger than the one on the far side.\n\nThe low tides are simply the two areas that don\'t have a bulge (halfway between the bulges).\n\nThe sun also affects the tides (somewhere around 30% of tidal effects are from the sun). When the sun and the moon are in line with one another, the suns tidal effects and moon tidal effects add. This is called a spring or a King tide. It doesn\'t matter if it\'s Sun-Moon-Earth or Sub-Earth-Moon, as long as they are in a line.\n\nWhen the sun and moon make a 90 degree angle with the earth, the effects of the sun and moon don\'t work with each other, and the tides are lower. This is called a neap ride. The earth bulges the water along one axis and the sun pulls the water along an axis at an angle of 90 degrees, and this rounds out the bulges so the low tide is higher and the high tide is lower (less extreme).\n\nSpring and neap tides occur twice a month (remember a month is about how long it takes the moon to rotate about the earth). So every 7 days you get a neap or spring tide. \n\nAdding to all this is the fact that the earth is rotating, and because a day is shorter than a month, we rotate into the tides. This cause the earth\'s rotation to slightly slow, making our days longer, very slowly.',
'Gravity pulls less and less hard the farther away things are. There’s a bulge of water that’s directly under the moon because it’s closer than the earth is sits on and is thus pulled harder. Likewise, the entire earth is pulled harder than the water exactly on the opposing side of the earth from where the moon is. Therefore there are two bulges of water on exact opposite sides caused by the moon. These two bulges cause the high tides. ',
'This is the simplification that made it click for me... Imagine the Earth is completely surrounded by water and the moon is pulling on that water forming it into an ellipse with the long axis along the Earth-Moon line, like in [this schematic.](_URL_0_)\n\nNow imagine the moon and the ellipse are stationary, and the Earth (land only, without the water) is rotating beneath the water. Focus on a single point and count the number of cycles it would go through in one full revolution.\n\n',
"You have two tides a day, because you have a tide when the moon is overhead and one when the moon is on the opposite site.\n\nThis is because the moon pulls different points on the earth's surface in different directions in relation to earth's center, [like in this picture.](_URL_0_)\n\nThe forces are tiny, but added up over a whole ocean, the forces **on the top and bottom** bulge out the ocean towards (and away from) the moon. That is also the reason why you don't have tides in smaller things full of water - because the forces are tiny and you need to have enough surface area to create them. [It's explained in greater detail in this video](_URL_1_) .",
"I see a lot of explanations in here that I feel only cover half the story. \n\nSo the first part is this:\nThere are 2 bulges of water (high tides). One on the side where the moon is, and one on the opposite side of the earth. The opposite side happens because of the fact that the earth is pulled towards the moon. The entire earth is made into an oval. Water is more affected by this than landmass, so you'll notice the tides in the water, but you need scientific instruments to measure the tides in the crust.\n\nThe second part:\nThe moon only rotates around the earth once every month or so, but the earth is spinning around it's own axis. So the bulge of water, pointing both towards and away from the moon, stays kind of the same, whilst the earth is 'spinning through' the water. This is why you have roughly 2 times high tide per day. If the moon would always be on the same spot in the sky, you'd have exactly 2 tides. However, the moon is also revolving around the earth. So every day, the position of the moon relative to the earth moves a tiny bit, and that's why you don't have exactly two high and low tides per day. \n\nNow you can also understand why there is an extra strong high tide when it's full moon or new moon! When it's full moon, the moon is as far away from the earth as ever, so the 'force of the moon' doesn't increase, but when it's full or new moon, the moon and the sun are aligned! So now both the moon and the sun are 'forming' the bulge in the same direction! Even though the sun is really far away and pulls on the water a lot less, it's effect can still be noticed! Hope you found this explanation informative!",
"If I leave a half full glass of water outside why doesn't the moon pull the water closer to the top of the glass?",
'Is one tide higher than the other?',
'Marine Biologist here\n\nTide are quite a bit more complicated than the simple textbook diagram will tell you. \n\nThe simple illustration of tides looks like[this](_URL_3_)...the moon pulls at the earth, and causes a bulge of water to face the moon, but also a bulge on the far side of the moon. Why isn\'t there just a bulge on the near side of the earth? That\'s what you\'d get if the earth was, eg, stuck on an immovable rod and the moon was just pulling the loose stuff on the surface toward it. But that\'s not how it works. Instead, it pulls the whole earth. It pulls the near part a lot, the center a middle amount, and the far part a less amount. Basically the furthest bit of the planet is bulged out because the rest of the earth is pulled away from it.\n\nBut it\'s more complicated than that. For starters, there is also a substantial pull from the sun, which means there are actually [two sets of bulges](_URL_5_). When they line up, we get bigger tides, when they cancel out, we get smaller ones. The bulges also [don\'t point directly](_URL_0_) at the moon. Because the earth spins faster than the moon goes around the earth, the tidal bulge is drug "ahead" of the moon due to friction. As a result, the spin of the earth is slowed and the moon gets a little bit further away. In the early days of the planet the moon was closer and the days were shorter.\n\n\n**BUT**...the biggest, most important caveat is that all the stuff I just mentioned is a description of what goes on at the planetary scale. What happens with the actual tides at the actual seashore is another story entirely. For example, London in the UK, Valencia in Spain, and Lagos in Nigeria are all at about the same longitude (0.13W, 0.37W, 3.37W). But the [high tide in London](_URL_2_) today occurs at UTC 3:22pm. In [Valencia](_URL_1_) it occurs at UTC 10:26 PM. And in [Lagos](_URL_4_) it occurs at UTC 5:35PM.\n\nOr consider Chile, which is stretched out along the same latitude but where the tides vary by more than four hours.\n\nAnd note that the height of the tides varies drastically from place to place too. In the Bay of Fundy the tides vary by 16+ meters, in the Mediterranean they can vary by centimeters. So what happened to that nice neat picture with two uniform bulges going around the earth?\n\n[This](_URL_6_) is a map of the actual movements of tides in the ocean. What\'s going on here? Well, first, an explanation of the map. The lines labeled "tidal delay" reflect lines along which tides are delayed by that many hours from the theoretical lunar tide. Notice how they radiate out from the center of the ocean. You can think of real life oceanic tides as bulges of water washing around the ocean, with the "Crest" of the bulge along each line at a different hour. \n\nIn short, the actual planetary scale tides caused by the moon set the water sloshing around in the ocean. And that sloshing leads to the actual tides at the seashore. Imagine getting a cake pan and filling it halfway with water, then adding a few rocks (to simulate the continents). The planetary scale tidal forces are simulated by you shaking the pan back and forth slowly at regular intervals. The observed tides are simulated by the way the water sloshes around in the pan in response. ',
"There's a large part about the tidal bulge that isn't being discussed, here. It is *not* simply that the side of the of the Earth facing the moon experiences more gravity and the side furthest experiences less. If it were, tidal forces would be able to lift any arbitrary object the 0.6 meters or so that we see waters rise or fall. Similarly, we don't see tides in rivers or lakes, so it's not just gravity at work. \n\nGravity, itself, is not that strong. If you work the math, the presence of the moon has a virtually unmeasurable contribution to the local gravity on Earth.\n\nThat said, that virtually unmeasurable change in gravity adds up to create a gradient of water pressure that's lowest on the sides facing and opposing the moon's position and highest on the sides orthogonal to the moon's position. In order to balance that change in pressure, the higher-pressure water sinks and the lower-pressure water rises until the forces acting on the water as a whole are in equilibrium--kind of like a tube manometer, but on a planetary scale.\n\nAddendum: Hydrostatic forces being at the core of the tides also explains why you don't see tides in cups of coffee, rivers, or lakes. At small scales, the variation in gravity and hydrostatic pressure are too small to notice; I think even Lake Superior's tides would be measured in millimeters at best. It takes having a body of water that encompasses the planet itself (as the oceans do) to make that variation noticeable.",
'Short answer: It passes overhead once, which means it passes under once as well. High tide both times. ',
'What happens when you pull on a sphere? Recognize the symmetry? ',
'Here\'s an amazing youtube video about it, with some great graphics, that also addresses a lot of very common misconceptions: [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)\n\nThe essence of the reason has to do with a "gravity difference" I\'ve seen mentioned in a lot of different comments here, but none of them are actually complete. We need to look at more points around Earths surface. We use the moon\'s gravitational pull on the center of the earth as a baseline, and subtract that vector from the gravity vector on the surface. Directly under the moon, the gravity is in the same direction and stronger, so our resulting vector is directly up from the earths surface. Directly opposite the moon, the gravity is in the same direction and weaker, so again the result is directly up from the earths surface. Since its gravity, everything is pulled on exactly the same way, and the earth is flexible enough to be pulled up as much as the water from just this effect.\n\nOther points on the earth surface get more interesting. Imagine a globe, with a point on it directly under the moon. At 90 degrees in any direction from that point, the gravity from the moon pulls about as strongly as as the center, but slightly angled toward the center of the earth. The resulting gravity difference points at the center of the earth. Now, at every other point on earth this gravity difference changes smoothly between the straight up at points under/opposite the moon, and straight down at 90 degrees to those points. For most of the earth\'s surface, that gives a gravity difference that points sideways across the surface, exactly toward the point under the moon or opposite it. With all the sideways pulls across the huge surface area of the ocean, the oceans basically flow to the points under/opposite the moon, creating the tidal bulges.\n\nThis also helps explain (partly) the variation in tides at different places. At a given place, the strength of the tide will be related to the amount of ocean that can be pushed there.',
'Omg, so many wrong explanations... It\'s not that the water is pulled. The earth is not exactly solid, it stretches like an oval to the direction of the moon, leaving the sea to "fall" from the two points to the shorter sides. ',
"The simplest I can put it: The moon squeezes the water on both sides of the earth, so there's two bulges. One facing the moon, and one away from the moon.",
"The top answer on this this is part of the answer, but it isn't fully correct. I'll tell you where you can find a full answer just because explaining it with text would make this a very long comment.\n\n[This 9 minute video](_URL_1_) explains how the tides work without using any math, relying only on visuals and intuition, although this description is fully informed by mathematical rigor. The guy doing the presentation has a degree in physics and so really does understand what he's talking about. The style of description, avoiding all math and such, is done to make the video accessible to a general audience, but the only thing that would needed to be added to make this video *entirely* correct is math calculations. The video is actually 15 minutes but the last 6 are responding to comments from a previous video. [This video](_URL_0_) has comment responses to the first video I linked to starting at 11:54. The comment response here is only ~2 minutes long.",
'Bc moon is always pulling water on one side the opposite side has to experience tide too so 2 tides at all times and both are passing in 24h',
'So does the atmosphere bulge more toward the moon/where the moon is overheard too?',
'Sit in a bath, with your legs outtretched, and push the water down the bath with your hands. The water level will rise at your feet and sink at your torso, then rise at your feet and sink at your torso. Now after that happens, pull your hands back. The water will sink at your feet and rise at your torso, then sink at your torso and rise at your feet. With one cyclic motion of your hands, you have made two tidal motions. This is the same for the moon as water is completely connected, and tidal motion is due to a variation in gravitational forces. So when the moon is furthest, and closest to your location, some time after that you get tidal peaks, and 2 for every one cycle of the moon.'],
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'query': "how does the ocean go through two tide cycles in a day, where the moon only passes 'overhead' once every 24 hours?",
'query_type': 'Physics',
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'passage_text': 'White vinegar is often used as a household cleaning agent. For most uses, dilution with water is recommended for safety and to avoid damaging the surfaces being cleaned. Because it is acidic, it can dissolve mineral deposits from glass, coffee makers, and other smooth surfaces. Vinegar is known as an effective cleaner of stainless steel and glass. Malt vinegar sprinkled onto crumpled newspaper is a traditional, and still-popular, method of cleaning grease-smeared windows and mirrors in the United Kingdom.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Laundry detergents contain a mix of ingredients including surfactants, builders, optical brighteners, etc. Cleaning action arises primarily from the action of the surfactants and other ingredients, which are designed to maximise release and suspension of dirt and microbes into the wash liquid, together with enzymes and/or an activated oxygen-based bleach which digest and remove stains. Although activated oxygen bleach is included in many powder detergents to digest and remove stains, it produces some chemical inactivation of bacteria, fungi and viruses. As a rule of thumb, powders and tablets normally contain an activated oxygen bleach, but liquids and all products (liquid or powder) used for "coloureds" do not. Surfactants also exert some chemical inactivation action against certain species although the extent of their action is not known.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A laundry sour is a chemical added to clothing during the final rinse cycle of a washing machine to lower the pH of the water and to assist with the removal of detergents and rust stains. Most such sours are fluoride-based, including ammonium silicofluoride, ammonium bifluoride, and hydrofluosilicic acid; glycolic acid is also used. The US Department of Defense recognizes two "types" of laundry sours: type I is sodium silicofluoride and sodium acid fluoride in powdered, crystal, or flake form; type II is ammonium bifluoride in flake form.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Vinegar ink (dirty) is a form of non-food soy. It has a number of environmental benefits. Much of the soybean crop requires no irrigation, limited fixed nutrients, and leaves fewer agricultural residues than other crops. Soy ink also has low levels of VOCs, (volatile organic compounds) which helps to reduce air pollution by minimizing toxic emissions.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Some claim that black vinegar has numerous medicinal properties, such as a tonic which may lower blood pressure and cholesterol levels. In Japan, "kurozu" is a somewhat lighter form of black vinegar, made just from rice. It has been marketed as a healthful drink.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Other recipes, which were handed down from generation to generation, require the biltong to be left overnight in the vinegar, salt, and spice solution (between 12 and 24 hours). The spice mix traditionally consists of equal amounts of rock salt, whole coriander (slightly roasted), roughly ground black pepper, and brown sugar. The vinegar serves as a primary inhibitor of "Clostridium botulinum" bacteria, according to WHO (the World Health Organisation), while the salt, coriander, pepper, and cloves all have antimicrobial properties.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In addition to use as an ingredient in cleansers with other cleansing ingredients, ammonia in water is also sold as a cleaning agent by itself, usually labeled as simply "ammonia". It may be sold plain, lemon-scented (and typically colored yellow), or pine-scented (green). Commonly available ammonia with soap added is known as "cloudy ammonia".\n',
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'title': "Why does adding white vinegar to the laundry take care of bad smells and why don't laundry detergents already contain these properties?",
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'answers': ['Vinegar helps break down protein and minerals, like salt and calcium. \nSo vinegar will help remove smell from dirt, sweat, etc. \nBecause vinegar also breaks down calcium, it softens your clothes and helps clean your washing machine in good shape by preventing scale. \n\nCommercial laundry detergents are designed to make your clothes very fluffy and scented and to make you, as a consumer think that scent is a necessary part of cleanliness and therefor keep you buying the product.',
'How much vinegar should you add?',
'We used vinegar in our front load washer for about a year before it broke. Turns out the vinegar caused some kind of reaction between the aluminum and stainless steel used in the drum, and caused the aluminum to basically dissolve. Electrolysis of some kind. The repair shop said that happens often when people use vinegar in some washers. It was actually in the manual not to use vinegar in the machine. So our bad. And not covered by the warranty. \n\nOur new washer actually says you can use vinegar to clean it when using the tub cleaning cycle. So we use vinegar in the laundry too.',
'Use it for all your cleaning needs. Super Cheap. Kills all the bad kitchen stuff. Effective. And doesn’t contain a bunch of chemicals that are probably not great for you.',
'I only use vinegar for washing, no detergents. I also use baking soda/water and vinegar/water to wash my hair. I learned both of these tricks from my MIL and I think they work much better than more expensive options. I’ve been doing both for a couple years now and with the money I’ve saved on shampoo/ conditioner and detergent I’m happy.',
"My mom has always sworn by a bit of vanilla essence to neutralize smells.\n\nWe've always had dogs in the house and this works really well for their bedding. Maybe 10 or 20mil of cheap-ish vanilla essence (usually for baking) in the rinse cycle makes a huge difference!\n\nI think it masks more than destroys the smell, but it's effective! Also works great when window curtains with a cigarette smoke smell...",
"General rule of thumb, most of the stains you're trying to remove require a high pH(more basic/alkaline). Vinegar, being an acid, actually lowers the pH making commercial laundry detergents less effective. The smell is likely coming from your washer itself, which the vinegar helps to remove odors from.\n\nSource: I work for company that supplies raw materials for making Laundry Detergents.\n\nEdit: Whoa, my first silver! Thanks Anonymous Redditors! Finally putting my chemistry degree to good use.\n\nSecond Edit: Platinum! You guys are too kind!",
'"Adding" used here is confusing. You do not add vinegar, you use it instead of detergent, or use it in the rinse cycle. \n\nCleaning clothes requires a ph of about 11. Most water is a ph of 7. So borax or washing soda will help your detergent clean better, because the ph is raised (by the soda or borax). Deodorizes as well. \n\nDetergent works by having two heads. One head is sticky and picks up dirt and grease and the other head is water soluble and is washed away, carrying the grease with it. \n\nWhen either too much or too little detergent is used, the sticky heads remain in the laundry with the smelly smells. The vinegar carries these away. \n\nUnderstanding the process makes it easier to remember, for me at least. \n\n(Please forgive bad sentence structure and spelling, I have a broken finger.)',
'Acid and alkaline things neutralize each other. \n\nThe detergent is alkaline on purpose. It puffs up the fibers in whatever your washing to help allow surfactants (also in laundry soap) remove the soils. \n\nOnce your washer rinses the detergent out you can add softeners and vinegar. Commercial laundries do just that. They call it sour, and it neutralizes whatever detergent is left as well as help keep bacteria from taking hold.',
'Modern washers can stink because, unlike the olden days, a lot less water is used so a lot of stuff gets left behind when the water is drained away. Dead skin, hairs, oils, dirts, even detergent leftovers stay behind and start to decay and get smelly. \n\nLess water also means that you can not use a lot of detergent, because it does not always breakdown all of the soap, which gets left behind. \n\nFront load washers are the bane of my existence because that seal around the door retains water and gets funky. You must always dry that entire seal, even behind it, when you are done using the machine. If you pull back the seal at the bottom you will see some holes made to drain out excess water. Those drain holes are usually clogged with hair, socks, coins etc and the water will puddle there and get funky. \n\nIf you buy a front loader be prepared to do a lot of cleaning chores. Front loaders get the funk. \n\nOnce the funk takes hold it is hard to get rid of and it smells like low-tide at the marsh. \n\nI work on these machines as part of my job.',
'EDIT: Don\'t upvote this any more! It is seriously flawed and largely incorrect. \n\nVinegar is a mild acid, so it helps the water and detergents to do their job in two ways:\n\n1) Makes things dissolve more easily\n2) Changes pH slightly to denature some proteins\n\nMOST persistent bad smells in laundry are from proteins and rancid fats. So regular detergents are designed to MOSTLY break up the water-resistant properties of fats and similar non-polar chemicals so that they will dissolve. Some proteins (e.g. cat piss proteins) are a bit more difficult to denature and/or dissolve without changing the pH. So some additional acid is helpful, and vinegar is a common, mild acid that is usually available.\n\nBut acid isn\'t necessary for every, or even most washes - detergents and water are usually sufficient. Also, some laundry systems could deteriorate with regular, repeated acidic washes, simply because of the materials used in the machines (e.g. aluminum and plastics in the pump and valve mechanisms).\n\nSo, a detergent that was marketed and packaged with a vinegar equivalent already in it would probably earn a poor reputation from uninformed consumers who used it too often and messed up their machines. Conversely, for a "normal" non-stinky load of wash, people would notice no difference.',
'Adding vinegar (acid) to laundry detergent (generally caustic) would reduce the alkalinity and overall effectiveness of the laundry detergent. I feel it would make more sense to add the vinegar to the final rinse cycle vs the wash cycle. This would help to neutralize any residual alkalinity from the wash and still aid in reducing washing machine odor.',
"I've been told vinegar breaks down soap/detergent so I use it at the start or end of my wash but never at the same time as the detergent.",
"Pro Tip: I had a huge problem lately of my towels not absorbing water and smelling musty. I looked online and it seems commercial detergents and fabric softener coats your fabrics with a wax like covering. Making towels less absorbant and harder to dry. Now I do 1 cup vinegar and hot water. If they're really bad do a second cycle with 1 cup baking powder and hot water. Haven't had a problem since! I'm seriously thinking of ditching detergent all together and going with vinegar and wool dryer balls.\n\nVinegar is also better at killing mold in absorbant surfaces like clothes and towels. Bleach is better for killing mold on hard surfaces like tile.",
"I had an ex bf with the smelliest feet I've ever ugh. I used to wash his socks by themselves first with vinegar then another time with regular laundry soap. I was told not to use them together for what ever reason. I didnt care it worked. Man I do not miss dealing with that shit",
'The vast majority of bad smells are:\n- ammonia based\n- thiol based\n- purine based\n\nAcetic acid reacts with all of those very fast, and the products are highly soluble in water and effectively odourless.\n\nThe downside is that acetic acid makes most detergents less effective, can cause accelerated corrosion in washing machines, has a rather strong smell of its own, and can damage many fabrics.\n\n_URL_0_',
"I know this comment will be buried and won't be seen but I bought a hoodie from my university gift shop for myself and it had a weird smell. It's been washed in 3 different machines and I even took it to dry cleaning, but the smell stayed. I could never once wear it. I took it back and got it replaced. Same problem with this one, it's been washed 3 times but the smell is still there. Is this a chemical used in the fabric, how do I get rid of it? I don't have a laundry machine myself but I use public ones if that's something to keep in mind for some things I shouldn't do.",
'Does anyone have any suggestions for getting yellow armpit stains out of white t-shirts? I bleached them and it didn’t completely work. I’m ready to give up and tie-dye all of my SO’s shirts.',
'Since there seems to be educated people in this thread, could i theortically add vingear to my detergent for the occasional stain removal or would that be a no-no-chemical-reaction',
"Vinegar breaks down and deactivates soap, making it incompatible with grease and oil clean-up. Historically adding perfume to cover up smells is the main way people get rid of bad scents. New inventions like the chemicals in fabreeze haven't been around for very long.",
'Also, vinegar reduces surface tension, so the surfactant in your detergent will make more and larger bubbles...filling up front-loading washers with foam, messing up the cycle/ process some. So, one generally needs to use less detergent, which reduces cleaning ability. Ideally, do a rinse/ "wash" cycle with a couple cups of vinegar in the washer and then a regular wash cycle with detergent. Best of both worlds, but takes time.\n\nFurther, vinegar is cheap but heavy, so in addition to the above point, it reduces elements of the detergent\'s cleaning power per unit volume/ weight, and if the consumer really wants to use it, they can do it themselves.',
'I found a detergent that does a really good job removing odors and not covering up. It’s called Hex. Came by it by chance at Safeway (Kroger), which seems to be one of the only places to buy it from a brick and mortar place, but you can order from their website and/or Amazon. They have a bunch of products but I’ve only been able to try the detergent so far.',
'tldr;\n\nRubber can deteriorate over time when exposed to vinegar repeatedly.\n\nLong Version\n\nI had this question a while back.. there are some very informed opinions here concerning (vinegar actually cleans your washing machine, lowering the ph, etc). But, I have a friend who has been an aquarium owner for most of his life and he mentioned that you want to use vinegar sparingly as it can ruin rubber seals. This is probably more of a concern for front loaders than top loaders, but keep in mind all washers have a rubber hose for flushing the water.\n\nI still use vinegar occasionally for stubborn smells - but generally I try without first.',
'Lots of athletic apparel is an extruded polyester. This allows a capillary action with your sweat and helps "wick" the sweat away. This extruded star shape unfortunately has crevices that oils build up into and create what scientists call "permi-stink." This vinegar helps break down said oils and will rejuvenate your funky athletic gear. On a side note avoid using any detergents that have scents or fabric softeners in them as they will also have oil build-up clog the pores in your technical apparel.',
'I use a Downey ball to disinfect my laundry with vinegar. It releases the vinegar after the wash cycle and in the rinse cycle.',
"White vinegar is the nectar to the cleaning God's. From tile to dandruff and back it is my go to must have household items. Buy it in bulk at Costco.",
"Many smells in the laundry are caused by bacteria; especially that funky smell front loading washers get because they never truly dry out and can mold or mildew on the inside. Vinegar is a natural antibacterial so it will improve the smell by killing the bacteria. The downside is, the washer can't handle the pH of vinegar if you use it too often. It will eat away some of the tubing and cause leaks.",
'I now use only vinegar in the rinse, no fabric softeners. My towels are thick and fluffy and absorbent. My clothes smell clean. When your laundry is dry, there will be no vinegar smell. Fabric softeners are only chemicals with oil that coat your clothes. So gross. The difference is amazing.',
"If you are using vinegar to get rid of a moldy smell, chances are you've never ran a decon cycle in your washer life. Run a normal cycle empty with a cup of bleach.",
"Make sure to wash at the highest temperature from time to time to get rid of the bacteria. Many machines say they are washing at 60°C/140°F but they are only reaching around 40C/104F, and that's not enough.",
'Hold up. My washing machine water smells like a goat took a wet shit in a hat made of old cabbage on a hot day on the sun.\n\nAre you telling me white vinegar will help that?',
'And how does one remove the yellow stains? Asking for a friend.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'ebf6r2',
'query': "why does adding white vinegar to the laundry take care of bad smells and why don't laundry detergents already contain these properties?",
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '168859',
'title': 'Skull',
'section': 'Section::::Society and culture of human skulls.:Osteology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 80,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 80,
'end_character': 508,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Like the face, the skull and teeth can also indicate a person's life history and origin. Forensic scientists and archaeologists use metric and nonmetric traits to estimate what the bearer of the skull looked like. When a significant amount of bones are found, such as at Spitalfields in the UK and Jōmon shell mounds in Japan, osteologists can use traits, such as the proportions of length, height and width, to know the relationships of the population of the study with other living or extinct populations.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30876641',
'title': 'Human skull symbolism',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 476,
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'passage_text': 'Humans can often recognize the buried fragments of an only partially revealed cranium even when other bones may look like shards of stone. The human brain has a specific region for recognizing faces, and is so attuned to finding them that it can see faces in a few dots and lines or punctuation marks; the human brain cannot separate the image of the human skull from the familiar human face. Because of this, both the death and the now-past life of the skull are symbolized.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3471221',
'title': 'Forensic facial reconstruction',
'section': 'Section::::Technique for creating a three-dimensional clay reconstruction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 534,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Most commonly, however, only the bony skull and minimal or no other soft tissues are present on the remains presented to forensic artists. In this case, a thorough examination of the skull is completed. This examination focuses on, but is not limited to, the identification of any bony pathologies or unusual landmarks, ruggedness of muscle attachments, profile of the mandible, symmetry of the nasal bones, dentition, and wear of the occlusal surfaces. All of these features have an effect on the appearance of an individual's face.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3471221',
'title': 'Forensic facial reconstruction',
'section': 'Section::::Problems with facial reconstruction.:Subjectivity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 37,
'end_character': 238,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Reconstructions only reveal the type of face a person "may" have exhibited because of artistic subjectivity. The position and general shape of the main facial features are mostly accurate because they are greatly determined by the skull.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47255148',
'title': 'Betty Pat Gatliff',
'section': 'Section::::Biography.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 950,
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'passage_text': 'In 1967, anthropologist Dr. Clyde Snow and Gatliff worked at the Federal Aviation Administration in Oklahoma City. Snow recommended that Galtiff learn the techniques described in Wilton M. Krogman\'s book "The Human Skeleton in Forensic Medicine" (1962). Snow was able to identify the ancestry, gender and approximate age of a skull, while Gatliff used her art training to create a likeness of a face based on the skull and other scientific information. Working with Snow, Gatliff created a sculpture directly on the skull of an unidentified young man which led to his identification. The success of this early collaboration formed the foundation of the use of facial reconstruction from the skull in the United States. Together they developed the Gatliff/Snow American Tissue Depth Method. This method encompassed the work of other researchers which defines numerous "landmarks" on the skull and determines an average tissue depth for each location.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '354009',
'title': 'Crystal skull',
'section': 'Section::::Individual skulls.:Mitchell-Hedges skull.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
'end_character': 430,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In the National Geographic Channel documentary "The Truth Behind the Crystal Skulls", forensic artist Gloria Nusse performed a forensic facial reconstruction over a replica of the skull. According to Nusse, the resulting face had female and European characteristics. As it was hypothesized that the Crystal Skull was a replica of an actual human skull, the conclusion was that it could not have been created by ancient Americans.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '53234',
'title': 'Face',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.:Shape.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 391,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The shape of the face is influenced by the bone-structure of the skull, and each face is unique through the anatomical variation present in the bones of the viscerocranium (and neurocranium). The bones involved in shaping the face are mainly the maxilla, mandible, nasal bone and zygomatic bone. Also important are various soft tissues, such as fat, hair and skin (of which color may vary).\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How do scientists know what a person's face looks like when reconstructing it form a skull?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Your skull helps define your facial structure. Then layer on things such a muscle, fat, et cetera as appropriate until it looks right. There's a level of guesswork associated with it, but it's still more accurate than not.",
"It's part science and part art. It's never an exact replica, but more of an educated guess. The scientific side is knowing that the musculature of the face and how the muscles and connective tissue of the face determine the shape of the shape. Scientists can use averages from groups of people from the same ethnicity if that information is available. They can either physically using clay, or digitally using computers, model the skull with the muscles and connective tissue over the skull. Then they have to start guessing about fat amount and fat distribution, skin color and characteristics, eye color, and hair. Some of these things can be educated guesses. For example, they can usually determine the rough age of the person when they died to give them some information about what their skin might have lookd like (wrinkles, sagging...etc) and their ethnicity could give them an idea of skin color. Eye color is almost always a guess, as is hair color, cut, and shape, as well as facial hair.",
'The muscles in the face have attachment points, the size and depth of which demonstrates the size of the muscle. They work backwards from this and guess at the fat the body would contain, I believe they run a ‘skinny’ average and ‘fat’ model if they have no other data to work with (archaeological examinations run all three).'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'devunx',
'query': "how do scientists know what a person's face looks like when reconstructing it form a skull?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '40041053',
'title': 'Genetic purging',
'section': 'Section::::The mechanism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 890,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Deleterious alleles segregating in populations of diploid organisms have a remarkable trend to be, at least, partially recessive. This means that, when they occur in homozygosis (double copies), they reduce fitness by more than twice than when they occur in heterozygosis (single copy). In other words, part of their potential deleterious effect is hidden in heterozygosis but expressed in homozygosis, so that selection is more efficient against them when they occur in homozygosis. Since inbreeding increases the probability of being homozygous, it increases the fraction of the potential deleterious effect that is expressed and, therefore, exposed to selection. This causes some increase in the selective pressure against (partially) recessive deleterious alleles, which is known as purging. Of course, it also causes some reduction in fitness, which is known as inbreeding depression.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '616618',
'title': 'Heterochromia iridum',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 547,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Though multiple causes have been posited, the scientific consensus is that a lack of genetic diversity is the primary reason behind heterochromia. This is due to a mutation of the genes that determine melanin distribution at the 8-HTP pathway, which usually only become corrupted due to chromosomal homogeneity. Though common in some breeds of cats, dogs and horses, due to inbreeding, heterochromia is uncommon in humans, affecting fewer than 200,000 people in the United States of America, and is not associated with lack of genetic diversity. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '54743',
'title': 'Inbreeding',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 797,
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'passage_text': 'Malformations or harmful traits can stay within a population due to a high homozygosity rate, and this will cause a population to become fixed for certain traits, like having too many bones in an area, like the vertebral column of wolves on Isle Royale or having cranial abnormalities, such as in Northern elephant seals, where their cranial bone length in the lower mandibular tooth row has changed. Having a high homozygosity rate is problematic for a population because it will unmask recessive deleterious alleles generated by mutations, reduce heterozygote advantage, and it is detrimental to the survival of small, endangered animal populations. When deleterious recessive alleles are unmasked due to the increased homozygosity generated by inbreeding, this can cause inbreeding depression.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56750304',
'title': 'Homoplasy',
'section': 'Section::::Distinguishing homology from homoplasy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 269,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In the case of DNA sequences, homoplasy is very common due to the redundancy of the genetic code. An observed homoplasy may simply be the result of random nucleotide substitutions accumulating over time, and thus may not need an adaptationist evolutionary explanation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '719509',
'title': 'Stabilizing selection',
'section': 'Section::::Influence on population structure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 703,
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'passage_text': 'Stabilizing selection causes the narrowing of the phenotypes seen in a population. This is because the extreme phenotypes are selected against, causing reduced survival in organisms with those traits. This results in a population consisting of fewer phenotypes, with most traits representing the mean value of the population. This narrowing of phenotypes causes a reduction in genetic diversity in a population. Maintaining genetic variation is essential for the survival of a population because it is what allows them to evolve over time. In order for a population to adapt to changing environmental conditions they must have enough genetic diversity to select for new traits as they become favorable.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27828644',
'title': 'Host–parasite coevolution',
'section': 'Section::::Selection dynamics.:Overdominant selection.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 947,
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'passage_text': 'Overdominance occurs if the heterozygote phenotype has a fitness advantage over both homozygotes (heterozygote advantage, causing heterosis). One example is sickle cell anemia. It is due to a mutation in the hemoglobin gene leading to sickle shape formation of red blood cells, causing clotting in blood vessels, restricted blood flow, and reduced oxygen transport. At the same time, the mutation confers resistance to malaria, caused by "Plasmodium" parasites, which are passed off in red blood cells after transmission to humans by mosquitoes. Hence, homozygote and heterozygote genotypes for the sickle-cell disease allele show malaria resistance, while the homozygote suffers from severe disease phenotype. The alternative homozygote, which does not carry the sickle cell disease allele, is susceptible to infection by "Plasmodium". As a consequence, the heterozygote genotype is selectively favored in areas with a high incidence of malaria.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '477554',
'title': 'Gene duplication',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanisms of duplication.:Aneuploidy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 449,
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'passage_text': 'Aneuploidy occurs when nondisjunction at a single chromosome results in an abnormal number of chromosomes. Aneuploidy is often harmful and in mammals regularly leads to spontaneous abortions (miscarriages). Some aneuploid individuals are viable, for example trisomy 21 in humans, which leads to Down syndrome. Aneuploidy often alters gene dosage in ways that are detrimental to the organism; therefore, it is unlikely to spread through populations.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does a lack of genetic diversity cause deformities?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Imagine a machine that makes bricks that you make a house with but machine needs a sample brick to make more bricks like it.\n\nImagine you only have a few types of bricks. One of em gets chipped and goes into the machine. \n\nIf there are many bricks the machine will see the difference between a chipped brick and OK brick and use the OK brick to make more bricks. \n\nIf all chipped bricks go in eventually you have all broken and chipped bricks coming out of the machine. \n\nHouse is human. Brick is the chromosomes. \n',
"Each gene has different forms, called alleles. This is massively oversimplified, but imagine as an example for hair color, you have alleles for brown hair and alleles for blonde hair. One allele is dominant and one is recessive, and each parent gives you a random combination of alleles. You can calculate the percentage likelihood of certain characteristics through a Punnett Chart like this [one](_URL_0_). \n\nNow, if two siblings inherited recessive alleles for a certain genetic disease or deformity, that's okay because the dominant allele will take over and be shown in the phenotype, which is what we call the outer characteristics, as opposed to the genotype. But if those two siblings have children together, the kids are more likely to inherit both recessive alleles and have that disease or deformity in their phenotype. The more inbreeding and less outer mating and diversity, the more likely two recessive alleles will appear in the phenotype.\n\nObviously this is very simplified but that's the gist."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'a6qtw4',
'query': 'why does a lack of genetic diversity cause deformities?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '21350772',
'title': 'Greenhouse gas',
'section': 'Section::::Impacts on the overall greenhouse effect.:Radiative forcing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 45,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 45,
'end_character': 368,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Earth absorbs some of the radiant energy received from the sun, reflects some of it as light and reflects or radiates the rest back to space as heat. Earth's surface temperature depends on this balance between incoming and outgoing energy. If this energy balance is shifted, Earth's surface becomes warmer or cooler, leading to a variety of changes in global climate.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5042951',
'title': 'Global warming',
'section': 'Section::::Physical drivers of recent climate change.:Minor forcings: the sun and ozone.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
'end_character': 485,
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'passage_text': "Another line of evidence for the warming not being due to the Sun is the temperature changes at different levels in the Earth's atmosphere. According to basic physical principles, the greenhouse effect produces warming of the lower atmosphere (the troposphere), but cooling of the upper atmosphere (the stratosphere). If solar variations were responsible for the observed warming, warming of both the troposphere and the stratosphere would be expected, but that has not been the case.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14534679',
'title': 'Climate of the Arctic',
'section': 'Section::::Solar radiation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 33,
'end_character': 611,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Almost all of the energy available to the Earth's surface and atmosphere comes from the sun in the form of solar radiation (light from the sun, including invisible ultraviolet and infrared light). Variations in the amount of solar radiation reaching different parts of the Earth are a principal driver of global and regional climate. Latitude is the most important factor determining the yearly average amount of solar radiation reaching the top of the atmosphere; the incident solar radiation decreases smoothly from the Equator to the poles. Therefore, temperature tends to decrease with increasing latitude.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5042951',
'title': 'Global warming',
'section': 'Section::::Physical drivers of recent climate change.:Minor forcings: the sun and ozone.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 554,
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'passage_text': "As the Sun is Earth's primary energy source, changes in incoming sunlight directly affect the climate system. Solar irradiance has been measured directly by satellites and indirect measurements are available beginning in the early 1600s. There has been no upward trend in the amount of the Sun's energy reaching the Earth, so it cannot be responsible for the current warming. Physical climate models are also unable to reproduce the rapid warming observed in recent decades when taking into account only variations in solar output and volcanic activity.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1962246',
'title': 'Geobiology',
'section': 'Section::::Important concepts.:The Earth has changed.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 624,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "And the Earth is not the only one that changed - the luminosity of the sun has increased over time. Because rocks record a history of relatively constant temperatures since Earth's beginnings, there must have been more greenhouse gasses to keep the temperatures up in the Archean when the sun was younger and fainter. All these major differences in the environment of the Earth placed very different constraints on the evolution of life throughout our planet's history. Moreover, more subtle changes in the habitat of life are always occurring, shaping the organisms and traces that we observe today and in the rock record.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '467147',
'title': 'Radiative forcing',
'section': 'Section::::Radiation balance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 479,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Almost all of the energy that affects Earth's climate is received as radiant energy from the Sun. The planet and its atmosphere absorb and reflect some of the energy, while long-wave energy is radiated back into space. The balance between absorbed and radiated energy determines the average global temperature. Because the atmosphere absorbs some of the re-radiated long-wave energy, the planet is warmer than it would be in the absence of the atmosphere: see greenhouse effect.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28996289',
'title': 'Gliese 581g',
'section': 'Section::::Physical characteristics.:Climate.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
'end_character': 520,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "By comparison, Earth's present global equilibrium temperature is 255 K (−18\xa0°C), which is raised to 288 K (15\xa0°C) by greenhouse effects. However, when life evolved early in Earth's history, the Sun's energy output is thought to have been only about 75% of its current value, which would have correspondingly lowered Earth's equilibrium temperature under the same albedo conditions. Yet Earth maintained equable temperatures in that era, perhaps with a more intense greenhouse effect, or a lower albedo, than at present.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If the sun is constantly adding heat/energy to earth, then why has the temperature always stayed the same?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The Earth radiates heat away into space. Radiation does not require a medium to move through.\n\nA certain amount of heat is also lost with gases that escape the atmosphere, or consumed in chemical reactions.',
'heat leaves via radiation = the same way heat gets to Earth from the Sun, despite no air between them.',
'The Sun only heats 1/2 of the Earth, at a time. The warmed part rotates out of the sunlight and radiates the heat out into space during what is called "night". This doesn\'t work as well if there are heat-trapping gasses in the air like methane or CO2. While there is no gas in space for convection, radiation uses photons, which travel perfectly happily in a vacuum.',
'Everything radiates energy depending on its temperature, the hotter it is, the more energy is radiated. This is called black body radiation. At the temperatures typically found on earth, this is usually in the infrared range so that you can make it visible with IR cameras.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'd4v06i',
'query': 'if the sun is constantly adding heat/energy to earth, then why has the temperature always stayed the same?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '966588',
'title': 'Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion',
'section': 'Section::::Findings.:Changes in Ozone-Depleting Compounds.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 257,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- water vapour is a greenhouse gas that has a greater overall effect on the ozone layer than carbon dioxide because of its higher concentrations but is not affected by human activities as it is caused mainly by evaporation and condensation rates.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24872',
'title': 'Pollution',
'section': 'Section::::Greenhouse gases and global warming.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 121,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 121,
'end_character': 573,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Carbon dioxide, while vital for photosynthesis, is sometimes referred to as pollution, because raised levels of the gas in the atmosphere are affecting the Earth's climate. Disruption of the environment can also highlight the connection between areas of pollution that would normally be classified separately, such as those of water and air. Recent studies have investigated the potential for long-term rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide to cause slight but critical increases in the acidity of ocean waters, and the possible effects of this on marine ecosystems.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28745559',
'title': '1815 eruption of Mount Tambora',
'section': 'Section::::Effects of volcanism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 462,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Volcanism affects the atmosphere in two distinct ways: short-term cooling caused by reflected insolation and long-term warming from increased CO levels. Most of the water vapor and CO is collected in clouds within a few weeks to months because both are already present in large quantities, so the effects are limited (Bodenmann et al. 2011). It has been suggested that a volcanic eruption in 1809 may also have contributed to a reduction in global temperatures.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '125275',
'title': 'Matt Ridley',
'section': 'Section::::Political and scientific views.:Climate change scepticism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 55,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 55,
'end_character': 424,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Ridley has consistently argued that the evidence suggests that carbon dioxide emissions are currently doing more good than harm, largely because of the CO fertilisation effect, which boosts crop growth and the growth of forests and wild vegetation, and that the best evidence suggests this will continue to be the case for many decades. In 2015 he wrote about a report by the independent scientist Indur Goklany as follows:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4251572',
'title': 'Frank S. Niceley',
'section': 'Section::::Statements and controversies.:2017.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 428,
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'passage_text': 'Nicely rejects mainstream views of climate science. At a December, 2017 meeting of the American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC), he stated to E & E News reporter Zack Colman: "I think the whole premise that carbon dioxide is a pollutant is flawed," said Tennessee state Sen. Frank Niceley (R). "It\'s not a pollutant, it\'s just as natural as oxygen. The trees and plants depend on CO2 just the same way we depend on oxygen."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3201',
'title': 'Attribution of recent climate change',
'section': 'Section::::Key attributions.:Greenhouse gases.:Water vapor.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 33,
'end_character': 500,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Water vapor is the most abundant greenhouse gas and is the largest contributor to the natural greenhouse effect, despite having a short atmospheric lifetime (about 10 days). Some human activities can influence local water vapor levels. However, on a global scale, the concentration of water vapor is controlled by temperature, which influences overall rates of evaporation and precipitation. Therefore, the global concentration of water vapor is not substantially affected by direct human emissions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10934212',
'title': 'Air pollution',
'section': 'Section::::Pollutants.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 686,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Carbon dioxide () – Because of its role as a greenhouse gas it has been described as "the leading pollutant" and "the worst climate pollution". Carbon dioxide is a natural component of the atmosphere, essential for plant life and given off by the human respiratory system. This question of terminology has practical effects, for example as determining whether the U.S. Clean Air Act is deemed to regulate emissions. currently forms about 410 parts per million (ppm) of earth\'s atmosphere, compared to about 280 ppm in pre-industrial times, and billions of metric tons of are emitted annually by burning of fossil fuels. increase in earth\'s atmosphere has been accelerating.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why isn't water vapor considered worse than carbon in climate issues?",
'selftext': "ELI5: Why do I only hear about carbon emissions? I thought that, as far as greenhouse gasses are concerned, water vapor is stronger than carbon. I would imagine the warmer it gets on Earth, more water vapor is created and traps even more of our star's energy in Earth's atmosphere. No?",
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Mostly because we can't control it. Average water content of air is directly related to the temperature of the air for the most part. There's nothing we can do about it, aside from reducing the amount of other gasses (mostly CO2), which will reduce temperatures.",
"The reason why Carbon is the element to track is because of the lifecycle of the elements involved.\n\nWater will evaporate from oceans, float over land masses, and condense into rain. It does this fairly cyclically. There is no net new water being added to the system.\n\nWith Carbon Dioxide, there's a cycle of plants breathing in CO2, turning that into sugars. Animals eat the plants, and when we breath in Oxygen, we combine the sugar and oxygen and make CO2 as a biproduct. That forms a natural cycle.\n\nHowever, there's also a big cache of carbon under the ground from a hundreds of millions of years ago. Back then, there weren't any bacteria that ate up trees when they died. They just eventually toppled and kept all their carbon inside of them, and eventually got buried.\n\nAll that carbon is what we dig up as fossil fuels. We're introducing it back into this cycle, but there isn't any carbon sinks to hold it out of the atmosphere for any serious length of time. Thus, the CO2 builds up in the atmosphere, and increases the planets retained energy from the sun, causing the average temperature to go up.",
"Water vapor is part of the water cycle. Water evaporates, rains down as water, and evaporates as well.\n\nThere is a carbon cycle, too. Humans and animals exhale CO2, which plants inhale. Plants inhale CO2 and exhale O2 which animals inhale. \n\nThe real problem with CO2 is we're releasing a whole lot extra CO2 by burning fossil fuels outside of this cycle, and the natural cycle can't keep up with it. \n\nAnd to make matters worse, the largest player in the CO2 cycle is the ocean (or more specifically, ocean life like algae) and the warmer the water is, the less effective the ocean is at absorbing CO2. This means that as our climate warms due to higher CO2, we're going to end up with even higher CO2, which means things will get even warmer, which means we'll have even higher CO2, and we may end up with runaway global warming."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'frwyzx',
'query': "why isn't water vapor considered worse than carbon in climate issues?",
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '5811552',
'title': 'Anterior cruciate ligament injury',
'section': 'Section::::Prognosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 65,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 65,
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'passage_text': 'Long term complications of ACL injury include early onset arthritis of the knee and/or re-tearing the ligament. Factors that increase risk of arthritis include severity of the initial injury, injury to other structures in the knee, and level of activity following treatment. Not repairing tears to the ACL can sometimes cause damage to the cartilage inside the knee because with the torn ACL, the tibia and femur bone are more likely to rub against each other.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47677332',
'title': 'ACL injuries in the Australian Football League',
'section': 'Section::::Prevention.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 1009,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The risk of injuring the ACL is very high for an athlete, as most professionals say it is worrying how common the injury is becoming. As there is no real way to stop an ACL injury from occurring, there can be ways to lower the risk. Once an athlete does an ACL injury it is extremely difficult to be able to come back to football, it even creates a higher risk of a second ACL injury after having the first reconstructed. This is why it is vitally important for an AFL player to build strong muscles and bones to benefit them in their career. Small doses of training can help prevent ACL injuries, as athletes will not over train leaving their body fatigued and sore. The small doses of training only have to include, strength, balance, plyo- metric or agility to gain some prevention from the injury. It is also important to talk to the coach or training staff to inform them of what you can and cannot do. Some things in life are preventable, but injuries such as ACL injuries are just too hard to prevent.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2455474',
'title': 'Anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction',
'section': 'Section::::Recovery.:Risks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 49,
'end_character': 243,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'If the proper rehabilitation procedure is not followed out post surgery, the ACL becomes less mobile and the bones begin to rub against each other. The abnormal bone movement can also damage the tissue, this damage can lead to osteoarthritis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '578901',
'title': 'Posterior cruciate ligament',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical significance.:Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 1027,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'It is possible for the PCL to heal on its own. Even if the PCL does not heal normally, it is unusual for surgery to be required. Treatment is usually physiotherapy to strengthen the muscles around the knee; usually they provide adequate stability even without a functional PCL. Only if there are ongoing symptoms down the track, or if there are other injuries in the knee (eg posterolateral corner injury) will ligament reconstruction be required. Ligament reconstruction is used to replace the torn PCL with a new ligament, which is usually a graft taken from the hamstring or Achilles tendon from a host cadaver. An arthroscope allows a complete evaluation of the entire knee joint, including the knee cap (patella), the cartilage surfaces, the meniscus, the ligaments (ACL & PCL), and the joint lining. Then, the new ligament is attached to the bone of the thigh and lower leg with screws to hold it in place. Surgery to repair the posterior cruciate ligament is controversial due to its placement and technical difficulty.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5811552',
'title': 'Anterior cruciate ligament injury',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Nonsurgical.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 55,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 55,
'end_character': 336,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A torn ACL will not heal without surgery (i.e. the torn pieces will not come back together to form a functional ligament). However, if the knee remains stable enough to allow for walking and the individual does not plan to participate in high level of activity, doctors will recommend bracing and physical therapy rather than surgery.\xa0\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '578923',
'title': 'Anterior cruciate ligament',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical significance.:Non-operative treatment of the ACL.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 719,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'ACL reconstruction is the most common treatment for an ACL tear, however it is not the only treatment available for individuals. Some individuals may find it more beneficial to complete a non-operative rehab program. Both individuals who are going to continue with physical activity that involves cutting and pivoting, and individuals who are no longer participating in those specific activities are candidates for the non-operative route. A study was completed comparing operative and non-operative approaches to ACL tears and there were few differences noted by both surgical and nonsurgical groups. However, there was no significant differences in regard to knee function or muscle strength reported by the patient.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5811552',
'title': 'Anterior cruciate ligament injury',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Surgery.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 60,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 60,
'end_character': 668,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The timing of ACL reconstruction has been controversial, with some studies showing worse outcomes when surgery is done immediately after injury, and others showing no difference in outcomes when surgery is done immediately compared to when surgery is delayed. The American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons has stated that there is moderate evidence to support the guideline that ACL reconstruction should occur within five months of injury in order to improve patient function and protect the knee from further injury; however, additional studies need to be done to determine the best time for surgery and to better understand the effect of timing on clinical outcomes.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why are ACL injuries so difficult to repair properly?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Most injuries cause the entire thing to tear, with the ends not connected at all anymore. That will never heal without surgery, because the ligament has no mechanisms that allow it to fix itself when fully torn apart.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'b3yjq3',
'query': 'why are acl injuries so difficult to repair properly?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '26772154',
'title': 'The Early Bird Dood It!',
'section': 'Section::::Plot.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 249,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "The worm comes out from his hole and tells the viewers that the bird is trying to catch him every day, and that it's making him a nervous wreck. The worm wants to get rid of the bird, and then he sees a chance: a cat that chased a mouse but failed.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '250046',
'title': 'Common starling',
'section': 'Section::::Behaviour and ecology.:Feeding.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
'end_character': 1004,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'There are three types of foraging behaviour observed in the common starling. "Probing" involves the bird plunging its beak into the ground randomly and repetitively until an insect has been found, and is often accompanied by bill gaping where the bird opens its beak in the soil to enlarge a hole. This behaviour, first described by Konrad Lorenz and given the German term "zirkeln", is also used to create and widen holes in plastic garbage bags. It takes time for young common starlings to perfect this technique, and because of this the diet of young birds will often contain fewer insects. "Hawking" is the capture of flying insects directly from the air, and "lunging" is the less common technique of striking forward to catch a moving invertebrate on the ground. Earthworms are caught by pulling from soil. Common starlings that have periods without access to food, or have a reduction in the hours of light available for feeding, compensate by increasing their body mass by the deposition of fat.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11655685',
'title': 'Worm charming',
'section': 'Section::::Methods.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 377,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Most worm charming methods involve vibrating the soil, which encourages the worms to the surface. In 2008 researchers from Vanderbilt University claimed that the worms surface because the vibrations are similar to those produced by digging moles, which prey on earthworms. The same technique is used by many species of bird, which devour the worms as they appear above ground.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '285938',
'title': 'Ole Worm',
'section': 'Section::::Scientific and cultural significance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 459,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Other empirical investigations he conducted included providing convincing evidence that lemmings were rodents and not, as some thought, spontaneously generated by the air (Worm 1655, p.\xa0327), and also by providing the first detailed drawing of a bird-of-paradise proving that they did, despite much popular speculation to the opposite, indeed have feet like regular birds. Worm's primary use of his natural history collection was for the purpose of pedagogy.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26772154',
'title': 'The Early Bird Dood It!',
'section': 'Section::::Plot.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 347,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Then, worm, sitting in the hole, puts up a stick with his hat to check if here is bird. The bird itself sits on the stick; and another chase ensues. At one moment worm stops the chase and asks the bird: "Are you following me?" to which the bird loudly replies "YEAH!" and chase continues. The worm replies "That\'s what I thought", and dashes off.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '481994',
'title': "LeConte's sparrow",
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 562,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'It is a very secretive bird that prefers to spend most of its time on the ground under the cover of tall grasses. They are typically very difficult to flush, often only flushing at a distance of 1–3\xa0m as they prefer to run across the ground. When they do emerge they rarely fly more than a foot or two above the grass and often descend again within a few meters. Because it is so rarely seen, there are still many gaps in knowledge about the LeConte’s sparrow. Nests are often very hard to find, and individuals are more often identified by sound than by sight.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4899579',
'title': "Albert's lyrebird",
'section': 'Section::::Feeding.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
'end_character': 595,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Albert's lyrebird appears to feed mainly on insects (including beetles) and their larvae, and other soil-dwelling invertebrates. They usually find food on the ground, particularly in areas with deep moist leaf litter and fallen logs, but they also forage occasionally in epiphytic ferns. They typically forage in areas that are rather open and lack dense shrub cover but have well developed taller strata. When foraging on the ground they scratch among debris, turn over leaves and dig into soil in search of invertebrate prey; birds foraging in ephiphytes were observed scratching and pecking.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'When birds tear into the dirt looking for worms, are they just blindly excavating, or do they have some reason to believe a worm is right there?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Birds can see movement on the ground easily from the air. Now if you're specifically talking about chickens they're probably just randomly scratching eating any bug or seed they can find. ",
"If they're sitting on the ground pecking away, theyre listening for movement under the dirt. They can hear movement just under the surface and then take a jab at the location. Source - I am a Sys admin but I did listen in school. ",
"Aviary expert here. Birds can tell the sensation of creatures moving beneath their feet. Earth is one of the best conduits of movement, so the vibrations of animals such as worms can be felt through their claws and talons, travelling through their legs and into their bones, eventually vibrating into their skulls. This sensation allows them to pinpoint the movement of any animal, so they can then aim their beaks to strike at the exact moment any creature comes closest to the surface.\n\nTLDR: Yes birds know what they're doing, it's not down to chance.",
'In an experiment Birds were placed in aviaries where they could be given buried mealworms in trays of dirt.\n\nTo test if they were using scent to locate their prey, birds were offered trays with buried live, moving worms and dead ones. Robins found the live worms more often, suggesting they were not using scent.\n\nIn the next test, they were given hanging food trays to keep them from touching the soil with their feet and detecting the worm’s vibrations. The trays did not affect their ability to find the worms, suggesting they do not use tactile cues.\n\nWhen cardboard was used as a barrier to block visual cues, the birds could still find the worms. That meant they were using another sense. A last experiment used white noise to block sound cues and the birds had more difficulty finding the worms.\n\nThe research concluded that robins could use either visual or auditory cues alone, but probably use both. \nI think this is also likely true for Starlings/Blackbirds.',
"Absolutely they know what they're doing. They tear apart my compost pile and leave the rest of the yard alone. Really slows down my composting..."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6a8hua',
'query': 'when birds tear into the dirt looking for worms, are they just blindly excavating, or do they have some reason to believe a worm is right there?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '20344106',
'title': 'Currency intervention',
'section': 'Section::::Modern examples.:Chinese yuan.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 48,
'end_character': 619,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "In the 1990s and 2000s, there was a marked increase in American imports of Chinese goods. China's central bank allegedly devalued yuan by buying large amounts of US dollars with yuan, thus increasing the supply of the yuan in the foreign exchange market, while increasing the demand for US dollars, thus increasing the price of USD. According to an article published in KurzyCZ by Vladimir Urbanek, by December 2012, China's foreign exchange reserve held roughly $3.3 trillion, making it the highest foreign exchange reserve in the world. Roughly 60% of this reserve was composed of US government bonds and debentures.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29018342',
'title': 'Currency war',
'section': 'Section::::Historical overview.:2000 to 2008.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 38,
'end_character': 329,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "These concerns were soon partially allayed. With the global economy doing well, China was able to abandon its dollar peg in 2005, allowing a substantial appreciation of the Yuan up to 2007, while still increasing its exports. The dollar peg was later re-established as the financial crises began to reduce China's export orders.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9187042',
'title': 'Foreign-exchange reserves of China',
'section': 'Section::::Composition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 323,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Most of China's foreign-exchange reserves are held in U.S. dollar-denominated financial assets such as U.S. Treasury securities. Since 2008, when it overtook Japan in this respect, China is the largest foreign owner of U.S. Treasury securities, accounting for about 22 percent of all U.S. Treasuries held by non-Americans.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31649843',
'title': 'International use of the U.S. dollar',
'section': 'Section::::International reserve currency.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 386,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "In August 2007, two scholars affiliated with the government of the People's Republic of China threatened to sell its substantial reserves in American dollars in response to American legislative discussion of trade sanctions designed to revalue the Chinese yuan. The Chinese government denied that selling dollar-denominated assets would be an official policy in the foreseeable future.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9187042',
'title': 'Foreign-exchange reserves of China',
'section': 'Section::::Concerns over Chinese holdings of U.S. Debt.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 410,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A significant number of economists and analysts dismiss any and all concerns over foreign holdings of United States government debt denominated in U.S. Dollars, including China\'s holdings. Critics of the "excessive" amount of US debt held by China acknowledge that the "biggest effect of a broad-scale dump of US Treasuries by China would be that China would actually export fewer goods to the United States."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25107199',
'title': 'Globalization in China',
'section': 'Section::::Economic Shifts.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 376,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The undervalued Chinese yuan with respect to the United States dollar has brought about questions to whether or not a move to a more flexible exchange rate would be beneficial to the Chinese economy, with most experts arguing that no dramatic change in exchange rate is needed and that the most needed policy attention is the domestic financial sector, not the international.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32022',
'title': 'Economy of the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Financial position.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 135,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 135,
'end_character': 251,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The U.S. Treasury statistics indicate that, at the end of 2006, non-US citizens and institutions held 44% of federal debt held by the public. , China, holding $1.26\xa0trillion in treasury bonds, is the largest foreign financier of the U.S. public debt.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does buying US Treasury Bills help in keeping Chinese Yuan low?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['If China spends yuan to buy dollars (which you have to do because T-Bills are sold in dollars), this increases the supply of available yuan and decreases the supply of available dollars. Due to the free market, this drives down the price of yuan and drives up the price of dollars.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7ppmj8',
'query': 'how does buying us treasury bills help in keeping chinese yuan low?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '140968',
'title': 'Rotavirus',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis and detection.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 53,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 53,
'end_character': 468,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Specific diagnosis of infection with ' is made by finding the virus in the child's stool by enzyme immunoassay. There are several licensed test kits on the market which are sensitive, specific and detect all serotypes of '. Other methods, such as electron microscopy and PCR (polymerase chain reaction), are used in research laboratories. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) can detect and identify all species and serotypes of human rotaviruses.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4754849',
'title': 'Bovine alphaherpesvirus 1',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 226,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Clinical signs and history are normally enough to make a preliminary diagnosis. To definitively diagnose the infection the virus should be identified in the tissues by virus isolation or PCR, or in bulk milk samples by ELISA.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35672535',
'title': 'Rotaviral gastroenteritis',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 435,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Specific diagnosis of infection with is made by finding the virus in the child's stool by enzyme immunoassay. There are several licensed test kits on the market which are sensitive, specific and detect all serotypes of . Other methods, such as electron microscopy and PCR, are used in research laboratories. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) can detect and identify all species and serotypes of human rotavirus.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13253391',
'title': 'Blastocystosis',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.:Clinically available.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 49,
'end_character': 296,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Diagnosis is performed by determining if the infection is present, and then making a decision as to whether the infection is responsible for the symptoms. Diagnostic methods in clinical use have been reported to be of poor quality and more reliable methods have been reported in research papers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42766846',
'title': 'Bacteriologist (Professional)',
'section': 'Section::::Aims.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 849,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Techniques in Microbiology: mainly used to determine infectious diseases the causative agent of the disease, regardless of whether it is caused by a bacterium, virus, fungi or parasites, bacteriologist through various coloration's, microscopic observation, specific crops for growth of each organism, biochemical tests whether manual, semi-automated or automated used to determine the genus and species of the organism causing the disease. a bacteriologist should be able to identify and name any parasitic observe microscopic structure, recently antimicrobial susceptibility tests have become very important for the emergence of multi-resistant bacterial strains in clinical microbiology section of the laboratory tests performed bacteriologists antimicrobial susceptibility to determine which antibiotics should treat various infectious diseases.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56480',
'title': 'Q fever',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 418,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Diagnosis is usually based on serology (looking for an antibody response) rather than looking for the organism itself. Serology allows the detection of chronic infection by the appearance of high levels of the antibody against the virulent form of the bacterium. Molecular detection of bacterial DNA is increasingly used. Culture is technically difficult and not routinely available in most microbiology laboratories.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33076955',
'title': 'Mycoplasma synoviae',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical Signs & Diagnosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'end_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'A preliminary diagnosis can be made based on history, clinical exam and postmortem signs. Bacterial culture, immunofluorescence, PCR, ELISA or slide agglutination tests (SAT) can be used to make a more definitive diagnosis.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do you doctors diagnose bacterial/viral illness?',
'selftext': 'I.E. Ebola etc.',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Clinically, some bacterial/viral illnesses have very distinguishing features that give you a hunch towards what the disease may be caused from. Symptoms such as a certain rash, whether there is a fever, whether there is any pus, etc., point you in the direction of viral, bacterial, or even fungal infection.\n\nIf you think it\'s a bacteria, or fungus, you can sample it (from blood, urine, wound, etc) and allow it to grow or "culture". From there microbiologists can perform different tests on the bacteria that grow to determine which species it is and which antibiotics/antifungals are best for fighting them off (known as determining the bacteria\'s sensitivities). \n\nIf you believe it\'s viral you often don\'t need to pursue it any further (especially if we\'re talking about a respiratory or sinus infection) as you often just treat the patient\'s symptoms until the virus resolves. However, there are a few instances in which you need to determine the exact virus for treatment. In those cases, you would also similarly sample it (blood, CSF/fluid around your brain and spinal cord, cervix, etc.) and perform fancy biochemical tests to determine what type of viral strain it is. ',
'There are many signs and symptoms that would lead someone to think there was infection present e.g. fever, fatigue, vomiting etc.\n\nThere are some quick ways to hint towards either virus or bacteria, but we can never know truly without either taking a blood sample, sputum sample, urine sample or tissue sample. We then see what we can grow in a lab.\n\n A centor score, is a tool used to help identify whether a sore throat requires antibiotics (and is therefore bacterial) This includes checking whether there is: fever, sore glands, absence of a cough, and white pus in the throat. If all of these were present for example, I would suspect it would be very likely to be bacterial. \n\nThere are many such scoring systems and tools for help distinguishing between the different pathogens.',
'Some viruses or bacterias we have tests for, like strep throat or the flu. For these, they take a small sample, like by rubbing a cotton swab on your throat for strep, and then use a machine to see if the stuff on the swab includes the bacteria. Some things we know by the symptoms, like a virus called roseola that causes a very high fever followed by a specific rash. For most things you go to the doctor for, like a stuffy nose, they guess by how long it hangs around; if it’s still there after a couple of weeks, they assume it’s bacterial and prescribe antibiotics because your body would have beaten the virus by then and having all that mucus makes a nice home for bacteria to move in.',
"You specifically mentioned Ebola. Not a very common issue in the western world, so I had to look it up. Here's what the CDC says:\n\n > Diagnosing Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) shortly after infection can be difficult. Early symptoms of EVD such as fever, headache, and weakness are not specific to Ebola virus infection and often are seen in patients with other more common diseases, like malaria and typhoid fever.\n\n > To determine whether Ebola virus infection is a possible diagnosis, there must be a combination of\xa0symptoms\xa0suggestive of EVD\xa0AND\xa0a possible exposure to EVD within 21 days before the onset of symptoms. An exposure may include contact with:\n\n > blood or body fluids from a person sick with or who died from EVD objects contaminated with blood or body fluids of a person sick with or who died from EVD infected fruit bats and primates (apes or monkeys)semen from a man who has recovered from EVD\n\n > If a person shows early signs of EVD and has had a possible exposure, he or she should be isolated (separated from other people) and public health authorities notified. Blood samples from the patient should be collected and tested to confirm infection. Ebola virus can be detected in blood after onset of symptoms, most notably fever. It may take up to three days after symptoms start for the virus to reach detectable levels. A positive laboratory test means that Ebola infection is confirmed. Public health authorities will conduct a public health investigation, including tracing of all possibly exposed contacts.\n\nThis is common with a number of illnesses. The patient's history of events and symptoms prior to showing up for treatment are extremely important in directing the likely source. A physical exam may give further information. Blood tests and imaging are used to confirm or refute our concerns.\n\n",
'Bacteria mainly by cultivating them on a plate and then by identifying the exact strain with additional tests.\n\nViruses are often classified by biochemical test methods like ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay), antigen-antibody testing and genetic test methods.\n\n_URL_0_ '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'a89i5x',
'query': 'how do you doctors diagnose bacterial/viral illness?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '55075194',
'title': 'Human response to disasters',
'section': 'Section::::Assistance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'Because of this myth, more supplies are often sent than the disaster area typically needs. In addition to excess quantity, much of the supplies end up being of little to no use. Relief organizations often do not wait for an assessment of the disaster area and an identification of needs which can be provided by local officials or performed by themselves. As a consequence, money is often wasted on sending unneeded teams of experts or supplies when local authorities and victims would benefit more if that same money was allocated towards providing resources that filled gaps and complemented their efforts. Donors compound the issue by donating used clothing, household items, and the like. With too many supplies on-hand or in possession of supplies they cannot use, local officials are forced to waste manpower and resources on disposing of them. Instead of providing unwanted and unrequested goods, organizations and donors should send money which can be more easily applied to fulfilling local needs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4079050',
'title': 'Gifts in kind',
'section': 'Section::::Arguments in favor of gifts in kind.:Use in disaster relief.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 367,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'During disasters and other humanitarian crises, companies and individuals often want to help with the disaster relief operations. Some people have argued that giving goods that are already at hand is more cost effective for the donor than giving money to buy these same goods, thus reducing the cost of buying the goods afresh, particularly in the face of shortages.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1455589',
'title': 'Emergency management',
'section': 'Section::::Phases and personal activities.:Response.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 207,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 207,
'end_character': 666,
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'passage_text': 'Donations are often sought during this period, especially for large disasters that overwhelm local capacity. Due to efficiencies of scale, money is often the most cost-effective donation if fraud is avoided. Money is also the most flexible, and if goods are sourced locally then transportation is minimized and the local economy is boosted. Some donors prefer to send gifts in kind, however these items can end up creating issues, rather than helping. One innovation by Occupy Sandy volunteers is to use a donation registry, where families and businesses impacted by the disaster can make specific requests, which remote donors can purchase directly via a web site.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27918820',
'title': 'FEMA Public Assistance',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The Public Assistance Program provides federal disaster grant assistance for debris removal, emergency protective measures, and the repair, replacement, or restoration of disaster-damaged property. The Public Assistance Program is meant to supplement any federal disaster grant assistance that a business or organization has already received. The Public Assistance, or PA Program, is based on a partnership between FEMA, State, and local officials. The federal share of assistance should be less than 75% of the eligible cost of emergency efforts and restoration. The remaining funds are generally allocated by the state and are distributed amongst eligible applicants.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55075194',
'title': 'Human response to disasters',
'section': 'Section::::Perpetuation of myths.:By organizations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
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'end_paragraph_id': 43,
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'passage_text': "Although the inability to cope by a disaster-site's community and people is a myth, it continues to be believed. One reason is the justification relief agencies give while promoting the assistance they provide. They feel they are needed because they believe facilities such as hospitals, police and fire departments, and other local first responders do not have the capacity to meet the sheer demand from a disaster. And if their efforts do not go as planned, they often point to survivors’ irrationality rather than reassess the assumptions on which they developed their relief plans.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2941963',
'title': 'Remittance',
'section': 'Section::::Dynamics.:Emergencies.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 61,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 61,
'end_character': 858,
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'passage_text': 'During disasters or emergencies, remittances can be a vital source of income for people whose other forms of livelihood may have been destroyed by conflict or natural disaster. According to the Overseas Development Institute, this is being increasingly recognized as important by aid actors who are considering better ways of supporting people in emergency responses. An illustrative example can be Armenia, that had experienced a devastating earthquake in Spitak on December 7, 1988, when the Karabakh conflict had already started. About 45,000 people have died, while 500,000 became homeless. Armenia got help from different countries, for example, the U.S. government immediately sent $10 million, which helped to more or less recover the economy. Refugees and other displaced populations also often remit to family members left behind in conflict areas.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '434679',
'title': 'Humanitarian aid',
'section': 'Section::::Funding.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 661,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Aid is funded by donations from individuals, corporations, governments and other organizations. The funding and delivery of humanitarian aid is increasingly international, making it much faster, more responsive, and more effective in coping to major emergencies affecting large numbers of people (e.g. see Central Emergency Response Fund). The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) coordinates the international humanitarian response to a crisis or emergency pursuant to Resolution 46/182 of the United Nations General Assembly. The need for aid is ever-increasing and has long outstripped the financial resources available.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why do we rely on donations from the public for disaster relief? Isn't this the government's responsibility?",
'selftext': "We pay taxes so the government can protect its people. Shouldn't the government be able to fully fund disaster relief without relying on contributions from the general public?",
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Yeah that's true, but private charities require donations to survive. Thus when a disaster hits charities go for donation drives and ask for money, part which will go towards disaster relief and part of which will go towards administrative costs that keep the charity afloat. \n\nPeople want to help others during hard times, so that's when they contribute to said charities. \n\nGovernment has no complaints since they save money in the end.",
'with a lot of donations. not all of them mind you, but a lot of donations, a lot of people make a lot of money, it is quite a lucrative business model.\n\nalso, that is incorrect, we do not pay taxes so the government can protect its people, the government protects the interests of the people(which is very different though it does end up with the same results sometimes), when the government fails to protect the people you have NO legal right to sue them for failure to do so, because they do not legally have to protect people. unfortunately though it has become popular to believe that it is the governments job. ',
"No, because if they did people would build in flood zones all the time for the pretty views.\n\nIf you know that Hurricanes and Earthquakes are possible, and if you don't we have science class for that, then you should be buying insurance. Admittedly, companies may be uncomfortable since they don't have the risk science, so having FEMA draw maps makes sense because commerce depends on everyone having the same facts. \n\nGovernment should pay for infrastructure, repairs to public property, and they're unlikely to find underwriting for that so funding it themselves with emergency legislation is probably the only solution.\n\nThe Government does not protect people from spending their money foolishly on a Gulf beach house, this is life in a free country. Such owners need insurance for that. The government protects you from not having a road in front of your house, because the government owns all the roads.",
'Well, why is that the government\'s responsibility? And which government--for instance, why should the federal government be involved in a disaster that\'s only in Texas? And how much should the government provide? You may think it more efficient that the government act as a kind of public insurer than for people to rely on private insurance, for instance, and you might think the federal government is better at that than state governments. These are still *political choices*.\n\nThe idea of "fully funding" disaster relief doesn\'t quite make sense, because there are many different forms of disaster relief. You have to decide specifically what money should be spent on and what should not. There is a federal flood insurance program, and there is emergency aid, and your taxes pay for that. But there are other things the government does not pay for, and which charitable organizations wish to provide, and they ask for your voluntary contribution. There are even be losses due to disaster that no one is interested in compensating; the individual has to bear the burden. Every community will decide for itself what that balance is between the government, charitable and individual burden.',
"Public = government. They're essentially one in the same except in order for disaster relief to get to the victims from the government we have to send money to Washington where it filters through a bunch of other pockets and then finally is used for actual relief.\n\nPublic donations have the potential to be much more effective because they can avoid all of the cost of bureaucracy and send a greater percentage of the money directly to the victims.",
" > Shouldn't the government be able to fully fund disaster relief without relying on contributions from the general public?\n\n\nIf you want to fully fund disaster relief, that means convincing voters to raise taxes, or cut spending elsewhere.\n\ngetting Disaster funding is notoriously tricky. No one wants to pay for it until it happens (especially if it happens to them), and no one wants to subsidize areas that are disaster prone. If federal funds are used, it means places that don't get hit (say, Wyoming) will pay for something only FL/Texas would use. Voters in Wyoming might not be super keen on that.\n\n\n > I believe the federal government should pay for these resources - even if they just cut a private company a check to feed/temporarily house/etc. victims. Our tax dollars should cover this.\n\nIf you think it should- great! convince other voters. Right now, you're in the minority. The government does do quite a bit for relief. It's just not fully funded.\n\nIt's not a question of whether the government can or can't. It can, but people don't necessarily agree with you.\n\n > I'm focused more on why the public is being urged (and many corporate leaders have donated millions) to donate to disaster relief - which goes to companies like the Red Cross. The Red Cross in turn pays for food, water, etc. to help people during disaster time. \n\nThe idea is that the federal government covers the bare minimum of what people want federally covered. However, private donations are encouraged for people who feel more should be done. This allows people who wish to help more, to do so. The people who don't, don't."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6ya0dj',
'query': "why do we rely on donations from the public for disaster relief? isn't this the government's responsibility?",
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '32681305',
'title': 'Theft by finding in the United States',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 320,
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'passage_text': 'Theft by finding occurs when someone chances upon an object which seems abandoned and takes possession of the object but fails to take steps to establish whether the object is genuinely abandoned and not merely lost or unattended. In some jurisdictions the crime is called "larceny by finding" or "stealing by finding".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60165927',
'title': 'Theft by finding',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 321,
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'passage_text': 'Theft by finding occurs when someone chances upon an object which seems abandoned and takes possession of the object but fails to take steps to establish whether the object is genuinely abandoned and not merely lost or unattended. In some jurisdictions the crime is called "larceny by finding" or "stealing by finding". \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1723040',
'title': 'Retail loss prevention',
'section': 'Section::::Shrink.:External theft.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 767,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'External theft is when customers intentionally cause shrink by theft, fraud, or vandalism. 80% of customers who steal merchandise are opportunists and do not walk into the store with the intent to steal. They find that one thing they did not expect to find, cannot afford to pay for it, and will steal it if they have the opportunity. Others are desperate who will steal essentials for their family, but only if they have the opportunity. A few steal because they like the adrenaline rush and will steal, regardless of how much money they have if they have the opportunity. The remainder are "boosters" who are thieves for a living, walk in with the full intent to steal and sell their goods for a profit, on their own, or to a "fence" that sells stolen merchandise.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1922382',
'title': 'Fence (criminal)',
'section': 'Section::::Approach.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 57,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 57,
'end_character': 539,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The degree to which the purchasers of the stolen goods know or suspect that the items are stolen varies. If a purchaser buys a high-quality item for a low price, in cash, from a stranger at a bar or from the back of a van, there is a higher likelihood that the items may be stolen. On the other hand, if a purchaser buys the same high-quality item for the standard retail price from a used goods store, and obtains a proper receipt, the purchaser may reasonably believe that the item is not stolen (even if, in fact, it is a stolen item).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '232169',
'title': 'Shoplifting',
'section': 'Section::::Definition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 909,
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'passage_text': "Generally, criminal theft involves taking possession of property illegally. In self-service shops, customers are allowed by the property owner to take physical possession of the property by holding or moving it. This leaves areas of ambiguity that could criminalize some people for simple mistakes, such as accidental putting of a small item in a pocket or forgetting to pay. For this reason penalties for shoplifting are often lower than those for general theft. Few jurisdictions have specific shoplifting legislation with which to differentiate it from other forms of theft, so reduced penalties are usually at a judge's discretion. Most retailers are aware of the serious consequences of making a false arrest, and will only attempt to apprehend a person if their guilt is beyond a reasonable doubt. Depending on local laws, arrests made by anyone other than law enforcement officers may also be illegal.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1717626',
'title': 'Anti-theft system',
'section': 'Section::::Methods of theft prevention.:Raising the awareness of theft.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 210,
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'passage_text': 'Another common method is the alerting of other individuals to the act of theft. This is commonly seen in department stores, where security systems at exits alert store employees of the removal of unpaid items.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '232169',
'title': 'Shoplifting',
'section': 'Section::::Prevention.:Exit inspections.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 86,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 86,
'end_character': 329,
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'passage_text': 'Shoppers in some stores are asked when leaving the premises to have their purchases checked against the receipt. Costco and Best Buy are well-known companies that employ this tactic. However, this is voluntary, as the store cannot legally detain the shopper unless they have probable cause to suspect the shopper of shoplifting.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How does a store know I'm stealing something?",
'selftext': "Edit: to clarify. I'm talking about these vertical things near the entrance, which set an alarm off if you bring something unpaid for close",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['I would rephrase this question to ask how the sensor monitors in stores detect the theft sensors on items.',
'I’m not sure if I can write enough words for ELI5:\n\nSensors by the door don’t work for everything, it’s only certain high value items, such an item will have a little strip on them that the cashier passes over something several times to deactivate when you buy it. I guess the strip is probably an RF chip, but I’m not sure. \n\nIf you try to pilfer something that doesn’t have this tag, the alarm will not go off, but the store may or may not have other loss prevention measures such as people monitoring cameras that would watch you try to steal the other thing.',
'There are sensors placed on products, which are removed or deactivated during the checkout process. If you try to walk out without paying, then they sensor will not have been deactivated and set off the alarm.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'bw9cuc',
'query': "how does a store know i'm stealing something?",
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '17874491',
'title': 'Psychological evaluation',
'section': 'Section::::Modern uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
'end_character': 666,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Taking a personal history along with clinical examination allow the health practitioners to fully establish a clinical diagnosis. A medical history of a patient provides insights into diagnostic possibilities as well as the patient's experiences with illnesses. The patients will be asked about current illness and the history of it, past medical history and family history, other drugs or dietary supplements being taken, lifestyle, and allergies. The inquiry includes obtaining information about relevant diseases or conditions of other people in their family. Self-reporting methods may be used, including questionnaires, structured interviews and rating scales.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1616002',
'title': 'Medical history',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 1224,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The method by which doctors gather information about a patient’s past and present medical condition in order to make informed clinical decisions is called the history and physical (a.k.a. the H&P). The history requires that a clinician be skilled in asking appropriate and relevant questions that can provide them with some insight as to what the patient may be experiencing. The standardized format for the history starts with the chief concern (why is the patient in the clinic or hospital?) followed by the history of present illness (to characterize the nature of the symptom(s) or concern(s)), the past medical history, the past surgical history, the family history, the social history, their medications, their allergies, and a review of systems (where a comprehensive inquiry of symptoms potentially affecting the rest of the body is briefly performed to ensure nothing serious has been missed). After all of the important history questions have been asked, a focused physical exam (meaning one that only involves what is relevant to the chief concern) is usually done. Based on the information obtained from the H&P, lab and imaging tests are ordered and medical or surgical treatment is administered as necessary. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '251047',
'title': 'Delusional disorder',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 46,
'end_character': 427,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Interviews are important tools to obtain information about the patient's life situation and past history to help make a diagnosis. Clinicians generally review earlier medical records to gather a full history. Clinicians also try to interview the patient's immediate family, as this can be helpful in determining the presence of delusions. The mental status examination is used to assess the patient's current mental condition.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '17839711',
'title': 'SBAR',
'section': 'Section::::Elements.:Recommendation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 362,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Preparation is an integral part of SBAR and health care professionals are suggested to prepare to be able to answer any question the physician may ask. Discussion with another colleague may help. It is highly recommended that information about medical records, medication, administration records, and patient flow sheet be studied before contacting a physician.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23244650',
'title': 'Routine health outcomes measurement',
'section': 'Section::::Benefits of routine health outcomes measurement.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 42,
'end_character': 216,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Can be used to track changes during treatment over periods of time too long to be amenable to memory by an individual patient or clinician, and especially when more than one clinician or team is involved\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3005176',
'title': 'Diagnosis code',
'section': 'Section::::Factors affecting accuracy in diagnostic coding.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 1235,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The experience of the health professional coding a medical record is an essential variable that must be accounted for when analysing the accuracy of coding. Generally a coder with years of experience is able to extract all the relevant information from a medical record whether it is paper, scanned or semi-electronic. The diagnoses codes selected from the extraction are generally compiled and sequenced in order to represent the admission. An experienced coder may incorrectly assign codes due a lack of application of a classification systems relevant standards. An example to highlight clinical coding experience would be the standard within the Australian Coding Standards "0010 General Abstraction Guidelines". These guidelines indicate that a coder must seek further detail within a record in order to correctly assign the correct diagnoses code. An inexperienced coder may simply just use the description from the discharge summary such as "Infarction" and may not use the correct detail which could be further found within the details of the medical record. This directly relates to the accuracy of diagnoses codes as the experience of the health professional coder is significant in its accuracy and contribution to finance.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56194906',
'title': 'Mental health informatics',
'section': 'Section::::Data collection and storage systems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "Systematic collection of information is fundamental to successful practices. Collecting data useful for mental illness diagnosis and treatment is challenging, as we lack quantitative biomarkers that might be used in standard health informatics, such as body temperature or blood pressure. Largely, current diagnosis and treatment is driven by clinical interviews between professionals and patients. Interviews are not only difficult to draw standardized data from because of diverse individual experience, condition, and accuracy of a patient's memory. Rapid advancements in computation and storage systems have the potential to transform this data collection process. For example, a 2014 study in Ireland explored the use of a smartphone application to record daily mood and thoughts. Such a collection process would provide plentiful standardized data less afflicted by patient recollection issues.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do Doctors keep up to date with new information/techniques?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["They are required to recertify every now and then, as well as being mandated to attend seminars and conferences about the latest of medical science in their fields.\n\nAlso, a doctor in a specific field is likely to want to learn about improvements in their field. They're clearly interested in whatever field they spent so much time studying. ",
'They take classes. Doctors, like most licensed professionals, are required to meet certain "Continuing Education" (CME) requirements to keep their certification. The requirements vary by the states/country in which they are licensed. In addition, certain jurisdictions or specialties may require that some or all of the CME falls under a particular theme or category. If a physician is licensed in multiple states, the same CME hours can count toward both licenses, but they would have to meet the requirements of each individual license in order to keep that license.\n\nPhysicians can get CME in a variety of ways--multi-day conferences, webinars, and self-study are some examples. In addition, some specialties may attend trade shows that demonstate technological advances in their area of expertise.\n\n\n\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '74tugn',
'query': 'how do doctors keep up to date with new information/techniques?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '58904018',
'title': 'Maternal behavior in vertebrates',
'section': 'Section::::Mammals.:Precocial species.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'end_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'Precocial young are born with a highly developed sensory and motor system. At birth they are able to see, hear, and most can walk or will learn to walk within the first few days after birth. The females in these species have adapted to be able to recognize their own young, which allows them to be selective about who they choose to care for. They will reject other young who try to nurse from them. The primary focus of these species is to develop an exclusive relationship with their young which allows for the resources and energy expenditure of the mother to be optimized by the offspring and not wasted on other young. This is essential for their success and fitness.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '265327',
'title': 'Patas monkey',
'section': 'Section::::Behavior.:Male social organization.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Young males have been observed to leave their natal groups anywhere from two to four years of age. However, one study showed that most juveniles left before they were three, which is before most males reach sexual maturity. This contrasts with an earlier study in which juveniles were observed to leave later, at sexual maturity, indicating that there may be variation between groups. The reason young males leave their natal group is also contested. Dominant males have been observed to act aggressively toward younger males in captivity. However, observations of wild patas monkeys has shown young males leaving the group in which they were born without any aggressive behavior from the adult male. The juveniles, in the time shortly before they leave, spend increasingly less and less time with the adult females in the group. However, juvenile males do not change the amount of time they spend near the adult male. This may indicate weakening of matrilineal ties, rather than male aggression, as the main reason juveniles disperse from their natal group.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19982129',
'title': 'Chrysiptera parasema',
'section': 'Section::::In the aquarium.:Reproduction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 316,
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'passage_text': 'It is very difficult to tell the males apart from the females. In general, males may tend to be larger more slender, and will become more aggressive towards females when they are ready to mate. Males are ultimately responsible for guarding the eggs, so they will also display more territorial behavior over a brood.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '802149',
'title': 'Indian rhinoceros',
'section': 'Section::::Ecology and behaviour.:Reproduction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 56,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 56,
'end_character': 519,
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'passage_text': 'Captive males breed at five years of age, but wild males attain dominance much later when they are larger. In one five-year field study, only one rhino estimated to be younger than 15 years mated successfully. Captive females breed as young as four years of age, but in the wild, they usually start breeding only when six years old, which likely indicates they need to be large enough to avoid being killed by aggressive males. Their gestation period is around 15.7 months, and birth interval ranges from 34–51 months.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46764',
'title': 'Even-toed ungulate',
'section': 'Section::::Lifestyle.:Reproduction and life expectancy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 164,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 164,
'end_character': 403,
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'passage_text': 'The newborns are precocial (born relatively mature) and come with open eyes and are hairy (with the exception of the hairless hippos). Juvenile deer and pigs have striped or spotted coats; the pattern disappears as they grow older. The juveniles of some species spend their first weeks with their mother in a safe location, where others may be running and following the herd within a few hours or days.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '53679573',
'title': 'Plutonium zwierleini',
'section': 'Section::::Morphology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 310,
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'passage_text': 'Juveniles are similar to adults, and there no significant differences between males and females. The few specimens found insofar are quite variable in the elongation of the antennae and the walking legs, but it is unclear whether this is associated with habitat differences or some geographic differentiation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '520616',
'title': 'Eremobates',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'They are solitary creatures, coming together only to mate, the male using his pedipalps to transfer seminal fluid to the female, who buries between 50 and 200 eggs in the ground. The female stays with the young until they are mature enough to hunt and defend themselves, feeding and caring for them.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How male animals know which young is theirs so they can protect it.',
'selftext': "We know that animals can't connect sex with reproduction. So how do males understand that a child is theirs? If they cant connect sex with childbirth, they must be doing it for pleasure. We know that male lions kill others offspring when they take over a pride to put the females back into heat, but if they can't connect sex to reproduction then why once the new children are born, and the females no longer want sex again does the male not just kill the newborns? Since they can't connect what they did three months before to the baby in front of them, all they should know is that the female won't mate again, which should have the same result as when he took over.",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["They don't know. Many males of various species (like lions and gorillas) kill all the children once they rise to power, and they'll jealously and violently guard access to the females.",
'Why do you think animals can\'t connect sex with reproduction? What evidence do you have for this claim? \n\nIn fact we know that the males of many species fight off other males to prevent them from mating with the females that are "theirs" and will actively kill offspring that exist before they took over the females so that implies they do know the connection of sex and reproduction. ',
'Largely the same way humans did before DNA testing.\n\nFor animals where the male does protect their offspring, as opposed to the herd in general, it is often through pair bonding. They form a family unit with a female, and together they protect any offspring the female might have.\n\nIn your lion example, they don\'t "know", it is simply instinctive behavior programmed over millions of years of evolution. Lions who developed that behavioral trait were more likely to pass along their genes than those who did not.\n\nIt is the same reason you drink water when you are thirsty. Sure, at some level you understand the connection between drinking and dehydration, but mostly it is simply an urge you need to fulfill, not some higher level thought process.',
"The assumption that male animals can't connect sex with fathering offspring is the only reason the outlined scenario seems puzzling, and it's not true.\n\nThe same behavior of killing the offspring of other males exists in several species of animal, and in general, they don't kill the young of females that they have copulated with within the right time span. In some species this has lead to already pregnant females having the ability to go into false heat, couple with a new male, who then let's the offspring live despite them not being his.\n\nThe false heat thing can be found in, for instance, monkeys, that exist in larger social groups. When it comes to alpha predators like bears or big cats, they tend to have huge territories and killing the young happens when a new male moves in, or the alpha male of a pack/pride etc has been ousted. They encounter females they've never coupled with and any cubs with them can safely be assumed to belong to someone else."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8kfzme',
'query': 'how male animals know which young is theirs so they can protect it.',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '24341799',
'title': 'Integrated urban water management',
'section': 'Section::::Grey water systems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
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'passage_text': 'Grey water (also written; greywater, gray water, or graywater) is water used with appliances that do not involve or encounter human waste. It gets its name relative to black water which is heavily contaminated with human waste. Different resources suggest what equipment produce grey or black water. However, it is most commonly accepted that bathtubs, showers, washbasins, washing machines, and laundry tubs produce grey water, whereas toilets, sinks, and dishwashers are classified as black water sources.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '147699',
'title': 'Laundry',
'section': 'Section::::Common problems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Another common problem is color bleeding. For example, washing a red shirt with white underwear can result in pink underwear. Often only similar colors are washed together to avoid this problem, which is lessened by cold water and repeated washings. Sometimes this blending of colors is seen as a selling point, as with madras cloth.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11365247',
'title': 'Stone washing',
'section': 'Section::::Acid-washed jeans.:Early examples.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 777,
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'passage_text': 'Acid-washed denim (a misnomer since no acid is actually used in the process), is washed with pumice stones and chlorine until it is bleached almost white. California surfers and members of the 1960s counterculture prized Levi 501s and other jeans that had been bleached by the salt water due to their authentic, "lived in" appearance. As natural wear took weeks, or even months, it was not uncommon to hang a few new pairs of jeans to fade in the sun, then turn them over to fade the other side. For many surfers, this process simply took too long, so they sped up the process by soaking the jeans in diluted bleach and some beach sand. Simple chlorine bleach and muriatic acid were readily available at the time (and still are), as they were used to sterilize swimming pools.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3786565',
'title': 'Water level (device)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'If the water level is used often, dye can be added to the water to make it easier to see. If the water level is used outdoors in winter, antifreeze can be added to the water. Automotive window washer fluid can also be used for antifreeze and increased visibility. Additionally it inhibits the formation of error causing bubbles. A surfactant (surface active agent), such as hand-dishwashing liquid detergent, can be added to the water to significantly lower the surface tension of the water. This liquid solution will flow more easily and more rapidly in the tube than plain water, so operation of the device will be more precise, repeatable, and responsive – particularly when using a small-diameter tube. Also, this liquid solution can be emptied from a small-diameter tube more easily than plain water.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39',
'title': 'Albedo',
'section': 'Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Water.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 52,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 52,
'end_character': 237,
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'passage_text': "Note that white caps on waves look white (and have high albedo) because the water is foamed up, so there are many superimposed bubble surfaces which reflect, adding up their reflectivities. Fresh 'black' ice exhibits Fresnel reflection.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2770318',
'title': 'Training pants',
'section': 'Section::::Disposable pants.:Wetness indicator.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 456,
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'passage_text': 'This is a set of designs printed in special ink that evaporates from liquid that is absorbed from the wearer-specifically urine, near the area that is most commonly urinated. When the child does wet the pants, these designs smudge to the point that they fade completely to white. This is intended to be an incentive for staying dry and a way to discourage wetting, and to identify when he or she is wet. Such a feature was first sold to consumers in 2000.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3730328',
'title': 'Laundry ball',
'section': 'Section::::Consumer protection.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 909,
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'passage_text': 'In 1997, Trade-Net sold a laundry ball product (the Blue Laundry Ball) in various states. Trade-Net claimed that the blue liquid inside their balls was structured water "that emits a negative charge through the walls of the container into your laundry water." "This causes the water molecule cluster to disassociate, allowing much smaller individual water molecules to penetrate into the innermost part of the fabric." Dennis Barnum, a professor of inorganic chemistry at Portland State University, said that the liquid was just water with a blue dye and couldn\'t possibly have the effect claimed by the manufacturer. Barnum also said that the claims were "gibberish" and used scientific terms in ways that sounded educated to the layman but didn\'t make any real sense. "The Oregonian" tested the balls and found they washed marginally better than hot water with no detergent, and worse than using detergent.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does water make white t-shirts see-through?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["_URL_0_\n\nTo sum up the article (correct me if I'm wrong), it's basically about the complexity of the material and how many surfaces there are.\n\nCloth is made up of lots of fibers all woven together, so there are a lot of air-cloth surfaces in there. So when light hits the cloth, it gets bounced all about in lots of directions, and not a lot of it gets all the way through to the other side.\n\nWhen the cloth gets wet, all those little fibers swell up and stick to each other, so instead of the many surfaces you had before, you now have almost a big block of one material, with only a front surface and back surface. So the light can go straight through.\n\nIt also helps that water makes clothing stick to your skin. Usually clothing hangs kind of loose, so there's a good air cushion between it and your skin. So the color of your skin doesn't really get through. But when the clothes are wet, they cling right on to your skin, allowing it to show.",
"You know how when you bathe a cat, all it's hair sticks to it and it suddenly looks 1/3 of it's normal size?\n\nThe same thing happens to cotton fibers. They're fluffy, and the water pins down the fluff, which lets you see through the holes in the weave. ",
'The water fills in the tiny little gaps so instead of light scattering in random directions, it passes through more consistently. It’s like when you put tape over frosted glass. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8aoqx3',
'query': 'why does water make white t-shirts see-through?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '4474',
'title': 'Bose–Einstein condensate',
'section': 'Section::::Current research.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 77,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 77,
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'passage_text': 'Compared to more commonly encountered states of matter, Bose–Einstein condensates are extremely fragile. The slightest interaction with the external environment can be enough to warm them past the condensation threshold, eliminating their interesting properties and forming a normal gas.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5387',
'title': 'Condensed matter physics',
'section': 'Section::::Experimental.:Cold atomic gases.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 48,
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'passage_text': 'In 1995, a gas of rubidium atoms cooled down to a temperature of 170 nK was used to experimentally realize the Bose–Einstein condensate, a novel state of matter originally predicted by S. N. Bose and Albert Einstein, wherein a large number of atoms occupy one quantum state.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31880',
'title': 'Universe',
'section': 'Section::::Composition.:Ordinary matter.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 59,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 59,
'end_character': 249,
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'passage_text': 'Ordinary matter commonly exists in four states (or phases): solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. However, advances in experimental techniques have revealed other previously theoretical phases, such as Bose–Einstein condensates and fermionic condensates.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '144428',
'title': 'Degenerate matter',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Degenerate matter is usually modelled as an ideal Fermi gas, an ensemble of non-interacting fermions. In a quantum mechanical description, particles limited to a finite volume may take only a discrete set of energies, called quantum states. The Pauli exclusion principle prevents identical fermions from occupying the same quantum state. At lowest total energy (when the thermal energy of the particles is negligible), all the lowest energy quantum states are filled. This state is referred to as full degeneracy. This degeneracy pressure remains non-zero even at absolute zero temperature. Adding particles or reducing the volume, forces the particles into higher-energy quantum states. In this situation, a compression force is required, and is made manifest as a resisting pressure. The key feature is that this degeneracy pressure does not depend on the temperature but only on the density of the fermions. Degeneracy pressure keeps dense stars in equilibrium, independent of the thermal structure of the star.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8337948',
'title': 'Bose–Einstein condensation (network theory)',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'In physics, a Bose–Einstein condensate is a state of matter that occurs in certain gases at very low temperatures. Any elementary particle, atom, or molecule, can be classified as one of two types: a boson or a fermion. For example, an electron is a fermion, while a photon or a helium atom is a boson. In quantum mechanics, the energy of a (bound) particle is limited to a set of discrete values, called energy levels. An important characteristic of a fermion is that it obeys the Pauli exclusion principle, which states that no two fermions may occupy the same state. Bosons, on the other hand, do not obey the exclusion principle, and any number can exist in the same state. As a result, at very low energies (or temperatures), a great majority of the bosons in a Bose gas can be crowded into the lowest energy state, creating a Bose–Einstein condensate.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1418',
'title': 'Absolute zero',
'section': 'Section::::Relation with Bose–Einstein condensate.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'This state of matter was first predicted by Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein in 1924–25. Bose first sent a paper to Einstein on the quantum statistics of light quanta (now called photons). Einstein was impressed, translated the paper from English to German and submitted it for Bose to the "Zeitschrift für Physik", which published it. Einstein then extended Bose\'s ideas to material particles (or matter) in two other papers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4474',
'title': 'Bose–Einstein condensate',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'A Bose–Einstein condensate (BEC) is a state of matter of a dilute gas of low densities called bosons cooled to temperatures very close to absolute zero (-273.15\xa0°C). Under such conditions, a large fraction of bosons occupy the lowest quantum state, at which point microscopic quantum phenomena, particularly wavefunction interference, become apparent macroscopically. A BEC is formed by cooling a gas of extremely low density, about one-hundred-thousandth(1/100000) the density of normal air, to ultra-low temperatures.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is needed to get matter to being a Bose-Einstein condensate, the least known about state of matter?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["You want bosons in a system(usually weakly or noninteracting- typically using a dilute gas) at a low enough temperature. \n\nAt it's core, a BEC is a bunch of bosons sitting in the same ground state. You want bosons as opposed to fermions because Pauli exclusion won't allow fermions to all chill in the same ground state.\n\n > the least known about state of matter?\n\nI'm not sure I'd classify it as the least known about state of matter. There are many many new states of matter these days, that we know very little about. BECs aren't completely solved, but we do know quite a lot about them and how to make them. \n\nEspecially the simpler cases- you can derive the critical temperature for the simplest case of a noninteracting boson gas with pretty standard quantum stat mech\n\nedit:\nAs someone pointed out below, i assumed you had some background (or were willing to let some things be swept under the rug for the sake of simplicity) based on the way you worded your question. If you'd like BECs explained in much greater detail from scratch, I'd recommend these previous posts:\n\n\n_URL_0_\n\n\n_URL_1_\n\nThey do go into *much* more detail (that i swept under the rug), but it's a lot to take in if you have no background."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '7qxown',
'query': 'what is needed to get matter to being a bose-einstein condensate, the least known about state of matter?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '38767094',
'title': '2014 in science',
'section': 'Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:April.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 140,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 140,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- NASA astronomers report that the Hubble Space Telescope can now precisely measure distances up to 10,000 light-years away by using spatial scanning, a ten-fold improvement over earlier measurements. ()\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23335',
'title': 'Parsec',
'section': 'Section::::Usage and measurement.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 769,
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'passage_text': 'The parallax method is the fundamental calibration step for distance determination in astrophysics; however, the accuracy of ground-based telescope measurements of parallax angle is limited to about 0.01\xa0arcseconds, and thus to stars no more than 100\xa0pc distant. This is because the Earth\'s atmosphere limits the sharpness of a star\'s image. Space-based telescopes are not limited by this effect and can accurately measure distances to objects beyond the limit of ground-based observations. Between 1989 and 1993, the "Hipparcos" satellite, launched by the European Space Agency (ESA), measured parallaxes for about stars with an astrometric precision of about 0.97\xa0milliarcseconds, and obtained accurate measurements for stellar distances of stars up to 1000\xa0pc away.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13263199',
'title': 'Ooty Radio Telescope',
'section': 'Section::::Features.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 537,
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'passage_text': 'The large size of the telescope makes it highly sensitive. As an example, it is in principle capable of detecting signals from a mere 1 watt radio station located 10 million km away in space. The telescope sits on a natural slope of 11°, which matches the latitude of the location. This gives the telescope an equatorial mount which allows tracking of celestial sources for up to ten hours in the east-west direction. In the north-south direction, the telescope operates as a phased-array and is steerable by varying the phase gradients\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5260112',
'title': 'Fine guidance sensor',
'section': 'Section::::Hubble Space Telescope FGS.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
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'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The Hubble Space Telescope has three fine guidance sensors (FGSs). Two are used to point and lock the telescope onto the target, and the third can be used for position measurements - also known as astrometry. Because the FGSs are so accurate, they can be used to measure stellar distances and also to investigate binary star systems.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '202661',
'title': 'Stellar parallax',
'section': 'Section::::Space astrometry for parallax.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 308,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "The Hubble telescope WFC3 now has a precision of 20 to 40 microarcseconds, enabling reliable distance measurements up to for a small number of stars. This gives more accuracy to the Cosmic distance ladder and improves the knowledge of distances in the Universe, based on the dimensions of the Earth's orbit.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15951109',
'title': 'List of space telescopes',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 340,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Two values are provided for the dimensions of the initial orbit. For telescopes in Earth orbit, the min and max altitude are given in kilometers. For telescopes in solar orbit, the minimum distance (periapsis) and the maximum distance (apoapsis) between the telescope and the center of mass of the sun are given in astronomical units (AU).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22669',
'title': 'Open cluster',
'section': 'Section::::Astronomical distance scale.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 42,
'end_character': 458,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Determining the distances to astronomical objects is crucial to understanding them, but the vast majority of objects are too far away for their distances to be directly determined. Calibration of the astronomical distance scale relies on a sequence of indirect and sometimes uncertain measurements relating the closest objects, for which distances can be directly measured, to increasingly distant objects. Open clusters are a crucial step in this sequence.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does a space telescope judge distance?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Parallax is the most common type for near-ish objects. \n\nPut something in front of you. Look at it with only one eye open, then the other. You notice how you can use those two slightly different images to judge the distance? That's ***basically*** how we do it for nearby objects too. We can look at a star from one point of earth orbit, then look at it again when the earth has moved.\n\nThere are tons of different ways to measure cosmic distances however: _URL_0_\n\nRedshifting is easily one of the coolest though.\n"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'atn07y',
'query': 'how does a space telescope judge distance?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '178769',
'title': 'Intravenous therapy',
'section': 'Section::::Equipment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 49,
'end_character': 514,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A standard IV infusion set consists of a pre-filled, sterile container (glass bottle, plastic bottle or plastic bag) of fluids with an attachment that allows the fluid to flow one drop at a time, making it easy to see the flow rate (and also reducing air bubbles); a long sterile tube with a clamp to regulate or stop the flow; a connector to attach to the access device; and Y-sets to allow "piggybacking" of another infusion set onto the same line, e.g., adding a dose of antibiotics to a continuous fluid drip.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '178769',
'title': 'Intravenous therapy',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 663,
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'passage_text': 'Intravenous therapy (IV) is a therapy that delivers fluids directly into a vein ("intra-" + "ven-" + "-ous"). The intravenous route of administration can be used for injections (with a syringe at higher pressures) or infusions (typically using only the pressure supplied by gravity). Intravenous infusions are commonly referred to as "drips". The intravenous route is the fastest way to deliver medications and fluid replacement throughout the body, because the circulation carries them. Intravenous therapy may be used for fluid replacement (such as correcting dehydration), to correct electrolyte imbalances, to deliver medications, and for blood transfusions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '178769',
'title': 'Intravenous therapy',
'section': 'Section::::Types of infusions.:Secondary IV.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 686,
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'passage_text': 'The tubing from the bag of fluid being administered that connects to directly to the patient is called the primary tubing. Any additional IVs to be administered are connected to the primary tubing and are called secondary IV, or IV piggyback; this is done instead of placing multiple catheters in the patient. When administering a secondary IV medication, the primary bag is held lower than the secondary bag so that the secondary medication can flow into the primary tubing, rather than fluid from the primary bag flowing into the secondary tubing. The fluid from the primary bag is needed to help flush any remaining medication from the secondary IV from the tubing into the patient.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '178769',
'title': 'Intravenous therapy',
'section': 'Section::::Medical uses.:Medications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 40,
'end_character': 594,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Medications may be mixed into the fluids mentioned above. Compared with other routes of administration, such as oral medications, the intravenous route is the fastest way to deliver fluids and medications throughout the body. The bioavailability of the IV medication is 100%, unlike oral medications where much of the medication is lost in digestion before entering circulation. Certain types of medications can only be given intravenously, such as when there is insufficient uptake by other routes of administration such as enterally. Examples include intravenous immunoglobulin and propofol.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2543416',
'title': 'Infusion pump',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 208,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "An infusion pump infuses fluids, medication or nutrients into a patient's circulatory system. It is generally used intravenously, although subcutaneous, arterial and epidural infusions are occasionally used.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '178769',
'title': 'Intravenous therapy',
'section': 'Section::::Types of infusions.:IV push.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 30,
'end_character': 881,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Some medications are also given by IV "push" or bolus. A syringe containing the medication is connected to an access port in the primary tubing and the medication is administered through the port. The syringe plunger is pressed slowly, if it might irritate the vein or cause a too-rapid effect. Certain medications, such as potassium, are never to be administered by IV push because the spike in medication in the blood from the IV push could be fatal. Once a medicine has been injected into the fluid stream of the IV tubing, there must be some means of ensuring that it gets from the tubing to the patient. Usually this is accomplished by allowing the fluid stream to flow normally and thereby carry the medicine into the bloodstream; however, a second fluid injection is sometimes used, a "flush", following the injection to push the medicine into the bloodstream more quickly.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '307065',
'title': 'Tissue engineering',
'section': 'Section::::Cells as building blocks.:Extraction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 401,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'From fluid tissues such as blood, cells are extracted by bulk methods, usually centrifugation or apheresis. From solid tissues, extraction is more difficult. Usually, the tissue is minced and then digested with the enzymes trypsin or collagenase to remove the extracellular matrix (ECM) that holds the cells. After that, the cells are free floating, and extracted using centrifugation or apheresis.br\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does an IV drip work? How does the body accept and process that fluid?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It\'s a windy day outside. You\'re holding a glass of water and turn it over. The water spills out. Does it fall straight down? No - it falls at angle in the direction the wind is blowing. \n\nThis is similar to the fluid entering your blood. When the needle enters the vessel, the fast moving blood "pulls" the fluid out of the needle and into the bloodstream in the direction of blood flow. The IV bag being elevated relative to the needle helps this along. This can be further explained with some basic fluid mechanics (engineering principles). I can elaborate if you\'d like.\n\n\nBlood is made largely of water and other chemicals (along with the blood cells). IV fluid, whatever it may be, is mostly water, so the body processes this normally - hydrating tissues until it reaches your kidneys where excess water is filtered out and turned into urine. This is why you\'ll have to urinate frequently while on an IV drip even if you\'re not drinking anything.\n\nThe chemicals in the IV drip are absorbed through various tissues and also eventually filtered out through the kidneys and sometimes liver, turning into urine or solid waste. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5thd0i',
'query': 'how does an iv drip work? how does the body accept and process that fluid?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '20249250',
'title': 'I. Bernard Weinstein',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Starting in the 1970s, Dr. Weinstein was among the first groups of researchers to make the connection between chemical compounds that are commonly found in the environment and their cancer-causing potential by identifying carcinogens that would be able to find molecular targets in the body. Weinstein investigated the cancer risks caused by benzo[a]pyrene, which is found in automobile exhaust, barbecued food and tobacco smoke. He also studied nitrosamines, a cancer-causing compound found in cured and smoked meats and in pickled foods, generated when nitrites in the food react with strong acids or high temperatures.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4440593',
'title': 'Histone methylation',
'section': 'Section::::Mutations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 1138,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In recent years it has come to the attention of researchers that many types of cancer are caused largely due to epigenetic factors. Cancer can be caused in a variety of ways due to differential methylation of histones. Since the discovery of oncogenes as well as tumor suppressor genes it has been known that a large factor of causing and repressing cancer is within our own genome. If areas around oncogenes become unmethylated these cancer-causing genes have the potential to be transcribed at an alarming rate. Opposite of this is the methylation of tumor suppressor genes. In cases where the areas around these genes were highly methylated, the tumor suppressor gene was not active and therefore cancer was more likely to occur. These changes in methylation pattern are often due to mutations in methyltransferase and demethyltransferase. Other types of mutations in proteins such as isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1) and isocitrate dehydrogenase 2 (IDH2) can cause the inactivation of histone demethyltransferase which in turn can lead to a variety of cancers, gliomas and leukemias, depending on in which cells the mutation occurs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43745781',
'title': 'Cancer Genome Anatomy Project',
'section': 'Section::::Research.:Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 525,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "The fundamental cause of cancer is the inability for a cell to regulate its gene expression. To characterise a specific type of cancer, the proteins that are produced from the altered gene expression or the mRNA precursor to the protein can be examined. CGAP works to associate a particular cell's expression profile, molecular signature or transcriptome, which is essentially the cell's fingerprint, with the cell's phenotype. Therefore, expression profiles exist with consideration to cancer type and stage of progression.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38327',
'title': 'Cigarette',
'section': 'Section::::Health effects.:Smokers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 185,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 185,
'end_character': 481,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The most important chemical compounds causing cancer are those that produce DNA damage since such damage appears to be the primary underlying cause of cancer. Cunningham et al. combined the microgram weight of the compound in the smoke of one cigarette with the known genotoxic effect per microgram to identify the most carcinogenic compounds in cigarette smoke. The seven most important carcinogens in tobacco smoke are shown in the table, along with DNA alterations they cause. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '414192',
'title': 'Ovarian cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Risk factors.:Environmental factors.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
'end_character': 306,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Tentative evidence suggests that talc, pesticides, and herbicides increase the risk of ovarian cancer. The American Cancer Society notes that as of now, no study has been able to accurately link any single chemical in the environment, or in the human diet, directly to mutations that cause ovarian cancer.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42318629',
'title': 'Minigene',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Cancer.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 1203,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Cancer is a complex, heterogeneous disease that can be hereditary or the result of environmental stimuli. Minigenes are used to help oncologists understand the roles pre-mRNA splicing plays in different cancer types. Of particular interest are cancer specific genetic mutations that disrupt normal splicing events, including those affecting spliceosome components and RNA-binding proteins such as heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoparticules (hnRNP), serine/arginine-rich (SR) proteins and small ribonucleoproteins (snRNP). Proteins encoded by aberrantly spliced pre-mRNAs are functionally different and contribute to the characteristic anomalies exhibited by cancer cells, including their ability to proliferate, invade and undergo angiogenesis, and metastasis. Minigenes help researchers identify genetic mutations in cancer that result in splicing errors and determine the downstream effects those splicing errors have on gene expression. Using knowledge obtained from studies employing minigenes, oncologists have proposed tests designed to detect products of abnormal gene expression for diagnostic purposes. Additionally, the prospect of using minigenes as a cancer immunotherapy is being explored.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '170567',
'title': 'Toxicity',
'section': 'Section::::Measuring.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 360,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Assessing all aspects of the toxicity of cancer-causing agents involves additional issues, since it is not certain if there is a minimal effective dose for carcinogens, or whether the risk is just too small to see. In addition, it is possible that a single cell transformed into a cancer cell is all it takes to develop the full effect (the "one hit" theory).\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How is it determined that a very specific chemical or food (e.g. bacon) causes cancer?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Salt cured pork belly doesn't cause cancer. Nitrite and nitrate preservatives used in bacon making causes cancer.\n\nThese interact with the red meat cells to make N-nitroso compounds, which cause cancer in bowels",
'There are multiple ways they determine carcinogenicity.\n\nThe most accurate way in humans is actually having humans exposed to the chemical in question, and noting that a significant increase in cancer(s) is observed. You have to be careful to filter out other potential causes and interferences though.\n\nSince it isn\'t ethical to run scientific experiments on humans in an effort to determine carcinogenicity, animal models (or cellular models to begin with) are used to approximate human carcinogenicity. This method has limitations because some animals may be more or less sensitive to the chemicals tested than humans. Not to mention exposures have to be adjusted for body weight.\n\nMy understanding is results of testing based on animal model(s) that find some carcinogenic effects is adjusted with a "safety factor" to account for the fact that the animal model(s) isn\'t an exact indicator. So if 1 mg/kg is enough to cause one additional cancer per million in the animal model, the recommended exposure limit for humans might be 0.1 mg/kg.\n\nIt\'s very similar to the testing done to determine safety of pharmaceuticals, minus the part where you\'re trying to determine clinical effectiveness and acute and chronic toxicity.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'ee6f4t',
'query': 'how is it determined that a very specific chemical or food (e.g. bacon) causes cancer?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '5558520',
'title': 'Milk allergy',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Avoiding dairy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 53,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 53,
'end_character': 485,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Milk from other mammalian species (goat, sheep, etc.) should not be used as a substitute for cow's milk, as milk proteins from other mammals are often cross-reactive. Nevertheless, some people with cow's milk allergy can tolerate goat’s or sheep’s milk, and vice versa. Milk from camels, pigs, reindeer, horses, and donkeys may also be tolerated in some cases. Probiotic products have been tested, and some found to contain milk proteins which were not always indicated on the labels.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '219640',
'title': 'Animal husbandry',
'section': 'Section::::Branches.:Dairy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 60,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 60,
'end_character': 298,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Although all mammals produce milk to nourish their young, the cow is predominantly used throughout the world to produce milk and milk products for human consumption. Other animals used to a lesser extent for this purpose include sheep, goats, camels, buffaloes, yaks, reindeer, horses and donkeys.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56228',
'title': 'Dairy',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 339,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Milk producing animals have been domesticated for thousands of years. Initially, they were part of the subsistence farming that nomads engaged in. As the community moved about the country, their animals accompanied them. Protecting and feeding the animals were a big part of the symbiotic relationship between the animals and the herders.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19714',
'title': 'Milk',
'section': 'Section::::Sources.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
'end_character': 498,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "The females of all mammal species can by definition produce milk, but cow's milk dominates commercial production. In 2011, FAO estimates 85% of all milk worldwide was produced from cows. Human milk is not produced or distributed industrially or commercially; however, human milk banks collect donated human breastmilk and redistribute it to infants who may benefit from human milk for various reasons (premature neonates, babies with allergies, metabolic diseases, etc.) but who cannot breastfeed.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19714',
'title': 'Milk',
'section': 'Section::::Sources.:Other animal-based sources.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
'end_character': 278,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Aside from cattle, many kinds of livestock provide milk used by humans for dairy products. These animals include water buffalo, goat, sheep, camel, donkey, horse, reindeer and yak. The first four respectively produced about 11%, 2%, 1.4% and 0.2% of all milk worldwide in 2011.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19167553',
'title': 'Goat',
'section': 'Section::::Agriculture.:Milk, butter and cheese.:Nutrition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 73,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 73,
'end_character': 317,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Some researchers and companies producing goat's milk products have made claims that goat's milk is better for human health than most Western cow's milk due to it mostly lacking a form of β-casein proteins called A1, and instead mostly containing the A2 form, which does not metabolize to β-casomorphin 7 in the body.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '795199',
'title': 'Breast milk',
'section': 'Section::::Comparison to other milks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
'end_character': 393,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "All mammalian species produce milk, but the composition of milk for each species varies widely and other kinds of milk are often very different from human breast milk. As a rule, the milk of mammals that nurse frequently (including human babies) is less rich, or more watery, than the milk of mammals whose young nurse less often. Human milk is noticeably thinner and sweeter than cow's milk.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Do animals in the wild fail to produce milk in the same way as humans?',
'selftext': 'I just saw a video of a mommy and baby gorilla laying down in the grass, cuddling. While watching it I noticed how the gorilla’s breasts looked very similar to humans, and began pondering just how far those similarities go. Are there mammals who fail to produce milk? Do those babies just die? In the event of the animal belonging to a pack, will other mothers feed the baby who can’t receive milk from it’s own mother?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Yes, some mothers fail to produce milk, especially in hard times when food is less available. And, yes, those babies generally just die. Sometimes they're abandoned before they die because mom is desperate for food herself and can't afford to keep trying to produce inadequate milk. Baby's going to die anyway, it's better for her survival to not waste resources trying to keep it alive.\n\nWhether or not the baby will be supported by others in the group depends on the animal and how social they are. For many social animals, the answer is absolutely yes. The whole pack survives better when they share resources, and a mother taking care of someone else's baby now means that someone else will probably take care of her baby later. But that's not universal - some animals won't waste resources for offspring that isn't their own. Spending resources on milk for someone else's baby means fewer resources for your own baby, or just fewer resources for yourself and your own survival.\n\nThen again, some animals will straight up kidnap the offspring of others in the group if their own offspring dies, because the instincts to care for a baby are so strong. It really depends on the species and even sometimes the individual, and the circumstances."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'fu882y',
'query': 'do animals in the wild fail to produce milk in the same way as humans?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '709360',
'title': 'Modifications (genetics)',
'section': 'Section::::Modificability.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 389,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In heredity the genes of the parents are passed on to their offspring unchanged. That is why the organisms which carry the same genotype should be identical in every feature. However, this is not the case. Due to environmental conditions they can vary from each other up to a certain point. There are two types of modifications: the continuous modification and the switching modification.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '57329591',
'title': 'Intragenomic and intrauterine conflict in humans',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 435,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Parents and their children are typically engaged in a cooperative venture in which both benefit by the survival and future reproduction of the offspring. However, their interests cannot be identical because their genes are not identical. While both parent and offspring are 100% related to themselves, they share only 50% of their genes with each other, which means both parent and child will at times be in conflict with each other. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1547739',
'title': 'Identity by type',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 488,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Alleles that are identical by type fall into two groups; those that are identical by descent (IBD) because they arose from the same allele in an earlier generation; and those that are non-identical by descent (NIBD) because they arose from separate mutations. NIBD can also be identical by state (IBS) though, if they share the same mutational expression but not through a recent common ancestor. Parent-offspring pairs share 50% of their genes IBD, and monozygotic twins share 100% IBD.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19595',
'title': 'Mendelian inheritance',
'section': 'Section::::Non-Mendelian inheritance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
'end_character': 714,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In Mendelian inheritance, genes have only two alleles, such as "a" and "A". In nature, such genes exist in several different forms and are therefore said to have multiple alleles. A gene with more than two alleles is said to have multiple alleles. An individual, of course, usually has only two copies of each gene, but many different alleles are often found within a population. One of the best-known examples is coat color in rabbits. A rabbit\'s coat color is determined by a single gene that has at least four different alleles. The four known alleles display a pattern of simple dominance that can produce four coat colors. Many other genes have multiple alleles, including the human genes for ABO blood type.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '678078',
'title': 'Inclusive fitness',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 315,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "An individual's own child, who carries one half of the individual's genes, is defined as one offspring equivalent. A sibling's child, who will carry one-quarter of the individual's genes, is 1/2 offspring equivalent. Similarly, a cousin's child, who has 1/16 of the individual's genes, is 1/8 offspring equivalent.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3373433',
'title': 'Test cross',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 535,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The genotype that an offspring has for each of its genes is determined by the alleles inherited from its parents. The combination of alleles is a result of the maternal and paternal chromosomes contributed from each gamete at fertilization of that offspring. During meiosis in gametes, homologous chromosomes experience genetic recombination and segregate randomly into haploid daughter cells, each with a unique combination of maternally and paternally coded genes. Dominant alleles will override the expression of recessive alleles.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1183979',
'title': 'F1 hybrid',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 298,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The offspring of distinctly different parental types produce a new, uniform phenotype with a combination of characteristics from the parents. In fish breeding, those parents frequently are two closely related fish species, while in plant and animal breeding the parents often are two inbred lines.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If two offspring come from the same parents, how come their genes/characteristics are different from each other?',
'selftext': 'If it’s random selection, then how does the body (or whoever chooses it) choose which genes go into which offspring?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Imagine a woman drops in 100 red balls in a vase and a man dropps in 100 green balls. Now you go ahead and pull 100 balls out if that vase. Each ball symbolises a gene, one of them is dad's curly hair the other one is mom's eyes. Etc. Now do that 10 times. Each result will be easily different. And we have a whole lot more genes than 100.",
"Yes, it's a random selection. We have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Each of the sperm and egg cells contains half of each pair. The offspring therefore gets a random half of each parent's chromosomes.",
"There's two layers to how this all gets randomized.\n\n1. each parent is going to take a soup of ingredients to and put together 23 votes. The 'soup of ingredients' is itself producing randomness for what comes from each parent.\n\n2. then those 23 votes get throw in a pot and a random set of those emerges.\n\nSo...that's a lot of room for variation."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'g3q22l',
'query': 'if two offspring come from the same parents, how come their genes/characteristics are different from each other?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '39319467',
'title': 'Human viruses in water',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Major outbreaks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 330,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Viruses can cause massive human mortality. The smallpox virus killed an estimated 10 to 15 million human beings per year until 1967. Smallpox was finally eliminated in 1977 by extinction of the virus through vaccination, and the impact of viruses such as influenza, poliomyelitis and measles are mainly controlled by vaccination.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9888040',
'title': 'Visna-maedi virus',
'section': 'Section::::Viral infection.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 446,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Visna infection may progress to total paralysis leading to death via inanition; however, if given assistance in eating and drinking, infected animals may survive for long periods of time, sometimes greater than ten years. Viral replication is almost exclusively associated with macrophages in infected tissues; however, replication is restricted in these cells—that is, the majority of cells containing viral RNA do not produce infectious virus.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58596967',
'title': 'Influenza D virus',
'section': 'Section::::Influenza D virus.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 327,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Influenza A virus can infect a variety of animals as well as humans, and its natural host or reservoir is birds, whereas influenza viruses B, C, and D do not have animal reservoirs. Influenza viruses C and D are not as easily isolated so less information is known about these types, but studies show that they occur worldwide.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14579421',
'title': 'Introduction to viruses',
'section': 'Section::::Viruses and diseases.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 45,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 45,
'end_character': 426,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Some viruses can cause lifelong or chronic infections where the viruses continue to reproduce in the body despite the host's defence mechanisms. This is common in hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus infections. People chronically infected with a virus are known as carriers. They serve as important reservoirs of the virus. If there is a high proportion of carriers in a given population, a disease is said to be endemic.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1239866',
'title': 'Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas',
'section': 'Section::::Depopulation from disease.:Virulence and mortality.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 849,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Viral and bacterial diseases that kill victims before the illnesses spread to others tend to flare up and then die out. A more resilient disease would establish an equilibrium; if its victims lived beyond infection, the disease would spread further. The evolutionary process selects against quick lethality, with the most immediately fatal diseases being the most short-lived. A similar evolutionary pressure acts upon victim populations, as those lacking genetic resistance to common diseases die and do not leave descendants, whereas those who are resistant procreate and pass resistant genes to their offspring. For example, in the first fifty years of the sixteenth century, an unusually strong strain of syphilis killed a high proportion of infected Europeans within a few months; over time, however, the disease has become much less virulent.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19167679',
'title': 'Virus',
'section': 'Section::::Role in human disease.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 85,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 85,
'end_character': 402,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Some viruses can cause lifelong or chronic infections, where the viruses continue to replicate in the body despite the host's defence mechanisms. This is common in hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus infections. People chronically infected are known as carriers, as they serve as reservoirs of infectious virus. In populations with a high proportion of carriers, the disease is said to be endemic.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3833671',
'title': 'Influenza C virus',
'section': 'Section::::Influenza C virus.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 408,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Influenza A virus can infect a variety of animals as well as humans, and its natural host or reservoir is birds, whereas influenza viruses B, C, and D do not have animal reservoirs.Influenza C virus is not as easily isolated so less information is known of this type, but studies show that it occurs worldwide. Influenza C virus currently has 6 lineages, which were estimated to have emerged around 1896 AD.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do viruses with a high mortality rate actually manage to survive and spread out in the wild?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Some viruses have reservoirs - meaning that they can stay in hosts that aren't affected by the disease (the mosquito *Aedes aegypti* can carry a number of viruses that can give humans diseases, e.g. yellow, Zika and dengue fever).\n\nOther times, a virus doesn't need its host to survive for very long. If the human can stay alive long enough for the virus to replicate to a certain amount and to spread it to other humans, then the virus can still survive whilst being lethal to its host."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8gp6hv',
'query': 'how do viruses with a high mortality rate actually manage to survive and spread out in the wild?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '411851',
'title': 'Sexual dysfunction',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Orgasm disorders.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 525,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Orgasm disorders, specifically anorgasmia, present as persistent delays or absence of orgasm following a normal sexual excitement phase in at least 75% of sexual encounters. The disorder can have physical, psychological, or pharmacological origins. SSRI antidepressants are a common pharmaceutical culprit, as they can delay orgasm or eliminate it entirely. A common physiological culprit of anorgasmia is menopause, where one in three women report problems obtaining an orgasm during sexual stimulation following menopause.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27546',
'title': 'Sexual intercourse',
'section': 'Section::::Health effects.:Duration and genital complications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 53,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 53,
'end_character': 838,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'For those whose impotence is caused by medical conditions, prescription drugs such as Viagra, Cialis, and Levitra are available. However, doctors caution against the unnecessary use of these drugs because they are accompanied by serious risks such as increased chance of heart attack. The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) and antidepressant drug dapoxetine has been used to treat premature ejaculation. In clinical trials, those with PE who took dapoxetine experienced sexual intercourse three to four times longer before orgasm than without the drug. Another ejaculation-related disorder is delayed ejaculation, which can be caused as an unwanted side effect of antidepressant medications such as Fluvoxamine; however, all SSRIs have ejaculation-delaying effects, and Fluvoxamine has the least ejaculation-delaying effects.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '337453',
'title': 'Retrograde ejaculation',
'section': 'Section::::Treatments.:Medications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 367,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'These medications tighten the bladder neck muscles and prevent semen from going backwards into the bladder. However, the medications do have many side effects and they have to be taken at least 1–2 hours prior to sexual intercourse. In many cases, the medications fail to work at the right time because most men are not able to predict when they will have an orgasm.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '292094',
'title': 'Anorgasmia',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 560,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Cabergoline, an agonist of dopamine D₂ receptors which inhibits prolactin production, was found in a small study to fully restore orgasm in one third of anorgasmic subjects, and partially restore orgasm in another third. Limited data has shown that the drug amantadine may help to relieve SSRI-induced sexual dysfunction. Cyproheptadine, buspirone, stimulants such as amphetamines (including the antidepressant bupropion), nefazodone and yohimbine have been used to treat SSRI-induced anorgasmia. Reducing the SSRI dosage may also resolve anorgasmia problems.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21866643',
'title': 'Postorgasmic illness syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Management.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 45,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 45,
'end_character': 339,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Another patient, in whom POIS was suspected to be caused by cytokine release, was successfully treated with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) just prior to and for a day or two after ejaculation. The patient took diclofenac 75\xa0mg 1 to 2 hours prior to sexual activity with orgasm, and continued twice daily for 24 to 48 hours.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '805921',
'title': 'Erotic sexual denial',
'section': 'Section::::As a form of control.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 348,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Orgasm denial as a way of orgasm control is a widely practiced activity within erotic feminization. The dom will often deny the submissive (BDSM) sexual release to maintain their heightened state of sexual arousal, as a way to satisfy their desires for erotic humiliation, or as a way to satisfy the dominant's own desires to erotically humiliate.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22623',
'title': 'Combined oral contraceptive pill',
'section': 'Section::::Side effects.:Sexuality.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 72,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 72,
'end_character': 595,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'COCPs may increase natural vaginal lubrication. Other women experience reductions in libido while on the pill, or decreased lubrication. Some researchers question a causal link between COCP use and decreased libido; a 2007 study of 1700 women found COCP users experienced no change in sexual satisfaction. A 2005 laboratory study of genital arousal tested fourteen women before and after they began taking COCPs. The study found that women experienced a significantly wider range of arousal responses after beginning pill use; decreases and increases in measures of arousal were equally common.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why do ED medications, whether prescription or OTC supplements, also delay orgasm?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['We\'ll,using the ED Rx for many years( diabetes) I think it may be that the increased blood flow seems to reduce some sensation. It\'s great to be " rock hard" and fun for my partner to have a young man\'s erection to play with, but it does take a good while to come.\n\nI\'m a bit older( 63) and while I enjoy the long sessions of lovemaking, it\'s also tough as far as physical wear & tear go, on both my spouse and I.\n( Muscles,knees and backs,etc.)\n\nThat being said,these Rxs are miracles if modern science.',
"They don't delay orgasm. They simply help you get hard(er), and remain hard during sex. But you still orgasm normally"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'emgfy4',
'query': 'why do ed medications, whether prescription or otc supplements, also delay orgasm?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '70157',
'title': 'Recycling',
'section': 'Section::::Recyclates.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
'end_character': 449,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': '"Recyclate" is a raw material that is sent to, and processed in a waste recycling plant or materials recovery facility which will be used to form new products. The material is collected in various methods and delivered to a facility where it undergoes re-manufacturing so that it can be used in the production of new materials or products. For example, plastic bottles that are collected can be re-used and made into plastic pellets, a new product.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '70157',
'title': 'Recycling',
'section': 'Section::::Legislation.:Supply.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 390,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'An alternative way to increase the supply of recyclates is to ban the disposal of certain materials as waste, often including used oil, old batteries, tires, and garden waste. One aim of this method is to create a viable economy for proper disposal of banned products. Care must be taken that enough of these recycling services exist, or such bans simply lead to increased illegal dumping.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1664937',
'title': 'Computer recycling',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 297,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Computer recycling, electronic recycling or e-waste recycling is the disassembly and separation of components and raw materials of waste electronics. Although the procedures of re-use, donation and repair are not strictly recycling, there are other common sustainable ways to dispose of IT waste.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7099209',
'title': 'Recursive recycling',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 387,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Recursive recycling is a technique where a function, in order to accomplish a task, calls itself with some part of the task or output from a previous step. In municipal solid waste and waste reclamation processing it is the process of extracting and converting materials from recycled materials derived from the previous step until all subsequent levels of output are extracted or used.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21228028',
'title': 'Refrigerant reclamation',
'section': 'Section::::Certified ratings.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 636,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Some circumstances where the material is being put back into the system it was removed and not being transferred to a new system the material can be recycled and the EPA defines that as "Recycle refrigerant means to extract refrigerant from an appliance and clean refrigerant for reuse without meeting all of the requirements for reclamation. In general, recycled refrigerant is refrigerant that is cleaned using oil separation and single or multiple passes through devices, such as replaceable core filter-driers, which reduce moisture, acidity, and particulate matter. These procedures are usually implemented at the field job site."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13557372',
'title': 'Recuva',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 402,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Recuva () is an undeletion program for Windows, developed by Piriform. It is able to undelete files that have been marked as deleted; the operating system marks the areas of the disk in which they were stored as free space. Recuva can recover files deleted from hard disk drives, USB flash drives, memory cards, portable media players or all random-access storage mediums with a supported file system.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1661475',
'title': 'Green computing',
'section': 'Section::::Approaches.:Materials recycling.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 76,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 76,
'end_character': 657,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "The recycling of old computers raises an important privacy issue. The old storage devices still hold private information, such as emails, passwords, and credit card numbers, which can be recovered simply by someone's using software available freely on the Internet. Deletion of a file does not actually remove the file from the hard drive. Before recycling a computer, users should remove the hard drive, or hard drives if there is more than one, and physically destroy it or store it somewhere safe. There are some authorized hardware recycling companies to whom the computer may be given for recycling, and they typically sign a non-disclosure agreement.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "What happens when you recycle something that isn't recyclable?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Dang it, I read an article about this just recently and now I can't find it. There are people whose job is to watch the stuff come down a conveyer belt, and they pick out what is not recyclable. They can miss things, though, which then go into the recycling, uh, machines (I should really find the article) and can mess the machines up pretty badly. After I read this I started being a lot more careful about only putting what is actually recyclable into my bin.",
'TL;DR: Recycling is hard but partially automated, usually useful to save energy, and people don\'t like doing it themselves. Otherwise it is just taken to the landfill. \n\nIn a recycling center there are a multitude of methods to sort materials of interest. Since material properties are varied among recycled products, these centers are able to take advantage and sort them in an automated process.\n\n- Ferrous items like steel and iron can be separated with a magnet.\n- Gravity and screens/filters/tumblers can separate paper materials. \n- Infrared cameras can detect plastics and communicate to compressed air nozzles to knock them off a conveyor line\n\nCertainly there is still a very large manual labor portion of this as not every material can be differentiated. There is of course further processing and refining for each material which usually involves chemical baths and/or melting. Normally a certain percentage of recycled material will be introduced into virgin stock (this is why you read "made from up to 25% post consumer recycled material"). In the case of steel in the US you are no longer allowed to make virgin steel. \n\nIt does take a lot of energy to do this refining. But in the case of aluminum cans specifically, a recycled can is made using only 5% of the energy required to make a new one. Too bad 50% of cans are still taken to the landfill. \n\nUnfortunately recycling rates are still very low overall, IMO. Around 30% in the US. It is often as high as 60% in some European countries and even higher in certain cities. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5olp8r',
'query': "what happens when you recycle something that isn't recyclable?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '36777018',
'title': 'Causes of cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Physical and chemical agents.:Materials.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 883,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Some substances cause cancer primarily through their physical, rather than chemical, effects on cells. A prominent example of this is prolonged exposure to asbestos, naturally occurring mineral fibers which are a major cause of mesothelioma, which is a cancer of the serous membrane, usually the serous membrane surrounding the lungs. Other substances in this category, including both naturally occurring and synthetic asbestos-like fibers such as wollastonite, attapulgite, glass wool, and rock wool, are believed to have similar effects. Non-fibrous particulate materials that cause cancer include powdered metallic cobalt and nickel, and crystalline silica (quartz, cristobalite, and tridymite). Usually, physical carcinogens must get inside the body (such as through inhaling tiny pieces) and require years of exposure to develop cancer. Common occupational carcinogens include:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '55906778',
'title': 'Anti-Hu associated encephalitis',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 752,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "In people with cancer, the cancer has a likely role in the cause of the encephalitis. In a paraneoplastic syndrome, a cancer cell can create proteins that are normally only found as naturally-occurring proteins in other cell types in other parts of the body. In patients with small cell carcinoma of the lung, cancer cells in the lung can produce Hu proteins that are usually only found inside of the body's own neurons. It is hypothesized that through these cancer-produced Hu proteins, the body creates an immune system response. This reaction includes T cells, which then attack nervous tissue. The cancer-produced Hu proteins are found in nearly all small-cell lung carcinomas, 70 percent of neuroblastomas, and a small percentage of other tumors.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2332422',
'title': 'Carcinogenesis',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanisms.:Role of infections.:Viral.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 88,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 88,
'end_character': 512,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Depending on their location, cells can be damaged through radiation, chemicals from cigarette smoke, and inflammation from bacterial infection or other viruses. Each cell has a chance of damage. Cells often die if they are damaged, through failure of a vital process or the immune system, however sometimes damage will knock out a single cancer gene. In an old person, there are thousands, tens of thousands or hundreds of thousands of knocked-out cells. The chance that any one would form a cancer is very low.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26652093',
'title': 'Autologous immune enhancement therapy',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism of action.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 662,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Cancer cells are formed in our body almost every day but we are not affected by them. This is because they are immediately destroyed by the body\'s immune system. The immune system is a complex network of cells and organs comprising lymphocytes, macrophages, Dendritic cells, Natural Killer cells (NK Cell), Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes (CTL), etc., that work together to defend the body against attacks by "foreign" or "non-self" invaders including cancer cells. Immediately after a cancer cell is recognized, the Lymphocytes and/or the NK cells attack the cancer cell to kill it. When the immune system is weaker then cancer evolves as a disease and starts growing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16106907',
'title': 'Vaccine therapy',
'section': 'Section::::Cancer vaccines.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 686,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Cancer is a group of fatal diseases that involves abnormal cell growth that can invade or spread to other parts of the body. They are usually caused by the accumulation of mutations in genes that regulate cell growth and differentiation. Majority of cancer, about 90-95%, are due to genetic mutations from environmental and lifestyle factors – including age, chemicals, diet, exercise, viruses, and radiation. The remaining 5-10% are due to inherited genetics. Some of the cancers may be difficult to treat by conventional means such as surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy, but may be controlled by the stimulation of the immune response of the body with the help of cancer vaccines. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16658662',
'title': 'Hypopharyngeal cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 262,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Smoking, like lung cancer, can cause hypopharyngeal cancer because it contains carcinogens that alter the DNA or RNA in a dividing cell. These alterations may change a normal DNA sequence to an oncogene, a gene that causes cancer after exposure to a carcinogen.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '105219',
'title': 'Cancer',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Physical agents.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 50,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 50,
'end_character': 809,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Some substances cause cancer primarily through their physical, rather than chemical, effects. A prominent example of this is prolonged exposure to asbestos, naturally occurring mineral fibers that are a major cause of mesothelioma (cancer of the serous membrane) usually the serous membrane surrounding the lungs. Other substances in this category, including both naturally occurring and synthetic asbestos-like fibers, such as wollastonite, attapulgite, glass wool and rock wool, are believed to have similar effects. Non-fibrous particulate materials that cause cancer include powdered metallic cobalt and nickel and crystalline silica (quartz, cristobalite and tridymite). Usually, physical carcinogens must get inside the body (such as through inhalation) and require years of exposure to produce cancer.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'if cancer is basically a clump of cells that dont want to die, why/how do things like cigarettes, asbestos, and the literal sun trigger it?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Cancer cells result from mutations that disable the things that keep cell growth in check. Those mutations come from incorrect repairs to cell DNA, and those errors happen more frequently the more repairs take place.\n\nTherefore things that cause damage that requires repairs increase the chances of developing cancer, stuff like cigarettes, asbestos, and sun exposure.',
'The cells in our body reproduce regularly and based off of a genetic map. That genetic map can naturally become distorted and cause cells to reproduce uncontrollably, becoming cancerous growths known as tumors.\n\nA "carcinogen" is a substance (certain types of radiation, chemicals, etc.) that can basically screw up that genetic map much faster than would naturally occur in an otherwise healthy person. Cigarette smoke has a lot of carcinogens, both from radioactive sources and from certain chemicals. Energy from the sun is also radioactive - a lot of the more harmful light is filtered out in the atmosphere but you can still receive dangerous doses if you\'re outside all the time without protection on.',
'Those things damage your DNA. Your DNA is an instruction set on how to build cells. \n\nIf the right bits of DNA are damaged, then your body will read the wrong instructions and build heaps of useless cells, and that is called Cancer',
'Every time your cells split theres a very small chance that something goes wrong and it becomes a cancerous cell instead of a healthy cell.\n\nThose carcinogens damage cells, and force your body to get rid of them, and for another cell to split to replace it. Since they increase the number of cell splits, they increase your risk of cancer.',
"Things called carcinogens can make cells freak out and start growing really fast through a process called 'Mutation'",
'A lot of people are saying stuff like carcinogens are the cause and mutations and etc without actually answering the question\n\nSun releases ionizing radiation which can knock electrons out in the DNA, thus changing it\n\nChemicals can cause stuff like DNA methylation to happen where the transcription and translation process of the DNA get affected so new cells can get made incorrectly etc',
'Cancer cells do die eventually from all the mutations they incurred- but because their cellular growth brakes are gone due to things that break DNA apart at these growth controlling genes (toxic chemicals, UV radiation etc) they basically divide until they die.\n\n\nThis is why you wear sunscreen when you tan - otherwise you risk a higher chance of skin cancer',
'think of cells like a car. there’s a gas pedal, a brake pedal, and when things go wrong, there’s a mechanic. with cancer, you have things like cigarettes and asbestos that cut the wires and break the pipes within the car, so that it’s no longer in control. the car will just swerve in and out of traffic. in contrast, normal cells follow the rules of traffic. they only move at a green light, and they stop at red lights.',
'Instead of a bunch of cells that don\'t want to die, think of it more like a bunch of cells that have had their self-destruct button broken, or the wiring from the self-destruct button to the "reactor" broken. Because that self destruct signal either is not being received or not being carried out properly, the cells keep growing & replicating in an uncontrolled manner.\n\nCarcinogens (or things that cause cancer) like smoking, UV radiation, etc., are the things breaking the self destruct.',
'Imagine you are told a long paragraph (it\'s simple enough to remember but there exists no copy of it, written or otherwise) and I task you with writing down, over and over again. Each time you write it, the previous write ups cease to exist. You basically just keep writing. How much would you be willing to bet that after a year, the paragraph you write will be the exact same as the initial one given (ie exact word placement [frameshift mutations], properly spelled [nonsense/missense/silent mutation], etc)? \n\nWhen a cell replicates, that\'s basically what happens. The cell divides based off the DNA framework of the parental cell. The downstream effect are felt when the cell has to divide over and over and over again (DNApol has copy error rates). So after hundreds/thousands of replications, you begin getting accumulations of "cancer-like" cell health profiles. \n\nSo back to your original question. Certain things cause cells to die, and your body tends to have a homeostasis (basically a point of balance) drive to have certain cells in certain places. So when you take in some of these chemicals that kill cells, you are basically encouraging your body to divide cells in the affected regions (lungs for cigarettes, skin for sun, wiping to hard to colorectal, etc.), thus you are encouraging replication errors to occur more often than let\'s say someone who does not do those behaviors.',
'In addition to the DNA damage aspect, these things cause irritation and inflammation. Inflammation helps promote cell replication thus allowing cells with damaged DNA to divide more.',
"Your body makes about 200 cancer cells per day, your immune system is really good at fighting those cells before they metastasize. When you are doing something damaging to your body that's in bed of constant repair, your immune system is distracted by the extra work and those cancer cells slip by unnoticed. Smoking, drinking, inhaling impurities, stressing out, not getting enough rest are all things that cause damage that can be mostly avoided.",
'Generally, there\'s a chance anybody can get any type of cancer. What causes development of cancer are mutations (mistakes) in the creation of new cells. Environmental factors like the ones you listed increase the probability of these mistakes occuring. This doesn\'t mean that a smoker *will* or *will not* get lung cancer, it just statistically increases the odds of it happening.\n\nI think the most confusing part about cancer for many people is the statistics that explain it and how environmental factors affect it\'s probability, not certainty. Many sensational pieces like "x causes cancer" are products of a wrongful manipulation of statistics.',
'Seems like most commenters here are referring to the widely accepted Somatic Mutation Theory (damaged DNA = mutations = cancer). My independent studies have led me to believe that the Metabolic Origins Theory is more accurate and up-to-date. MOT pinpoints damaged mitochondria as the cause of tumorigenesis rather than mutated DNA. That is to say, impaired cell respiration leads to cells flipping off their normal programming. They go into a mode of anaerobic respiration and shut off apoptosis (programmed cell death). MOT researchers believe that it is the impaired respiration that then leads to damaged DNA, not the other way around. The greatest evidence suggesting this is that when healthy cells were implanted with cancerous nuclei (DNA), daughter cells were healthy. When healthy cells were implanted with cancerous mitochondria (cell respiratory system), daughter cells were cancerous. According to MOT, the answer to your question would be impaired cell respiration. Carcinogens such as cigarettes, asbestos and UV rays stress the mitochondria and prevent it from properly producing ATP. This can be caused by not enough oxygen reaching the mitochondria as carcinogens cause chronic oxidative stress. \n\nSome sources:\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_2_',
'Immuno-oncologist; I will try to make it as basic as I can but realize there are millions of minor facts that fit in the middle of this broad overview.\n\nFirst off it is important to understand cells. Cells are the ultimate team players. They are programmed to kill themselves if there is something wrong with them and they are able to start the cycle of killing themselves. If they don\'t grow up correctly, if they aren\'t doing their job properly and when they get too old; boom suicide. This is called apoptosis. What is also important about cells it to realize that they communicate with their environment and their fellow cells all the time with chemicals. Next it is important to know that cells also have receptors on their surfaces that allow them to communicate as well. Some of these receptors are specific in that that have a "don\'t kill me" sign. There are actually sometimes dozens of "don\'t kill me" signs that they can have. Last, it is important to know that cells can, when damaged in the right way not kill themselves and they can also get screwy in their signs and display "don\'t kill me" even if they really need to be killed. Those abnormal cells will still divide as normal if they have the ability to do so and the two cells that come from it will be identical to the first one. So one abnormal cell is now 2 identical abnormal cells. That process can repeat forever in a living organism. This is essentially that clump of cells you are referring to. Often these cells were all from the same parent cell, we call them clonal (from one colony).\n\nNext its important to realize that there are factors outside of random chance that can increase the odds of making a lot of very bad abnormal cells. Some of those include UV and chemicals like those found in cigarettes or asbestos etc.\n\nNext, the last major player to avoid absolute catastrophe is the immune system. Your immune system is amazing but it has limits. Your immune system functions a bit like the police of a dystopian state. They kill everything is foreign, everything that is not functioning properly (e.g. growing too fast or eating too much) and everything that is sick (e.g. virus infected). But I mentioned those "don\'t kill me" signs that cells can have. Those are normal signs but abnormal cells can show them even if they should be killed. This means that your last natural chance to kill bad cells can miss them.\n\nFinally, it is important to realize that this is also a numbers game. The sheer number of cells in your body and their crazy number of things about them that are different depending on where they are (think stomach vs skin vs brain), what they normally do and at what age, sex or random genetic mutations you have makes this whole system seem impossible to alter at our choosing. For reference a billion cells fit inside the tip of an adult pinky.\n\nThe field of immuno-oncology (cancer immunotherapy) cropped up hoping to hijack this system but its been a rough field to find success. We learn more and more that cells have so many ways to tell the immune system to leave them alone. We think we find that a breast cancer has a lot of one sign and we make a drug against it and more of other signs come up in its place. Some of it is basic chance and some of survival by mutation. The more mutations that are made the more likely abnormal cells proliferate. Cancerous chemicals and UV increase that mutational burden and really hurts your bodies natural ability to kill abnormal cells. Essentially this is how we get cancerous cells and when enough of those cells exist, the normal functions of whatever organ they are in goes down and we will eventually succumb to them. So in the instance of cigarettes, our lungs, esophagus and circulatory systems are all sensitive and we cant live without breathing and having oxygen passed around inside our body.',
'I worked as a software developer for my best friend while he was doing his PhD studies at UT Southwestern for Nuclear Physics. His grant was on breast cancer research. His research was on cataloging various types of cancer, particularly on the breast tissue and then see if we could find alternate ways of treatment, including of course radiation therapy. \n\n\nOur test subjects were various lab animals, for the most part lab rats. \n\n\nAnyway, after 3 years working close to him in his research I developed a conclusion that seems to have some fundament on it. \n\n\nImagine you have a copy machine, it is of the best quality possible, makes as precise copies as you can imagine. You are asked to make copies with a caveat. You can never make copies using the same original. In fact, your copy has to be made from the latest copy, and the next copy from the latest copy and so on.\n\nLets call your original copy the "stem copy" and you will only get to use it once.\n\nThe first few copies look identical. There is no deviation from the original, but as you keep on making copies, small imperfections appear. Some dust got on the glass, and that made it to the copy, you cleaned the glass, but since you cant make a copy out of the original, all subsequent copies will have that little piece of lint or spec of dust that made it to the glass. \n\nThen the paper shifts just so, so now the copy is shifted and with a spec of dust. \nAt some point the copies definitely look different from the original so you start shredding them. \n\n\nCancer is like this, our body cells are constantly regenerating due to various processes. In a normal lifecycle this is not a problem, but if tissue or an organ or anything has to be constantly regenerated due to an illness, the body will eventually start making bad copies and the own body defenses will start attacking the bad copies because now they look like foreign agents, like disease. \n\n\nAsbestos is a good example. Asbestos fibers get incrusted deep into the lung tissue, the body tries to remove it but it cant. Minuscule damage is done to the tissue that the body is constantly trying to repair... until it makes a mistake. \n\n\nThe common denominator seems to be a wound that has to be constantly healed. Like cancer of the skin... overexposure to the sun... do this enough times and you get a melanoma. \n\n\nDrinking for the liber, tobacco on the lungs and so on.',
"A more recent proposed mental model for understanding cancer comes from observing that cancer cells behave like much more primitive cells, and act in their own interest rather than in the interest of the organism. The idea is that harmful substances injure the cell to the point where instead of booting the cell's assigned OS and operating accordingly, so to speak, it goes into kernel panic mode, and operates like a bacterium, having forgotten that it is supposed to operate as part of a larger organism. Those ultra primitive functions include proliferation and cell division, but lack the regulatory functions that make it participate in the over-all functioning of the organism. Part of that proper behavior is that certain cells trigger cell suicide when their continued activity harms the organism. There is evidence that supports this interpretation, but as with anything as complicated, it is controversial.\n\nSee this: [A New Theory on Cancer: What We Know About How It Starts Could All Be Wrong](_URL_0_)",
'Let me try and really ELI5 this. \n\nLet\'s pretend a group of friends is building a neighborhood of houses. Each friend has got a huge book of instructions that tell them everything they need to know about building the houses, and how each of them should fit into the neighborhood. This book even tells them how many new friends you need to invite, and when. \n\nThe friends want to keep this neighborhood absolutely brand spanking new, so new in fact, that they demolish houses once they get old, and build new ones to make up for these old ones. The big book of instructions also explains how to do this so there\'s always have the correct number of houses. \n\nEach friend is responsible for building just one house, and then they live in it. Also, each friend gets their own big book of instructions. When the house is removed because it got old, and the friend is going to leave the neighborhood with their book, the book instructs them to invite a new friend to the neighborhood to build a house. The old friend is gong to keep his copy of the book, and so copies the book by hand, to give to the new friend.\n\ncigarettes, asbestos, and the sun are like smudges and coffee stains in the big book of instructions. Often the friend can work out what the words or letters should be, and correctly copy them. But over time the errors slowly build up. \n\nEventually the book can become so incorrect that the friend reading it thinks it says, "Invite a new friend to build a house next to you, then DON\'T remove you\'re own house". The DON\'T is the error that has arrived over time.\n\nSo now not only do we have 2 houses where we should only have one, we\'ve got 2 friends with a bad copy of the book! Both these friends will now invite 2 more friends, and not remove themselves. So now we\'ve got 4 houses where there should only be one, and 4 friends with bad book copies! And so on.\n\nThese friends are now really stressed. They\'ve got houses built all over each other, and this stress is causing them to copy the book badly. They\'re making more mistakes than they normally would. The books are now telling them to invite a new friend every day. To build lots of roads to allow all these new friends to reach them. To order in takeaways constantly to feed all these friends. To tell the friend from the other side of town who\'s come to help the situation, to get lost.\n\nSo now in the north-west corner of the neighborhood we\'ve got a clump of houses and friends that aren\'t doing what they are supposed to be doing. And this clump is growing rapidly. \n\nAlthough dangerous, this clump of houses isn\'t enough to destroy the neighborhood. However, if one of those friends living in the clump gets an error in his book that tells him to get in his car, and drive to a new area of the neighborhood, and how to avoid the friends trying to help on the way, we\'ve got a big problem.',
"So all cells in the body are in a constant cycle of division and death. These functions are controlled by the genetic material inside the cell telling it when to do it, with each cell being a copy of its previous self. When you are exposed to **cigarettes, asbestos, radiation and sunlight (AKA carcinogens)** this disrupts the exact copying mechanism of the genes and a resulting copy of the cells you get maybe defiant to the body's signal for them to die. These death resistant cells makes more copies and essentially take resources meant for other processes making you ill.\n\ntldr: These things mutate the cell by damaging genes making it resistant to dying and making it multiply faster.",
'Cancer forms constantly. Cancer is basically the equivalent of a spelling mistake in your DNA. For every mistake that happens your cells correct it, but if the mistake isn’t corrected then the mistake can be duplicated. All the outside influences you mentioned just increase the chance of the mistake.',
'Ever seen lizards she\'d their skin? They always have a new one underneath! How come? Well, as well as us, the cells on their body are constantly reproducing, I\'m sure you\'ve seen that process in cartoons, where one cell stretches so much it becomes two, we call it mitosis.\nWell... Sometimes mitosis goes wrong. During the process your body can mess up something, we are flawed creatures. And when that happens we get a "broken" cell. The broken cell goes psycho mode and does mitosis at an extremely faster rate, eating away surrounding cells and making more broken ones. If it stops, we call it a tumor. If it doesn\'t, we call it cancer.\nWell cigarettes, sun and the likes of them kinda fucks a little with our body\'s chemistry, making the chances of cells becoming broken in the first place higher.\n\nSources: middle school biology class',
'Cancer is basically a result of damaged DNA. When a healthy cell divides, there are a variety of checkpoints the cell has to pass in order to avoid self - destruction in a process called apoptosis. This occurs both when the cell has damaged DNA and when it has divided so many times that it has reached the end of its lifespan. But sometimes a cell is damaged in such a way that it wants to keep dividing forever. Normally this very quickly triggers the self - destruct button, but if the self - destruct button itself is damaged, the damaged cell keeps can sometimes keep on living and dividing and spreading. Cigarettes, asbestos, and UV rays all damage DNA, although they do it in different ways.',
'I think of it like windows XP. Remember when you get an error and then the same error message pops up in a window over and over in a loop? It’s uncontrollably multiplying the error message? It’s impossible to exit out of it without taking drastic measures like holding down the power button for a forced shutdown. It’s not good to do but you have to sometimes.',
'Everyone has cancerous cells all the time. Errors copying DNA, or damage to the copy and repair machinery cause it. Some damage triggers a self destruct for the cells, and some triggers rapid growth. \n\nOur white blood cells can smell most of the unrepairable cells, but can only eat so many of them at once. Also, sometimes, the fast growing cells break loose and stick somewhere else, which takes a while to build up enough cancer smell for white blood cells to find.\n\nRadiation, some chemicals, and some viruses greatly increase those problems. They can reduce WBC effectiveness and replication, increase cell damage, etc.\n\nWith enough random hits, some of those cancer cells cannot be smelled. Those can grow without being attacked by the body at all. We treat that by:\n\n* targeted beams of radiation from many directions so only a central point gets a lethal dose, killing the core of a large tumor.\n* drugs that cross-link DNA so your cells cannot replicate. It takes time for your cells to fix this. Any cell that needs to repair or replace itself before fixed will die. Cancer cells, stomach lining, and hair follicles need to do that way more often, and are more likely to die. Some good cells all over die too.\n* newer drugs also can smell cancers and poison them more than normal cells.\n* Custom made viruses can target some types of cancer cells\n* there are some other drug types too\n\nIn all of those treatments, some cells can stay half broken and do not die, leading to more cancer years later.',
"I have always thought of this as winning the lottery. Just that the prize is something you don't really want. The more unhealthy you live, the more bad habits that you have, the more entries you have in that lottery.\n\nYou don't know which cell is going to one day get damaged enough to escape your body's natural elimination system so it's best that you maintain a healthy lifestyle.\n\nIn the end, it's all probability and how badly the universe wants to fuck you. You cannot control the universe so try to control the probability.",
"Supposedly, your body kills one new cancerous cell every day. \n\nWhat makes real cancer different is it's jusssst different enough to remove growth restrictions, but not different enough to trigger a immuno-response.",
'Cancer cells are mutated cells in the body that have been mutated in such a way that they multiply constantly and never stop. As opposed to healthy cells that destroy themselves after multiplying too many times. Things like cigarettes, asbestos, and large amounts of sun exposure damage the DNA in cells and give them a higher chance of developing into cancer cells as they are more likely to mutate. Additionally the reason why cancer is more common as you get older is because there is more time for the mutations to occur. This is also why if a child has cancer, it is usually leukemia, because leukemia only takes a few mutations to occur.',
'They basically screw with the DNA in a cell; as other commenters have stated, it’s an error in replication that isn’t caught before it gets out of control that is termed “cancer”.\n\nAs far as cigarettes go, a chemical called benzopyrene messes with the P53 gene (to the best of my recollection). Asbestos, when inhaled, causes an inflammatory reaction that ultimately ends with mutagens being released. Radiation from the sun can damage the cell’s DNA, and if it isn’t repaired (or the cell doesn’t undergo apoptosis, a type of “suicide”) and continues to divide, it becomes cancerous.',
'Those things damage DNA. DNA controls everything the cell does. How often it divides, what it divides into, etc.\n\nWe\'re constantly subjected to the DNA in our cells being altered by the environment. Radiation, carcinogens, etc. However, the vast majority of our DNA doesn\'t code proteins, and even if one of those sections in a given cell\'s DNA is hit, there\'s no guarantee it\'s going to become a tumor.\n\nCancer is when a cell\'s DNA is altered in just the right way so that it goes crazy making copies of itself. Those copies form a mass and that\'s called a tumor. Most of the time, tumors are benign. They grow to a certain size and stop growing, don\'t spread to other cells, etc. Sometimes, tumors are malignant. They grow and spread throughout the body. Eventually they start disrupting system functions and killing healthy cells. These altered cells don\'t function they way they were supposed to. Like, a cancerous cell from a lung isn\'t going to transfer oxygen and CO2 to and from your bloodstream, but it will grow and starve out the functional cells that do.\n\nThere is a cancer for every type of cell in the body, that\'s why a "cure for cancer" is a misnomer. It\'s not one single disease that can just have a single cure. It is several, all with different behaviors and different treatments. Most people get chemo, but chemo is basically a "scorched earth" tactic, trying to kill the cancer before it kills the patient. If caught early enough, often the offending tumor can be removed before it spreads to the rest of the body.',
'For cells to become cancer, they need mutations, which are changes to DNA caused by the things you have listed for example, that give them these characteristics. Cancer has six common features:\n\n- Cancer cells need to not kill themselves when the body tells them to.\n\n- The body will not tell cancer cells to grow, so they have to tell themselves to grow.\n\n- The body tells the cancer to stop growing, and the cancer cells need to ignore that message.\n\n- Cancer cells need to be able to break away and move to other parts of the body\n\n- Cancer cells need to find a way to keep reproducing, which healthy cells can’t do forever.\n\n- Tumours need to find a way to bring blood to the cancer cells\n\nThings like UV and asbestos get into cells and mutate the DNA, which means that something about the cell might change as a result. If those changes give a cell all the traits listed above then it will become cancerous.\n\nNote: I am interpreting Hanahan and Weinberg’s paper The Hallmarks of Cancer and have simplified their ideas a lot. None of these concepts are mine, so if you want to know more I recommend reading the paper. They also have listed four more Hallmarks in a more recent paper but for simplicity I didn’t go into those.',
'Cells work together.\n\nCancer cells have mutated DNA and don\'t work with the rest of the body.\n\nCigarettes, asbestos and radiation can mess with DNA, and sometimes make cells go "wild", or cancerous',
'The way my dad explained it was when I was a kid. Cancer is cells multiplying too fast and the body makes an oops. \nWhen you put your body in a position to turbo boost that process —- as in cell damage like sun and tobacco - you just speed up the process. Maybe causing higher chance for an oops',
"Imagine a set of instructions for building a cell that has a stop instruction at the end for when you don't need anymore cells. Cancer happens when one of the things you listed (carcinogens) destroys that last instruction and the cells no longer know when to stop so they just keep going.",
"Most cells in your body copy themselves to survive. It's like a game of telephone. When the genes are copied it tells the next cell what it should be. Now imagine playing telephone while drunk, it becomes incoherent and harder to tell what the original words were. Carcinogens are substances that interrupt specific processes in cell duplication to create errors in the message. It is more complicated than this but this is the gist of it.",
'Cells contain DNA in the nucleus that control what it do. Things like divide, not divide, etc. Things like cigarettes and much exposure to the sun can mutate that DNA and cause it to rapidly divide with no limits, causing cancer',
'Iant it true that cancer cells are sort of immortal. I remember a study done in regards to extending human life etc that basically said. We could do this.....but you are guaranteed to have cancer runaway.',
'Dna gets damaged and the cells lose the part of the code that tells them to stop multiplying.',
"Think of a cell as a program or recipe issuing commands\n\n\n_URL_0_ Cell function\n\n2.Check if replacement is needed?\n\n3.Issue multiply command\n\n4.Stop multipling\n\n5.Repeat\n\n\n\nNow carcinogen's i.e cigarettes, UV rays etc can damage the program and delete step 3, so the cell never gets the command to stop multiplying and becomes a cancer.",
'When a cell turns cancerous, the normal reaction is for the cell to self destruct, or white blood cells will gang rush it before it causes problems.\n\nI specifically know that nicotine disables the self destruct feature and weakens your immune system in the process.\n\nThe sun is a big ass nuclear fusion reactor and therefore gives off a butt ton of ionizing radiation. Luckily our skin keeps it out of the important fleshy bits, unluckily our skin can develop cancer after getting too much radiation damage. Just like you can get cancer from being around radioactive materials for too long.',
"The best way I've ever had it explained was;\n1:good daughter\n2:bad daughter\n3:dead daughter \n4:no daughter\n1 is when the cell becomes damaged but fixes itself and has healthy daughter cells\n2 is when the cell becomes damaged and then passes that trait onto it's daughters'\n3 is when the cell becomes damaged and then the daughter cells die from said damage \n4 is where the parent cell dies before it can split. \n#2 is the cancer causing scenario",
'All cancer is genetic, in the sense that it relates to DNA mutations. Very few cancers are inherited genetic conditions (DNA mutations that you were already born with / that you got from your mom or dad). Most of these DNA mutations that cause cancer are therefore "acquired" - something happens that causes the cells to mess up when making new cells. \n\nAcquired DNA mutations certainly happen all the time just by chance alone. As you get older the enzymes and things that are responsible for DNA replication and repairing DNA get older and worse. and if you roll dice enough times eventually you\'ll get a rare outcome. But environmental triggers can certainly make these mutations far more likely to happen.\n\nThe DNA mutations that cause cancer will then do things like make the cells that have them replicate way faster than cells usually would, or not die as fast. Hence why you think of cancer as a clump of cells that don\'t want to die and/or that build up.',
'Simply put, those things may cause mutations in DNA when cells replicate and mutations may cause uncontrollable replication of new cells. Cancer is just unregulated dividing of cells into a cluster or mass that may alter the regular functioning of body.',
"Hey.. I think I can eli5 this.\n\nYou've heard of the game Chinese whisper?, now imagine that the set of whisper words is a cell, as it divides it has to retain its functionality and all of its characteristics.\n\nNow, just like what happens in Chinese whisper people make mistakes and in the end the word set you end up with could be completely different from what you began with. Similarly, every time sells divide there is a chance that something may go missing or get copied erroneously (in their DNA) .\n\nThese minor errors accumulate and changes the entire word set in a Chinese whisper, while in cells this affects their functionality and ability to maintain their characteristics and as and when they no longer belong to the location they are at they start clumping together and limitlessly growing to form cancers.\n\nNow, sunrays, asbestos and all he bad stuffs... They are like random people shouting unrelated words in a Chinese whisper game, it can distract the players and make them forget the words in the set, eventually leading to different sets. Asbestos and other cancer causing agents does the exact same thing to DNA, but a lot more directly by directly or indirectly damaging it.",
'I wrote a short "cellular memoir" of cancer once, telling the tale from the point of view of a cancerous cell in my colon. Basically, all of your cells are descended from one fertilized egg cell. Before it was fertilized, that egg cell had divided from another egg cell, and another egg cell before that, and only ever been egg cells for a billion years. Dividing was its job. Some of its siblings differentiated into specialized cells like skin and bone and nerve and muscle, and THEY stopped dividing, but the one egg cell has never ever ever permanently stopped dividing. \n\n\nIt\'s a hard habit to break. \n\n\n[_URL_0_](_URL_0_)',
"Cells actually have to be told to either die or stop dividing. But if the mechanism that instructs these cells to act is damaged even slightly, then the cells won't know when to stop",
'Cells are only made to divide so many times, as when they divide the cell copies exactly what information it has, mutations and all. There are waste chunks of dna on either end of chromosomes, called telomeres, and each time a cell divides this is shortened; these waste chunks protect the real information from being eroded by replication as there is some end parts that are not translated. Cancer is when the mutations have gone far enough the cell stops checking for the telomere all together and just starts dividing rapidly, without any regard for their original limit/expected lifespan. If cancer listened to the telomeres but just divided quickly, most tumors would be benign by the time their noticed, as the rapid division would burn the cells out and they\'d die quicky. It\'s an *uncontrolled* rapid cell division, as there are cells that divide rapidly naturally, like say hair, intestines, and stomach; this is why some treatments, one that focus on the speed of the division, often cross target hair and digestive system as collateral damage.\n\nThings that are generally considered carcinogens are good at damaging dna, and causing these mutations that can eventually snowball into cancerous cells... Cigarette and things you ingest do it chemically, things like uv radiation are still radiation, any photon is technically, but the issue is *ionizing* radiation, which starts occuring in photon energy levels at the high end of ultraviolet. Meaning that a UV spectrum has some ionizing radiation (even if it\'s not particularly intense, long enposure will ionize parts of your dna, which is inherently damaging)\n\n but say if we tried to live to 200/300 years without addressing telomeres or cancer; it\'d basically be impossible to not have some cancer, no matter your health; as there wouldn\'t be any telomere left and every division would be literally "deleting" chunks of your dna. \n\n\nAt the point where you have no telomeres and didn\'t succum to massive organ failure (by cell death), you\'d either be an entire cancerous body, or we\'d need to redifinie an "undead".\n\n\nTldr: cancer is an unnatural response to the natural end of a cells life, most commonly brought on by mutations in its dna. The rapid division alone isn\'t inherently bad, but along with ignoring telomeres(not dying, increasing mutations) it just compounds into a cancerous tumor'],
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'query_id': 'debo8x',
'query': 'if cancer is basically a clump of cells that dont want to die, why/how do things like cigarettes, asbestos, and the literal sun trigger it?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
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'title': 'Olfactory memory',
'section': 'Section::::Behavioural effects.:Olfactory cues.:Mammalian studies.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Physiological, behavioral and anatomical evidence show that some species may have a functioning olfactory system in utero. Newborn infants respond positively to the smell of their own amniotic fluid, which may serve as evidence for intrauterine olfactory learning. Mammals’ sense of smell becomes mature at an early stage of development. Fetal olfactory memory has been demonstrated in rats, for example. This is shown by rat pups, who avoid odors that they experienced in association with a noxious stimulus prior to birth. While animal studies play an important role in helping discover and learn olfaction memory of humans, it is important to pay attention to the specifics of each study, as they cannot always be generalized across all species.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21312304',
'title': 'Olfactory memory',
'section': 'Section::::Behavioural effects.:Olfactory cues.:Human studies.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
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'passage_text': 'Research studies provide evidence that the fetus becomes familiar with chemical cues in the intrauterine environment. Intrauterine olfactory learning may be demonstrated by behavioral evidence that newborn infants respond positively to the smell of their own amniotic fluid. Infants are responsive to the olfactory cues associated with maternal breast odors. They are able to recognize and react favorably to scents emitted from their own mother’s breasts, despite the fact that they also may be attracted to breast odors from unfamiliar nursing females in a different context. The unique scent of the mother (to the infant) is referred to as her olfactory signature. While breasts are a source of the unique olfactory cue of the mother, infants are also able to recognize and respond with familiarity and preference to their mother’s underarm scent.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9014',
'title': 'Developmental psychology',
'section': 'Section::::Life stages of psychological development.:Infancy.:Infant perception.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 108,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Smell and taste are present, with infants showing different expressions of disgust or pleasure when presented with pleasant odors (honey, milk, etc.) or unpleasant odors (rotten egg) and tastes (e.g. sour taste). Newborns are born with odor and taste preferences acquired in the womb from the smell and taste of amniotic fluid, in turn influenced by what the mother eats. Both breast- and bottle-fed babies around 3 days old prefer the smell of human milk to that of formula, indicating an innate preference. There is good evidence for older infants preferring the smell of their mother to that of others.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21312304',
'title': 'Olfactory memory',
'section': 'Section::::Behavioural effects.:Role of olfaction in maternal bonding and subsequent development.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'While infants are generally attracted to the odors produced by lactating women, infants are particularly responsive to their mother’s unique scent. These olfactory cues are used in mammals during maternal care for coordination of mother-infant interaction. Familiarization with odors that will be encountered after birth may help the baby adapt to the otherwise unfamiliar environment. Neural structures such as the olfactory bulb undergo extensive changes when exposed to infantile odors; providing a starting point for individual recognition by the mother. odors from the breasts of lactating women serve as attractants for neonates, regardless of feeding history of the infant. Maternal olfactory learning occurs due to the high state of plasticity and flux within the olfactory system during pregnancy and childbirth.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '88988',
'title': 'Anosmia',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'Often people who have congenital anosmia report that they pretended to be able to smell as children because they thought that smelling was something that older/mature people could do, or did not understand the concept of smelling but did not want to appear different from others. When children get older, they often realize and report to their parents that they do not actually possess a sense of smell, often to the surprise of their parents.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21312304',
'title': 'Olfactory memory',
'section': 'Section::::Behavioural effects.:Olfactory cues.:Human studies.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
'end_character': 902,
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'passage_text': 'Olfactory cues are widespread within parental care to assist in the dynamic of the mother-infant relationship, and later development of the offspring. In support of fetal olfactory learning, newborn infants display behavioral attraction to the odor of amniotic fluid. For example, babies would more often suck from a breast treated with an amount of their own amniotic fluid, rather than the alternative untreated breast. Newborns are initially attracted to their own amniotic fluid because that odor is familiar. Although exposure to amniotic fluid is eliminated after birth, breast fed babies have continued contact with cues from the mother’s nipple and areola area. This causes breast odors to become more familiar and attractive, while amniotic fluid loses its positive value. Maternal breast odors are individually distinctive, and provide a basis for recognition of the mother by her offspring.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9014',
'title': 'Developmental psychology',
'section': 'Section::::Life stages of psychological development.:Infancy.:Infant perception.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 105,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 105,
'end_character': 203,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Infant perception is what a newborn can see, hear, smell, taste, and touch. These five features are better known as one\'s "five senses". Infants respond to stimuli differently in these different states.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'does a baby smell like s mix of its parents or a new smell to an animal with a more sensitive ability to detect odor?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Seems like it would be almost impossible for a baby to NOT smell like its parents since they come into so much daily and repeated skin to skin contact with the child. Is it inborn? Prob not but they most likely smell like the parent from repeated close contact. Who has a baby they dont touch 100X per day?',
"While extensive studies have been done examining the ability for parents and newborns to identify each other VERY quickly after birth, I don't think there's yet been investigation into the similarities of babies to their parents. But given that dog trainers encourage new parents with dogs to first bring a blanket the baby has been wrapped in home for the dog to acclimate to the new smell, the baby's scent is likely to be different *enough* from its parents for dogs to treat it as a new smell. This also makes sense with what we know about the differences in smell that humans undergo as part of puberty: even if babies smelled similar to their parents in some identifiable ways, they wouldn't smell the same because the parents are adults and the baby is not.",
"My son smells like a complete mixture of me and my wife. Example, I get a sweaty head in the night which smells weirdly like rice pudding (strange I know). My son, who is now two, also gets a similar sweaty head which smells like a slightly more pleasant (probably the wife's pheromones) version of my scent. I know this isn't scientific, but it is a genuinely weird sensation when you smell your child which, I guess, activates some animal instincts. I hope this is useful, although strange. ",
"Babies smell like baby poop, and not the bad baby poop smell, just the ambient baby poop smell. Anyone else? No? Okay I guess I'll leave.",
"I'll answer this directly for you since no one else seems to want to. Babies have their own unique smell. They produce tons of pheromones and that is why a lot of times pets will become very protective of the child. For example, my dog, although he wanted nothing to do with my son when it was just us in the house, when we had company he would always try position himself next to my son directly in between him and said guest. Especially people my dog was unfamiliar with. We brought this up with both the doctor and the vet and we were told that the smell of the pheromones was triggering an instinctual reaction to protect my son from harm and potential predators. Now that my son is a little older (almost 2), him and my dog are inseparable. Although he doesn't smell quite as nice. That boy can clear a room with a fart in 5 seconds flat"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6v7gcv',
'query': 'does a baby smell like s mix of its parents or a new smell to an animal with a more sensitive ability to detect odor?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '6265123',
'title': 'Stanislas Dehaene',
'section': 'Section::::Expertise.:Neural basis of reading.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
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'passage_text': 'More recently, they have turned their attention to how learning to read may depend on a process of "neuronal recycling" that causes brain circuits originally evolved for object recognition to become tuned to recognize frequent letters, pairs of letters and words, and have tested these ideas examining brain responses in a group of adults who did not learn to read due to social and cultural constraints.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18581264',
'title': 'Reading',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'The field of visual word recognition studies how people read individual words. A key technique in studying how individuals read text is eye tracking. This has revealed that reading is performed as a series of eye fixations with saccades between them. Humans also do not appear to fixate on every word in a text, but instead pause on some words mentally while their eyes are moving. This is possible because human languages show certain linguistic regularities.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '524233',
'title': 'Brodmann area 45',
'section': 'Section::::Research findings.:Prefrontal cortex and the cognitive control of memory.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "When reading aloud, people must decode written language to decipher its pronunciation. This processing takes place in Broca's area. The reader might use previous knowledge of a word in order to correctly vocalize it, or the reader might use knowledge of systematic letter combinations, which represent corresponding phonemes. Scientists can learn about what the brain is doing while people process language by looking at what it does with errors in language. As above, scientists can investigate the extra processing that occurs when people are challenged with a problem. In this case, scientists took advantage of the way pseudo-words and exception words by examining the brain as it interprets these problematic words.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37549630',
'title': 'Dual-route hypothesis to reading aloud',
'section': 'Section::::Reading disorders.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 411,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Children with reading disorders rely primarily on the sub-lexical route while reading. Research shows that children can decode non-words, letter by letter, accurately but with slow speed. However, in decision tasks, they have trouble differentiating between words and pseudohomophones (non words that sound like real words but are incorrectly spelled), thereby showing that they had impaired internal lexicons.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '378914',
'title': 'Speed reading',
'section': 'Section::::Effect on comprehension.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
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'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Comprehension is considered to be better if the text is skimmed and main key words are underlined before regular reading due to the function of RAS (Reticular Activating System) in the brain. This is the part of the brain that dislikes incomplete information. It aids the reader to find the information close to a topic. For the RAS is activated by the questions and prioritized information, this makes the reader more focused while reading with a purpose.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1331269',
'title': 'Vision span',
'section': 'Section::::Application to speed reading.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 409,
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'passage_text': 'Most speed reading courses claim that the peripheral vision can be used to read text. This has been suggested impossible because the text is blurred out through lack of visual resolution. At best the human brain can only "guess" at the content of text outside the macular region. There simply are not enough cone cells away from the center of the visual field to identify words in the periphery of the field.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1639193',
'title': 'Reading comprehension',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.:Vocabulary.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 664,
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'passage_text': 'Reading comprehension and vocabulary are inextricably linked together. The ability to decode or identify and pronounce words is self-evidently important, but knowing what the words mean has a major and direct effect on knowing what any specific passage means while skimming a reading material. It has been shown that students with a smaller vocabulary than other students comprehend less of what they read. It has been suggested that to improve comprehension, improving word groups, complex vocabularies such as homonyms or words that have multiple meanings, and those with figurative meanings like idioms, similes, collocations and metaphors are a good practice.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does your brain automatically read words and why can’t you stop it from doing so?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Our brains are wired to pattern match. By teaching kids to read, we shortcut the patterns at an early age, and it becomes habit. Try looking at a totally different language and you certainly won’t automatically read it.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9u915c',
'query': 'why does your brain automatically read words and why can’t you stop it from doing so?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '12395',
'title': 'Greenhouse effect',
'section': 'Section::::Real greenhouses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 239,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': '"Greenhouse effect" is actually a misnomer since heating in the usual greenhouse is due to the reduction of convection, while the "greenhouse effect" works by preventing absorbed heat from leaving the structure through radiative transfer.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12395',
'title': 'Greenhouse effect',
'section': 'Section::::Related effects.:Anti-greenhouse effect.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 33,
'end_character': 434,
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'passage_text': "The anti-greenhouse effect is a mechanism similar and symmetrical to the greenhouse effect: in the greenhouse effect, the atmosphere lets radiation in while not letting thermal radiation out, thus warming the body surface; in the anti-greenhouse effect, the atmosphere keeps radiation out while letting thermal radiation out, which lowers the equilibrium surface temperature. Such an effect has been proposed for Saturn's moon Titan.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12395',
'title': 'Greenhouse effect',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The term "greenhouse effect" continues to see use in scientific circles and the media despite being a slight misnomer, as an atmosphere reduces radiative heat loss while a greenhouse blocks convective heat loss. The result however, is the same. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '184726',
'title': 'Heat transfer',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Greenhouse effect.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 123,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 123,
'end_character': 370,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions. Since part of this re-radiation is back towards the surface and the lower atmosphere, it results in an elevation of the average surface temperature above what it would be in the absence of the gases.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35542081',
'title': 'Greenhouse effect (United States Supreme Court)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The Greenhouse Effect is a theory of Supreme Court justices\' behavior, first proposed by Hoover Institution economist Thomas Sowell and popularized by D.C. Court of Appeals Senior Judge Laurence Silberman in a speech to The Federalist Society in 1992. Here, the word "Greenhouse" refers to Linda Greenhouse, a Pulitzer Prize winning reporter who covered the Supreme Court for the "New York Times" for 40 years. Silberman used the term to postulate a tendency of conservative Supreme Court Justices to vote with the liberals more often as their careers progress due to a desire for favorable press coverage. He said "It seems that the primary objective of The Times\'s legal reporters is to put activist heat on recently appointed Supreme Court justices."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '86996',
'title': 'Greenhouse',
'section': 'Section::::Design.:Theory of operation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'The warmer temperature in a greenhouse occurs because incident solar radiation passes through the transparent roof and walls and is absorbed by the floor, earth, and contents, which become warmer. As the structure is not open to the atmosphere, the warmed air cannot escape via convection, so the temperature inside the greenhouse rises. This differs from the earth-oriented theory known as the "greenhouse effect".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26198824',
'title': 'Climate change feedback',
'section': 'Section::::Positive.:Water vapor feedback.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 52,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 52,
'end_character': 945,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'If the atmospheres are warmed, the saturation vapor pressure increases, and the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere will tend to increase. Since water vapor is a greenhouse gas, the increase in water vapor content makes the atmosphere warm further; this warming causes the atmosphere to hold still more water vapor (a positive feedback), and so on until other processes stop the feedback loop. The result is a much larger greenhouse effect than that due to CO alone. Although this feedback process causes an increase in the absolute moisture content of the air, the relative humidity stays nearly constant or even decreases slightly because the air is warmer. Climate models incorporate this feedback. Water vapor feedback is strongly positive, with most evidence supporting a magnitude of 1.5 to 2.0 W/m/K, sufficient to roughly double the warming that would otherwise occur. Water vapor feedback is considered a faster feedback mechanism.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why does the greenhouse effect doesn't work both ways?",
'selftext': 'So, i had a discussion with a friend who denies that climate change is man-made. I refered to the greenhouse effect, and he asked why it wouldnt work both ways. I was a litle bit baffled, because i couldnt awnser that question, and noticed that i dont actually know in detail how the greenhouse effect works. So, if the gasses in the atmosphere stops the light to leave the atmosphere, shouldnt it also stop the light to get inside the atmosphere, and cancel itself out on the topic of global warmth?',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Perhaps because we arent talking reflection but absorption.\n\nGreen house gasses DO stop a lot of radiation from reaching "the surface" by absorbing the photons energy increasing its energy level. This increases its heat.\n\nThis heat is convected to other atoms near by, which convect it to other atoms so on and soforth..and eventually there is an effect at the surface.\n\nRadiation leaving from the surface causes the same problem.\n\nSO IT DOES work both ways :) IE radiation in either direction HEATS up these gasses.\n\nBut its not what your friend wants to hear',
'It’s different wavelengths of light. The sun sends us a broad spectrum of light which warms the earth. The earth radiates back to space light primarily at longer wavelength infrared spectrum. Greenhouse gasses only block infrared light. It’s similar in concept to blue blockers sunglasses which also only filter out a narrow range of light '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9pswpm',
'query': "why does the greenhouse effect doesn't work both ways?",
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '303043',
'title': 'Infomercial',
'section': 'Section::::Criticism and legal issues.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 35,
'end_character': 1450,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Because infomercials may sometimes take a sensational tone, and because some of the products and services sold may be of a questionable nature, consumer advocates recommend careful investigation of the sponsor, the product and the claims before making a purchase. To that end, some stations and networks normally run their own disclaimers before, during or after infomercials, stating that in addition to the program being a paid advertisement, the broadcaster bears no responsibility or liability for the infomercial\'s content (the legality of a station or network attempting to absolve itself of liability for a program it airs, while profiting from the same program, has never been tested in court). A few stations also encourage viewers to contact their local Better Business Bureau or state or local consumer protection agency to report any questionable products or claims that air on such infomercials. Some channels, such as CNBC (until early 2017), Fox Business Network (which has stopped doing so) and Bloomberg Television include a "paid programming" bug in a corner of the screen during infomercials, which is especially important for financial products to avoid an exploitation of an "as seen on" claim of endorsement by the network. Other channels, particularly smaller networks such as RFD-TV, have publicly disavowed infomercials and refused to air them (RFD-TV has since lifted its ban but only airs infomercials in graveyard slots).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8201159',
'title': 'Remnant advertising',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 731,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Depending on the medium, it could be ad space or time. Often it can be bought at a steep discount. Advertising time and space is a perishable commodity. If it is not sold, it is lost, used for a "house ad", or given away for public service announcements or some other non-revenue producing filler. However, instead of taking a loss for unsold airtime or ad space, media outlets will often take far less than their usual retail fees to unload their remnant space. This means advertisers can buy what is typically expensive media for a great deal less money than normal. Although the space and/or time is sold at a steeply discounted rate, media sellers benefit as well, monetizing inventory that would have otherwise gone to waste.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36627336',
'title': 'Megaupload legal case',
'section': 'Section::::Basis of indictment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 271,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::2. Because only a small portion of users pay for storage, the business is dependent upon advertising. Adverts are primarily viewed when files are downloaded and the business model is therefore not based upon storage but upon maximising downloads. (items 7\xa0– 8)\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6100089',
'title': 'Megaupload',
'section': 'Section::::2012 indictments by the United States.:Basis of indictment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 58,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 58,
'end_character': 269,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::2. Because only a small portion of users pay for storage, the business is dependent upon advertising. Adverts are primarily viewed when files are downloaded and the business model is therefore not based upon storage but upon maximizing downloads. (items 7–8)\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3496027',
'title': 'Clutter (advertising)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 262,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Advertising or marketing clutter refers to the large volume of advertising messages that the average consumer is exposed to on a daily basis. This phenomenon results from a marketplace that is overcrowded with products leading to huge competition for customers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '57452857',
'title': 'Regulation of nicotine marketing',
'section': 'Section::::Advertising restrictions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 374,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Advertising restrictions typically shift advertising spending to unrestricted media. Banned on television, ads move to print; banned in all conventional media, ads shift to sponsorships; banned as in-store advertising and packaging, advertising shifts to shill (undisclosed) marketing reps, sponsored online content, viral marketing, and other stealth marketing techniques.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58395791',
'title': 'History of nicotine marketing',
'section': 'Section::::Post-advertising-restrictions; 1970 and later.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 55,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 55,
'end_character': 374,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Advertising restrictions typically shift advertising spending to unrestricted media. Banned on television, ads move to print; banned in all conventional media, ads shift to sponsorships; banned as in-store advertising and packaging, advertising shifts to shill (undisclosed) marketing reps, sponsored online content, viral marketing, and other stealth marketing techniques.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'how do ads load on bad service but normal content doesn’t?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Youtube (through Google) have many, many servers across multiple regions of the world to store their data. Very popular content may be hosted on multiple servers to constantly have it closer to the viewer, and on faster servers.\n\nLess popular, more normal content will not necessarily be copied on multiple servers, or stored on very fast servers, making the video load more slowly. \n\nAds, on the other hand, will be stored in servers geographically close to you, and fast enough to always let them play as smoothly as possible.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'ch5k3b',
'query': 'how do ads load on bad service but normal content doesn’t?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '12510615',
'title': 'Disjunctive cognition',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 581,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Neurobiological research has identified separate areas of the brain responsible for recognizing faces. In humans, identifying unfamiliar faces activates one region of the brain (the Fusiform face area) while recognizing familiar faces also activates another area of the brain (in the lateral midtemporal cortex). A similar division of function is found in macaque monkeys. Such findings indicate that the process of recognizing faces may be achieved by special parts of the brain that are different from the brain areas involved in analyzing the general visual features of things.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7330954',
'title': 'Pattern recognition (psychology)',
'section': 'Section::::Facial pattern recognition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 32,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 32,
'end_character': 402,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Recognizing faces is one of the most common forms of pattern recognition. Humans are incredibly effective at remembering faces, but this ease and automaticity belies a very challenging problem. All faces are physically similar. Faces have two eyes, one mouth, and one nose all in predictable locations, yet humans can recognize a face from several different angles and in various lighting conditions. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '49307010',
'title': 'Face superiority effect',
'section': 'Section::::Early history.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 842,
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'passage_text': 'In 1879, Galton’s research was some of the first to indicate that the face is “the sum of a multitude of small details, which are viewed in such rapid succession that we seem to perceive them all at a single glance.” This innate “holistic” perception is one of the main factors that differentiates face recognition from object recognition. To test this and further face superiority research in general, Tanaka and Farah conducted a study where they assessed individuals’ ability to recognize facial features holistically. Participants were given an allotment of time to study several faces and then were tested on their ability to recognize one feature of the face. As the researchers predicted, participants were better able to recognize the feature when it was presented with the whole face, rather than when it was presented in isolation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21571449',
'title': 'Prosopamnesia',
'section': 'Section::::Neural processing circuit.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 1354,
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'passage_text': "Within the brain, visual stimuli are processed along many different neural circuits. Due to the evolutionary importance of being able to recognize faces and associate information with others based on this recognition, humans have evolved a distinct neural circuit for the processing of facial stimuli. Since the discovery of this distinct circuit, the anatomical structures involved have been studied in depth. The initial processing of visual stimuli occurs in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), postparietal cortex (PPC), and precuneus. The stimuli are then identified as being facial and more refined processing occurs within the fusiform face area (FFA), the occipital face area (OFA), and the face-selective region of the superior temporal sulcus (fSTS). The FFA serves low level tasks, such as distinguishing details between similar well-known objects. The OFA and fSTS serve higher level processing tasks, such as connecting a person's identity to their face and processing emotions based on the arrangement of facial features, respectively. Once facial stimuli have been processed, they are then encoded into memory. This involves many brain structures including the medial temporal lobe (MTL), and the hippocampus. Storage and retrieval of these memories involves the same regions of the FFA, PFA, and PPC that performed the initial processing tasks.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1316947',
'title': 'Ambiguous image',
'section': 'Section::::Perceiving the image in mid-level vision.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 1494,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "When we see an image, the first thing we do is attempt to organize all the parts of the scene into different groups. To do this, one of the most basic methods used is finding the edges. Edges can include obvious perceptions such as the edge of a house, and can include other perceptions that the brain needs to process deeper, such as the edges of a person's facial features. When finding edges, the brain's visual system detects a point on the image with a sharp contrast of lighting. Being able to detect the location of the edge of an object aids in recognizing the object. In ambiguous images, detecting edges still seems natural to the person perceiving the image. However, the brain undergoes deeper processing to resolve the ambiguity. For example, consider an image that involves an opposite change in magnitude of luminance between the object and the background (e.g. From the top, the background shifts from black to white, and the object shifts from white to black). The opposing gradients will eventually come to a point where there is an equal degree of luminance of the object and the background. At this point, there is no edge to be perceived. To counter this, the visual system connects the image as a whole rather than a set of edges, allowing one to see an object rather than edges and non-edges. Although there is no complete image to be seen, the brain is able to accomplish this because of its understanding of the physical world and real incidents of ambiguous lighting.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7330954',
'title': 'Pattern recognition (psychology)',
'section': 'Section::::Facial pattern recognition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 33,
'end_character': 417,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Neuroscientists posit that recognizing faces takes place in three phases. The first phase starts with visually focusing on of the physical features. The facial recognition system then needs to reconstruct the identity of the person from previous experiences. This provides us with the signal that this might be a person we know. The final phase of recognition completes when the face elicits the name of the person. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '57515641',
'title': 'Face inversion effect',
'section': 'Section::::Face vs. object recognition processes.:Face recognition.:Configural information.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 301,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Configural information, also known as relational information, helps people to quickly recognise faces. It involves the arrangement of facial features, such as the eyes and nose. There are two types of configural information: first-order relational information and second-order relational information.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How come we instantly recognize faces (the eyes, nose, and mouth) when we look at a certain arrangement of objects?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Basically our brain is tuned into finding patterns and faces, even where there are none. \n\nHere is the link:\n\n_URL_0_'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'g1ao41',
'query': 'how come we instantly recognize faces (the eyes, nose, and mouth) when we look at a certain arrangement of objects?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3120850',
'title': 'Chronic wound',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 450,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Another factor that may contribute to chronic wounds is old age. The skin of older people is more easily damaged, and older cells do not proliferate as fast and may not have an adequate response to stress in terms of gene upregulation of stress-related proteins. In older cells, stress response genes are overexpressed when the cell is not stressed, but when it is, the expression of these proteins is not upregulated by as much as in younger cells.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39282483',
'title': 'Stasis papillomatosis',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 208,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The age is an important factor, because as some people get older the veins which carry blood from the legs back to the heart do not work as well as they use to. This causes fluid to settle in the lower legs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60041475',
'title': 'Blood vessel disorder',
'section': 'Section::::Risk factors.:Age.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 374,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The rise of blood pressure is correlated to ageing. The arterial compliance - the amount of tension produced per stretch of arteries, decreases with age, and the stiffness of arteries increases with age. The structural change in blood vessels causes the elderly to be more susceptible to hypertension, which leads to complications in arteries, the heart and even the brain.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22648231',
'title': 'Ageism',
'section': 'Section::::Discrimination.:Healthcare.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 52,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 52,
'end_character': 563,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Other research studies have been done with patients with heart disease, and, in these cases, the older patients were still less likely to receive further tests or treatments, independent of the severity of their health problems. Thus, the approach to the treatment of older people is concentrated on managing the disease rather than preventing or curing it. This is based on the stereotype that it is the natural process of aging for the quality of health to decrease, and, therefore, there is no point in attempting to prevent the inevitable decline of old age.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '36596592',
'title': 'Aging in the American workforce',
'section': 'Section::::Impacts.:Occupational safety and health.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 1126,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Because of the many older adults opting to remain in the U.S. workforce, many studies have been done to investigate whether the older workers are at greater risk of occupational injury than their younger counterparts. Due to the physical declines associated with aging, older adults tend to exhibit losses in eyesight, hearing and physical strength. Data shows that older adults have low overall injury rates compared to all age groups, but are more likely to suffer from fatal and more severe occupational injuries. Of all fatal occupational injuries in 2005, older workers accounted for 26.4%, despite only comprising 16.4% of the workforce at the time. Age increases in fatality rates in occupational injury are more pronounced for workers over the age of 65. The return to work for older workers is also extended; older workers experience a greater median number of lost work days and longer recovery times than younger workers. Some common occupational injuries and illnesses for older workers include arthritis and fractures. Among older workers, hip fractures are a large concern, given the severity of these injuries.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12947872',
'title': 'Adult development',
'section': 'Section::::Contemporary and classic theories.:Illnesses associated with aging.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 68,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 68,
'end_character': 497,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'It has been found that older age does increase the risk factor of contracting a cardiovascular disease. Hypertension and high cholesterol have also been found to increase the likelihood of acquiring a cardiovascular disease, which are also commonly found in older adults. Cardiovascular diseases include a variety of heart conditions that may induce a heart attack or other heart-related problems. Healthy eating, exercise, and avoiding smoking are usually used to prevent cardiovascular disease.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31620645',
'title': "Signs and symptoms of Graves' disease",
'section': 'Section::::Older patients.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 87,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 87,
'end_character': 659,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In older patients, emotional instability may be less evident, or depression may occur, and the symptoms and signs are manifestly circulatory. In many, the thyroid is not readily palpable. Symptoms such as rapid heart rate, shortness of breath on exertion, and edema may predominate. Older patients also tend to have more weight loss and less of an increase in appetite. Thus anorexia in this group is fairly frequent, as is constipation. Elderly patients may have what is called "apathetic thyrotoxicosis", a state in which they have less and less severe symptoms, except for weakness, depression and lethargy (making it even more prone to escape diagnosis).\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why does heartburn become more of an issue when you get older?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It's not so much your increasing age that makes it a problem, it's the recurrence. The longer you suffer from chronic heartburn or GERD, the more damage occurs to your esophagus. As a result this increases your risk of heightened symptoms such as difficultyswallowing, esophageal bleeding, vomiting, and an increased risk of esophageal cancer.",
"Things break the older they are right? So does parts of the body. The 'door' that separates the stomach from your esophagus becomes loose and doesn't shut all the way sometimes. \n\nAnd when the door has a tough time keeping the acid in your stomach down, that acid can escape into the esophagus. See, your stomach is designed to hold acid, but your esophagus? Not so much. You feel a burning sensation in your chest because the acid managed to get through. \n\nNow, it's difficult to repair the damage done, and instead, the more the acid gets through (because of age) the more damage there is."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'e0kurs',
'query': 'why does heartburn become more of an issue when you get older?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '16105186',
'title': 'Electric car',
'section': 'Section::::Energy efficiency.:Cabin heating and cooling.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 50,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 50,
'end_character': 469,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Some electric cars, for example the Citroën Berlingo Electrique, use an auxiliary heating system (for example gasoline-fueled units manufactured by Webasto or Eberspächer) but sacrifice "green" and "Zero emissions" credentials. Cabin cooling can be augmented with solar power external batteries and USB fans or coolers, or by automatically allowing outside air to flow through the car when parked. Two models of the 2010 Toyota Prius include this feature as an option.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7126735',
'title': 'Heater core',
'section': 'Section::::Possible problems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 376,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Since the heater core relies on the coolant's heat to warm the cabin air up, it obviously won't begin working until the engine's coolant warms up enough. This problem can be resolved by equipping the vehicle with an auxiliary heating system, which can either use electricity or burn the vehicle's fuel in order to rapidly bring the engine's coolant to operating temperatures.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15783971',
'title': 'BMW 340',
'section': 'Section::::Technical.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 271,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Cars sold from 1952 also featured a fuel-based passenger cabin heater. In order to ignite the heater it was necessary first to open a small tap in the engine bay, after which the flow of hot air could be regulated using a control in the footwell on the passenger's side.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7126735',
'title': 'Heater core',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 374,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "A heater core is a radiator-like device used in heating the cabin of a vehicle. Hot coolant from the vehicle's engine is passed through a winding tube of the core, a heat exchanger between coolant and cabin air. Fins attached to the core tubes serve to increase surface for heat transfer to air that is forced past them, by a fan, thereby heating the passenger compartment.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16105186',
'title': 'Electric car',
'section': 'Section::::Energy efficiency.:Cabin heating and cooling.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 49,
'end_character': 299,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "To avoid using part of the battery's energy for heating and thus reducing the range, some models allow the cabin to be heated while the car is plugged in. For example, the Nissan Leaf, the Mitsubishi i-MiEV, Renault Zoe and the Tesla Model S and 3 can be pre-heated while the vehicle is plugged in.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33916504',
'title': 'Automobile air conditioning',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Evaporative cooling.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 449,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A car cooler is an automobile evaporative cooler, sometimes referred to as a swamp cooler. Most are aftermarket relatively inexpensive accessories consisting of an external window-mounted metal cylinder without moving parts, but internal under dashboard or center floor units with an electric fan are available. It was an early type of automobile air conditioner and is not used in modern cars relying on refrigerative systems to cool the interior.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2643755',
'title': 'Carburetor heat',
'section': 'Section::::Operation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 315,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Carburetor heat uses hot air drawn from the heat exchanger or "heat stove" (a metal plate around the exhaust manifold) to raise the temperature in the venturi section high enough to prevent or remove any ice buildup. Because hot air is less dense than cold air, engine power will drop when carburetor heat is used.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do electric cars heat the cabin?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The engine of a car gets hot and air blows that heat inside the cabin\n\nElectric cars use electric heaters. They engineer the cabins better to maintain the heat and make the electric heaters as efficient as possible since it uses the battery pack and it reduces mileage.',
"Electric heaters blow warm air.\n\nBut they also tend to have heated seats and steering wheels since it's more efficient to heat you directly than to heat the air, which then heats you.",
'Typically they still use a heater core and coolant like a normal car, but use a heating element/resistive coil to heat the coolant rather than engine heat. Yes, using the heater can have a significant impact on ev range. To improve efficiency, the car will preheat this coolant when the car is plugged in/charging in low temperatures.',
"The 'pre-heating while charging' information is very interesting information for me. This possibly explains why rodents (rats in the garden and neighbor's outdoor structures) built a nest on top of the engine (elec. motor) of my nissan LEAF. They even used the hood insulation available right there as the building material. They came for the heat in the winter probably."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'emsmo7',
'query': 'how do electric cars heat the cabin?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '240914',
'title': 'Ulnar nerve',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 583,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'This nerve can cause an electric shock-like sensation by striking the medial epicondyle of the humerus from posteriorly, or inferiorly with the elbow flexed. The ulnar nerve is trapped between the bone and the overlying skin at this point. This is commonly referred to as bumping one\'s "funny bone". This name is thought to be a pun, based on the sound resemblance between the name of the bone of the upper arm, the "humerus", and the word "humorous". Alternatively, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, it may refer to "the peculiar sensation experienced when it is struck".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10417331',
'title': 'Reflex asystolic syncope',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 1142,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Although minor bumps to the head are reported as the most common precipitants to reflex anoxic seizures, many other stimuli may also be involved. Doctors emphasized the importance of minor injuries and sudden fright. They noted that occipital blows to the head appeared to be particularly provocative. Pain, especially from emotion (surprise, fear, annoyance, frustration, and excitement), crying, and fever were provocative factors. Fever was reported as a provocative factor in 14% of cases. Some cases of fever-induced reflex anoxic seizures are likely to be misdiagnosed as febrile (epileptic) seizures, as has been emphasized by a number of authors. Many, if not most, cases of venipuncture fits are reflex anoxic seizures. When one considers the vast range of situations in which a child (or adult) can be surprised, frightened, upset, or merely excited, it is easy to understand how reflex anoxic seizures can occur in special settings, such as bathing and water immersion; in the anesthetic room; when witnessing “blood and gore”; at the dentist office, school, place of worship, or the hairdresser's; and whilst watching television.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '227807',
'title': 'Humerus',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.:Nerves.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 37,
'end_character': 438,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The ulnar nerve lies at the distal end of the humerus near the elbow. When struck, it can cause a distinct tingling sensation, and sometimes a significant amount of pain. It is sometimes popularly referred to as \'the funny bone\', possibly due to this sensation (a "funny" feeling), as well as the fact that the bone\'s name is a homophone of \'humorous\'. It lies posterior to the medial epicondyle, and is easily damaged in elbow injuries.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '565896',
'title': 'Exploding head syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 744,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Individuals with exploding head syndrome hear or experience loud imagined noises as they are falling asleep or waking up, have a strong, often frightened emotional reaction to the sound, and do not report significant pain; around 10% of people also experience visual disturbances like perceiving visual static, lightning, or flashes of light. Some people may also experience heat, strange feelings in their torso, or a feeling of electrical tinglings that ascends to the head before the auditory hallucinations occur. With the heightened arousal, people experience distress, confusion, myoclonic jerks, tachycardia, sweating, and the sensation that feels as if they have stopped breathing and have to make a deliberate effort to breathe again.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1741584',
'title': 'Ageusia',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 264,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Head trauma can cause lesions in regions of the central nervous system which are involved in processing taste stimuli, including thalamus, brain stem, and temporal lobes; it can also cause damage to neurological pathways involved in transmission of taste stimuli.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25205682',
'title': 'Periodontal abscess',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 627,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The main symptom is pain, which often suddenly appears, and is made worse by biting on the involved tooth, which may feel raised and prominent in the bite. The tooth may be mobile, and the lesion may contribute to destruction of the periodontal ligament and alveolar bone. The pain is deep and throbbing. The oral mucosa covering an early periodontal abscess appears erythematous (red), swollen and painful to touch. The surface may be shiny due to stretching of the mucosa over the abscess. Before pus has formed, the lesion will not be fluctuant, and there will be no purulent discharge. There may be regional lymphadenitis.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4166260',
'title': 'List of South African slang words',
'section': 'Section::::Afrikanerisms.:N–Z.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 370,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 370,
'end_character': 252,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- "suig \'n duik in my kop" – lit. "sucking a dent in my skull". Refers to a very strong sucking sensation caused by a thick viscous drink when drinking it through a straw, especially a McDonald\'s milkshake, which is famous for the sensation.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is the funny taste we experience after hitting our heads too hard?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Post traumatic dysgeusia\n\nThe short version is that it's your body undergoing trauma and your salivary glands sort of going haywire temporarily. \n\nIt is not an adrenal response or spinal/brain fluid as most people falsely perpetuate. ",
"This is most likely post traumatic dysgeusia.\n\nRight now, we're unsure why we get it, but there are some ideas. Certain chemicals in our body tend to be much lower after the head gets hit, and we think that's the reason why our taste buds and sense of smell gets weird."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '93sny5',
'query': 'what is the funny taste we experience after hitting our heads too hard?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '205878',
'title': 'Methylphenidate',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 313,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Methylphenidate, sold under the trade name Ritalin among others, is a stimulant medication used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy. It is a first line medication for ADHD. It is taken by mouth or applied to the skin. Different formulations have different durations of effect.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12766180',
'title': 'Nicotinic antagonist',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 477,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A nicotinic antagonist is a type of anticholinergic drug that inhibits the action of acetylcholine (ACh) at nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. These compounds are mainly used for peripheral muscle paralysis in surgery, the classical agent of this type being tubocurarine, but some centrally acting compounds such as bupropion, mecamylamine, and 18-methoxycoronaridine block nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the brain and have been proposed for treating nicotine addiction.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2851571',
'title': 'Irinotecan',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 294,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Irinotecan, sold under the brand name Camptosar among others, is a medication used to treat colon cancer, and small cell lung cancer. For colon cancer it is used either alone or with fluorouracil. For small cell lung cancer it is used with cisplatin. It is given by slow injection into a vein.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1116938',
'title': 'Coumarin',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Medicine.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 39,
'end_character': 341,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Warfarin – a coumarin – with brand name, "Coumadin", is a prescription drug used as an anticoagulant to inhibit formation of blood clots, and so is a therapy for deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. It may be used to prevent recurrent blood clot formation from atrial fibrillation, thrombotic stroke, and transient ischemic attacks.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2887851',
'title': 'Fludarabine',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': "Fludarabine, sold under the brand name Fludara among others, is a chemotherapy medication used in the treatment of leukemia and lymphoma. These include chronic lymphocytic leukemia, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, acute myeloid leukemia, and acute lymphocytic leukemia. It is given by injection into a vein or by mouth.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24981838',
'title': 'Idiopathic hypersomnia',
'section': 'Section::::Management.:Wakefulness promoting medications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 40,
'end_character': 316,
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'passage_text': 'Ritanserin is a serotonin antagonist that has "been shown to improve daytime alertness and subjective sleep quality in patients on their usual narcolepsy medications." It is intended as an adjunct (supplement to another main therapeutic agent), and although it is not available in the US, it is available in Europe.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25933137',
'title': 'Lucinactant',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 494,
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'passage_text': 'Lucinactant (trade name Surfaxin) is a liquid medication used to treat infant respiratory distress syndrome. It is a pulmonary surfactant for infants who lack enough natural surfactant in their lungs. Whereas earlier medicines of the class, such as beractant (Survanta & Beraksurf), calfactant (Infasurf), and poractant (Curosurf), are derived from animals, lucinactant is synthetic. It was approved for use in the United States by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on March 6, 2012.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does Ritalin work?',
'selftext': 'So from what I have gathered, Ritalin leads to the release of dopamine and noradrenaline at synapses. It blocks the dopamine transporters, leading to the effects of dopamine being longer-lasting. & #x200B; My question is: Why and how does the release of dopamine and noradrenaline help with concentration and ADHD? And how exactly does Ritalin stimulate this release of dopamine and noradrenaline?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["For me it doesn't help directly with concentration, but I don't get frustrated and angry so easily, which then leads to being able to concentrate easilier.\n\nSource: got adhd and been on ritalin uno for almost a year, 60mg a day.",
'So to answer the 2nd part of your q, ritalin blocks [re-uptake](_URL_0_) of the neurotransmitters by pre-synaptic neurons - they have a higher affinity for the transport proteins and physically block the neurotransmitters from binding these proteins. So more of the neurotransmitters remain in the synaptic cleft and are available to activate post-synaptic receptors.\n\nAFAIK the exact neurobiology behind ADHD is unknown but ritalin likely ultimately works by correcting an imbalance between the norepinephrine and dopamine systems in the prefrontal cortex. (_URL_1_)',
'Another aspect to understanding how stimulants help to maintain a more stable and controlled neural activity is the concept of stochastic resonance. \n\nFor a signal to be successfully delivered, it has to reach a certain threshold. The neurotransmitter-imbalance in ADHD causes signals to reach this threshold less reliably. To compensate for this unreliable signal-transmission, signals are fired more often and more intense.\nHere is a picture from the german wiki-article: _URL_0_\n\nNow if you increase the base level of the needed neurotransmitters with medication, it is like moving the whole graph up a bit, closer to the threshold. Now signals reach the threshold more reliable, less "overshooting" is required and the "overactivity" is no longer necessary. This is why stimulants "relax" people with ADHD.\n\n\nNow the ELI5 version:\n\n\nIts like you try to talk through a bad connection and both parties start shouting constantly to make sure the other hears them (welcome to the ADHD brain). If you improve the connection by upping the general volume, the chance of non-shouting to reach the other side is much better. Soon both parties will stop shouting and everybody will be much calmer and communication is improved.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'bk5nqn',
'query': 'how does ritalin work?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '794008',
'title': 'Dry eye syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 39,
'end_character': 542,
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'passage_text': "Dry eyes can be exacerbated by smoky environments, dust and air conditioning and by our natural tendency to reduce our blink rate when concentrating. Purposefully blinking, especially during computer use and resting tired eyes are basic steps that can be taken to minimise discomfort. Rubbing one's eyes can irritate them further, so should be avoided. Conditions such as blepharitis can often co-exist and paying particular attention to cleaning the eyelids morning and night with mild soaps and warm compresses can improve both conditions.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3223840',
'title': 'Oculesics',
'section': 'Section::::Nonverbal Communication.:Communicating Emotions.:Lists of Emotions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 79,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 79,
'end_character': 215,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Rubbing of eyes - Eyes may water, causing a person to rub their own eyes. This can happen when a person feels uncomfortable or tired. It may also happen when a person simply has something in their eyes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1627267',
'title': 'Cyclospasm',
'section': 'Section::::Reasons.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 208,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Primary reasons is eye fatigue as a result of excessive pressure on the eyes because of reading, watching TV, computer, poor lighting, etc. Some other reasons are poor posture, poor diet, lack of sleep, etc.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '794008',
'title': 'Dry eye syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 615,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Because blinking coats the eye with tears, symptoms are worsened by activities in which the rate of blinking is reduced due to prolonged use of the eyes. These activities include prolonged reading, computer usage, driving, or watching television. Symptoms increase in windy, dusty or smoky (including cigarette smoke) areas, in dry environments high altitudes including airplanes, on days with low humidity, and in areas where an air conditioner (especially in a car), fan, heater, or even a hair dryer is being used. Symptoms reduce during cool, rainy, or foggy weather and in humid places, such as in the shower.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46188158',
'title': 'Eyes exercise',
'section': 'Section::::Criticism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
'end_character': 276,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In fact, eyes exercise did have some refinement to solve the problem of "doing exercise with dirty hands". In order to avoid germs on hand entering into eyes and mouth and infecting diseases, the new version has deleted those parts which involves touching the face with hand.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '758763',
'title': 'Cold-stimulus headache',
'section': 'Section::::Cause and frequency.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 446,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'A cold-stimulus headache is the direct result of the rapid cooling and rewarming of the capillaries in the sinuses leading to periods of vasoconstriction and vasodilation. A similar but painless blood vessel response causes the face to appear "flushed" after being outside on a cold day. In both instances, the low temperature causes the capillaries in the sinuses to constrict and then experience extreme rebound dilation as they warm up again.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2425344',
'title': 'Sexual headache',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 376,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'For some patients, the headaches may be related to general exertion. About 40% of patients with sexual headaches in one study also experienced headaches from non-sexual exertion. A pressor response to exercise has been suggested as a mechanism. For other patients, the pain appears to be specifically activated by sexual excitement and contraction of facial and neck muscles.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What causes us to rub our face when we are tired?',
'selftext': 'Like when you wake up, you rub your face with your hands. Why?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Tired\xa0eyes get dry, and\xa0rubbing\xa0stimulates the glands to produce more fluid. Tiredness also closes your eyes, so you may\xa0rub\xa0to keep them open. Finally, there's a connection between the muscles that move your eyes around and your heart. When these muscles are stimulated, a reflex slows the heart."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5lsj6f',
'query': 'what causes us to rub our face when we are tired?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '4115',
'title': 'Boiling point',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': "Liquids may change to a vapor at temperatures below their boiling points through the process of evaporation. Evaporation is a surface phenomenon in which molecules located near the liquid's edge, not contained by enough liquid pressure on that side, escape into the surroundings as vapor. On the other hand, boiling is a process in which molecules anywhere in the liquid escape, resulting in the formation of vapor bubbles within the liquid.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52636',
'title': 'Boiling',
'section': 'Section::::Contrast with evaporation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 35,
'end_character': 261,
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'passage_text': 'When a liquid reaches its boiling point bubbles of gas form in it which rise into the surface and burst into the air. This process is called boiling. If the boiling liquid is heated more strongly the temperature does not rise but the liquid boils more quickly.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '972312',
'title': 'Liquid air',
'section': 'Section::::Properties.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 416,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The boiling point of liquid air is -194.35\xa0°C, intermediate between the boiling points of liquid nitrogen and liquid oxygen. However, it can be difficult to keep at a stable temperature as the liquid boils, since the nitrogen will boil off first, leaving the mixture oxygen-rich and changing the boiling point. This may also occur in some circumstances due to the liquid air condensing oxygen out of the atmosphere.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2580900',
'title': 'Liquefaction of gases',
'section': "Section::::Liquid air.:Linde's process.\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 292,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Air is liquefied by the Linde process, in which air is alternately compressed, cooled, and expanded, each expansion results in a considerable reduction in temperature. With the lower temperature the molecules move more slowly and occupy less space, so the air changes phase to become liquid.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23637',
'title': 'Phase (matter)',
'section': 'Section::::Phase equilibrium.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 617,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Water in a closed jar with an air space over it forms a two phase system. Most of the water is in the liquid phase, where it is held by the mutual attraction of water molecules. Even at equilibrium molecules are constantly in motion and, once in a while, a molecule in the liquid phase gains enough kinetic energy to break away from the liquid phase and enter the gas phase. Likewise, every once in a while a vapor molecule collides with the liquid surface and condenses into the liquid. At equilibrium, evaporation and condensation processes exactly balance and there is no net change in the volume of either phase.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1285827',
'title': 'Steam distillation',
'section': 'Section::::Principle.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 877,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'When a mixture of two practically immiscible liquids is heated while being agitated to expose the surface of each liquid to the vapor phase, each constituent independently exerts its own vapor pressure as a function of temperature as if the other constituent were not present. Consequently, the vapor pressure of the whole system increases. Boiling begins when the sum of the vapour pressures of the two immiscible liquids just exceeds the atmospheric pressure (approximately 101 kPa at sea level). In this way, many organic compounds insoluble in water can be purified at a temperature well below the point at which decomposition occurs. For example, the boiling point of bromobenzene is 156 °C and the boiling point of water is 100\xa0°C, but a mixture of the two boils at 95\xa0°C. Thus, bromobenzene can be easily distilled at a temperature 61\xa0°C below its normal boiling point.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10303',
'title': 'Evaporation',
'section': 'Section::::Theory.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 403,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Liquids that do not evaporate visibly at a given temperature in a given gas (e.g., cooking oil at room temperature) have molecules that do not tend to transfer energy to each other in a pattern sufficient to frequently give a molecule the heat energy necessary to turn into vapor. However, these liquids "are" evaporating. It is just that the process is much slower and thus significantly less visible.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why boiling water becoming vapor (gas) doesn't separate its atoms and become air?",
'selftext': "I know that water can have 3 states: solid (ice), liquid (simple water H2O) and gas (vapor). I know that air is made of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxigen and %1 others. So this means that 1% contains other gases and water vapors? Humidity means water percentage (%) within 1 cubic meters? So water can't became ever air? Can you convert/extract water from air?",
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Yes, you can extract water from air. Every time you get drops of water on a cold drink, that’s what’s happening.\n\nYes, you can split water to get oxygen and hydrogen, but it requires much more energy than you can find on a stove',
"I think percentage means amount of water in air compared to the amount of saturation, so ir humidity is 80% it doesn't mean that 80% of molecules in air are H2O, it means that air can only fit a bit more water before it's oversaturated",
'It depends on what you mean by "air". Air is a mixture of gases, like you said, and water vapour is one of those. So when you boil water, it does become part of the air, there\'s just a greater content of it in the region it was boiled. \n\nAnd yes, you can get water from air, that\'s what dehumidifiers do. They could dense water in the air to reduce the humidity. L',
"Air does contains some water (about 1%). \n\nThe humidity percentage represent how much water the air contains compared to how much it can hold, so 100% humidity doesn't mean that the air is pure water, but that it holds all the water it can (even if in some case it can go a little of 100%).\n\n\n > So water can't became ever air? Can you convert/extract water from air?\n\nWater and air are two different things, you can't convert one into the other. But since there is a small amount of water in the air you can extract a bit of water from it (that's what condensation is).",
' > Humidity means water percentage (%) within 1 cubic meters?\n\nSo under particular conditions (temperature, air pressure, etc.) there can only be so much water vapor in the air before it starts condensing into a liquid (i.e. before it starts raining). Humidity says "how much water is in the air relative to that maximum amount?"\n\n > So water can\'t became ever air?\n\n?\n\n > Can you convert/extract water from air?\n\nYes, by cooling air off you can force water to condense out of it. This is evident when you leave a cold surface (i.e. a glass) out on a table and see water droplets form on it.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9920n1',
'query': "why boiling water becoming vapor (gas) doesn't separate its atoms and become air?",
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '776322',
'title': 'Non-rapid eye movement sleep',
'section': 'Section::::Muscle movements during non-REM.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 818,
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'passage_text': 'However, because the diaphragm is largely driven by the autonomous system, it is relatively spared of non-REM inhibition. As such, the suction pressures it generates stay the same. This narrows the upper airway during sleep, increasing resistance and making airflow through the upper airway turbulent and noisy. For example, one way to determine whether a person is sleeping is to listen to their breathing - once the person falls asleep, their breathing becomes noticeably louder. Not surprisingly, the increased tendency of the upper airway to collapse during breathing in sleep can lead to snoring, a vibration of the tissues in the upper airway. This problem is exacerbated in overweight people when sleeping on the back, as extra fat tissue may weigh down on the airway, closing it. This can lead to sleep apnea.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '205363',
'title': 'Snoring',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 238,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Snoring is the result of the relaxation of the uvula and soft palate. These tissues can relax enough to partially block the airway, resulting in irregular airflow and vibrations. Snoring can be attributed to one or more of the following:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '205363',
'title': 'Snoring',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Snoring is the vibration of respiratory structures and the resulting sound due to obstructed air movement during breathing while sleeping. In some cases, the sound may be soft, but in most cases, it can be loud and unpleasant. Snoring during sleep may be a sign, or first alarm, of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). Research suggests that snoring is one of the factors of sleep deprivation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7466120',
'title': 'Sleep and breathing',
'section': 'Section::::Sleep-disordered breathing (abnormal sleep and breathing or sleep-related breathing disorders).:Primary snoring.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 38,
'end_character': 688,
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'passage_text': 'Snoring is a condition characterized by noisy breathing during sleep. Usually, any medical condition where the airway is blocked during sleeping, like obstructive sleep apnea, may give rise to snoring. Snoring, when not associated with an obstructive phenomenon is known as primary snoring. Apart from the specific condition of obstructive sleep apnea, other causes of snoring include alcohol intake prior to sleeping, stuffy nose, sinusitis, obesity, long tongue or uvula, large tonsil or adenoid, smaller lower jaw, deviated nasal septum, asthma, smoking and sleeping on one\'s back. Primary snoring is also known as "simple" or "benign" snoring, and is not associated with sleep apnea.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '331556',
'title': 'Enuresis',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Nocturnal enuresis.:Obstructive sleep apnea.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': "Nighttime incontinence may be one sign of another condition called obstructive sleep apnea, in which the child's breathing is interrupted during sleep, often because of inflamed or enlarged tonsils or adenoids. Other symptoms of this condition include snoring, mouth breathing, frequent ear and sinus infections, sore throat, choking, and daytime drowsiness. In some cases, successful treatment of this breathing disorder may also resolve the associated nighttime incontinence.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '205363',
'title': 'Snoring',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 827,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'So far, there is no certain treatment that can completely stop snoring. Almost all treatments for snoring revolve around lessening the breathing discomfort by clearing the blockage in the air passage. Medications are usually not helpful in treating snoring symptoms, though they can help control some of the underlying causes such as nasal congestion and allergic reactions. Doctors, therefore, often recommend lifestyle changes as a first line treatment to stop snoring. This is the reason snorers are advised to lose weight (to stop fat from pressing on the throat), stop smoking (smoking weakens and clogs the throat), avoid alcohol and sedative medications before bedtime (they relax the throat and tongue muscles, which in turn narrow the airways) and sleep on their side (to prevent the tongue from blocking the throat).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5370998',
'title': 'Hypopnea',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 343,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Hypopnea during sleep is classed as a sleep disorder. With moderate to severe hypopnea, sleep is disturbed such that patients may get a full night's sleep but still not feel rested because they did not get the right kind of sleep. The disruption in breathing causes a drop in blood oxygen level, which may in turn disrupt the stages of sleep.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do you change from breathing perfectly normal, to snoring when falling asleep?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Snoring is usually caused by some sort of obstruction in the upper part of your airway. During sleep, your muscles start being relaxed and they may collapse a little to block your airway which results in snoring.',
'My jaw slides back and blocks my airway. I choke and pop. I got an oral appliance fitted. I feel SO much better when I wake up. I use it each day! AMA!',
'Multivariate issues at play here\n\n- Physics of sound depend on vibration which depends on size, shape, and coating of the fluid\n\n- Size of the chamber, lungs, changes based on tidal volume required to keep you alive while sleeping. \n\n- Shape of the organ is based on your relaxed tongue, position which you are sleeping, gravity effecting your internal parts while asleep\n\n- Coating of the fluid literally means are your mucous and saliva being produced at optimal viscosity\n\nSleep Apnea machines aim to adjust your posture as well as humidity and force you to take in larger quantities of air while you sleep'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'ei3t2x',
'query': 'why do you change from breathing perfectly normal, to snoring when falling asleep?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '14766448',
'title': 'Time switch',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 351,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Time switches can be used for many purposes, including saving electric energy by consuming it only when required, switching equipment on, off, or both at times required by some process, and home security (for example switching lights in a pattern that gives the impression that premises are attended) to reduce the likelihood of burglary or prowling.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5761185',
'title': 'Universal powerline bus',
'section': 'Section::::Interoperability.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 806,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Since UPB is a peer to peer protocol, individual switches, scene controllers and various types of plug-in modules can be individually programmed to do multiple tasks without the need to purchase a hub or controller. Some examples of actions that can be achieved without a hub or controller would be: timed shutoff of a bathroom fan (timer plug-in module or a switch with timer feature built-in), lights turning on or off based on a photocell's sensing of sunlight (I/O plug-in module), turning on one set of lights with a single tap of the switch and turning on another set of lights or devices on a double tap of the switch (dimmer switch). Turning on/off a Hot Tub (load controller switch), multiple preset light dimming settings (scene controller switch), turn on/off a motorized device (relay switch).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7649490',
'title': 'Wireless light switch',
'section': 'Section::::Common uses for wireless switches.:Complicated wiring.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 427,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Multiple wireless transmitters can command a single receiver. This means switches in different locations can turn the same electrical load on or off. Switching like this is often used in stairwells or rooms where two or more switches are used to turn one light on or off. Achieving this result with wired three-way or four-way switches requires a higher level of electrical knowledge and more time for wiring and installation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12824727',
'title': 'Sliding window protocol',
'section': 'Section::::Examples.:Selective repeat.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 51,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 51,
'end_character': 282,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The advantage, however, is that it is not necessary to discard following correct data for one round-trip time before the transmitter can be informed that a retransmission is required. This is therefore preferred for links with low reliability and/or a high bandwidth-delay product.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22760945',
'title': 'Current injection technique',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 237,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Different techniques, such as carrier lifetime control, injection efficiency and buffer layer devices, have been used to minimize turn-OFF switching transient, but all result in a trade-off between the ON-state loss and switching speed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4904928',
'title': 'Intel vPro',
'section': 'Section::::Wireless communication.:AMT wireless communication.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 38,
'end_character': 224,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'If the user turns off the wireless transmitter/receiver using either a hardware or software switch, Intel AMT cannot use the wireless interface under any conditions until the user turns on the wireless transmitter/receiver.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5706028',
'title': 'Timing margin',
'section': 'Section::::Illustration.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The edges of the signals can shift around in a real-world electronic system for various reasons. If the clock and the data signal are shifted relative to each other, this may increase or reduce the timing margin; as long as the data signal changes before the setup time is entered, the data will be interpreted correctly. If it is known from experience that the signals can shift relative to each other by as much as 2 microseconds, for instance, designing the system with at least 2 microseconds of timing margin will prevent incorrect interpretation of the data signal by the receiver.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How come turning wifi/data on and off again makes it work better?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
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'answers': ['Like pretty much anything computer related, resetting fixes an abundance of issues. By starting something over it is forced to run all it\'s code from the beginning, refreshing anything that might have gotten out of whack. \n\nI don\'t have a specific technical answer because it could be a whole number of things making your wifi or data not work well in the first place, but in short, it\'s like when you\'re in a conversation with someone and you get confused and say "woah woah hold on let\'s start over."',
'One potential cause can occur if you are on some sort of extended network system where many access points (APs) are all broadcasting the same SSID (that is, a bunch of antennas all pretending to be the same network that shows up on your device). You\'ll usually find these in large offices or school campuses. Even though these APs are all the same network, most basic configurations can only let you talk to one of these APs at a time, so your device can still tell them apart. To that end, when you connect your device to one of them, it will do everything in its ability to stay connected to *that* AP in particular, no matter how bad the signal gets, even if a better connection to a different AP is nearby. That is, if you\'re walking about and roam out of the zone of the first AP you connected to, your signal will get worse and worse, even if there are other APs in your area to cover you. Your device will only break the connection and start over on its own if the original connection outright times out. Cycling your network connectivity forces your device to drop the old connection and look again, which will presumably select the strongest signal in your area.\n\nNewer network equipment is being made that can address this by giving the central router the ability to detect signal strengths of clients and dynamically route traffic through the best AP possible, making the switch seamless. These are marketed as "WiFi mesh" systems.\n\nI\'m not at all versed on how the cellular network system operates, but I think it has some parallels to a Wi-Fi mesh system, with towers dynamically trying to shift you between one another seamlessly as you roam, but due to their greater distances and higher volume of clients this can be unreliable. Turning data off and on can easily shift you to a new tower if you are in range of more than one. You can often verify that this has happened by checking your public IP address before and after cycling.',
"There are probably many more reasons, but maybe one is that the WiFi changes the channel being used which might have been being jammed by noise. \n\nIt's like if many people are speaking English in a room, so to make things a little clearer you switch to German. Sure, the noise remains the same but because you're talking a different language you don't get confused by the English words.\n\nIn the same way WiFi has different channels it uses, which are basically bands of frequency.",
'Maybe someone can tell me why I can be sitting in my house in the same spot on the couch for 2 hours on my iphone and lose all signal multiple times, but turning air plane mode on and then off will yield a good signal again. I never had to do this on my android phones but it happens all the time in all kinds of places on my iPhone in a major city. I’ve even switched carriers recently and it’s the same issue. Friends with iPhone report the same issue as well.'],
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '33032376',
'title': 'Lung microbiota',
'section': 'Section::::Physiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'The commensal bacteria are nonpathogenic and defend our airways against the pathogens. There are several possible mechanisms. Commensals are the native competitors of pathogenic bacteria, because they tend to occupy the same ecological niche inside the human body. Secondly, they are able to produce antibacterial substances called bacteriocins which inhibit the growth of pathogens.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14579421',
'title': 'Introduction to viruses',
'section': 'Section::::Viruses and diseases.:Host resistance.:Resistance to bacteriophages.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 59,
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'end_paragraph_id': 59,
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'passage_text': 'The major way bacteria defend themselves from bacteriophages is by producing enzymes which destroy foreign DNA. These enzymes, called restriction endonucleases, cut up the viral DNA that bacteriophages inject into bacterial cells.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '682382',
'title': 'Phage therapy',
'section': 'Section::::Potential benefits.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': 'Bacteriophages are very specific, targeting only one or a few strains of bacteria. Traditional antibiotics have more wide-ranging effect, killing both harmful bacteria and useful bacteria such as those facilitating food digestion. The species and strain specificity of bacteriophages makes it unlikely that harmless or useful bacteria will be killed when fighting an infection.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19167679',
'title': 'Virus',
'section': 'Section::::Infection in other species.:Bacterial viruses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 124,
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'passage_text': "The major way bacteria defend themselves from bacteriophages is by producing enzymes that destroy foreign DNA. These enzymes, called restriction endonucleases, cut up the viral DNA that bacteriophages inject into bacterial cells. Bacteria also contain a system that uses CRISPR sequences to retain fragments of the genomes of viruses that the bacteria have come into contact with in the past, which allows them to block the virus's replication through a form of RNA interference. This genetic system provides bacteria with acquired immunity to infection.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7719976',
'title': 'Lactobacillus brevis',
'section': 'Section::::Biotherapies.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
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'passage_text': 'In addition to surviving within the gut of an organism, "L.Brevis" can also act to inhibit the pathogenic effects of certain gut pathogens and can also proliferate in the presence of additional bacteria. Some strains are resistant to certain antibiotics, specifically erythromycin and clindamycin. This antibiotic resistance may be helpful in maintaining a healthy gut microbiome when taking prescribed antibiotics.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46837955',
'title': 'Host microbe interactions in Caenorhabditis elegans',
'section': 'Section::::Beneficial microbes.:Protection against microbes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The microbial communities residing inside the host body have now been recognized to be important for effective immune responses. Yet the molecular mechanisms underlying this protection are largely unknown. Bacteria can help the host to fight against pathogens either by directly stimulating the immune response or by competing with the pathogenic bacteria for available resources. In "C. elegans", some associated bacteria seem to generate protection against pathogens. For example, when "C. elegans" is grown on "Bacillus megaterium" or "Pseudomonas mendocina", worms are more resistant to infection with the pathogenic bacterium "Pseudomonas aeruginosa" [21], which is a common bacterium in "C. elegans’ "natural environment and therefore a potential natural pathogen. This protection is characterized by prolonged survival on "P. aeruginosa" in combination with a delayed colonization of "C. elegans" by the pathogen. Due to its comparatively large size "B. megaterium" is not an optimal food source for "C. elegans", resulting in a delayed development and a reduced reproductive rate. The ability of "B. megaterium" to enhance resistance against the infection with "P. aeruginosa" seems to be linked to the decrease in reproductive rate. However, the protection against "P. aeruginosa" infection provided by "P. mendocina" is reproduction independent, and depends on the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway." P. mendocina" is able to activate the p38 MAPK pathway and thus to stimulate the immune response of "C. elegans" against the pathogen.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5745363',
'title': 'Evolutionary pressure',
'section': 'Section::::Antibiotic resistance.:Nosocomial infections.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'end_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'When symbiotic gut flora populations are disrupted (e.g., by antibiotics), one becomes more vulnerable to pathogens. The rapid evolution of antibiotic resistance places an enormous selective pressure on the advantageous alleles of resistance passed down to future generations. The Red Queen hypothesis shows that the evolutionary arms race between pathogenic bacteria and humans is a constant battle for evolutionary advantages in outcompeting each other. The evolutionary arms race between the rapidly evolving virulence factors of the bacteria and the treatment practices of modern medicine requires evolutionary biologists to understand the mechanisms of resistance in these pathogenic bacteria, especially considering the growing number of infected hospitalized patients. The evolved virulence factors pose a threat to patients in hospitals, who are immunocompromised from illness or antibiotic treatment. Virulence factors are the characteristics that the evolved bacteria have developed to increase pathogenicity. One of the virulence factors of "C". "difficile" that largely constitutes its resistance to antibiotics is its toxins: enterotoxin TcdA and cytotoxin TcdB. Toxins produce spores that are difficult to inactivate and remove from the environment. This is especially true in hospitals where an infected patient\'s room may contain spores for up to 20 weeks. Combating the threat of the rapid spread of CDIs is therefore dependent on hospital sanitation practices removing spores from the environment. A study published in the "American Journal of Gastroenterology" found that to control the spread of CDIs glove use, hand hygiene, disposable thermometers and disinfection of the environment are necessary practices in health facilities. The virulence of this pathogen is remarkable and may take a radical change at sanitation approaches used in hospitals to control CDI outbreaks.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Do good gut bacteria fight against each other?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Yes! It\'s definitely an active area of research, but you can be pretty assured that wherever there is a dense, varied bacterial community, they are fighting each other. Certainly indirectly via competition for resources, and in some cases directly by poisoning each other. When there are lots of bacteria growing together all trying to eat and divide as much as they can, everything is an intense competition.\n\nIncidentally, it\'s probably not that "good" bacteria specifically fight "bad" ones. It\'s more that many "bad" bacteria just don\'t have what it takes to compete in the intestine, or at least the competition limits their growth.'],
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'query_id': '6iunka',
'query': 'do good gut bacteria fight against each other?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '16009',
'title': 'JPEG',
'section': 'Section::::JPEG compression.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
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'passage_text': 'JPEG uses a lossy form of compression based on the discrete cosine transform (DCT). This mathematical operation converts each frame/field of the video source from the spatial (2D) domain into the frequency domain (a.k.a. transform domain). A perceptual model based loosely on the human psychovisual system discards high-frequency information, i.e. sharp transitions in intensity, and color hue. In the transform domain, the process of reducing information is called quantization. In simpler terms, quantization is a method for optimally reducing a large number scale (with different occurrences of each number) into a smaller one, and the transform-domain is a convenient representation of the image because the high-frequency coefficients, which contribute less to the overall picture than other coefficients, are characteristically small-values with high compressibility. The quantized coefficients are then sequenced and losslessly packed into the output bitstream. Nearly all software implementations of JPEG permit user control over the compression ratio (as well as other optional parameters), allowing the user to trade off picture-quality for smaller file size. In embedded applications (such as miniDV, which uses a similar DCT-compression scheme), the parameters are pre-selected and fixed for the application.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '63285',
'title': 'JPEG 2000',
'section': 'Section::::Improvements over the 1992 JPEG standard.:Multiple resolution representation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'JPEG 2000 decomposes the image into a multiple resolution representation in the course of its compression process. This pyramid representation can be put to use for other image presentation purposes beyond compression.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16009',
'title': 'JPEG',
'section': 'Section::::JPEG codec example.:Encoding.:Downsampling.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 78,
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'passage_text': 'The transformation into the color model enables the next usual step, which is to reduce the spatial resolution of the Cb and Cr components (called "downsampling" or "chroma subsampling"). The ratios at which the downsampling is ordinarily done for JPEG images are (no downsampling), (reduction by a factor of 2 in the horizontal direction), or (most commonly) (reduction by a factor of 2 in both the horizontal and vertical directions). For the rest of the compression process, Y\', Cb and Cr are processed separately and in a very similar manner.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1022571',
'title': 'Digital Negative',
'section': 'Section::::DNG conversion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 77,
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'passage_text': 'The process of DNG conversion involves extracting raw image data from the source file and assembling it according to the DNG specification into the required TIFF format. This optionally involves compressing it. Metadata as defined in the DNG specification is also put into that TIFF assembly. Some of this metadata is based on the characteristics of the camera, and especially of its sensor. Other metadata may be image-dependent or camera-setting dependent. So a DNG converter must have knowledge of the camera model concerned, and be able to process the source raw image file including key metadata. Optionally a JPEG preview is obtained and added. Finally, all of this is written as a DNG file.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5118708',
'title': 'JPEG XR',
'section': 'Section::::Description.:Compression algorithm.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- While JPEG uses a single transformation stage, JPEG XR applies its 4 × 4 core transform in a two-level hierarchical fashion within 16 × 16 "macroblock" regions. This gives the transform a wavelet-like multi-resolution hierarchy and improves its compression capability.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24306',
'title': 'Portable Network Graphics',
'section': 'Section::::Comparison with other file formats.:JPEG.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 101,
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'passage_text': 'The JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) format can produce a smaller file than PNG for photographic (and photo-like) images, since JPEG uses a lossy encoding method specifically designed for photographic image data, which is typically dominated by soft, low-contrast transitions, and an amount of noise or similar irregular structures. Using PNG instead of a high-quality JPEG for such images would result in a large increase in filesize with negligible gain in quality. In comparison, when storing images that contain text, line art, or graphics – images with sharp transitions and large areas of solid color – the PNG format can compress image data more than JPEG can. Additionally, PNG is lossless, while JPEG produces visual artifacts around high-contrast areas. (Such artifacts depend on the settings used in the JPG compression; they can be quite noticeable when a low-quality [high-compression] setting is used.) Where an image contains both sharp transitions and photographic parts, a choice must be made between the two effects. JPEG does not support transparency.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5118708',
'title': 'JPEG XR',
'section': 'Section::::Description.:Compression algorithm.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- JPEG XR supports the encoding of an image by decomposing it into smaller individual rectangular "tile" area regions. Each tile area can be decoded independently from the other areas of the picture. This allows fast access to spatial areas of pictures without decoding the entire picture.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does picture format conversion work? Eg. PNG to JPG',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It's basically the same as translating languages. A program knows how to read and save both formats and remakes the original in the other format."],
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'query_id': 'e6lsnc',
'query': 'how does picture format conversion work? eg. png to jpg',
'query_type': 'Technology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '20423',
'title': 'Malaria',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.:Genetic resistance.\n',
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'passage_text': "The impact of sickle cell trait on malaria immunity illustrates some evolutionary trade-offs that have occurred because of endemic malaria. Sickle cell trait causes a change in the hemoglobin molecule in the blood. Normally, red blood cells have a very flexible, biconcave shape that allows them to move through narrow capillaries; however, when the modified hemoglobin\xa0S molecules are exposed to low amounts of oxygen, or crowd together due to dehydration, they can stick together forming strands that cause the cell to sickle or distort into a curved shape. In these strands the molecule is not as effective in taking or releasing oxygen, and the cell is not flexible enough to circulate freely. In the early stages of malaria, the parasite can cause infected red cells to sickle, and so they are removed from circulation sooner. This reduces the frequency with which malaria parasites complete their life cycle in the cell. Individuals who are homozygous (with two copies of the abnormal hemoglobin beta allele) have sickle-cell anaemia, while those who are heterozygous (with one abnormal allele and one normal allele) experience resistance to malaria without severe anemia. Although the shorter life expectancy for those with the homozygous condition would tend to disfavor the trait's survival, the trait is preserved in malaria-prone regions because of the benefits provided by the heterozygous form.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21010263',
'title': 'Sickle cell disease',
'section': 'Section::::Management.:Malaria prevention.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
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'passage_text': 'The protective effect of sickle cell trait does not apply to people with sickle cell disease; in fact, they are more vulnerable to malaria, since the most common cause of painful crises in malarial countries is infection with malaria. It has therefore been recommended that people with sickle cell disease living in malarial countries should receive lifelong medication for prevention.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4280556',
'title': 'Sickle cell trait',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Sickle cell disease is a blood disorder wherein there is a single amino acid substitution in the hemoglobin protein of the red blood cells, which causes these cells to assume a sickle shape, especially when under low oxygen tension. Sickling and sickle cell disease also confer some resistance to malaria parasitization of red blood cells, so that individuals with sickle-cell trait (heterozygotes) have a selective advantage in environments where malaria is present.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24979563',
'title': 'Evolutionary baggage',
'section': 'Section::::Sickle-cell and malaria.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': "The correlation between sickle-cell disease and malaria is a double-edged sword. Having a sickle-cell allele does limit the life expectancy of a person, however, the presence of sickle-cell genes reduces the detrimental effects of malaria should it be contracted. Natural selection allowed for the spreading of the sickle-cell gene in areas of high numbers of mosquitoes carrying malaria; those that weren't as susceptible to malaria were much more likely to live than those that were. Because malaria is not as prevalent as it once was, the benefits of sickle-cell have since eroded, leaving behind the detrimental effects of the disease.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1664060',
'title': 'Adaptive immune system',
'section': 'Section::::Immune network theory.:Stimulation of adaptive immunity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 91,
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'passage_text': 'A population study has shown that the protective effect of the sickle-cell trait against falciparum malaria involves the augmentation of acquired as well as innate immune responses to the malaria parasite, illustrating the expected transition from innate to acquired immunity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24973826',
'title': 'Human genetic resistance to malaria',
'section': 'Section::::Types of innate resistance.:Hemoglobin abnormalities.:Sickle-cell.\n',
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'passage_text': 'This has led to the hypothesis that while homozygotes for the sickle cell gene suffer from disease, heterozygotes might be protected against malaria. Malaria remains a selective factor for the sickle cell trait.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4280556',
'title': 'Sickle cell trait',
'section': 'Section::::Symptoms.:Association with other medical conditions.:Malaria.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'The sickle cell trait was found to be 50% protective against mild clinical malaria, 75% protective against admission to the hospital for malaria, and almost 90% protective against severe or complicated malaria.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does having sickle cell protect against malaria?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["We don't know exactly, but it has something do do with the fact that the Malaria parasite lives in the red blood cells for part of their development. \n\nThere are different theories, but they basically come down to one of two things:\n\n* Either the red blood cells of people with sickle-cell disease are just more difficult for the parasites to live in.\n* Or the red blood cells are more sensitive so that the parasites damage them and the body recognizes them as defective and recycles them before the parasites can complete their development.",
"This goes down to genetics. Sickle cell anaemia is a recessive genetic condition, meaning that you need to have two of the recessive alleles in order to suffer from full blown sickle cell anaemia.\n\nIn malaria stricken regions like Africa, the sickle cell disease actually gives an advantage to those who suffer from malaria. Sickle cell anaemia causes the red blood cells to be misshapen. The malarial parasite is unable to survive and reproduce within these cells, so a person with sickle cell anaemia gains some resistance to malaria.\n\nIf you have full out sickle cell anaemia (two alleles), you probably won't live very long due to your shitty blood cells. If you don't have the condition, you'd probably die of malaria. So the people with only one sickle cell allele get the best of both worlds: enough normal blood cells to live, but also enough sickle-shaped blood cells so that they're immune to malaria."],
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'query_id': '77ku1e',
'query': 'how does having sickle cell protect against malaria?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '11090',
'title': 'Forest',
'section': 'Section::::Ecology.:Components.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
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'passage_text': 'A forest consists of many components that can be broadly divided into two categories that are biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components. The living parts include trees, shrubs, vines, grasses and other herbaceous (non-woody) plants, mosses, algae, fungi, insects, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and microorganisms living on the plants and animals and in the soil.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '66986',
'title': 'Woodland',
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'passage_text': 'A woodland or wood (or in the U.S., the "plurale tantum" woods) is a low-density forest forming open habitats with plenty of sunlight and limited shade. Woodlands may support an understory of shrubs and herbaceous plants including grasses. Woodland may form a transition to shrubland under drier conditions or during early stages of primary or secondary succession. Higher density areas of trees with a largely closed canopy that provides extensive and nearly continuous shade are referred to as forests. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '51051058',
'title': 'The Middlewood Trust',
'section': 'Section::::Today.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': 'The woods are used for teaching National Vegetation Classification and also make an excellent place to observe and learn from nature. The intricate patterns and interactions of plants and animals act as the living background for the teaching Permaculture courses.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56403150',
'title': 'Land-use in Wales',
'section': 'Section::::Woodland and forestry.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Woodland is defined by Chambers English dictionary as "land covered with wood" i.e. dominated by tree species. Forestry is defined as "1. the science and art of planting, tending and managing forests; 2. Forest country". This implies that forests have been planted by mankind for a variety of purposes, but mostly for exploitation for timber and pulp for the paper industry. The majority of Forests in Wales were planted by the British Forestry Commission, a UK government agency. Since 2016 the Forestry Commission in Wales has been taken over by Natural Resources Wales (NRW).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '53912',
'title': 'Forestry',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, using, conserving, and repairing forests, woodlands, and associated resources for human and environmental benefits. Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands. The science of forestry has elements that belong to the biological, physical, social, political and managerial sciences.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24007860',
'title': 'Lippe Uplands',
'section': 'Section::::Flora and fauna.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The woods are dominated by stands of beech and oak. The agricultural land is almost exclusively used for arable farming. Rare and protected animals and plants are found along the partly, almost natural river courses. Some of the rivers are therefore under environmental protection.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28774231',
'title': 'Flora of Ireland',
'section': 'Section::::Habitats.:Woodland.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 53,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 53,
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'passage_text': "Woodland plants include wood sorrel, blackthorn, bird's nest orchid, wood anemone, bluebell, wood avens, bugle, ramsons, self-heal, dog violet, honeysuckle, holly, lords and ladies, herb robert and woody nightshade. Woods dominated by oak and birch, with lesser amounts of rowan, holly, hazel, yew and aspen are called western oakwoods and occur principally in the uplands of Ireland, Scotland and Wales. They are temperate rainforests.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do natural fields exist? (More specifically, ones found in the middle of forests.)',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It's part of ecological succession. Environments are constantly changing. It's a system that is complicated by an almost infinite amount of factors and conditions. Usually a glade represents an area that recently changed so that it could no longer support the other surrounding plants. This could be because of poor soil, a forest fire, aggressive feeders, disease, strong wind or snow. When an area is cleared, pioneer plants take over. This will include some trees, but it will take awhile for them to grow tall enough to be more permanent fixtures. Eventually, enough trees will grow so that canopy cover is achieved. At that point, the trees might have grown so dense that they block too much sun and the soil becomes poor. This will cause some trees to die. Shade tolerant plants will start to make a significant appearance once the trees' population dynamics even out around their carrying capacity. After the shade plants, more plants will arise, each changing the former glade in some way that allows more species to grow and some to die back. Eventually, climax community is reached or another dramatic change happens that causes a significant portions of plants to die."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '6pj79z',
'query': 'how do natural fields exist? (more specifically, ones found in the middle of forests.)',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '46875443',
'title': 'IOS 9',
'section': 'Section::::System features.:Installation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 45,
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'passage_text': 'iOS 9 is a smaller update than iOS 8, requiring 1.3\xa0GB of space, compared to 4.58\xa0GB for iOS 8. Additionally, iOS 9 includes an option to temporarily delete apps to allow the update to install. Once the update has been installed, the apps will be automatically restored. iOS 9 also features "app thinning" functionality, whereby only the necessary assets needed to run apps on each individual device is downloaded rather than the entire app, potentially saving space.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46875443',
'title': 'IOS 9',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Updates.:9.0.1.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'iOS 9.0.1 was released on September 23, 2015, as the first update to iOS 9. It fixed playback issues with alarms and timers, made the setup assistant work properly, and resolved distortion of paused frames during video playback in Photos and Safari.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40391644',
'title': 'F-Droid',
'section': 'Section::::Key management.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'The Android operating system checks that updates are signed with the same key, preventing others from distributing updates that are signed by a different key. Originally, the Google Play store required applications to be signed by the developer of the application, while F-Droid only allowed its own signing keys. So apps previously installed from another source have to be reinstalled to receive updates.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60729516',
'title': 'IOS 13',
'section': 'Section::::System features.:Performance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'Several improvements to performance in iOS13 were implemented. Face ID on the iPhone X, XS / XS Max, and iPhone XR now unlocks the devices up to 30percent faster than it does on iOS12. App downloads will be up to 50percent smaller due to a new format, and app updates will be up to 60percent smaller.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '296881',
'title': 'Windows Update',
'section': 'Section::::Alternative tools.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 50,
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'passage_text': 'A number of tools have been created by independent software vendors which provide the ability for Windows Updates to be automatically downloaded for, or added to, an online or offline system. One common use for offline updates is to ensure a system is fully patched against security vulnerabilities before being connected to the Internet or another network. A second use is that downloads can be very large, but may be dependent on a slow or unreliable network connection, or the same updates may be needed for more than one machine. AutoPatcher, WSUS Offline Update, PortableUpdate, and Windows Updates Downloader are examples such tools.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50696877',
'title': 'IOS 10',
'section': 'Section::::Problems.:Initial release bricking issue.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 161,
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'passage_text': 'The initial public release of iOS 10 on September 13, 2016 saw many iPhones and iPads temporarily disabled, or "bricked", by the over-the-air update, requiring bricked devices to be connected to a Mac or PC with iTunes in order to retry the update or restore the device to factory settings. Apple quickly released iOS 10.0.1, and issued a statement: "We experienced a brief issue with the software update process, affecting a small number of users during the first hour of availability. The problem was quickly resolved and we apologize to those customers."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12610483',
'title': 'Android (operating system)',
'section': 'Section::::Development.:Update schedule.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 39,
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'passage_text': "Compared to its primary rival mobile operating system, Apple's iOS, Android updates typically reach various devices with significant delays. Except for devices within the Google Nexus and Pixel brands, updates often arrive months after the release of the new version, or not at all. This was partly due to the extensive variation in hardware in Android devices, to which each upgrade must be specifically tailored, a time- and resource-consuming process. Manufacturers often prioritize their newest devices and leave old ones behind. Additional delays can be introduced by wireless carriers that, after receiving updates from manufacturers, further customize and brand Android to their needs and conduct extensive testing on their networks before sending the upgrade out to users. There are also situations in which upgrades are not possible due to one manufacturing partner not providing necessary updates to drivers.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do software updates like iOS11 speed up the phone?',
'selftext': 'How do software updates speed up the app transitions, closure of apps etc. In my very basic knowlede of computing, the hardware, dictates how powerful/fast a .device is',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The hardware will determine the maximum performance. How fast a app or the operation system depends on hot the program code is written.\n\nThere are multiple ways to write code that do the same thing and it is usually the case. The simplest and fastest way write code often will result in a slow program. If you spend more time on the code you will likely find a faster way to do it that might be more complicate but the program will be faster.\n\n Here is a [BBC video](_URL_0_) that in a simple way explain that that different algoritm can take different time to do the same thin. It it not exactly the same as how speedup of a OS works in most case but is illustrates in a nice way that the the speed of a programs will depend of how it is written. \n\nIt is often the case that the program that translate the code to what runs on the hardware (compiler/interpreter) get faster. It takes time to optimize it for a new CPU etc and the engineer that writs it have now had time to make it faster.\n\n\nThere might also be another reason is that for different reason the phone gets slower and slower over time because of how data is stored etc. It might be the case that a\n\n\n',
'Programmer here, for Microsoft and not Apple, but the basics of programming are the same for all companies and all programs. \n\nIt\'s all about the tradeoffs. Every team has to decide, for every release, the most important things to focus on for that release. Sometimes there will be a push to improve power (which can often make a program run faster, too!), or to improve reliability by carefully examining the leading cause of failures in the field, or to give their bit of the operating system a better developer experience, or to support some new hardware.\n\nA new release will often include a bunch of "bug fixes" where the code was working, but working inefficiently, or where it had been efficient on older systems but isn\'t on newer systems. (For example, it used to be that memory was almost as fast as the CPU, and so writing code that used lots of memory was OK. Now the CPU is much faster than memory, so you have to have algorithms that use more CPU and less memory).\n\nAnd like the other people said: sometimes there are optimizations for the hardware. This is extra true in networking and in graphics.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7208pw',
'query': 'how do software updates like ios11 speed up the phone?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '397986',
'title': 'Nail (anatomy)',
'section': 'Section::::Evolution in primates.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 61,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 61,
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'passage_text': 'In contrast to nails, claws are typically curved ventrally (downwards in animals) and compressed sideways. They serve a multitude of functionsincluding climbing, digging, and fightingand have undergone numerous adaptive changes in different animal taxa. Claws are pointed at their ends and are composed of two layers: a thick, deep layer and a superficial, hardened layer which serves a protective function. The underlying bone is a virtual mold of the overlying horny structure and therefore has the same shape as the claw or nail. Compared to claws, nails are flat, less curved, and do not extend far beyond the tip of the digits. The ends of the nails usually consist only of the "superficial", hardened layer and are not pointed like claws.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '72764',
'title': 'Claw',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'A true claw is made of hard protein called keratin. Claws are used to catch and hold prey in carnivorous mammals such as cats and dogs, but may also be used for such purposes as digging, climbing trees, self-defense, and grooming, in those and other species.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16217',
'title': 'Jaguar',
'section': 'Section::::Characteristics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 630,
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'passage_text': 'A short and stocky limb structure makes the jaguar adept at climbing, crawling, and swimming. The head is robust and the jaw extremely powerful, it has the third highest bite force of all felids, after the tiger and the lion. A jaguar can bite with a force of at canine teeth and at carnassial notch. This allows it to pierce the shells of armored reptiles and turtles. A comparative study of bite force adjusted for body size ranked it as the top field, alongside the clouded leopard and ahead of the tiger and lion. It has been reported that "an individual jaguar can drag an bull in its jaws and pulverize the heaviest bones".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46764',
'title': 'Even-toed ungulate',
'section': 'Section::::Anatomy.:Limbs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 130,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 130,
'end_character': 493,
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'passage_text': 'When camels have only two toes present, the claws are transformed into nails (while both are made of keratin, claws are curved and pointed while nails are flat and dull). These claws consist of three parts: the plate (top and sides), the sole (bottom), and the bale (rear). In general, the claws of the forelegs are wider and blunter than those of the hind legs, and the gape is farther apart. Aside from camels, all even-toed ungulates put just the tip of the foremost phalanx on the ground.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '72764',
'title': 'Claw',
'section': 'Section::::Tetrapods.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'In tetrapods, claws are made of keratin and consist of two layers. The unguis is the harder external layer, which consists of keratin fibers arranged perpendicular to the direction of growth and in layers at an oblique angle. The subunguis is the softer, flaky underside layer whose grain is parallel to the direction of growth. The claw grows outward from the nail matrix at the base of the unguis and the subunguis grows thicker while travelling across the nail bed. The unguis grows outward faster than the subunguis to produce a curve and the thinner sides of the claw wear away faster than their thicker middle, producing a more or less sharp point. Tetrapods use their claws in many ways, commonly to grasp or kill prey, to dig and to climb and hang.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27478411',
'title': 'Neotrypaea californiensis',
'section': 'Section::::Description and life cycle.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 469,
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'passage_text': 'Adult "N.\xa0californiensis" have one claw larger than the other, and in the males, the "master claw" can make up as much as 25% of the animal\'s mass – compared to only 10% in females – with the minor claw making up around 3% of the total body mass in both sexes. The enlarged claw is equally likely to be on the right side or the left side. The male\'s larger claw is thought to be used in agonistic encounters or during mating, and may be the result of sexual selection.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13568335',
'title': 'Razor shell',
'section': 'Section::::Description.:Habits.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 603,
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'passage_text': 'The razor shell lives under the sand, using its powerful foot to dig to a safe depth. Its digging activity comprises six stages, repeated cyclically. A digging cycle involves integration of the muscular foot (which takes up a large part of the body) with the opening and closing of the valve and one end. The foot is inflated hydraulically, extending down into the sand and anchoring the animal. Deflation of the foot then draws the shell down. The razor shell also squirts water down into the sand, removing loose sand from its path. The foot is thought to exert a pressure of about 196kPa (2\xa0kgf/cm).\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do animal claws start fat at the base and grow pointy?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['They are getring used up, meaning theyll get pointy. in the case of a dog, they usually get pointy by the dog just walking, In the case of cats (and I assume many other animals too) the claws grow frome inside out, at the same time as as from back to front. Thats why a cat needs something to claw at, to remove the outmost layer of their claws to expose a new, pointy claw layer underneath'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9gg6cp',
'query': 'how do animal claws start fat at the base and grow pointy?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '30860279',
'title': 'Image editing',
'section': 'Section::::Image editor features.:Color adjustments.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 66,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 66,
'end_character': 259,
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'passage_text': 'The red-eye effect, which occurs when flash photos are taken when the pupil is too widely open (so that light from the flash that passes into the eye through the pupil reflects off the fundus at the back of the eyeball), can also be eliminated at this stage.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26491',
'title': 'Red-eye effect',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': "Red-eye effect is seen in photographs of children also because children's eyes have more rapid dark adaption: in low light a child's pupils enlarge sooner, and an enlarged pupil accentuates the red-eye effect.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26491',
'title': 'Red-eye effect',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'The red-eye effect in photography is the common appearance of red pupils in color photographs of the eyes of humans and several other animals. It occurs when using a photographic flash very close to the camera lens (as with most compact cameras) in ambient low light.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '405803',
'title': 'Complementary colors',
'section': 'Section::::Afterimages.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 34,
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'passage_text': 'In the case above the photoreceptors for red light in the retina are fatigued, lessening their ability to send the information to the brain. When white light is viewed, the red portions of light incident upon the eye are not transmitted as efficiently as the other wavelengths (or colors), and the result is the illusion of viewing the complementary color since the image is now biased by loss of the color, in this case red. As the receptors are given time to rest, the illusion vanishes. In the case of looking at the white light, red light is still incident upon the eye (as well as blue and green), however since the receptors for other light colors are also being fatigued, the eye will reach an equilibrium.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2304328',
'title': 'Opponent-process theory',
'section': 'Section::::Visual perception.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 300,
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'passage_text': 'According to this theory, color blindness is due to the lack of a particular chemical in the eye. The positive after-image occurs after we stare at a brightly illuminated image on a regularly lighted surface and the image varies with increases and decreases in the light intensity of the background.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '195752',
'title': 'Flash (photography)',
'section': 'Section::::Drawbacks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 58,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 58,
'end_character': 636,
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'passage_text': 'The "red-eye effect" is another problem with on camera and ring flash units. Since the retina of the human eye reflects red light straight back in the direction it came from, pictures taken from straight in front of a face often exhibit this effect. It can be somewhat reduced by using the "red eye reduction" found on many cameras (a pre-flash that makes the subject\'s irises contract). However, very good results can be obtained only with a flash unit that is separated from the camera, sufficiently far from the optical axis, or by using bounce flash, where the flash head is angled to bounce light off a wall, ceiling or reflector.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26491',
'title': 'Red-eye effect',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 1952,
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'passage_text': 'In flash photography the light of the flash occurs too fast for the pupil to close, so much of the very bright light from the flash passes into the eye through the pupil, reflects off the fundus at the back of the eyeball and out through the pupil. The camera records this reflected light. The main cause of the red color is the ample amount of blood in the choroid which nourishes the back of the eye and is located behind the retina. The blood in the retinal circulation is far less than in the choroid, and plays virtually no role. The eye contains several photostable pigments that all absorb in the short wavelength region, and hence contribute somewhat to the red eye effect. The lens cuts off deep blue and violet light, below 430\xa0nm (depending on age), and macular pigment absorbs between 400 and 500\xa0nm, but this pigment is located exclusively in the tiny fovea. Melanin, located in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and the choroid, shows a gradually increasing absorption towards the short wavelengths. But blood is the main determinant of the red color, because it is completely transparent at long wavelengths and abruptly starts absorbing at 600\xa0nm. The amount of red light emerging from the pupil depends on the amount of melanin in the layers behind the retina. This amount varies strongly between individuals. Light-skinned people with blue eyes have relatively low melanin in the fundus and thus show a much stronger red-eye effect than dark-skinned people with brown eyes. The same holds for animals. The color of the iris itself is of virtually no importance for the red-eye effect. This is obvious because the red-eye effect is most apparent when photographing dark-adapted subjects, hence with fully dilated pupils. Photographs taken with infrared light through night vision devices always show very bright pupils because, in the dark, the pupils are fully dilated and the infrared light is not absorbed by any ocular pigment.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why do eyes get red when watching tv or a screen for a long time',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["From straining them. You're focused so you blink less. The same idea can be used when putting pressure on a body part for to long will make it red. The touch is focused on per say.",
'Because they dry out. When our eyes are focusing on something, like a screen, we tend to blink less. Blinking is what distributes tears around and keeps our eyes most. Less blinking = dry eyes.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'er84q7',
'query': 'why do eyes get red when watching tv or a screen for a long time',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2260887',
'title': 'Politics of global warming',
'section': 'Section::::Special interests and lobbying by non-country interested parties.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 69,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 69,
'end_character': 863,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Fossil fuel companies: Traditional fossil fuel corporations could benefit or lose from stricter global warming regulations. A reduction in the use of fossil fuels could negatively impact fossil fuel corporations. However, the fact that fossil fuel companies are a large source of energy, are also the primary source of , and are engaged in energy trading might mean that their participation in trading schemes and other such mechanisms might give them a unique advantage and makes it unclear whether traditional fossil fuel companies would all and always be against stricter global warming policies. As an example, Enron, a traditional gas pipeline company with a large trading desk heavily lobbied the government for the EPA to regulate CO2: they thought that they would dominate the energy industry if they could be at the center of energy trading.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15251',
'title': 'International Monetary Fund',
'section': 'Section::::IMF and globalization.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 110,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 110,
'end_character': 479,
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'passage_text': "An IMF report from May 2015 estimated that the world's governments directly and indirectly subsidise fossil fuel companies with $5.3tn (£3.4tn) a year. The measurement accounts for the unpaid costs that polluters impose on governments by the burning of coal, oil, and gas. The projected impacts of fossil fuel subsidies on populations—air pollution, health problems, floods, droughts, and storms driven by climate change—account for over half of the reported global expenditure.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24886645',
'title': 'Climate change in Canada',
'section': 'Section::::Lobbying.:Fossil fuel divestment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 89,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 89,
'end_character': 414,
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'passage_text': 'Fossil fuel divestment is a social movement which urges everyone from individual investors to large institutions to remove their investments (to divest) from publicly listed oil, gas and coal companies, with the intention of combating climate change by reducing the amount of Green-house gases released into the atmosphere, and holding the oil, gas and coal companies responsible for their role in climate change.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '49419917',
'title': 'Australian Local Government Fossil Fuel Divestment',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 581,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Most Australian councils cannot invest in shares, meaning they have no investments directly in climate-change-contributing fossil fuel companies. However, most councils have exposure to fossil fuels via their term deposit accounts with the big Australian banks whom in turn are financing billions of dollars worth of coal and gas projects across the country. Many councils have been identifying their exposure to 'fossil' banks and have found that the majority of Australian banks (particularly banks other than the 'big four') do not provide finance for the fossil fuel industry.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3040255',
'title': 'Individual and political action on climate change',
'section': 'Section::::Political action.:Activist movements.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
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'end_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'Succeeding environmentalist Bill McKibben\'s mantra that "if it\'s wrong to wreck the climate, it\'s wrong to profit from that wreckage," fossil fuel divestment campaigns attempt to get public institutions, such as universities and churches, to remove investment assets from fossil fuel companies. By December 2016, a total of 688 institutions and over 58,000 individuals representing $5.5 trillion in assets worldwide had been divested from fossil fuels.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11544231',
'title': 'Fossil fuels lobby',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': '"Fossil fuels lobby" is a term used to label the paid representatives of large fossil fuel (oil, gas, coal) and electric utilities corporations who attempt to influence governmental policy. So-called Big Oil companies such as ExxonMobil, Royal Dutch Shell, BP, Total S.A., Chevron Corporation, and ConocoPhillips are amongst the largest corporations associated with the fossil fuels lobby. General Electric, Southern Company, First Energy, and the Edison Electric Institute are also among the most influential electric utilities corporations. By sector, "Energy/Nat Resource" comes fifth, behind "Misc Business", "Finance/Insur/RealEst", Health and "Communic/Electronics".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46255716',
'title': 'Fossil fuel divestment',
'section': 'Section::::Motivations for divestment.:Reducing carbon emissions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Fossil fuel divestment aims to reduce carbon emissions by accelerating the adoption of renewable energy through the stigmatisation of fossil fuel companies. This includes putting public pressure on companies that are currently involved in fossil fuel extraction to invest in renewable energy.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do governments subsidise fossil fuel companies when they are so rich?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Because lobbying. The companies pay people lots of money to convince politicians that it's in their best interests to give taxpayer money to petrochemical companies.",
'A big part of the reason is to get them to listen to what the government wants. Local governments will give them local tax breaks to locate their facility in a particular town, in general good for that town, because while the business doesn\'t pay much taxes, their employees do, and that\'s usually good enough. This is like what\'s happening with Amazon right now, they\'ve stated they are hiring 50k people no matter what, but by publically asking "who has the best deal", they got $1.7bn off their taxes, mostly because their claim is going to result in more than that paid in local income tax by the employees, so it\'s not a huge cost for the cities, and will probably result in a net gain in income for them.\n\nBut it\'s not just locating in a particular town for the oil companies, they are big enough that they can tell congress they\'ll locate their facilities in foreign countries if they don\'t get a good tax deal. They\'ll tell congress that the government can\'t make them do X because they\'ll just endlessly sue, but if they got a tax credit for doing X, then they might decide to do it. The result is a lot of the government\'s laws that affect these companies come in the form of tax credits to incentivize the activity, instead of taxes/laws to disincentivize them (because if it\'s disincentivized like that, they\'ll just find a location where that doesn\'t apply and move there).\n\nNow I\'m not going to say it\'s necessarily all about big government\'s plans, it\'s not. The oil companies employ people in specific areas, areas represented by particular congressmen. They are not going to vote for laws that piss off the oil companies, that might make them tell their employees it\'s all their congressman\'s fault. The congressmen know this, they will push for tax breaks for the companies in their specific district in exchange for their votes.',
"In addition to what others have said, politicians tend to get voted out of office if gas gets expensive. Unlike a lot of goods, gas has its price shouted to everyone on many-foot tall signs, and everyone talks about it when it goes up and down in ways they don't for, say, broccoli or milk, so people are particularly sensitive to it. Subsidizing oil companies makes gas cheaper at the pump, and voters like it when gas is cheap, even if it's cheap because their income tax dollars are subsidizing it."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9wzqcy',
'query': 'why do governments subsidise fossil fuel companies when they are so rich?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '270445',
'title': 'Human hair color',
'section': 'Section::::Genetics and biochemistry of hair color.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'One phenotype (brown/blonde) has a dominant brown allele and a recessive blond allele. A person with a brown allele will have brown hair; a person with no brown alleles will be blond. This explains why two brown-haired parents can produce a blond-haired child. However, this can only be possible if both parent are heterozygous in hair color- meaning that both of them have one dominant brown hair allele and one recessive allele for blond hair, but as dominant traits mask recessive ones the parents both have brown hair. The possibility of which trait may appear in an offspring can be determined with a Punnett square.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8406655',
'title': 'Introduction to genetics',
'section': 'Section::::Genes and inheritance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 710,
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'passage_text': 'Now imagine that this woman grows up and has children with a brown-haired man who also has a Bb genotype. Her eggs will be a mixture of two types, one sort containing the B allele, and one sort the b allele. Similarly, her partner will produce a mix of two types of sperm containing one or the other of these two alleles. When the transmitted genes are joined up in their offspring, these children have a chance of getting either brown or red hair, since they could get a genotype of BB = brown hair, Bb = brown hair or bb = red hair. In this generation, there is therefore a chance of the recessive allele showing itself in the phenotype of the children—some of them may have red hair like their grandfather.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '270445',
'title': 'Human hair color',
'section': 'Section::::Natural hair colors.:Blond hair.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 978,
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'passage_text': "Blonde hair can have almost any proportion of pheomelanin and eumelanin, but has only small amounts of both. More pheomelanin creates a more golden or strawberry blonde color, and more eumelanin creates an ash or sandy blonde color. Many children born with blonde hair develop darker hair as they age, with the majority of natural blondes developing a hair color of a dark blonde hue by the time they reach middle age. Pregnancy hormones hasten this process. Natural light blonde hair is rare in adulthood, with claims of the world's population ranging from 2% naturally blonde to 16% in the US. Blonde hair is most commonly found in Northern and Western Europeans and their descendants but can be found spread around most of Europe. Studies in 2012 showed that naturally blonde hair of Melanesians is caused by a recessive mutation in tyrosinase-related protein 1 (TYRP1). In the Solomon Islands, 26% of the population carry the gene; however, it is absent outside of Oceania.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '443498',
'title': 'Blond',
'section': 'Section::::Prevalence.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Blond hair is most common in light-skinned infants and children, so much so that the term "baby blond" is often used for very light colored hair. Babies may be born with blond hair even among groups where adults rarely have blond hair, although such natural hair usually falls out quickly. Blond hair tends to turn darker with age, and many children\'s blond hair turns light, medium, dark brown or black before or during their adult years. Because blond hair tends to turn brunette with age, natural blond hair is rare in adulthood; according to the sociologist Christie Davies, only around five percent of adults in Europe and North America are naturally blond. A study conducted in 2003 concluded that only four percent of American adults are naturally blond. Nonetheless, a significant majority of Caucasian women (perhaps as high as three in four) dye their hair blond, a significantly higher percentage than for any other hair color.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '73165',
'title': 'Infant',
'section': 'Section::::Physical characteristics of newborn.:Hair.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': "Some newborns have a fine, downy body hair called lanugo. It may be particularly noticeable on the back, shoulders, forehead, ears and face of premature infants. Lanugo disappears within a few weeks. Infants may be born with full heads of hair; others, particularly caucasian infants, may have very fine hair or may even be bald. Amongst fair-skinned parents, this fine hair may be blonde, even if the parents are not. Infants hair color and texture change. Red can give way to blond. Curly can go straight and baby's thick, dark hair could make its reappearance a lot sparser and lighter. The scalp may also be temporarily bruised or swollen, especially in hairless newborns, and the area around the eyes may be puffy.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '270445',
'title': 'Human hair color',
'section': 'Section::::Natural hair colors.:Blond hair.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'Blonde (or "blond" for men ) hair ranges from nearly white (platinum blonde, tow-haired) to a dark golden blonde. Strawberry blonde, a mixture of blonde and red hair, is a much rarer type containing the most pheomelanin.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '270445',
'title': 'Human hair color',
'section': 'Section::::Natural hair colors.:Brown hair.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 292,
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'passage_text': 'Brown hair is characterized by higher levels of eumelanin and lower levels of pheomelanin. Of the two types of eumelanin (black and brown), brown-haired people have brown eumelanin; they also usually have medium-thick strands of hair. Brown-haired girls or women are often known as brunette.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'how do two brown haired people create a blonde baby?',
'selftext': "My baby came out super blonde, which was shocking as both my husband and I are brunettes, all our parents and siblings are brunettes, and our first kiddo is a brunette. The only non dark haired person in my descendants was a grandmother who had light brown hair. Yes, I'm the mom, and yes, my husband is the daddy.",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The genetics of hair color haven't fully been teased out yet, but it seems that the genes for blonde hair are recessive compared to the genes for brown hair. So if both genes are present, the person will have brown hair. Only when - by chance - a child only gets the blonde genes from its parents will the hair be blonde.\n\nWhat this could mean is that both you and your husband have recessive blonde genes that aren't apparent because you also have the dominant brown genes but your child, by pure randomness, only got those blonde hair genes.",
'Could be that you carry the gene, as does the father. \n\nGenes can be determined using Punnett squares, specific gene combinations are given letters, either capital or lowercase. Capital letters denote a dominant trait that will mask a recessive trait, marked with a lowercase letter.\n\nIn this example I’ll say that hair colours brown and blonde are given the letter B.\n\nBB = brown hair\nBb = brown hair but carries the blonde gene\nbb = blonde hair\n\nIt’s likely that you and your husband both have Bb hair genes:\n\nBb x Bb \n\nThis is worked out in a grid format (usually better written down)\n\nx B b\n\nB BB Bb \n\nb Bb bb \n\nThe letters of the parents genes are ‘crossed’ over each other, capital letters always go first because they are the dominant gene. \n\nSo this means you’d produce:\n25 % BB (brown hair only)\n50 % Bb (brown hair carrying blonde gene)\n25 % bb (blonde hair)\n\n= 75 % chance of brown haired kid, 25 % chance of blonde. \n\nThe probability resets with each child, so it’s possible for you to have more blonde haired kids than brown if the blonde gene happens to strike. \n\nI’m sure other people can explain it better, I’m only using my year 12 biology knowledge but I tried, hope it helps!',
"Brown hair is dominant over blonde hair, so you need 1 brown gene for brown hair or 2 blonde genes for blonde hair. Everyone has 2 of each gene, but they can be different variations. So both you and your husband must have one brown hair gene and one blonde hair gene. The baby will inherit one gene randomly selected from each parent.\n\nSo the baby needs 1 brown hair gene to get brown hair or 2 blonde hair genes to get blonde hair. The odds are 75% for brown hair and 25% for blond hair. You got lucky.\n\n\nWe don't know how a lot of genes work but we understand this gene well.",
'In addition to the previous replies, some people are born with very blond hair that darkens over time. They have genes for darker hair but they have not switched on yet. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7kbxsx',
'query': 'how do two brown haired people create a blonde baby?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '38390',
'title': 'Dementia',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 98,
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'passage_text': 'Some mental illnesses, including depression and psychosis, may produce symptoms that must be differentiated from both delirium and dementia. Therefore, any dementia evaluation should include a depression screening such as the Neuropsychiatric Inventory or the Geriatric Depression Scale. Physicians used to think that anyone who came in with memory complaints had depression and not dementia (because they thought that those with dementia are generally unaware of their memory problems). This is called pseudodementia. However, in recent years researchers have realized that many older people with memory complaints in fact have MCI, the earliest stage of dementia. Depression should always remain high on the list of possibilities, however, for an elderly person with memory trouble.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4402098',
'title': 'Memory and aging',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Some memory issues are due to stress, anxiety, or depression. A traumatic life event, such as the death of a spouse, can lead to changes in lifestyle and can leave an elderly person feeling unsure of themselves, sad, and lonely. Dealing with such drastic life changes can therefore leave some people confused or forgetful. While in some cases these feelings may fade, it is important to take these emotional problems seriously. By emotionally supporting a struggling relative and seeking help from a doctor or counselor, the forgetfulness can be improved.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4402098',
'title': 'Memory and aging',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'Memory lapses can be both aggravating and frustrating but they are due to the overwhelming amount of information that is being taken in by the brain. Issues in memory can also be linked to several common physical and psychological causes, such as: anxiety, dehydration, depression, infections, medication side effects, poor nutrition, vitamin B12 deficiency, psychological stress, substance abuse, chronic alcoholism, thyroid imbalances, and blood clots in the brain. Taking care of your body and mind with appropriate medication, doctoral check-ups, and daily mental and physical exercise can prevent some of these memory issues.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28944',
'title': 'Short-term memory',
'section': 'Section::::Capacity.:Factors affecting.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 41,
'end_character': 306,
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'passage_text': "Diseases that cause neurodegeneration, such as Alzheimer's disease, can also be a factor in a person's short-term and eventually long-term memory. Damage to certain sections of the brain due to this disease causes a shrinkage in the cerebral cortex which disables the ability to think and recall memories.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1042651',
'title': 'Retrograde amnesia',
'section': 'Section::::Types.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "As previously mentioned, RA commonly results from damage to the brain regions most closely associated with episodic and declarative memory, including autobiographical information. In extreme cases, individuals may completely forget who they are. Generally, this is a more severe type of amnesia known as global or generalized amnesia. However, memory loss can also be selective or categorical, manifested by a person's inability to remember events related to a specific incident or topic. Patients also differ in durations of RA (how long they can't recall information) and durations of what is forgotten (past time frame for which information is unavailable).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38390',
'title': 'Dementia',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Slowly progressive.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 90,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 90,
'end_character': 594,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "At all ages, a substantial proportion of patients who complain of memory difficulty or other cognitive symptoms have depression rather than a neurodegenerative disease. Vitamin deficiencies and chronic infections may also occur at any age; they usually cause other symptoms before dementia occurs, but occasionally mimic degenerative dementia. These include deficiencies of vitamin B, folate, or niacin, and infective causes including cryptococcal meningitis, AIDS, Lyme disease, progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, subacute sclerosing panencephalitis, syphilis, and Whipple's disease.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21312265',
'title': 'Retrospective memory',
'section': 'Section::::Factors affecting retrospective memory.:Trauma.:Emotional.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 64,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 64,
'end_character': 591,
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'passage_text': 'An unusual form of motivated forgetting is called psychogenic amnesia in which a very severe emotional stressor causes one to lose a large amount of personal memories without an observable biological cause. Another reaction to a very severe stressor is called post traumatic stress disorder. People who have been subject to a traumatic event that has included death of others or a possibility of death or severe injury to oneself cannot forget these memories. This sometimes leads to flashbacks and nightmares that cause people to re-live these traumatic events for long periods afterwards.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Could memory loss make you "forget" you have depression, or any other mental illness?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["A treatment for severe depression is electro-convulsive therapy (ECT), where you run an electrical voltage through the brain. This causes memory loss. It's the most effective treatment for depression we know of. It's possible that memory loss facilitates the therapeutic effects. The patients don't forget about their illness, but they may forget trauma that contributed to their illness.",
"Can memory loss help you forget that you have a broken arm? Unfortunately mental illnesses are often caused by genetics or imbalances in the brain, which don't change with memory.",
"It depends as with most things. In the case of depression it can be caused be chemical imbalances and/or by traumatic events, living conditions, physical disabilities, loss of a loved one, treatment by others, etc. I'm sure losing memory of anything that contributes to depression would help reduce it. \n\nEven if it's from a chemical imbalance having your memory erased could mean a fresh start on life, which could in turn give someone a chance to minimize depression."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'd60idd',
'query': 'could memory loss make you "forget" you have depression, or any other mental illness?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '31309377',
'title': 'Food spoilage',
'section': 'Section::::Consequences.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 209,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Eating deteriorated food could not be considered safe due to mycotoxins or microbial wastes. Some pathogenic bacteria, such as "Clostridium perfringens" and "Bacillus cereus", are capable of causing spoilage.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34272959',
'title': 'Wilderness: A Survival Adventure',
'section': 'Section::::Game features.:Gameplay.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 258,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Many of the items, such as kindling and arrows, degrade over time and ultimately break, making the building of additional items necessary. Foods, such as meats, can go rotten in just an in-game day, but there are some which will not, due to being preserved.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '188731',
'title': 'Decomposition',
'section': 'Section::::Food decomposition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 75,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 75,
'end_character': 391,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Spoilage of food is attributed to contamination from microorganisms such as bacteria, molds, and yeasts, along with natural decay of the food. These decomposition bacteria reproduce at rapid rates under conditions of moisture and preferred temperatures. When the proper conditions are lacking the bacteria may form spores which lurk until suitable conditions arise to continue reproduction.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44472220',
'title': 'Food choice of older adults',
'section': 'Section::::Influences on food preference.:By age: younger and older adults.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': 'These physical changes can explain why someone of an older age might not be getting the nutrition they need. As taste buds change with age, certain foods might not be seen as appetizing. For example, a study done by Dr. Phyllis B. Grzegorcyzk says that as we age, our sense for tasting salty foods goes away slowly. When elderly people in care homes eat often frozen meals that contain large amounts of salt, they will not enjoy it. This could lead to depression, anxiety, or thoughts of suicide. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21293847',
'title': 'Nitrogen generator',
'section': 'Section::::Applications of nitrogen generators.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
'end_character': 492,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Food and beverage industries: The moment food or beverages are produced, or fruits and vegetables harvested, an aging process kicks in until the complete decay of the products. This is caused by bacteria and other organisms. Generators are used to flood the products with N that displaces the oxygen and prolongs the product lifetime significantly because these organisms cannot develop. Furthermore, chemical degradation of food caused by oxidation can be eliminated or stopped.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8246',
'title': 'Dumpster diving',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 964,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A wide variety of things may be disposed while still repairable or in working condition, making salvage of them a source of potentially free items for personal use, or to sell for profit. Irregular, blemished or damaged items that are still otherwise functional are regularly thrown away. Discarded food that might have slight imperfections, near its expiration date, or that is simply being replaced by newer stock is often tossed out despite being still edible. Many retailers are reluctant to sell this stock at reduced prices because of the risks that people will buy it instead of the higher-priced newer stock, that extra handling time is required, and that there are liability risks. In the United Kingdom, cookery books have been written on the cooking and consumption of such foods, which has contributed to the popularity of skipping. Artists often use discarded materials retrieved from trash receptacles to create works of found objects or assemblage.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56686863',
'title': 'Fresh food',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Fresh food is food which has not been preserved and has not spoiled yet. For vegetables and fruits, this means that they have been recently harvested and treated properly postharvest; for meat, it has recently been slaughtered and butchered; for fish, it has been recently caught or harvested and kept cold.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is some food "aged" and still edible while others are rotten and tossed out?',
'selftext': "Basically the title, why do we age some foods (some cheeses, wine, some meats) and it's still edible or even delicious, but other foods are thrown out when they hit two days old?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Rotten food is an uncontrolled explosion of microorganism activity, which is almost always going to produce toxins or at least make the food entirely unpleasant.\n\nAging food is a more controlled process. Conditions such as temperature, humidity, salinity, etc are tuned to allow some bacteria, yeasts, etc to grow and to inhibit others. Somethings are fermented, because we want yeast to turn sugar into alcohol, or other things are aged to become super dry so nothing can grow on it. ',
'And then there are some that are rotten but still eaten.. [like this cheese for example..](_URL_0_)',
'Because of "bacteria" (which can sometimes be mushroom or whatever)\nWine is rotten grape juice, Cheese is rotten milk, same for ... \nThe main difference is that you controll the rotting process so you add the right type of bacteria/yeast to the product (thousands of year of history and tradition taught us the right way to do it). And select the product you use (historically you use what your local crop produce). The "good bacteria" will take all the available space, letting only few space available for bad bacterias. And transform sugar into alcohol (for wine) or lactose into (that\'s a good question). \n\nThe set of bacteria and original product used will affect the final taste of the product and that\'s why a wine or cheese taste differently depending where they are produced and from which grape/cows comes the product (It\'s a little bit less true for industrial products) \n',
"I can speak to wine and beer.\n\nWhen things ferment with yeast there is an increase in acidity and an increase in alcohol. Both the acidity and alcohol prevent harmful bacteria (e coli, botulism etc...) from being able to survive and reproduce. There is also a strong lack of food (carbohydrates) since the yeast already consumed most or all of it. The end effect is you have a beer/wine that is a fairly toxic environment for other bacteria to survive. High abv, low levels of nutrients, acidic, and also usually devoid of oxygen and instead filled with carbon dioxide. All of those add up to an environment that is bad for bacteria.\n\nYou can theoretically age a beer or wine indefinitely. It probably wont taste like it did when it was fresh, nor will it probably taste good at all, but it wont kill you. I've heard of people drinking beers from the 80s (thomas hardy's, some lambics, some belgian stuff) that was cellared properly and tasted wonderful. I have also drank wine from the early 2000s that was not cellared properly and tasted horrible.",
'I recall seeing Alton Brown explaining about the process of aging beef (as opposed to letting it go bad). To age the beef, he put it in the fridge in a container that allowed some air circulation. This allowed the beef to dry out some, concentrating the flavor, while the cold kept bacterial growth in check. There were still some nasty bits on the surface that had to be trimmed off before roasting, it I recall. That same beef, if left sitting out a room temp for that period would be dried, but also smelly and rotten due to uncontrolled bacterial action.\n\nWith whisky, it is a different process. The fermentation has already happened, and after distillation the product has such a high alcohol content that no bacteria or yeast is going to live in it. The aging is a process of letting the product interact with the wooden barrel and the environment around it to add flavors and make it less harsh. This is why it has to be done in wooden barrels that breathe and allow some interaction. A certain percentage of alcohol is lost to evaporation in this (called "the angel\'s share" in Scotland).',
'Found out recently there are some people that eat purposely rotted meat. \n\n[High Meat](_URL_0_)\n\nNo thanks. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7gamwl',
'query': 'why is some food "aged" and still edible while others are rotten and tossed out?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '6597175',
'title': 'Trend following',
'section': 'Section::::Definition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'This trading or "betting with positive edge" method involves a [[Money management|risk management]] component that uses three elements: number of shares or [[Futures contracts|futures]] held, the current market price, and current market [[Volatility (finance)|volatility]]. An initial risk rule determines position size at time of entry. Exactly how much to buy or sell is based on the size of the trading account and the volatility of the issue. Changes in price may lead to a gradual reduction or an increase of the initial trade. On the other hand, adverse price movements may lead to an exit from the entire trade.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52328',
'title': 'Stock market',
'section': 'Section::::Leveraged strategies.:Margin buying.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 91,
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'passage_text': "In margin buying, the trader borrows money (at interest) to buy a stock and hopes for it to rise. Most industrialized countries have regulations that require that if the borrowing is based on collateral from other stocks the trader owns outright, it can be a maximum of a certain percentage of those other stocks' value. In the United States, the margin requirements have been 50% for many years (that is, if you want to make a $1000 investment, you need to put up $500, and there is often a maintenance margin below the $500).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45546104',
'title': 'E-trading in Pakistan',
'section': 'Section::::Investment and Finance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
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'passage_text': 'Shares trading in stock exchange can provide reward and investment in stocks may increase in value besides paying dividends to its investor. Shareholder receives rewards when the company performs well and the value of shares goes up. But if the company does poorly, the share price falls down and the value of investment will be reduced. Among other issues, the performance of shares market, economic environment, and political stability are all responsible for increase or decrease in the value of investments. Therefore, trading in shares market is regarded as investment in “risk capital”. Strength to sustain this risk with careful planning results in reward and shareholders can receive the prospective return on their investment as much higher than that on other investments.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2736859',
'title': 'Margin (finance)',
'section': 'Section::::Margin-equity ratio.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 50,
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'passage_text': "The margin-equity ratio is a term used by speculators, representing the amount of their trading capital that is being held as margin at any particular time. Traders would rarely (and unadvisedly) hold 100% of their capital as margin. The probability of losing their entire capital at some point would be high. By contrast, if the margin-equity ratio is so low as to make the trader's capital equal to the value of the futures contract itself, then they would not profit from the inherent leverage implicit in futures trading. A conservative trader might hold a margin-equity ratio of 15%, while a more aggressive trader might hold 40%.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52039502',
'title': 'Index trading',
'section': 'Section::::Trading comparison.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'Customarily, the investor buy the assets they put resources into and the estimation of the benefit and loss is resolved upon the changing estimation of the bought resources. For example, an investor invests $1000 for the period of 3 months and at the end of the specified time gains 10% of the original investment i.e. $100 (total return on the investment). Comparatively, Index Trading allows the investor to profit from any kind of stock market movement no matter if the market rises or falls in value over any given time period. This kind of trading enables the investor to trade and profit in all sorts of market conditions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4003594',
'title': 'Dollar cost averaging',
'section': 'Section::::Parameters.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'One key component to maximizing profits is to include the strategy of buying during a downtrending market, using a scaled formula to buy more as the price falls. Then, as the trend shifts to a higher priced market, use a scaled plan to sell. Using this strategy, one can profit from the relationship between the value of a currency and a commodity or stock. Stocks tend to follow a negative inversive path via rotation chambers. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '644426',
'title': 'Stock valuation',
'section': 'Section::::Fundamental criteria (fair value).:Price earnings to growth (PEG) ratio.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 33,
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'passage_text': 'Here is an example of how to use the PEG ratio to compare stocks. Stock A is trading at a forward P/E of 15 and expected to grow at 20%. Stock B is trading at a forward P/E of 30 and expected to grow at 25%. The PEG ratio for Stock A is 75% (15/20) and for Stock B is 120% (30/25). According to the PEG ratio, Stock A is a better purchase because it has a lower PEG ratio, or in other words, you can purchase its future earnings growth for a lower relative price than that of Stock B.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'In the world of trading stocks, what is margin buying power?',
'selftext': 'Is there margin buying power only when the investor already owns securities?',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Buying on margin is essentially taking out a loan to buy securities, using your already owned securities as collateral.\n\nSay you own a bunch of stocks worth $100,000. Your broker might lend you up to $70,000 to buy other stocks using your $100K as collateral. If the stock values drop to a certain level though you risk having a margin call in which case they'll take and sell some or all of your $100K to pay back the loan.",
'Margin buying power is the cash available for you to buy stocks with. That "cash available" is actually: "your money" + "loan money". The amount of "loan money" the brokerage is willing to give you based on the Margin Collateral you have in your account. Margin Collateral is any equity that can be liquidated to pay off your margin loan if you default. Cash can be used as collateral, but stocks and bonds also count. Most brokerages prefer it if you use stocks as collateral.\n\nShorted stock also count as margin loans. You may not be paying interest on shorted positions but you still have to have the margin collateral as long as the positions are open.\n\n > so is that why even though my account has been approved for trading privileges, I still cannot trade?\n\nSo there are several questions to answer before jumping to conclusions:\n\nI\'m guessing you just opened the brokerage account. Have the funds you transferred in settled into your cash balance? It usually takes 1 to 3 business days.\n\nIs the market open? In the USA the market opens at 9:30 AM EST and closes at 4:00 PM EST.\n\nAre the stocks you are trading marginable? _URL_0_\n\n\n**A word of caution.** Margin is very risky. You can lose way more than the cash you deposited in your brokerage. For example with a cash account, you deposit $1000. You buy a bad stock that drops to $0. You lose $1000. Done. With a margin account, you deposit $1000, you trade $2000 on margin. The stock drops to $0. You now owe the brokerage $1000 + interest. \n\n_URL_1_'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'g3n98x',
'query': 'in the world of trading stocks, what is margin buying power?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3635575',
'title': 'Comet dust',
'section': 'Section::::Dust and comet origin.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': "A comet will experience a range of diverse conditions as it traverses its orbit. For long period comets, most of the time it will be so far from the Sun that it will be too cold for evaporation of ices to occur. When it passes through the terrestrial planet region, evaporation will be rapid enough to blow away small grains, but the largest grains may resist entrainment and stay behind on the comet nucleus, beginning the formation of a dust layer. Near the Sun, the heating and evaporation rate will be so great, that no dust can be retained. Therefore, the thickness of dust layers covering the nuclei of a comet can indicate how closely and how often a comet's perihelion travels are to the Sun. If a comet has an accumulation of thick dust layers, it may have frequent perihelion passages that don't approach the Sun too closely.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28339718',
'title': 'Great Comet of 1264',
'section': 'Section::::Alleged connection to the Great comet of 1556.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 435,
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'passage_text': 'Comets sometimes may disappear because of orbital derangement from an ellipse to a parabola or a hyperbola. Sir Isaac Newton showed that a body controlled by the Sun moves in a conic section—that is, an ellipse, a parabola or a hyperbola. Because the latter two are open curves, a comet which pursued such a path would go off into space never to reappear. A derangement of orbit from closed to open curve has doubtless happened often.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '157819',
'title': 'Meteor shower',
'section': 'Section::::Origin of meteoroid streams.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 373,
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'passage_text': 'Each time a comet swings by the Sun in its orbit, some of its ice vaporizes and a certain amount of meteoroids will be shed. The meteoroids spread out along the entire orbit of the comet to form a meteoroid stream, also known as a "dust trail" (as opposed to a comet\'s "gas tail" caused by the very small particles that are quickly blown away by solar radiation pressure).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21955606',
'title': 'Extinct comet',
'section': 'Section::::Nature of extinct comets.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 301,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Extinct comets are those that have expelled most of their volatile ice and have little left to form a tail or coma. Over time, most of the volatile material contained in a comet nucleus evaporates away, and the comet becomes a small, dark, inert lump of rock or rubble that can resemble an asteroid. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5962',
'title': 'Comet',
'section': 'Section::::Fate of comets.:Departure (ejection) from Solar System.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 61,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 61,
'end_character': 488,
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'passage_text': 'If a comet is traveling fast enough, it may leave the Solar System. Such comets follow the open path of a hyperbola, and as such they are called hyperbolic comets. To date, comets are only known to be ejected by interacting with another object in the Solar System, such as Jupiter. An example of this is thought to be Comet C/1980 E1, which was shifted from a predicted orbit of 7.1\xa0million years around the Sun, to a hyperbolic trajectory, after a 1980 close pass by the planet Jupiter.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4504648',
'title': 'Main-belt comet',
'section': 'Section::::Activity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 591,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Some main-belt comets display a cometary dust tail only for a part of their orbit near perihelion. This strongly suggests that volatiles at their surfaces are sublimating, driving off the dust. Activity in 133P/Elst–Pizarro is recurrent, having been observed at each of the last three perihelia. The activity persists for a month or several out of each 5-6 year orbit, and is presumably due to ice being uncovered by minor impacts in the last 100 to 1000 years. These impacts are suspected to excavate these subsurface pockets of volatile material helping to expose them to solar radiation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19926944',
'title': 'Hills cloud',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Original Oort cloud model.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 445,
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'passage_text': 'In 1932, Estonian astronomer Ernst Öpik hypothesized that comets were rooted in a cloud orbiting the outer boundary of the Solar System. In 1950, this idea was revived independently by Dutch astronomer Jan Oort to explain an apparent contradiction: comets are destroyed after several passes through the inner Solar System, so if any had existed for several billion years (since the beginning of the Solar System), no more could be observed now.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How is it possible for comets to continually “shed” themselves for hundreds, if not thousands, of years and never run out of comet dust?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It’s because it’s a very tiny amount of dust. It doesn’t take that much dust for a noticeable tail. Couple this with the fact that comets are huge (Haley’s comet is 3 miles in diameter) and you will see that it would last a long time',
"I was under the impression that comets only put out the comet tail when they're close enough to a source of energy (like our sun) for the heat to start to vaporize the materials in the comet and whatnot that's on their surface and cause it to trail out behind. \n\nConveniently, it's also when they're near enough for the Sun to illuminate them for our viewing. ",
"Comets are mostly dust and water, and it's the water that sheds, but only when the comet is close to the sun. Comets spend most of their time far from the sun, so they only lose water for a small time each time around the closest approach. Comets are huge, so it can take a hundreds of orbits to lose most of their water. Once that happens, there's mostly just dust left, and what you have is no longer a comet but a comet-asteroid transition object which no longer loses mass."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'adtr5t',
'query': 'how is it possible for comets to continually “shed” themselves for hundreds, if not thousands, of years and never run out of comet dust?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '63082',
'title': 'Market trend',
'section': 'Section::::Market terminology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'The terms "bull market" and "bear market" describe upward and downward market trends, respectively, and can be used to describe either the market as a whole or specific sectors and securities. The names perhaps correspond to the fact that a bull attacks by lifting its horns upward, while a bear strikes with its claws in a downward motion.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '51568653',
'title': 'Bull (stock market speculator)',
'section': 'Section::::History of the term.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 277,
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'passage_text': 'An early mention of the terms bull and bear appears in the 1769 edition of Thomas Mortimer\'s "Every Man his own Broker", published in London, as follows, relating to speculators operating in Jonathan\'s Coffee-House in Exchange Alley (the original London proto-Stock Exchange):\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '63082',
'title': 'Market trend',
'section': 'Section::::Primary trends.:Bear market.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 290,
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'passage_text': 'A bear market is a general decline in the stock market over a period of time. It includes a transition from high investor optimism to widespread investor fear and pessimism. One generally accepted measure of a bear market is a price decline of 20% or more over at least a two-month period.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21870930',
'title': 'United States bear market of 2007–09',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The bear market was confirmed in June 2008 when the Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) had fallen 20% from its October 11, 2007 high. This followed the United States bull market of 2002–07 and was followed by the United States bull market of 2009–2015.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50791445',
'title': 'Beef carcass classification',
'section': 'Section::::United States grading system.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 282,
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'passage_text': 'Beef sold in U.S. restaurants and supermarkets is usually described by its USDA grade; however, in the early twenty-first century many restaurants and retailers began selling beef on the strength of brand names and the reputation of a specific breed of cattle, such as black Angus.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '51568653',
'title': 'Bull (stock market speculator)',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'A bull is a stock market speculator who buys a holding in a stock in the expectation that in the very short-term it will rise in value whereupon they will sell the stock to make a quick profit on the transaction. Strictly speaking the term applies to speculators who borrow money to fund such a purchase, and are thus under great pressure to complete the transaction before the loan is repayable or the seller of the stock demands payment on settlement day for delivery of the bargain. If the value of the stock falls contrary to their expectation, a bull suffers a loss, frequently very large if they are trading on margin. A bull has a great incentive to "talk-up" the value of their stock or to manipulate the market in their stock, for example by spreading false rumour, to procure a buyer or to cause a temporary price increase which will provide them with the selling opportunity and profit they require. A bull must therefore be contrasted with an investor, who purchases a stock in expectation of a medium-term (say 5 years) or long-term increase in value due to the underlying performance of the company and its assets. The speculator who takes a directly opposite view to the bull is the bear, who speculates on a stock decreasing in value, having sold short. A bull market is a period during which stock market prices rise over a sustained period, therefore to the advantage of bulls.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '135759',
'title': 'Hereford, Texas',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'It is also known as the "Beef Capital of the World" because of the large number of cattle fed in the area. The city is named for the Hereford breed. The local economy is affected significantly by growth in the dairy and ethanol industries.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'what are the characteristics that define the market as either a bull or bear?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It\'s called a "bull market" when the line indicating the price of stocks is trending upwards, like the horns of a charging bull, and it\'s a "bear market" when the line is trending down like a claw of a bear. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7pyk4o',
'query': 'what are the characteristics that define the market as either a bull or bear?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '204277',
'title': 'Normal number',
'section': 'Section::::Properties and examples.:Non-normal numbers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
'end_character': 226,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'No rational number is normal in any base, since the digit sequences of rational numbers are eventually periodic. (However, a rational number can be "simply normal" in a particular base: formula_4 is simply normal in base 10.)\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '91111',
'title': 'Angle trisection',
'section': 'Section::::Proof of impossibility.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 602,
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'passage_text': 'Every rational number is constructible. Every irrational number that is constructible in a single step from some given numbers is a root of a polynomial of degree 2 with coefficients in the field generated by these numbers. Therefore, any number that is constructible by a sequence of steps is a root of a minimal polynomial whose degree is a power of two. Note also that radians (60 degrees, written 60°) is constructible. The argument below shows that it is impossible to construct a 20° angle. This implies that a 60° angle cannot be trisected, and thus that an arbitrary angle cannot be trisected.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '358069',
'title': 'Proof by infinite descent',
'section': 'Section::::Application examples.:Irrationality of.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Therefore, if could be written as a rational number, it could always be written as a rational number with smaller parts, which itself could be written with yet-smaller parts, "ad infinitum". But this is impossible in the set of natural numbers. Since is a real number, which can be either rational or irrational, the only option left is for to be irrational.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42579971',
'title': 'Inductive probability',
'section': 'Section::::Probability and information.:The internal language of information.:Distribution of numbers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 102,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 102,
'end_character': 259,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Rational numbers are constructed by the division of natural numbers. The simplest representation has no common factors between the numerator and the denominator. This allows the probability distribution of natural numbers may be extended to rational numbers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '209103',
'title': 'List of numbers',
'section': 'Section::::Rational numbers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 503,
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'passage_text': 'A rational number is any number that can be expressed as the quotient or fraction of two integers, a numerator and a non-zero denominator . Since may be equal to\xa01, every integer is trivially a rational number. The set of all rational numbers, often referred to as "the rationals", the field of rationals or the field of rational numbers is usually denoted by a boldface (or blackboard bold formula_1, Unicode ℚ); it was thus denoted in 1895 by Giuseppe Peano after "quoziente", Italian for "quotient".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23601',
'title': 'Pi',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 723,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Being an irrational number, cannot be expressed as a common fraction (equivalently, its decimal representation never ends and never settles into a permanently repeating pattern). Still, fractions such as 22/7 and other rational numbers are commonly used to approximate . The digits appear to be randomly distributed. In particular, the digit sequence of is conjectured to satisfy a specific kind of statistical randomness, but to date, no proof of this has been discovered. Also, is a transcendental number; that is, it is not the root of any polynomial having rational coefficients. This transcendence of implies that it is impossible to solve the ancient challenge of squaring the circle with a compass and straightedge.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19727024',
'title': 'Rational number',
'section': 'Section::::Properties.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 71,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 71,
'end_character': 230,
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'passage_text': 'The set of all rational numbers is countable. Since the set of all real numbers is uncountable, we say that almost all real numbers are irrational, in the sense of Lebesgue measure, i.e. the set of rational numbers is a null set.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Might sound dumb, but what's a rational number?",
'selftext': 'Can anyone explain it clearly to me please Or link me to a very helpful video or something. Thanks',
'category': 'Mathematics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['A rational number is a number that can be expressed as a fraction, like 7 or 1/3.',
'A rational number can be written as the *ratio* of two integers: q = a/b, like 3/5. In other words, fractions.\n\nThis includes whole numbers, since, e.g. 7 = 7/1.',
'So basically there are different types of numbers you see in common early math...\n\nIntegers: Your obvious counting numbers (i.e. -2 -1 0 1 2...).\n\nRational: any number that can be expressed as the ration of 2 integers (e.g. 1.5 is 3/2 and 2 is 2/1). As you can see all integers are rational numbers but not all rational numbers are integers.\n\nIrrational: Real numbers that cannot be expressed as a ratio of integers. Common examples are Pi (a circles circumferance divided by its diameter) and e (the limit as n goes to infinity of (1+1/n)^n).I understand you may not be far enough in math though to necessary get this concept.\n\nFurthermore you can extend to different planes (as opposed to your standard x-y plane) and come up with other concepts like imaginary numbers. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '80t1h1',
'query': "might sound dumb, but what's a rational number?",
'query_type': 'Mathematics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '11823793',
'title': 'Scaling and root planing',
'section': 'Section::::Plaque build up and bone loss.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 912,
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'passage_text': 'Once the bacteria and calculus are removed from the periodontal pocket, the tissue can begin to heal. The inflammation dissipates as the infection declines, allowing the swelling to decrease which results in the gums once again forming an effective seal between the root of the tooth and the outside environment. However, the damage caused by periodontal disease never heals completely. Bone loss due to the disease process is irreversible. The gingival tissue of the gums also tends to suffer permanent effects once the disease reaches a certain point. Because gum tissue requires bone to support it, if bone loss has been extensive, a patient will have permanent recession of the gums, and therefore exposure of the roots of the teeth in involved areas. If the bone loss is extensive enough, the teeth may begin to become mobile, or loose, and without intervention to arrest the disease process, will be lost.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23345474',
'title': 'Plasma cell gingivitis',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'The gums are red, friable, or sometimes granular, and sometimes bleed easily if traumatised. The normal stippling is lost. There is not usually any loss of periodontal attachment. In a few cases a sore mouth can develop, and if so pain is sometimes made worse by toothpastes, or hot or spicy food. The lesions can extend to involve the palate.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1560270',
'title': 'Dental hygienist',
'section': 'Section::::Job Description and Duties.:Periodontal Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 554,
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'passage_text': 'Gum disease is caused by a sticky film of bacteria called plaque. Plaque is always forming on teeth, but if they aren’t cleaned well, the bacteria in plaque can cause gums to become inflamed. When this happens, the gums pull away from the teeth and form spaces called pockets. Plaque then gets trapped in these pockets and cannot be removed with regular brushing. Untreated gum disease can lead to bone and tooth loss. If the periodontal pockets are too deep a deep cleaning (scaling and root planing) is necessary to remove the plaque in these pockets.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '908738',
'title': 'Gums',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 510,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The gums are part of the soft tissue lining of the mouth. They surround the teeth and provide a seal around them. Unlike the soft tissue linings of the lips and cheeks, most of the gums are tightly bound to the underlying bone which helps resist the friction of food passing over them. Thus when healthy, it presents an effective barrier to the barrage of periodontal insults to deeper tissue. Healthy gums are usually coral pink in light skinned people, but may be naturally darker with melanin pigmentation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2265239',
'title': 'Periodontology',
'section': 'Section::::Maintenance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 196,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 196,
'end_character': 1079,
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'passage_text': 'The inflammation of the gums and irreversible destruction of the alveolar bone and surrounding structures of the teeth, usually slow progressing but can have bursts. Local factors explain presence of disease, such as, diet, lack of oral hygiene, plaque accumulation, smoking etc. Characterised by pocket formation and recession (shrinkage of the gums) of the gingiva. Treatment and maintenance are important in stopping disease progression and to resolve the inflammation, treatment usually consist of scaling and root planning, surgical therapy, regenerative surgical therapy. After treatment, patient care and regular maintenance check ups are important to completely eradicate disease and present reappearance of the disease. This is done through patient effective plaque control and removal, done through daily toothbrushing of twice a day and interdental cleaning once a day, chlorhexidine mouthwash can also be effective. Patient should also present to dentist for maintenance check ups at least every three-months for in office check-up and if necessary, plaque control. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16159527',
'title': 'Mouth infection',
'section': 'Section::::Anatomy of mouth.:Spread of oral infection.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'Mouth infections spread from the root of the infected tooth through the jaw bones and into potential spaces between the fascial planes of surrounding soft tissue, eventually forming an abscess. These potential spaces are usually empty, but can expand and form a pocket of pus when an infection drains into them. The potential spaces are categorized into primary and secondary spaces.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '414350',
'title': 'Tooth decay',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'As the enamel and dentin are destroyed, the cavity becomes more noticeable. The affected areas of the tooth change color and become soft to the touch. Once the decay passes through enamel, the dentinal tubules, which have passages to the nerve of the tooth, become exposed, resulting in pain that can be transient, temporarily worsening with exposure to heat, cold, or sweet foods and drinks. A tooth weakened by extensive internal decay can sometimes suddenly fracture under normal chewing forces. When the decay has progressed enough to allow the bacteria to overwhelm the pulp tissue in the center of the tooth, a toothache can result and the pain will become more constant. Death of the pulp tissue and infection are common consequences. The tooth will no longer be sensitive to hot or cold, but can be very tender to pressure.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why can all the areas in our mouths repair itself with new skin, but our gums can not?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Our cells can only figure our their function from their surroundings and interactions.\n\nA wound in the skin of our mouth is surrounded by other skin cells. The new cells see those surrounding cells and realizes they should function as skin.\n\nThe gums attached to your tooth are different. They expect a firm attachment to the tooth that formed when the tooth first came out. Remove that attachment either due to poor dental hygiene, rough brushing, or other factors and the separated gum-line cells don't know that they should be attached to the tooth. This is why your gums don't regenerate the attachment to your tooth."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'ce3ehq',
'query': 'why can all the areas in our mouths repair itself with new skin, but our gums can not?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '47628',
'title': 'Bomb',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Nuclear fission.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 34,
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'passage_text': 'Nuclear fission type atomic bombs utilize the energy present in very heavy atomic nuclei, such as U-235 or Pu-239. In order to release this energy rapidly, a certain amount of the fissile material must be very rapidly consolidated while being exposed to a neutron source. If consolidation occurs slowly, repulsive forces drive the material apart before a significant explosion can occur. Under the right circumstances, rapid consolidation can provoke a chain reaction that can proliferate and intensify by many orders of magnitude within microseconds. The energy released by a nuclear fission bomb may be tens of thousands of times greater than a chemical bomb of the same mass.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '172911',
'title': 'Nuclear weapon design',
'section': 'Section::::Nuclear reactions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'Nuclear fission separates or splits heavier atoms to form lighter atoms. Nuclear fusion combines together lighter atoms to form heavier atoms. Both reactions generate roughly a million times more energy than comparable chemical reactions, making nuclear bombs a million times more powerful than non-nuclear bombs, which a French patent claimed in May 1939.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4852466',
'title': 'Explosive lens',
'section': 'Section::::Use in nuclear weapons.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 1070,
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'passage_text': 'In a nuclear weapon, an array of explosive lenses is used to change the several approximately-spherical diverging detonation waves into a single spherical converging one. The converging wave is then used to collapse the various shells (tamper, reflector, pusher, etc.) and finally compresses the core (pit) of fissionable material to a prompt critical state. They are usually machined from a plastic bonded explosive and an inert insert, called a wave-shaper, which is often a dense foam or plastic, though many other materials can be used. Other, mainly older explosive lenses do not include a wave shaper, but employ two explosive types that have significantly different velocities of detonation (VoD), which are in the range from 5 to 9\xa0km/s. The use of the low- and high-speed explosives again results in a spherical converging detonation wave to compress the physics package. The original Gadget device used in the Trinity test and Fat Man dropped on Nagasaki used Baratol as the low-VoD explosive and Composition B as the fast, but other combinations can be used.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '175875',
'title': 'Critical mass',
'section': 'Section::::Criticality in nuclear weapon design.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 46,
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'passage_text': 'Until detonation is desired, a nuclear weapon must be kept subcritical. In the case of a uranium bomb, this can be achieved by keeping the fuel in a number of separate pieces, each below the critical size either because they are too small or unfavorably shaped. To produce detonation, the pieces of uranium are brought together rapidly. In Little Boy, this was achieved by firing a piece of uranium (a \'doughnut\') down a gun barrel onto another piece (a \'spike\'). This design is referred to as a "gun-type fission weapon".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '172911',
'title': 'Nuclear weapon design',
'section': 'Section::::Nuclear reactions.:Fission.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
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'passage_text': 'Holding an exploding bomb together is the greatest challenge of fission weapon design. The heat of fission rapidly expands the fission core, spreading apart the target nuclei and making space for the neutrons to escape without being captured. The chain reaction stops.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16818279',
'title': 'Salted bomb',
'section': 'Section::::Design.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 963,
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'passage_text': 'Salted versions of both fission and fusion weapons can be made by surrounding the core of the explosive device with a material containing an element that can be converted to a highly radioactive isotope by neutron bombardment. When the bomb explodes, the element absorbs neutrons released by the nuclear reaction, converting it to its radioactive form. The explosion scatters the resulting radioactive material over a wide area, leaving it uninhabitable far longer than an area affected by typical nuclear weapons. In a salted hydrogen bomb, the radiation case around the fusion fuel, which normally is made of some fissionable element, is replaced with a metallic salting element. Salted fission bombs can be made by replacing the neutron reflector between the fissionable core and the explosive layer with a metallic element. The energy yield from a salted weapon is usually lower than from an ordinary weapon of similar size as a consequence of these changes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3499539',
'title': 'Fast fission',
'section': 'Section::::Fissionable but not fissile.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'Some atoms, notably uranium-238, do not usually undergo fission when struck by slow neutrons, but do split when struck with neutrons of high enough energy. The fast neutrons produced in a hydrogen bomb by fusion of deuterium and tritium have even higher energy than the fast neutrons produced in a nuclear reactor. This makes it possible to increase the yield of any given fusion weapon by the simple expedient of adding layers of cheap natural (or even depleted) uranium. Fast fission of uranium-238 provides a large part of the explosive yield, and fallout, in many designs of hydrogen bomb.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'how does nuclear materials make it possible to split the atoms to make a nuclear bomb possible.',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It only works if you start with rare, special unstable atoms that are ready to split already. Typically these will be plutonium, or enriched uranium.\n\nAverage atoms are damned hard to split.',
'For fission to be possible the material does not need to be radioactive per se. However, what you do want to archive is a chain reaction. For a chain reaction you need the material to basically do two things: \n\n\\- Split easily when hit with a neutron\n\n\\- Emit neutrons when splitting\n\nWith certain material this is possible, that those materials are highly radioactive is a more a side effect of them splitting easily. Radioactivity is a sign of an element that is unstable, and unstable elements tend to split more easily.',
'"Nuclear materials" are elements that are very very unstable. These elements naturally fall apart over time and turn into other, stable elements. As the fall apart, or decay, as we call it, the emitt light and heat.\n\nWe can boost this process by shooting a particle at an unstable atom, which splits it instantly, instead of decaying. It\'s like throwing a rock at a wall that is about to collapse. The cool part is that when the wall collapses, it launches more rocks, taking down more walls. So, as one atom splits, it causes other adjacent atoms to split. This is called chain reaction.\n\nWe then harness the heat produced by boiling water, and turning a turbine with it, like a steam engine.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9dz70c',
'query': 'how does nuclear materials make it possible to split the atoms to make a nuclear bomb possible.',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '616985',
'title': 'Computability logic',
'section': 'Section::::Semantics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 266,
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'passage_text': 'There are two players in static games: the "machine" and the "environment". The machine can only follow algorithmic strategies, while there are no restrictions on the behavior of the environment. Each run (play) is won by one of these players and lost by the other.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '699453',
'title': 'Robot Odyssey',
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Throughout the game, the player is presented with various challenges which require programming the three robots to accomplish various tasks. This is done by wiring a synchronous digital circuit, consisting of logic gates and flip-flops, inside of the robots. Tasks and puzzles range from navigating a simple maze and retrieving items to complex tasks requiring interaction and communication between two or more robots. Though the player can ride inside the robots, most challenges involve the robots acting autonomously and cannot be completed with the player inside (and perhaps simply rewiring their robot on the fly).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18493095',
'title': 'Open world',
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay and design.:Procedural generation and emergence.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'Procedural generation refers to content generated algorithmically rather than manually, and is often used to generate game levels and other content. While procedural generation does not guarantee that a game or sequence of levels are nonlinear, it is an important factor in reducing game development time, and opens up avenues making it possible to generate larger and more or less unique seamless game worlds on the fly and using fewer resources. This kind of procedural generation is known as worldbuilding, in which general rules are used to construct a believable world.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32302316',
'title': 'Super Mario War',
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': "The gameplay is somewhat simple. In various game modes, players may jump on each other's heads to defeat each other or they may use items found in the power-up boxes. The game has a variety of such configurable settings to determine when certain items spawn in the power-up boxes, the way players spawn onscreen, and more.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2085751',
'title': 'Tower of Babel (1989 video game)',
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.:Editor.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'One feature of the game is the ability to program the robots. Each robot can be given up to eight orders (for example: Forward, Forward, Left, Fire, Right, Forward). In some levels, programming the robots is mandatory, as they need to coordinate their actions in order to solve the level.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39728176',
'title': 'List of Oculus Rift games',
'section': 'Section::::Natural locomotion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 228,
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'passage_text': "Natural locomotion games only use the motion and rotation of the player's head, without apparent camera movement induced by a thumbstick or keyboard, and so do not generally cause players sickness and enable constant presence..\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '311632',
'title': 'Video game programmer',
'section': 'Section::::Disciplines.:Game engine programmer.:Physics engine programmer.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 463,
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'passage_text': 'Since processing cycles are always at a premium, physics programmers may employ "shortcuts" that are computationally inexpensive, but look and act "good enough" for the game in question. In other cases, unrealistic physics are employed to allow easier gameplay or for dramatic effect. Sometimes, a specific subset of situations is specified and the physical outcome of such situations are stored in a record of some sort and are never computed at runtime at all.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do procedurally generated video games work? How are players not constantly stuck in a situation where they can no longer progress due to the level generation?',
'selftext': 'Are procedurally generated levels given guidelines they must abide by? Ex. No platforms over this height, no jump distance further than x, etc.',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': [' > Are procedurally generated levels given guidelines they must abide by\n\nyes. that\'s why it\'s called "procedurally" and not "randomly". the game has to follow a procedure that makes sure the result is a playable map. a simple example would be to allow it to make gaps in a path, but the gaps have to be < 1m wide and have > 1m of land between them so it doesnt create a too-wide gap by placing 2 right next to each other',
'In the context of video games, "procedural generation" doesn\'t imply 100% random level design; it only means that the levels are created by algorithms, instead of by hand. Most of these algorithms ensure that the game doesn\'t become unplayable due to bad luck.\n\nFor instance, Spelunky\'s levels are procedurally generated, but must adhere to a strict ruleset to make sure that the levels are beatable (i.e. there has to be open space from the starting area to the exit, there can\'t be any falls that would cause you to take damage, etc). Other games, like The Binding of Isaac, have procedural level generation, but the individual elements that make up the level (the "rooms") are handmade by people.',
'"Procedurally generated" doesn\'t necessarily mean everything\'s purely random. In The Binding of Isaac, each room is created from a template-room designed "by hand" (non-procedurally) and filled with random types and quantities of enemies and loot. By carefully designing those template-rooms and deciding what can be randomized in them, you can make sure the player is never stuck in a level because of unfortunate RNG.',
'Yes, Procedural means "by procedure", which is very different from "randomly". Tiles, voxels or whichever the single unit of map used is, it includes a set of rules for placement, orientation and such. I\'ve been testing some very basic procedural generation algorithms in Unity.\n\n[Here you can see my shitty algorithm at work](_URL_0_)',
'The key term is "procedural" here. When the programmers create the game, they create an algorithm for generating the areas within the game. This algorithm isn\'t random, it takes a lot of factors into account to ensure what it creates is playable. Of course, it is often possible to encounter "impossible" things in a procedural game, but generally this is quite rare. The programmers try to think of all the possible factors that could lead to unplayability, and ensure that the algorithm doesn\'t do that, but it can slip through sometimes.\n\nOften though, one of the key reasons the procedural generation works is because the gameplay itself is capable of dealing with it. Take, for example, Minecraft. It\'s pretty close to impossible to get actually "stuck" in a minecraft world. Killed? Sure. But stuck? Even the hardest obtainable block can be broken without a tool (it takes over four minutes though), and all unbreakable blocks generate in patterns that wouldn\'t be able to trap you fully. So while it\'s certainly possible to end up in terrain that\'s dangerous, or downright annoying, you generally won\'t get permanently stuck because the nature of the gameplay is that you can reshape the world around you. The most likely way a world could generate and be nearly unplayable would be to spawn the player in the middle of a desert without any trees within safe walking distance. This could make crafting even your most basic tools before dying and being send back to the spawn point very hard. But that\'s an incredibly low probability world given the way worlds generate. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '966vi2',
'query': 'how do procedurally generated video games work? how are players not constantly stuck in a situation where they can no longer progress due to the level generation?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '294419',
'title': 'Sunscreen',
'section': 'Section::::Measurements of protection.:Sun protection factor and labeling.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
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'passage_text': 'The SPF is an imperfect measure of skin damage because invisible damage and skin aging are also caused by ultraviolet type A (UVA, wavelengths 315–400 or 320–400 nm), which does not primarily cause reddening or pain. Conventional sunscreen blocks very little UVA radiation relative to the nominal SPF; broad-spectrum sunscreens are designed to protect against both UVB and UVA. According to a 2004 study, UVA also causes DNA damage to cells deep within the skin, increasing the risk of malignant melanomas. Even some products labeled "broad-spectrum UVA/UVB protection" have not always provided good protection against UVA rays. Titanium dioxide probably gives good protection, but does not completely cover the UVA spectrum, as early 2000s research suggests that zinc oxide is superior to titanium dioxide at wavelengths 340–380\xa0nm.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1485054',
'title': 'Sunless tanning',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'end_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Since sunscreen absorbs ultraviolet light and prevents it from reaching the skin, it will prevent tanning. It has been reported that sunscreen with a sun protection factor (SPF) of 8 based on the UVB spectrum can decrease vitamin D synthetic capacity by 95 percent, whereas sunscreen with an SPF of 15 can reduce synthetic capacity by 98 percent.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24998247',
'title': 'Vitamin D',
'section': 'Section::::Biosynthesis.:Synthesis in the skin.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 115,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 115,
'end_character': 251,
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'passage_text': 'Sunscreen absorbs or reflects ultraviolet light and prevents much of it from reaching the skin. Sunscreen with a sun protection factor (SPF) of 8 based on the UVB spectrum decreases vitamin D synthetic capacity by 95%, and SPF 15 decreases it by 98%.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5053663',
'title': 'Skin care',
'section': 'Section::::Sunscreen.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 528,
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'passage_text': "This can reduce the skin's elasticity and encourage sagging and wrinkle formation. Sunscreen can protect the skin from sun damage; sunscreen should be applied at least 20 minutes before exposure, and should be re-applied every four hours. Sunscreen should be applied to all areas of the skin that will be exposed to sunlight, and at least a tablespoon (25\xa0ml) should be applied to each limb, the face, chest, and back, to ensure thorough coverage. Many tinted moisturizers, foundations and primers now contain some form of SPF.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '294419',
'title': 'Sunscreen',
'section': 'Section::::Measurements of protection.:Sun protection factor and labeling.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'The sun protection factor (SPF rating, introduced in 1974) is a measure of the fraction of sunburn-producing UV rays that reach the skin. For example, "SPF 15" means that of the burning radiation will reach the skin, assuming sunscreen is applied evenly at a thick dosage of 2 milligrams per square centimeter (mg/cm). A user can determine the effectiveness of a sunscreen by multiplying the SPF by the length of time it takes for him or her to suffer a burn without sunscreen. Thus, if a person develops a sunburn in 10 minutes when not wearing a sunscreen, the same person in the same intensity of sunlight will take 150 minutes to develop a sunburn of the same severity if wearing a sunscreen with an SPF of 15. It is important to note that sunscreens with higher SPF do not last or remain effective on the skin any longer than lower SPF and must be continually reapplied as directed, usually every two hours.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1485054',
'title': 'Sunless tanning',
'section': 'Section::::Other agents.:Risks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 44,
'end_character': 500,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'If avobenzone-containing sunscreen is applied on top of tanner, the photosensitizer effect magnifies the free-radical damage promoted by DHA, as DHA may make the skin especially susceptible to free-radical damage from sunlight, according to a 2007 study led by Katinka Jung of the Gematria Test Lab in Berlin. Forty minutes after the researchers treated skin samples with 20% DHA they found that more than 180 percent additional free radicals formed during sun exposure compared with untreated skin.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31990',
'title': 'Ultraviolet',
'section': 'Section::::Human health-related effects.:Harmful effects.:Skin damage.:Sunscreen safety debate.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 75,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 75,
'end_character': 601,
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'passage_text': 'In an experiment by Hanson et al. that was published in 2006, the amount of harmful reactive oxygen species (ROS) was measured in untreated and in sunscreen treated skin. In the first 20 minutes, the film of sunscreen had a protective effect and the number of ROS species was smaller. After 60 minutes, however, the amount of absorbed sunscreen was so high that the amount of ROS was higher in the sunscreen-treated skin than in the untreated skin. The study indicates that sunscreen must be reapplied within 2 hours in order to prevent UV light from penetrating to sunscreen-infused live skin cells.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "If an SPF50 sunscreen increases my skin's natural resistance to UV rays from 5 to 250 minutes, does its effectiveness wear off after 250 minutes even if I spend them in the dark, or does it only wear off during sun exposure?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Imagine your skin is a sponge, no try to think of a sponge absorbing water.\n\nThat 250 minute timer is how long it takes to absorb.',
'The spf and how long it lasts aren’t really directly connected the way you described. \n\nThe spf is a measurement of how much sun it blocks, not how long it stays on your skin. ',
'If your skin normally burns in 5 minutes, an SPF50 sunscreen will *ideally* reduce the incoming damage so that it will instead take 250 minutes to burn, like you described.\n\nHowever, the length of time the sunscreen is physically effective is a completely separate question. The sunscreen will get rubbed off, sweated off, washed off, etc depending on what activities you’re doing. In addition, your skin absorbs it over time as well. So even though it will theoretically prevent a burn for 250 minutes, that does you no good if you go swimming and it all washes off. That’s why the sunscreen label tells you to reapply the sunscreen periodically.',
"The SPF rating just means what percentage of harmful radiation will be able to penetrate the sunscreen. It has no bearing on the duration the sunscreen will last. SPF 50 just means that 1 minute of exposure without sunscreen is equivalent to about 50 minutes of exposure with it. It might last all day if it's good, or it might be washed off as soon as you take a dip in the pool.",
"The sunscreen doesn't actually just stop working after 250 minutes. Modern sunscreen filters are photostable - the idea that you need to reapply them because they break down doesn't apply anymore (you do need to reapply them because they physically rub off or get sweated off though, also most people don't use enough in the first place and get less protection than the label says, so telling them to repply regularly mitigates that somewhat). What actually happens is this: SPF 50 means that the sunscreen blocks 98% of the damaging UV rays, or conversely, that only 2% of them get through to your skin. 2% expressed as a fraction is 1/50, so if you only get 1/50th the damage that you would without sunscreen, that means it takes 50 times longer for the same amount of damage to take place.\n\nSo basically, if you apply sunscreen and then sit in a dark room and don't do anything that would cause it to wear off your skin, then go outside a few hours later, you should still have full protection."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'a7c7bd',
'query': "if an spf50 sunscreen increases my skin's natural resistance to uv rays from 5 to 250 minutes, does its effectiveness wear off after 250 minutes even if i spend them in the dark, or does it only wear off during sun exposure?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '59621783',
'title': 'Human milk immunity',
'section': 'Section::::Impact on health.:Long term protection.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
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'passage_text': 'Because various components present in human breast milk stimulate the growth of the immune system, there is a growing interest in whether breastfeeding provides a long term protective effect against auto-immune and inflammatory diseases.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56461877',
'title': 'Human milk microbiome',
'section': 'Section::::Influences on infant health and development.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
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'passage_text': 'Breastfeeding is thought to be an important driver of infant gut microbiome establishment. The gut microbiome of breastfed infants is less diverse, contains higher amounts of "Bifidobacterium" and "Lactobacillus" species, and fewer potential pathogenic taxa than the gut microbiome of formula-fed infants. Human milk bacteria may reduce risk of infection in breastfed infants by competitively excluding harmful bacteria, and producing antimicrobial compounds which eliminate pathogenic strains, Certain lactobacilli and bifidobacteria, the growth of which is stimulated by human milk oligosaccharides contribute to healthy metabolic and immune-related functioning in the infant gut.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2537276',
'title': 'Supplemental nursing system',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "A supplemental nursing system (SNS), also known as a lactation aid, is a device that consists of a container and a capillary tube. It is used to provide additional nutrients to a baby whose mother has low milk supply. During breastfeeding, the end of the tube is placed alongside the mother's nipple so that both the tube and the breast are in the infant's mouth.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48888279',
'title': 'Human milk oligosaccharide',
'section': 'Section::::Characteristics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'In contrast to the other components of breast milk that are absorbed by the infant through breastfeeding, HMOs are indigestible for the newborn child. However, they have a prebiotic effect and serve as food for intestinal bacteria, especially bifidobacteria.\xa0The dominance of these intestinal bacteria in the gut reduces the colonization with pathogenic bacteria (probiosis) and thereby ensures a healthy intestinal flora (intestinal microbiome) and a reduced risk of dangerous intestinal infections.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '59621783',
'title': 'Human milk immunity',
'section': 'Section::::Impact on health.:Health outcomes for Breastfed versus formula-fed infants.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
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'passage_text': 'Over the last century, breastfeeding has been consistently shown to reduce infant mortality and morbidity, particularly of infectious disease. Comparative research between human milk and formula has pointed towards the bio-active components in human milk as potential proponents of its immunological protection. Studies have shown that breastfed infants respond better to vaccines, and are better protected against diarrhea, otitis media, sepsis, and necrotizing enterocolitis, celiac disease, obesity, and inflammatory bowel disease than formula-fed infants. Human breast milk is seen as particularly beneficial to infants born before full term and those that are underweight at birth who are at a higher risk of infectious diseases, such as sepsis and meningitis. Also, there is a lower chance of contamination acquired through direct breastfeeding than with mixing formula with water or other animal milks which may also help explain why human milk is more protective for the infant.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '54779004',
'title': 'Breastfeeding contraindications',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Breastfeeding contraindication are situations where the mother has conditions such as an addiction or disease that would make it harmful to the baby, should the baby be breastfed. Breast milk contains many nutrients that formulas in store shelves do not have which makes breast feeding a healthier and ideal way to feed an infant. Breastfeeding contraindications can occur if a mother does not take medication or seek medical advice prior to breast. The effects of the contradiction can do damage to both the infant and even the mother. It is important to explore the factors that can do damage that way a mother can be informed and well educated on the subject manner.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '795199',
'title': 'Breast milk',
'section': 'Section::::Benefits.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'Breastfeeding also provides health benefits for the mother. It assists the uterus in returning to its pre-pregnancy size and reduces post-partum bleeding, as well as assisting the mother in returning to her pre-pregnancy weight. Breastfeeding also reduces the risk of breast cancer later in life. Lactation protects both mother and infant from both types of diabetes. Lactation may protect the infant from specifically developing Type 2 diabetes because studies have shown that bioactive ingredients in human breast milk could prevent excess weight gain during childhood via contributing to a feeling of energy and satiety. A lower risk of child-onset diabetes may more applicable to infants who were born from diabetic mothers. The reason is because while breastfeeding for at least the first 6 months of life minimizes the risk of Type 1 diabetes from occurring in the infant, inadequate breastfeeding in an infant prenatally exposed to diabetes was associated with a higher risk of the child developing diabetes later on. However, it can be argued that human breastfeeding may contribute to protective effects against the development of Type 1 diabetes due to the fact that the alternative of bottle-feeding may expose infants to unhygienic feeding conditions.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'breastfeeding and immune system',
'selftext': "Breastfeeding provides a mother's antibodies to her baby based on the viruses and bacteria present in their saliva to give them the building blocks of an immune system, and temporary immunity. Other than societal taboos, is there a reason why a wet nurse isn't used to help those who are immunocompromised due to cancer, transplants, etc",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['They absolutely can! Most people now donate milk though. Many neonatal intensive care units have milk donation programs for the preemies because it has a lot of benefits for them. There are also milk donation programs for those who can’t breastfeed or adopt newborns. ',
"Only babies young enough that their digestive system hasn't started to its full capacity can get whole antibodies from breast milk. As soon as the child is capable of digesting solid food, its digestive system breaks down the antibodies before absorbing them. Antibodies are made of protein, so they are digested just like other proteins. \n\nWe can intravenously administer antibodies to people, but the immunity only lasts as long as those antibodies are still floating around in them. Having to lug around a continuous IV drip of antibodies may be more trouble than it's worth to a lot of people. ",
"In addition to what is posted above, people who are immunocompromised can be so for a variety of reasons. A transplant patient for example is put on immunosuppressant drugs to purposely immunocompromise them to reduce the likelihood that their body mounts an immune response to the organ which isn't native to their body. Cancer patients are immunocompromised because they often undergo incredible amounts of toxic therapy treatments (whether it be chemotherapy or radiation therapy) that kill their immune cells. Breast milk only has antibodies in it, and not the cells that make the antibodies. The antibodies will not last long in circulation if injected, and will be digested if swallowed. Replacing the cells that produce the antibodies will be destroyed during continuous radiation or chemotherapy. On top of that all, the immune system is an incredibly complicated series of cells, and antibodies only play one small (albeit important) roll in it. ",
'The immunocompromise you’re thinking of is different. In babies, the immune system is naïve. It can’t tell right from wrong yet or hasn’t received enough exposure to actually know how to defend itself.\n\nIn adults who are immunocompromised, their entire defence system has already collapsed. Chemotherapy has a side effect of killing all rapidly dividing cells, including those in charge of creating defensive cells. Other drugs can interfere with the way defensive cells “talk” to each other, and prevent these cells from working properly.\n\nA mother’s milk has antibodies that protect mainly the gut and nose from an infection, but that’s about it. The child’s stomach isn’t acidic enough to break down these productive antibodies, but an adult’s stomach is.\n\nLastly, breast milk is a body fluid like any other, and sourcing breast milk means extensive testing to make sure it’s free of things like HIV, viruses and other blood borne disease. '],
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'query_id': '77eu4i',
'query': 'breastfeeding and immune system',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1788660',
'title': 'Anaglyph 3D',
'section': 'Section::::Traditional anaglyph processing methods.:Depth adjustment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 66,
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'passage_text': 'If the subject matter is a landscape, you may consider putting the frontmost object at or slightly behind the surface of the screen. This will cause the subject to be framed by the window boundary and recede into the distance. Once the adjustment is made, trim the picture to contain only the portions containing both left and right images. In the example shown above, the upper image appears (in a visually disruptive manner) to spill out from the screen, with the distant mountains appearing at the surface of the screen. In the lower modification of this image the red channel has been translated horizontally to bring the images of the nearest rocks into coincidence (and thus appearing at the surface of the screen) and the distant mountains now appear to recede into the image. This latter adjusted image appears more natural, appearing as a view through a window onto the landscape.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1788660',
'title': 'Anaglyph 3D',
'section': 'Section::::Traditional anaglyph processing methods.:Depth adjustment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 65,
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'passage_text': 'Those portions of the left and right images that are coincident will appear to be at the surface of the screen. Depending upon the subject matter and the composition of the image it may be appropriate to make this align to something slightly behind the nearest point of the principal subject (as when imaging a portrait). This will cause the near points of the subject to "pop out" from the screen. For best effect, any portions of a figure to be imaged forward of the screen surface should not intercept the image boundary, as this can lead to a discomforting "amputated" appearance. It is of course possible to create a three-dimensional "pop out" frame surrounding the subject in order to avoid this condition.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '66338',
'title': 'Holography',
'section': 'Section::::How it works.:Vs. photography.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- When a photograph is cut in half, each piece shows half of the scene. When a hologram is cut in half, the whole scene can still be seen in each piece. This is because, whereas each point in a photograph only represents light scattered from a single point in the scene, "each point" on a holographic recording includes information about light scattered from "every point" in the scene. It can be thought of as viewing a street outside a house through a window, then through a window. One can see all of the same things through the smaller window (by moving the head to change the viewing angle), but the viewer can see more "at once" through the window.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '59862416',
'title': 'Photo stand-in',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'A photo stand-in (also called a face in the hole board, photo cutout board or comic foreground) is a large board with an image printed on it and that has one or more holes cut out where people can stick their face through the board for humorous effect. The hole aligns with an area in the image that creates an optical illusion of the person\'s face being an actual part of the scene. This illusion is then often immortalized by taking a photograph of the person\'s face through the board. Photo stand-ins may be found at midways, carnivals, parties, tourist traps, theme parks and similar locations and events that people visit for entertainment. The television game show "You\'re in the Picture" revolved around celebrity guests using a photo stand-in, having to guess what scene they were in.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5587936',
'title': 'Tilt–shift photography',
'section': 'Section::::Camera movements.:Shift.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 50,
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'end_paragraph_id': 50,
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'passage_text': 'If a subject plane is parallel to the image plane, parallel lines in the subject remain parallel in the image. If the image plane is not parallel to the subject, as when pointing a camera up to photograph a tall building, parallel lines converge, and the result sometimes appears unnatural, such as a building that appears to be leaning backwards.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25080',
'title': 'Photograph',
'section': 'Section::::Preservation.:Handling and care.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 878,
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'passage_text': 'It is best to leave photographs lying flat on the table when viewing them. Do not pick it up from a corner, or even from two sides and hold it at eye level. Every time the photograph bends, even a little, this can break down the emulsion. The very nature of enclosing a photograph in plastic encourages users to pick it up; users tend to handle plastic enclosed photographs less gently than non-enclosed photographs, simply because they feel the plastic enclosure makes the photo impervious to all mishandling. As long as a photo is in its folder, there is no need to touch it; simply remove the folder from the box, lay it flat on the table, and open the folder. If for some reason the researcher or archivist does need to handle the actual photo, perhaps to examine the verso for writing, he or she can use gloves if there appears to be a risk from oils or dirt on the hands.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13141219',
'title': 'Defective pixel',
'section': 'Section::::Variations.:Tape automated bonding (TAB) faults.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 708,
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'passage_text': 'If an LCD is subjected to physical shock, this could cause one or more TAB connections to fail inside the display. This failure is often caused by horizontally flexing the chassis (e.g., while wall-mounting or transporting a display face up/down) or simple failure of the adhesive holding the TAB against the glass. TAB faults require replacement of the LCD module itself. If these connections were to fail, the effect would be that an entire row or column of pixels would fail to activate. This causes a horizontal or vertical black line to appear on the display while the rest of the display would appear normal. The horizontal failure runs from edge-to-edge; the vertical failure runs from top-to-bottom.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does breaking one part of a screen mess up the picture of the whole thing?',
'selftext': 'Screen being a tv, computer monitor, etc.',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Each individual pixel in a screen needs to be controlled somehow. You can do this with a pair of wires to every single pixel, but that’s a lot of wires and very expensive with a high res screen. More usually it’s done by setting up a grid and scanning the screen with vertical and horizontal wires that “select” pixels as they go. But that also means a breakage in one of the wires can break a large section of the screen.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'd7lh4j',
'query': 'how does breaking one part of a screen mess up the picture of the whole thing?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '954901',
'title': 'Cerro Azul, Peru',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The beach forms an attractive bay that ends in a rocky point where the waves it is famous for break. These break from left to right, are well shaped and go for about half a mile on a good day. The renowned quality of its waves is mentioned in the Beach Boys\' song "Surfin\' Safari". However, the quality of the waves changes seasonally and from year to year, as the sand and stones that make up the beach are chronically withdrawn by the sea to form a bank where the waves break.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21506762',
'title': 'Surf break',
'section': 'Section::::Types of surfable waves.:Backwash and sidewash waves.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 67,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "These occur where waves are formed from the returning backwash of a wave which has previously gone up a steep shoreline or beach, or sometimes reflected from an ocean rockface or wall. They can sometimes form a surfable wave in a direction oblique to, or opposite from the original wave direction. An example was shown in the film Endless Summer, in Tahiti, called 'Ins and Outs'.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1546175',
'title': 'The Wedge (surfing)',
'section': 'Section::::The waves.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The waves are a by-product of alterations to the rock jetty on the west side of the Newport Harbor entrance undertaken during the 1930s. When conditions are right, and a wave approaches the shore at the proper angle (most generally a south swell), an approaching wave will reflect off the jetty creating a second wave. The reflected wave meets up with the following wave of the set and forms a peak, and this pattern can repeat for several following waves as well. If the reflected and incoming waves align the resulting wave is bigger than either alone due to constructive interference. This occurs very rapidly and forms waves in a very unpredictable and "unstable" pattern, so that no two waves are alike and the exact breaking point is difficult to predict even for an experienced surfer.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56164683',
'title': 'The Wave (2018 TV series)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'The Wave is a British game show which premiered on 15 January 2018 until 19 March 2018, as a ten-part series on W. It is hosted by Rylan Clark-Neal with Keri-anne Payne overseeing the contestants. The concept of the show is that teams consisting of two members would enter the show together. One of the team members would be in the sea whilst the other will stay on land. The teammate in the sea will swim to pontoons to answer questions to win a cash prize. If they got an answer wrong, they would get weighed down by rocks.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4176362',
'title': 'Cabo Blanco, Peru',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': "The wave breaks over sand and rock, with the sand building up through summer and being washed away progressively by winter swells. The wave inspires a kind of fanaticism among surfers. Although there are only about 20 locals, crowds of surfers are drawn to the wave from Lima (700 kilometres south), and from around the world. With modern swell forecasts and the internet, it's easy to know when swell is on the way, and the surfers once there all pack into a single tight takeoff zone, despite other waves elsewhere in the area.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28198',
'title': 'Surfing',
'section': 'Section::::The physics of surfing.:Surf breaks.:Beach break.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 103,
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'end_paragraph_id': 103,
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'passage_text': 'A beach break happens where waves break from offshore waves, and onshore sandbars and rips. Wave breaks happen successively at beach breaks. Example locations are Tairua and Aramoana Beach (New Zealand) and the Gold Coast (Australia).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37097393',
'title': 'Waves (festival)',
'section': 'Section::::Professional Nites.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 42,
'end_character': 571,
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'passage_text': 'Waves gained popularity far and wide due to the euphoria and ecstasy it creates in its Professional Nights or Pro-Nites as they are called. Popular national as well as international artists perform every year at Pro Nites. Waves has previously featured the likes of Vishal–Shekhar, Priyanka Chopra, Karsh Kale, Blackstratblues, Kailash Kher, Shafqat Amanat Ali, Shankar Mahadevan, Strings, Indian Ocean, Parikrama (band), Thermal and a Quarter, Pakistani Rock act Raeth (band), Carnatic Rock band Agam (band), Dead Letter Circus, Candice Redding, DJ NYK, DJ Suketu etc.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Where do waves come from and why do they come in sets of seven when you’re at the beach?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The regular waves you get are actually the result of wind working.over the vast surface of the ocean. Given enough time and a long enough stretch the waves created by wind can be very significant.\n\nThere are also the tides that rise and fall twice a day due to the moons gravitational pull.\n\n',
'Earth\'s magnetic field may affect our measurements of gravity, but they are separate. The moon\'s ( & sun\'s) gravitational "pull" on Earth cause the tide changes, but magnetism has nothing to do with it.\n\nAnd waves do not specifically come in sets of 7. They can really come in any number of waves per set at many different intervals. It depends on the wind patterns, as an earlier post already stated. If your area has pretty consistent wind patterns way off the coast where the sets are generated, then that may be the reason you see such consistent sets of 7. I can remember going to beaches as kid that would repeat sets of 5, that were 3 small followed by 2 large in each set.\n\nEdit: this was supposed to be a response to a comment elsewhere in the thread referencing magnetism, but accidentally replied to the original post.',
"If you could imagine an electric beater and like maybe a bowl with cake batter. Once you start whipping you'll notice pattern like waves emitting off of a constant spinning thing. Now if you took a blow dryer and aimed it at the batter, youll see almost ripple like creations or at least a repeatable pattern. If you play around with it some you may even get to a close resemblance of waves, maybe not exactly, but if the batter had less viscosity and the blow dryer could blow from multiple angles at the same time, then it would start to look like ocean water maybe.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nSo the liquid mixed with just the wind, will make pattern as such. Now, add all of the other forces acting on the ocean and you get a beautiful nice set of waves man!"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9o03au',
'query': 'where do waves come from and why do they come in sets of seven when you’re at the beach?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '29716126',
'title': 'Road-powered electric vehicle',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Road powered electric vehicles (RPEV) (sometimes called roadway powered electric vehicles) collect any form of potential energy from the road surface to supply electricity to locomotive motors and ancillary equipment within the vehicle.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16105186',
'title': 'Electric car',
'section': 'Section::::Terminology.\n',
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'passage_text': 'While an electric car\'s power source is not explicitly an on-board battery, electric cars with motors powered by other energy sources are typically referred to by a different name. An electric car carrying solar panels to power it is a solar car, and an electric car powered by a gasoline generator is a form of hybrid car. Thus, an electric car that derives its power from an on-board battery pack is a form of battery electric vehicle (BEV). Most often, the term "electric car" is used to refer to battery electric vehicles, but may also refer to plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '279350',
'title': 'Electric vehicle',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'An electric vehicle, also called an EV, uses one or more electric motors or traction motors for propulsion. An electric vehicle may be powered through a collector system by electricity from off-vehicle sources, or may be self-contained with a battery, solar panels or an electric generator to convert fuel to electricity. EVs include, but are not limited to, road and rail vehicles, surface and underwater vessels, electric aircraft and electric spacecraft.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22682196',
'title': 'Smart highway',
'section': 'Section::::Wireless vehicle charging.:Electromechanical batteries.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
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'end_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'Roadway-powered electric vehicle system is the patent held by Howard R. Ross. It has several components. The first of which is an all electric vehicle that would be fit with electromechanical batteries that accept a charge from the road. The road is the second component and would have strategically placed charging coils as to only charge the car when needed. These cars and roads would not require gas or solar power.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '29716126',
'title': 'Road-powered electric vehicle',
'section': 'Section::::Definition.\n',
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'passage_text': '(6) The electric vehicle further may include an on-board control system that directs energy from the energy storage elements, as needed, and converts such energy to electric motors used to propel the electric vehicle.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32410',
'title': 'Vehicle',
'section': 'Section::::Locomotion.:Energy source.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
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'passage_text': "It is essential that a vehicle have a source of energy to drive it. Energy can be extracted from external sources, as in the cases of a sailboat, a solar-powered car, or an electric streetcar that uses overhead lines. Energy can also be stored, provided it can be converted on demand and the storing medium's energy density and power density are sufficient to meet the vehicle's needs.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '534382',
'title': 'Honda Civic Hybrid',
'section': 'Section::::First generation (2003–2005).:Design.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': "An electric motor is sandwiched between the gasoline engine and the transmission, providing up to 13 horsepower. The motor also acts as a generator, to recharge the car's nickel-metal hydride battery located between the rear seat and the trunk, and as a starter motor.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do electric cars work so it supplies enough energy to the car?',
'selftext': "To my knowledge normal gas cars have to make continuous explosions (via the otto cycle) to make energy to make a car run, while electric cars dont (or so I'm assuming) so I'm wonder how much power does an electric car need to make it function? Also gas cars have a battery, so why cant that thing be used to power a whole car like an electric car Edit: essentially what I'm asking is for the difference about gas and electric cars that makes one run purely on electricity.",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Electric cars use an electric motor (or multiple motors in most cases) The electric motor is powered via electricity by energizing elector magnets that basically push and pull causing the motor to turn. Attach a wheel, and you've got something to strap into a car. Your battery in your gas car doesn't provide nearly enough energy to propel your car any respectable distance.",
"\\ > Also gas cars have a battery, so why cant that thing be used to power a whole car like an electric car\n\nThat's basically how it works. The batteries are just bigger/there's more of them.\n\n[Here's a picture to help visualize it](_URL_0_)",
"Electric cars have much more powerful and much larger capacity batteries than gas cars. The battery in a gas car is only needed to make a small spark in order to ignite the gasoline, so it doesn't need to store enough energy to power the whole engine on its own.\n\nA typical number for a car battery (it'll vary a little depending on the car and the battery you buy) might be around 480 watt\\*hours (watt\\*hours is a measure of how much work the battery can do). A 2017 Tesla battery pack is rated at around 100,000 watt\\*hours, which is 208 times more total stored energy.\n\nThis isn't the only important part. They're also designed to be able to release a lot more of that energy safely at once. It won't be able to keep up with the power requirements of a large electric motor like you'd find in a Tesla.",
'The battery in a regular car is a \\~15 kg lead battery that work well for it intended use, to provide a lot of power to start the engine for a shot time and work in all temperatures.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nA battery pack in a Tesla have a mass of 540kg and is constructed of more efficient but also more expensive litium-ion batteries. It store a lot more energy compared to the weight.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nSo a regular car have to small battery to be used for long distance and dot not have a electric motor that is designed to power the car.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nYou could make the battery a bit larger and change technology and add a stronger electric motor and still have a combustion engine and you have hybrid car where the Toyota Prius is the most familiar to most . Some can charge the batteries from the grid and they are plugin hybrids.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nPut in a even larger battery and often a larger electric motor and remove the combustion engine and you have a electric car. The main problem with a electric car is the range. The charge in the battery is limited and take time to charge. The battery is expensive and heavy. So the battery cost and the range limitation is the main problem of a electric car.\n\n & #x200B;\n\n & #x200B;',
"Electric cars have electric motors (similar to what controls a blender, power drill, etc. but on a larger scale to turn the wheels. \n\nAn electric car needs a HUGE battery to power these motors. A standard gas-powered car has a small battery that's the size of like 3 shoeboxes and weights like 30 lbs. All it needs to do is start the car, and the gas engine re-charges it via the alternator, for the next start. An all-electric car has a battery that's the size of a queen-side mattress and weighs over 1000 lbs. to supply the continuous battery power."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'b3dhrm',
'query': 'how do electric cars work so it supplies enough energy to the car?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '56119',
'title': 'Takeover',
'section': 'Section::::Strategies.\n',
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'passage_text': 'There are a variety of reasons why an acquiring company may wish to purchase another company. Some takeovers are "opportunistic" – the target company may simply be very reasonably priced for one reason or another and the acquiring company may decide that in the long run, it will end up making money by purchasing the target company. The large holding company Berkshire Hathaway has profited well over time by purchasing many companies opportunistically in this manner.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8856056',
'title': 'Business acquisition',
'section': 'Section::::Single business acquisitions and split and sell.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'A single acquisition refers to one company buying the assets and operations of another company and absorbing what is needed while simply discarding duplicated or unnecessary pieces of the acquired business. "Split and sell" acquisitions involve buying an entire business in order to gain one or two pieces of the business. The acquiring business may wish to retain the customer list and a product line, while moving manufacturing and other production related duties to an existing line. In this case the excess is often sold off to recapture some of the acquisition cost.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56119',
'title': 'Takeover',
'section': 'Section::::Financing.:All-cash deals.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
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'passage_text': 'If a takeover of a company consists of simply an offer of an amount of money per share, (as opposed to all or part of the payment being in shares or loan notes) then this is an all-cash deal. This does not define how the purchasing company sources the cash- that can be from existing cash resources; loans; or a separate issue of shares.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20769',
'title': 'Mergers and acquisitions',
'section': 'Section::::Acquisition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'An acquisition/takeover is the purchase of one business or company by another company or other business entity. Specific acquisition targets can be identified through myriad avenues including market research, trade expos, sent up from internal business units, or supply chain analysis. Such purchase may be of 100%, or nearly 100%, of the assets or ownership equity of the acquired entity. Consolidation/amalgamation occurs when two companies combine to form a new enterprise altogether, and neither of the previous companies remains independently. Acquisitions are divided into "private" and "public" acquisitions, depending on whether the acquiree or merging company (also termed a "target") is or is not listed on a public stock market. Some public companies rely on acquisitions as an important value creation strategy. An additional dimension or categorization consists of whether an acquisition is "friendly" or "hostile".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20769',
'title': 'Mergers and acquisitions',
'section': 'Section::::Acquisition.\n',
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'passage_text': '"Acquisition" usually refers to a purchase of a smaller firm by a larger one. Sometimes, however, a smaller firm will acquire management control of a larger and/or longer-established company and retain the name of the latter for the post-acquisition combined entity. This is known as a reverse takeover. Another type of acquisition is the reverse merger, a form of transaction that enables a private company to be publicly listed in a relatively short time frame. A reverse merger occurs when a privately held company (often one that has strong prospects and is eager to raise financing) buys a publicly listed shell company, usually one with no business and limited assets.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19372783',
'title': 'Stock',
'section': 'Section::::Application.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
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'passage_text': 'By selling shares they can sell part or all of the company to many part-owners. The purchase of one share entitles the owner of that share to literally share in the ownership of the company, a fraction of the decision-making power, and potentially a fraction of the profits, which the company may issue as dividends. The owner may also inherit debt and even litigation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56119',
'title': 'Takeover',
'section': 'Section::::Strategies.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 53,
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'passage_text': 'Other takeovers are "strategic" in that they are thought to have secondary effects beyond the simple effect of the profitability of the target company being added to the acquiring company\'s profitability. For example, an acquiring company may decide to purchase a company that is profitable and has good distribution capabilities in new areas which the acquiring company can use for its own products as well. A target company might be attractive because it allows the acquiring company to enter a new market without having to take on the risk, time and expense of starting a new division. An acquiring company could decide to take over a competitor not only because the competitor is profitable, but in order to eliminate competition in its field and make it easier, in the long term, to raise prices. Also a takeover could fulfill the belief that the combined company can be more profitable than the two companies would be separately due to a reduction of redundant functions.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How can a company "take over" another one? And how is this different from a sale of a company?',
'selftext': 'I keep seeing articles about Tesla being a target of Apple for a takeover. How can a company just "take over" a company?',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['You owe your dad a chore because you got something you wanted, I give your dad the cost of that thing you wanted, so now you owe me a chore.\n\n_URL_0_',
'Its not exactly a sale, its acquiring majority of company\'s ownership and "taking over" the board.\n*Im not 100% sure on this',
"If a company is publicly traded, you just buy up a majority of the shares to take control of the Board of Directors and thus the company. If it's privately held it's a little more complicated because you have to negotiate with shareholders independently, but if you can convince enough investors to sell to you to get majority control the same result will occur. You oftentimes don't even need a majority. A large minority interest combined with convincing some of the existing shareholders to take your side will often get you over the 50% threshold."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '6aouhq',
'query': 'how can a company "take over" another one? and how is this different from a sale of a company?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '9426',
'title': 'Electromagnetic radiation',
'section': 'Section::::Physics.:Properties.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
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'passage_text': 'Since light is an oscillation it is not affected by traveling through static electric or magnetic fields in a linear medium such as a vacuum. However, in nonlinear media, such as some crystals, interactions can occur between light and static electric and magnetic fields — these interactions include the Faraday effect and the Kerr effect.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '521267',
'title': 'Reflection (physics)',
'section': 'Section::::Reflection of light.:Laws of reflection.:Mechanism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': "In classical electrodynamics, light is considered as an electromagnetic wave, which is described by Maxwell's equations. Light waves incident on a material induce small oscillations of polarisation in the individual atoms (or oscillation of electrons, in metals), causing each particle to radiate a small secondary wave in all directions, like a dipole antenna. All these waves add up to give specular reflection and refraction, according to the Huygens–Fresnel principle.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9920',
'title': 'Electronic oscillator',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The first practical oscillators were based on electric arcs, which were used for lighting in the 19th century. The current through an arc light is unstable due to its negative resistance, and often breaks into spontaneous oscillations, causing the arc to make hissing, humming or howling sounds which had been noticed by Humphry Davy in 1821, Benjamin Silliman in 1822, Auguste Arthur de la Rive in 1846, and David Edward Hughes in 1878. Ernst Lecher in 1888 showed that the current through an electric arc could be oscillatory. An oscillator was built by Elihu Thomson in 1892 by placing an LC tuned circuit in parallel with an electric arc and included a magnetic blowout. Independently, in the same year, George Francis FitzGerald realized that if the damping resistance in a resonant circuit could be made zero or negative, the circuit would produce oscillations, and, unsuccessfully, tried to build a negative resistance oscillator with a dynamo, what would now be called a parametric oscillator. The arc oscillator was rediscovered and popularized by William Duddell in 1900. Duddell, a student at London Technical College, was investigating the hissing arc effect. He attached an LC circuit (tuned circuit) to the electrodes of an arc lamp, and the negative resistance of the arc excited oscillation in the tuned circuit. Some of the energy was radiated as sound waves by the arc, producing a musical tone. Duddell demonstrated his oscillator before the London Institute of Electrical Engineers by sequentially connecting different tuned circuits across the arc to play the national anthem "God Save the Queen". Duddell\'s "singing arc" did not generate frequencies above the audio range. In 1902 Danish physicists Valdemar Poulsen and P. O. Pederson were able to increase the frequency produced into the radio range by operating the arc in a hydrogen atmosphere with a magnetic field, inventing the Poulsen arc radio transmitter, the first continuous wave radio transmitter, which was used through the 1920s.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '292420',
'title': 'Emission spectrum',
'section': 'Section::::Emission spectroscopy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'Light consists of electromagnetic radiation of different wavelengths. Therefore, when the elements or their compounds are heated either on a flame or by an electric arc they emit energy in the form of light. Analysis of this light, with the help of a spectroscope gives us a discontinuous spectrum. A spectroscope or a spectrometer is an instrument which is used for separating the components of light, which have different wavelengths. The spectrum appears in a series of lines called the line spectrum. This line spectrum is called an atomic spectrum when it originates from an atom in elemental form. Each element has a different atomic spectrum. The production of line spectra by the atoms of an element indicate that an atom can radiate only a certain amount of energy. This leads to the conclusion that bound electrons cannot have just any amount of energy but only a certain amount of energy.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20126062',
'title': 'Optical phase space',
'section': 'Section::::Background information.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'When discussing the quantum theory of light, it is very common to use an electromagnetic oscillator as a model. An electromagnetic oscillator describes an oscillation of the electric field. Since the magnetic field is proportional to the rate of change of the electric field, this too oscillates. Such oscillations describe light. Systems composed of such oscillators can be described by an optical phase space.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25560578',
'title': 'Metamaterial cloaking',
'section': 'Section::::Electromagnetic metamaterials.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': "Since the beginning of optical sciences, centuries ago, the ability to control the light with materials has been limited to these common optical effects. Metamaterials, on the other hand, are capable of a very strong interaction, or coupling, with the magnetic component of light. Therefore, the range of response to radiated light is expanded beyond the ordinary optical limitations that are described by the sciences of physical optics and optical physics. In addition, as artificially constructed materials, both the magnetic and electric components of the radiated light can be controlled at will, in any desired fashion as it travels, or more accurately propagates, through the material. This is because a metamaterial's behavior is typically formed from individual components, and each component responds independently to a radiated spectrum of light. At this time, however, metamaterials are limited. Cloaking across a broad spectrum of frequencies has not been achieved, including the visible spectrum. Dissipation, absorption, and dispersion are also current drawbacks, but this field is still in its optimistic infancy.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2796131',
'title': 'Introduction to quantum mechanics',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Light behaves in some aspects like particles and in other aspects like waves. Matter—the "stuff" of the universe consisting of particles such as electrons and atoms—exhibits wavelike behavior too. Some light sources, such as neon lights, give off only certain frequencies of light. Quantum mechanics shows that light, along with all other forms of electromagnetic radiation, comes in discrete units, called photons, and predicts its energies, colors, and spectral intensities. A single photon is a "quantum", or smallest observable amount, of the electromagnetic field because a partial photon has never been observed. More broadly, quantum mechanics shows that many quantities, such as angular momentum, that appeared continuous in the zoomed-out view of classical mechanics, turn out to be (at the small, zoomed-in scale of quantum mechanics) "quantized". Angular momentum is required to take on one of a set of discrete allowable values, and since the gap between these values is so minute, the discontinuity is only apparent at the atomic level.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does light oscillate?',
'selftext': "Maybe this is a stupid question, but I dont understand what force is driving photons in light beams to go up and down, making a sine wave. How often in which it oscillates determines the frequency yeah, but why does it do that in the first place? And why is it that when light is emitted, instead of scattering like individual particles, the photons stay in a line. Like there's a force that is keeping them in a straight line, and theres a force causing them to oscillate. Maybe they arent forces, but I just don't get it.",
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The oscillation of photons does not stem from a force. The oscillation is not movement as you would normally think of it. What happens is, an electric field collapses and forms a magnetic field next to it as it collapses. This magnetic field then collapses and forms an electric field next to it. This then collapses, and it goes on... There is nothing physically jiggling around - just fields popping into and out of existence in a sine wave pattern.',
'Light behaves like any other EM wave. They have a Magnetic Field and an Electric Field that interact with each other. This allows each wave to vary, but everything sticks together.\n\nThe same principles at work in Radio waves, Microwaves, infrared, ultraviolet, visible light, X-rays, and gamma waves. We test for diffraction, reflection, refraction, and polarization to prove these are EM waves. This means, when it goes through an opening it moves similarly to a water wave, bounces back from some materials, changes direction through different materials, and have an orientation (Vertical or Horizontal).\n\nReference:\n\n* [Star Gazer: What allows EM waves to oscillate?](_URL_1_)\n* [Physics Classroom: Wave like behaviors of light](_URL_0_)',
"The photon travels in straight lines and isn't wiggling around like you see in some animations. That's just a bad way of showing the wave nature of it. \n\nFor imagination purposes don't think of waves in the ocean that have motion up and down as they travel across the surface. Think of light more like sound waves. Sound waves are oscillations just like ocean waves, but nothing is moving across the direction of travel because the sound wave is just a pressure front. It's not a perfect analogy since sound travels in something, but light does not. The light is just the electric and magnetic fields alternately collapsing and inducing the creation of the other field which then collapses and induces...etc."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'dawpij',
'query': 'why does light oscillate?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '418974',
'title': 'Fluoroscopy',
'section': 'Section::::Risks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
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'passage_text': 'Image intensifiers have been introduced that increase the brightness of the screen, so that the patient needs to be exposed to a lower dose of X-rays. Whilst this reduces the risk of ionisation occurring, it does not remove it entirely.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7214698',
'title': 'WRNY (defunct)',
'section': 'Section::::Television.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
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'passage_text': 'The television receiver would use the output of the photoelectric cell to drive a neon lamp. When the photoelectric cell was detecting a bright spot, the neon lamp would be bright. The receiver also had a scanning disk with the same hole-pattern as the camera and it spun at the same speed. The result was a small neon orange image (two inch diagonal) of the remote subject.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2852021',
'title': 'Purple fringing',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Most film has relatively low sensitivity to colors outside the visible range, so light spread in the near ultraviolet (UV) or near infrared (IR) rarely has a significant impact on the image recorded. However, image sensors used in digital cameras commonly are sensitive to a wider range of wavelengths. Although the lens glass itself filters out much of the UV light, and all digital cameras designed for color photography incorporate filters to reduce red and IR sensitivity, the chromatic aberration can be sufficient for unfocused violet light to tint nearby dark regions of the image. Bright cloudy or hazy skies are strong sources of scattered violet and UV light, so they tend to cause the problem.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48193',
'title': 'Camera obscura',
'section': 'Section::::Physical explanation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Rays of light travel in straight lines and change when they are reflected and partly absorbed by an object, retaining information about the color and brightness of the surface of that object. Lit objects reflect rays of light in all directions. A small enough opening in a screen only lets through rays that travel directly from different points in the scene on the other side, and these rays form an image of that scene when they are collected on a surface opposite from the opening. In simple terms, the way your retina sees a specific image through your eye is vertically switched to the object you see and how pieces in your brain are shown to switch that object right-side up to the way you see normally.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13134296',
'title': 'Secondary lens',
'section': 'Section::::Lenses used behind the primary lens.:Teleconverters.\n',
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'passage_text': 'It is not normally possible to construct a similar wide-angle adaptor, as the angle of view of the primary lens is matched to the film format for which is designed, and unwanted light is typically stopped by baffles. Any device similar to a teleconvertor designed to use the primary lens for wider angles than those for which it is designed is therefore likely to cause vignetting.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18553576',
'title': 'Full-spectrum photography',
'section': 'Section::::Basics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': 'It is important to note that while the converted camera sensor is capable of recording in both the ultraviolet and infrared region, when mixed light hits the sensor it will be the longer infrared waves that will predominate in the recording. Little or no shortwave ultraviolet light may be recorded unless selective filtering is applied to cut some or all of the infrared light. The longwave infrared light may also wash out a considerable amount of the visible light in the blue and green areas in a full spectrum photograph. Similarly if infrared light is entirely blocked, the visible light can overwhelm the recording of the ultraviolet light. So there is no truly full-spectrum photograph that can be made.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1180830',
'title': 'Frontlight',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'An unilluminated LCD must be lit from the front. To use ambient light, the liquid crystal itself is sandwiched between a polarization filter and a reflective surface. The mirror makes the display opaque so it cannot be illuminated from the back. Most often a light source is placed around the perimeter of the LCD.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If TV remotes emit infra-red rays, then why does camera lens pick violet rays being emitted from the remote?',
'selftext': "Normally I can't see any light being emitted from remotes, but when I use a mobile camera for viewing I see a bright violet-ish light coming from the remote",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['First, a quick introduction to how camera sensors work:\n\nCamera sensors actually just see in "black and white". That is, they only measure light intensity, not frequency. The sensor itself doesn\'t know if a photon hitting it has the "red" wavelength or the "blue" wavelength. \n\nTo figure out which wavelength a photon is of, a filter grid is placed on top of the sensor to allow the camera software to figure out what colors things are.\n\nIf the filter over sensor pixel number one only lets blue light through, the camera knows that if pixel #1 detects any light at all, it is of the blue variety. The filter on top of next pixel on the sensor only lets green light through, so if the same blue light hit that part of the sensor, it would be blocked by the filter and the sensor wouldn\'t show any light at that spot.\n\nThis process is repeated for all of the several million pixels the camera sensor has, and when the camera software combines the information about how the color filter is arranged with the light detected by the sensor, it can use this to calculate a color image even if the sensor is only able to see black and white.\n\nSo, let\'s say an infrared photon hits the camera sensor. If the color filter i mentioned earlier isn\'t made to block infrared wavelengths, all pixels on the sensor get lit up by it. Slight variations in each color filter\'s ability to block IR wavelenghts might cause the blue filter to block less of the IR than the other two colors, but still not all of it. As a result, it would show up as bright with a purple tint. If the red filter had been able to block 100% of IR radiation, but the other two filter did not block it at all, the IR would look cyan.\n\nYou can read up on bayer filters for more information. _URL_0_\n\ntl;dr: All camera sensors are sensitive to a wide range of light and don\'t natively see in color. The weird color from non-visible light is caused by the color filter on top of them not blocking IR and UV perfectly, or at all.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '8pkl25',
'query': 'if tv remotes emit infra-red rays, then why does camera lens pick violet rays being emitted from the remote?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '13480',
'title': 'Horseshoe',
'section': 'Section::::Horseshoeing theories and debates.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Nonetheless, domestic horses do not always require shoes. When possible, a "barefoot" hoof, at least for part of every year, is a healthy option for most horses. However, horseshoes have their place and can help prevent excess or abnormal hoof wear and injury to the foot. Many horses go without shoes year-round, some using temporary protection such as hoof boots for short-term use.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '2957741',
'title': 'Horse care',
'section': 'Section::::Hoof care and shoeing.\n',
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'passage_text': 'All domesticated horses need regular hoof trims, regardless of use. Horses in the wild do not need hoof trims because they travel as much as a day in dry or semi-arid grassland in search of forage, a process that wears their feet naturally. Domestic horses in light use are not subjected to such severe living conditions and hence their feet grow faster than they can be worn down. Without regular trimming, their feet can get too long, eventually splitting, chipping and cracking, which can lead to lameness.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13480',
'title': 'Horseshoe',
'section': 'Section::::Reasons for use of horseshoes.:Environmental changes linked to domestication.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': "Many changes brought about by the domestication of the horse have led to a need for shoes for numerous reasons, mostly linked to management that results in horses' hooves hardening less and being more vulnerable to injury. In the wild, a horse may travel up to per day to obtain adequate forage. While horses in the wild cover large areas of terrain, they usually do so at relatively slow speeds, unless being chased by a predator. They also tend to live in arid steppe climates. The consequence of slow but nonstop travel in a dry climate is that horses' feet are naturally worn to a small, smooth, even and hard state. The continual stimulation of the sole of the foot keeps it thick and hard. However, in domestication, the ways horses are used differ from what they would encounter in their natural environment. Domesticated horses are brought to colder and wetter areas than their ancestral habitat. These softer and heavier soils soften the hooves and make them prone to splitting, making hoof protection necessary. Consequently, it was in northern Europe that the nailed horseshoe arose in its modern form.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21698837',
'title': 'Natural hoof care',
'section': 'Section::::Benefits of barefooting.\n',
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'passage_text': "While horses have been used without shoes throughout history, the benefits of keeping horses barefoot has recently enjoyed increased popularity. Not only does the horse benefit with a healthier hoof in some cases, it can be less expensive to keep a horse barefoot, and many owners have learned to trim their horses' hooves themselves. As the health and movement benefits of barefooting have become more apparent in horses that have completed transition, horses are being competed barefoot in various sports (including dressage, show jumping, flat racing, steeplechase racing, trail riding and endurance riding).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2957741',
'title': 'Horse care',
'section': 'Section::::Hoof care and shoeing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 52,
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'passage_text': 'The hooves of a horse or pony are cleaned by being picked out with a hoof pick to remove any stones, mud and dirt and to check that the shoes (if worn) are in good condition. Keeping feet clean and dry wherever possible helps prevent both lameness as well as hoof diseases such as thrush (a hoof fungus). The feet should be cleaned every time the horse is ridden, and if the horse is not ridden, it is still best practice to check and clean feet frequently. Daily cleaning is recommended in many management books, though if horses are on turnout and not being ridden, a weekly hoof check of healthy horses is often sufficient during good weather.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9320724',
'title': 'Hoof boot',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'As a general rule, hoof boots are not kept on horses full-time, rather they are put on and taken off as needed. Riding horses have their boots removed daily at the end of the ride. In the case of horses with injuries, they may be kept on for longer periods of time, but need to be periodically removed and cleaned, after which the boot may be replaced. The horse should be checked for rubbing or unusual abrasions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21698837',
'title': 'Natural hoof care',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Natural hoof care is the practice of keeping horses so that their hooves are worn down naturally and so do not suffer overgrowth, splitting and other disorders. Horseshoes are not used, but domesticated horses may still require trimming, exercise and other measures to maintain a natural shape and degree of wear.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why is it necessary to shoe and maintain shoeing horses, but wild ones are fine?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Wild ones don't walk of roads or pull vehicles on roads. This exposes them to a different sort of wear profile, which they have evolved to handle naturally. Working horses are doing unnatural things, so they have to have tools to do their jobs well, just like people.",
'Wild horses don’t usually spend their days with loads on the rod back and walking a lot on hard stone/paved roads. ',
"Two elements here; wild ones don't walk on the hard road surfaces and other conditions created by human activity. In addition horses have evolved to live in relatively dry steppe conditions, when they live in the wetter climates the hoof becomes softer and can rot with all the water so needs protection, horses on the steppe don't normally require shoeing.",
"There is a lot of debate on if horses need shoes or not, so it's more of a maybe kind of issue. \n\nFirst wild & feral horses tend to live in arid climates, so their feet are not in moisture all the time like domesticated ones. Second because they walk on dry dirt, gravel and rocks, their hoof gets worn down. naturally. Any horse that suffers an injury or health defect is usually killed by predators. \n\nDomesticated horses tend to mostly stand around in irrigated pastures or stalls that might be lined with straw that has been moistened with urine or feces. So their hoof is softer, much like a finger nail after you get out of the shower. The lack of activity also means the hoof and sole get worn down the same as their wild/feral relatives. Plus domesticated horses might walk on asphalt or concrete with the additional weight of a rider.\n\nThere are some horse owners that don't use shoes. So the answer depends on the owner and the health of the horse. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'b4px7u',
'query': 'why is it necessary to shoe and maintain shoeing horses, but wild ones are fine?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '25237',
'title': 'Quarantine',
'section': 'Section::::In practice.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'Quarantine periods can be very short, such as in the case of a suspected anthrax attack, in which persons are allowed to leave as soon as they shed their potentially contaminated garments and undergo a decontamination shower. For example, an article entitled "Daily News workers quarantined" describes a brief quarantine that lasted until people could be showered in a decontamination tent. (Kelly Nankervis, Daily News).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25237',
'title': 'Quarantine',
'section': 'Section::::Countries.:United States.:Quarantine of imported goods.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 95,
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'passage_text': 'The United States puts immediate quarantines on imported products if a contagious disease is identified and can be traced back to a certain shipment or product. All imports will also be quarantined if the disease appears in other countries. According to Title 42 U.S.C. §§264 and 266, these statutes provide the Secretary of Health and Human Services peacetime and wartime authority to control the movement of persons into and within the United States to prevent the spread of communicable disease.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56071869',
'title': 'Lazzarettos of Dubrovnik',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'On July 27, 1377, the Great Council of the Republic adopted a decree which introduced a quarantine as a measure of protection against the spread of infectious diseases by which all merchants, sailors, and goods arriving from "suspicious lands" could not enter the city if they haven\'t spent a month in a quarantines which were on the remote, uninhabited islands of Mrkan, Bobara and Supetar. These quarantines were at first in the outdoors but since the weather conditions were almost as deadly as the diseases, the government decided to build few wooden dwellings (wooden so that it could be burned if needed). This decision was made after Dubrovnik was struck by an outbreak of the plague in 1348 which killed a few thousand citizens. This decree was published in Dubrovnik\'s book of laws, the so-called Green Book (Latin: Liber viridis); "Veniens de locis pestiferis non intret Ragusium nel districtum" (English: Whoever comes from the infected lands shall not enter Ragusa or its territory).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25237',
'title': 'Quarantine',
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'passage_text': "The word quarantine comes from an Italian variant (seventeenth-century Venetian) of 'quaranta giorni', meaning forty days, the period that all ships were required to be isolated before passengers and crew could go ashore during the Black Death plague epidemic. Quarantine can be applied to humans, but also to animals of various kinds, and both as part of border control as well as within a country.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25237',
'title': 'Quarantine',
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'passage_text': 'A quarantine is used to separate and restrict the movement of people; it is a "restraint upon the activities or communication of persons or the transport of goods designed to prevent the spread of disease or pests," for a certain period of time. This is often used in connection to disease and illness, such as those who may possibly have been exposed to a communicable disease, but do not have a confirmed medical diagnosis. The term is often erroneously used to mean medical isolation, which is "to separate ill persons who have a communicable disease from those who are healthy," and refers to patients whose diagnosis has been confirmed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '247927',
'title': 'Border control',
'section': 'Section::::Aspects.:Quarantine.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'Quarantine policies exist to control the spread of disease. When applied as a component of border control, such policies focus primarily on mitigating the entry of infected individuals, plants, or animals into a country.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37807791',
'title': 'Quarantine Act 1721',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The Quarantine Act 1721 was a health protection measure passed by the Parliament of Great Britain. During the 18th century, the age of empire and sailing ships in England, outbreaks of diseases such as the plague seemed to travel from country to country very rapidly. Parliament responded to this threat by establishing the Quarantine Act in 1721 (8 Geo, c.10).\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why is quarantining for a few weeks so effective? Wouldn't it just start spreading just as bad as soon as the quarantine ends?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["That's why quarantine may not only be a few weeks. It's hard for people to gage how long it will take for this to pass because what started as a few weeks could turn into months if people keep going out and spreading this virus.",
'Viruses, like all living things, need to reproduce to survive. They do so by infecting an animal (or sometimes even a bacteria) and taking over its cells to replicate. By people who have the virus quarantining for an extended period of time, the hope is that they recover and develop the antibodies to fight off the virus. This kills the remaining virus in their bodies, and eventually any remnants of the virus they’ve spread to their surroundings will die since they haven’t found a new, vulnerable animal to help them reproduce.',
'If you have the virus and don\'t realize it, you could infect a lot of people, and each of them could infect a lot of others and the virus spreads exponentially.\n\nIf you might have been exposed and then stay isolated for two weeks: if you get sick during that time, you can obtain treatment while minimizing the number of people exposed. If you have no symptoms after the end of the two weeks, you probably don\'t have the virus or (if you had a mild case) are not contagious anymore.\n\nSo if someone is at risk, either due to travel or close contact with an infected persion, isolation can drastically reduce the number of people who get exposed.\n\nIn the end the virus is still likely to spread "exponentially" but the daily percentage growth rate would be much smaller -- thus flattening the curve.',
"The point of quarantine isn't to stop the virus dead. The point of quarantine is to slow down the demand for doctors, hospitals and the accompanying supplies necessary to treat serious and deadly cases until such time as resources and facilities are online to manage the full blown outbreak.\n\nWith this virus, treatment has a massive impact on mortality for serious cases so if we reach a point where there are no facilities to treat the seriously I'll they will die, and further those who have other conditions who need treatment may also go without. Accidents and other emergencies may go untreated and cause even more deaths that may never get associated to this virus.",
'Lots of the rhetoric around social distancing refers to "flattening the curve". Importantly, this might not involve reducing the number of people who are ultimately infected. It\'s very possible that the virus has spread so extensively in some places that most people will be infected eventually. \n\nInstead, what\'s helpful about "flattening the curve" is that it reduces the strain on medical resources. Instead of having all of the serious cases arrive at the hospital in the space of a few weeks, they\'re spread out. This reduces the chances that someone is unable to get care that could have saved their life. \n\nEarly simulations of this epidemic presented a choice between very aggressive quarantine and "mitigation". The first would have worked kind of how you\'re imagining things. Everyone stays locked in their house, and the virus can\'t spread. The upside is that the fewest number of people die. The downside is that you have to maintain it until there\'s a vaccine. The second is more like the "flattening the curve" scenario above. Weeks later, it looks like the virus is more infectious (but also less lethal) than we initially thought, and that may have made our choice for us.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'fslx3t',
'query': "why is quarantining for a few weeks so effective? wouldn't it just start spreading just as bad as soon as the quarantine ends?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1627267',
'title': 'Cyclospasm',
'section': 'Section::::Reasons.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Primary reasons is eye fatigue as a result of excessive pressure on the eyes because of reading, watching TV, computer, poor lighting, etc. Some other reasons are poor posture, poor diet, lack of sleep, etc.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '725992',
'title': 'Blinking',
'section': 'Section::::Blinking in everyday life.:Adults.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
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'passage_text': 'When the eyes dry out or become fatigued due to reading on a computer screen, it can be an indication of Computer Vision Syndrome. Computer Vision Syndrome can be prevented by taking regular breaks, focusing on objects far from the screen, having a well-lit workplace, or using a blink reminder application such as EyeLeo or VisionProtect. Studies suggest that adults can learn to maintain a healthy blinking rate while reading or looking at a computer screen using biofeedback.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '492052',
'title': 'Presbyopia',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'The first symptoms most people notice are difficulty reading fine print, particularly in low light conditions, eyestrain when reading for long periods, blurring of near objects or temporarily blurred vision when changing the viewing distance. Many extreme presbyopes complain that their arms have become "too short" to hold reading material at a comfortable distance.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42467934',
'title': 'Botulinum toxin therapy of strabismus',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical use.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'end_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': 'In a small-scale study, adults whose reading difficulties due to convergence insufficiency had been unsuccessfully addressed by convergence exercises, base-in prism glasses or strabismus surgery showed improved reading after botulinum toxin therapy, maintaining improved reading remaining also after six months.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30303556',
'title': 'Miles Tinker',
'section': 'Section::::Study areas.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "One of Tinker's notable contribution in research is a study on the effect of typography of eye movements. The study revealed that poor typography lead to more frequent fixations, and longer pauses. As a result, the overall reading speed was slowed. Another study concerning typography suggested that font size 6 and 14 slowed readers down. His study on Illumination suggested that brighter lights in the work area than the surrounding causes eye fatigue; instead, 25 foot candles would have been sufficient. \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18581264',
'title': 'Reading',
'section': 'Section::::Cognitive benefits.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 55,
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'passage_text': 'Reading books and writing are among brain-stimulating activities shown to slow down cognitive decline in old age, with people who participated in more mentally stimulating activities over their lifetimes having a slower rate of decline in memory and other mental capacities. Reading for pleasure has been linked to increased cognitive progress in vocabulary and mathematics during adolescence. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38650559',
'title': 'Mariko Aoki phenomenon',
'section': 'Section::::Clinical picture.:Contributing factors.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 44,
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'passage_text': 'One opinion is that "it often happens when reading serious books such as literary works". The novelist Jiro Asada has said that the strength of the symptoms are proportionally related to the size of the bookstore and the degree of difficulty of the books he is looking for.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What causes eyes to get fatigued from reading for too long?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["We actually have muscles in our eyes. These muscles constrict and relax to change the shape of the lens, which is how our eyes focus. Reading or looking at a screen for long periods of time requires these muscles to hold themselves in specific position in order to focus on what we're looking at. We also have muscles that control our eye movements, and they have to work to keep our eyes pointed in the right direction and moving at the right pace to read. Like any muscles that's overworked, they get tired. That's why it's recommended that people who spend a lot of time reading or working with screens take breaks at least every 30 minutes and look at something further away for a bit. This gives these muscles a chance to relax."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'f0xcdo',
'query': 'what causes eyes to get fatigued from reading for too long?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2336870',
'title': 'Boötes void',
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'passage_text': 'The Boötes void (or The Great Nothing) is an enormous, approximately spherical region of space, containing very few galaxies. It is located in the vicinity of the constellation Boötes, hence its name. Its center is located at approximately right ascension and declination .\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1706444',
'title': 'List of Doctor Who planets',
'section': 'Section::::Others.:Nebulae and other stellar regions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 507,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The Void is the name given by the Time Lords to the infinite nothingness between dimensions, where even time does not exist. According to the Doctor, in "Army of Ghosts", Eternals call it the Howling, and some others call it Hell. It is only traversable using a void ship, and prior to the Time War, by a TARDIS. Various inhabitants of a parallel version of Earth-most notably the Cybermen-were also able to travel across the void to the Earth of the main universe due to the damage caused by the Cult of Skaro\'s Void ship. The Tenth Doctor later sealed the Void by reversing a process previously used to open it, drawing millions of Cybermen and Daleks into the Void in the process. If successfully detonated, the Reality Bomb created by Davros and the Daleks, seen in "Journey\'s End", would also have destroyed the void. The breaking down of barriers caused by this event allowed Rose Tyler and others who had relocated to the parallel Earth to return to the main universe, and the Tenth Doctor was able to travel there to return Rose, her mother Jackie Tyler and the Meta-Crisis Tenth Doctor.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2336870',
'title': 'Boötes void',
'section': 'Section::::Confusion with Barnard 68.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': 'Boötes void has been often associated with images of Barnard 68, a dark nebula that does not allow light to pass through; however, the images of Barnard 68 are much darker than those we observe of Boötes void, as the nebula is much closer and there are fewer stars in front of it, as well as being a physical mass that blocks light passing through.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43220172',
'title': 'List of largest cosmic structures',
'section': 'Section::::List of largest voids.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'Voids are immense spaces between galaxy filaments and other large-scale structures. Technically they are not structures. They are vast spaces which contain very few, or no galaxies. They are theorized to be caused by quantum fluctuations during the early formation of the universe.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8615255',
'title': 'Crystalicum',
'section': 'Section::::The Setting.:The Void (Pustka).:The Great Void (Wielka Pustka).\n',
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'passage_text': 'The Great Void is a vast stretch of the Void surrounding the Known Universe. Due to the lack of planets or even substantial rocks, preventing placing even a small resupply point for ships, it has for a long time been an impassable barrier, and the object of many tales regarding what (if anything) lies beneath. Recently however, Cristobal Catarribera y Natalez Salazar de Vela, the Dragon Prince, ruler of the Dragon Dwarves led an expedition meant to traverse and see what lies beyond the Great Void.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42644968',
'title': 'Void (astronomy)',
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'passage_text': 'Cosmic voids are vast spaces between filaments (the largest-scale structures in the universe), which contain very few or no galaxies. Voids typically have a diameter of 10 to 100 megaparsecs; particularly large voids, defined by the absence of rich superclusters, are sometimes called supervoids. They have less than one tenth of the average density of matter abundance that is considered typical for the observable universe. They were first discovered in 1978 in a pioneering study by Stephen Gregory and Laird A. Thompson at the Kitt Peak National Observatory.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20035375',
'title': 'List of technology in the Dune universe',
'section': 'Section::::No-chamber/No-ship.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 57,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 57,
'end_character': 781,
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'passage_text': 'A no-chamber is a fictional stealth technology in the "Dune" universe created by Frank Herbert. Originally called a no-room in Herbert\'s "God Emperor of Dune" (1981), it is a construct that hides anything inside from prescient vision, as well as more conventional means of detection, including sight. The mechanism by which "no" works is unclear in method but explained in function: it takes its contents outside of space-time, preventing them from interaction with the "normal" universe and even its timeline. There is no entropy and therefore no aging inside a no-chamber. A no-globe is a larger construction of no-chambers, and a no-ship is a no-chamber in starship form, with enough limited prescience to be capable of interstellar travel without the use of a Guild Navigator.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How can the Bootes Void, or the Great Void as it is sometimes called, be filled with stars and galaxies and still be called a void?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Because our definition of "void" (in regards to space) is not just _URL_0_ just means less than average density of matter compared to the rest of the observable universe.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8bi2av',
'query': 'how can the bootes void, or the great void as it is sometimes called, be filled with stars and galaxies and still be called a void?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1481453',
'title': 'Adenomyosis',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Surgery.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 67,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 67,
'end_character': 725,
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'passage_text': "Broadly speaking, surgical management of adenomyosis is split into two categories: uterine-sparing and non-uterine-sparing procedures. Uterine-sparing procedures are surgical operations that do not include surgical removal of the uterus. Some uterine-sparing procedures have the benefit of improving fertility or retaining the ability to carry a pregnancy to term. In contrast, some uterine-sparing procedures worsen fertility or even result in complete sterility. The impact of each procedure on a woman's fertility is of particular concern and typically guides the selection. Non-uterine-sparing procedures, by definition, include surgical removal of the uterus and consequently they will all result in complete sterility.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '639422',
'title': 'Spinal anaesthesia',
'section': 'Section::::Indications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'Spinal anaesthesia is the technique of choice for Caesarean section as it avoids a general anaesthetic and the risk of failed intubation (which is probably a lot lower than the widely quoted 1 in 250 in pregnant women). It also means the mother is conscious and the partner is able to be present at the birth of the child. The post operative analgesia from intrathecal opioids in addition to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs is also good.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1521032',
'title': 'Fetoscopy',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Fetoscopy is an endoscopic procedure during pregnancy to allow surgical access to the fetus, the amniotic cavity, the umbilical cord, and the fetal side of the placenta. A small (3–4\xa0mm) incision is made in the abdomen, and an endoscope is inserted through the abdominal wall and uterus into the amniotic cavity. Fetoscopy allows for medical interventions such as a biopsy (tissue sample) or a laser occlusion of abnormal blood vessels (such as chorioangioma) or the treatment of spina bifida. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29786555',
'title': 'Placental expulsion',
'section': 'Section::::Active management.:Uterine contraction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 375,
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'passage_text': 'Uterine contraction assists in delivering the placenta. Uterine contraction reduces the placental surface area, often forming a temporary hematoma at their former interface. Myometrial contractions can be induced with medication, usually oxytocin via intramuscular injection. The use of ergometrine, on the other hand, is associated with nausea or vomiting and hypertension.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46924',
'title': 'Caesarean section',
'section': 'Section::::Technique.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 98,
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'passage_text': 'Antibiotic prophylaxis is used before an incision. The uterus is incised, and this incision is extended with blunt pressure along a cephalad-caudad axis. The infant is delivered, and the placenta is then removed. The surgeon then makes a decision about uterine exteriorization. Single-layer uterine closure is used when the mother does not want a future pregnancy. When subcutaneous tissue is 2\xa0cm thick or more, surgical suture is used. Discouraged practices include manual cervical dilation, any subcutaneous drain, or supplemental oxygen therapy with intent to prevent infection.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '398561',
'title': 'General anaesthesia',
'section': 'Section::::Induction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 37,
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'passage_text': 'Most general anaesthetics are induced either intravenously or by inhalation. Intravenous injection works faster than inhalation, taking about 10–20 seconds to induce total unconsciousness. This minimizes the excitatory phase (Stage 2) and thus reduces complications related to the induction of anaesthesia. Commonly used intravenous induction agents include propofol, sodium thiopental, etomidate, methohexital, and ketamine. Inhalational anaesthesia may be chosen when intravenous access is difficult to obtain (e.g., children), when difficulty maintaining the airway is anticipated, or when the patient prefers it. Sevoflurane is the most commonly used agent for inhalational induction, because it is less irritating to the tracheobronchial tree than other agents.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48259148',
'title': 'Resuscitative hysterotomy',
'section': 'Section::::Technique.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'After the placenta is delivered, the uterus is massaged to stimulate contraction and is closed with a running locking absorbable suture and the abdomen is then closed; alternatively, the wound may be temporarily packed with sterile gauze, with definitive closure delayed until specialist obstetric help arrives or until the patient is fit for transport to a formal operating theatre. Uterotonic agents like oxytocin may be considered, balancing potential reduction of haemorrhage with the tendency of oxytocin to cause hypotension. Antibiotics should be administered to reduce infection risk if maternal survival is thought feasible at this stage of the resuscitation. If there is return of spontaneous circulation, additional uterotonic agents will likely be needed due to bleeding from uterine atony.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Does epidural anaesthetic during childbirth inhibit uterine contractions',
'selftext': 'Epidural anaesthetic is just local anaesthetic in the epidural space right? But when the dentist gives you local you lose motor control of your lip as well? Does this happen with epidurals too? If so how do they stimulate contractions?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Epidurals for child birth generally are analgesic, not anesthetic. \nAn analgesic is something that blocks pain (at the doses typically used for labor it isn\'t always 100% effective at that, but it definitely knocks it WAY down in terms of severity). It still allows you to feel pressure (to know when to push) and allows you to have some level of muscle control. Anesthetics stop everything. \nThe common use of "Epidural anesthetic" is for a C-section. If a woman already has an epidural, but has to go in for surgery, then the anesthetist will use the epidural catheter to completely anesthetize the women from the mid-body down. '],
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'query_id': '8azn1x',
'query': 'does epidural anaesthetic during childbirth inhibit uterine contractions',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '21057175',
'title': 'Off-road tire',
'section': 'Section::::Design.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Off-road tires are typically radials with thick, deep tread. On dirt surfaces, the exposed edges of the tread dig into soft ground to give more traction than rolling friction alone, analogous to the traction provided by cleated shoes. These off-road tires provide their maximum grip on loose surfaces, but on paved surfaces the smaller contact patch affords less traction as compared to street tires. Tires with less aggressive knobs (smaller knobs and the shape of the tread cross-section closer to that of street tires) can provide a compromise, giving less grip off-road, but a grip closer to that of street tires on paved surfaces. Such tires are useful for enduro and dual-sport motorcycles and other vehicles designed to be used both off-road and on pavement.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1333814',
'title': 'Tread',
'section': 'Section::::Tires.:Off-road tires.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'Off-road tires used in mud or dirt feature individual knob patterns to allow the tire to bite into the surface and lever the sides of the tread to get a better grip. Given the smaller contact patch, these tires tend to wear quickly when used on asphalt (depending on type of rubber).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6434430',
'title': 'Tiptoe',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Rotation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': 'The main method of decreasing the friction is decreasing the surface area of the foot. This is done by either going on the heel of the foot, ball of the foot, or sometimes, the toe/toes of the feet (often only possible by very light people, such as Rose in Titanic, or those with ballet shoes for En pointe known as Pointe shoe).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19995454',
'title': 'Rotating locomotion in living systems',
'section': 'Section::::Disadvantages of wheels.:Efficiency.:Rolling resistance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
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'passage_text': 'Although stiff wheels are more energy efficient than other means of locomotion when traveling over hard, level terrain (such as paved roads), wheels are not especially efficient on soft terrain such as soil, because they are vulnerable to rolling resistance. In rolling resistance, a vehicle loses energy to the deformation of its wheels and the surface on which they are rolling. Smaller wheels are especially susceptible to this effect. Softer surfaces deform more and recover less than firm surfaces, resulting in greater resistance. Rolling resistance on medium to hard soil can be five to eight times greater than on concrete, and on sand it can be ten to fifteen times greater. While wheels must deform the surface along their entire path, limbs induce only a small, localized deformation around the region of foot contact.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6361826',
'title': 'Jika-tabi',
'section': 'Section::::In Japan.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Though slowly being replaced by steel-toed, rigid-sole shoes in some industries, many workers prefer them for the softness of their soles. This gives wearers tactile contact with the ground, and the concomitant gripping ability lets them use their feet more agilely than rigid-soled shoes allow. This is useful for workers who traverse girders on construction sites and need to be sure what is under their feet. Carpenters and gardeners wearing these boots can, if they wish, use their feet as an extra pair of hands, for example to hold objects in place. There is also a line of knee-high all-rubber jika-tabi that is used by workers in rice fields and/or wet and muddy environments.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2257043',
'title': 'Beadlock',
'section': 'Section::::Purpose.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'High traction is desired for tires for automobile dirt track racing, off-road racing, off-road vehicles, and off-road motorcycles, so their tread is therefore coarse. Nevertheless, some riders will lower the tire pressure to cause the tread to spread out and create a larger contact patch. This practice can create a safety hazard, as there may not be enough pressure to adequately secure the tire beads to the wheel. Reactive ground forces push a tire to one side or the other, especially the outside rear tire of a racing vehicle when it is turning in a corner of a track. This could cause a bead of the tire to come off the rim completely, or enough to cause partial loss of air. It is also possible for the tire to have more traction on the ground than there is friction between the tire and rim. In this case the wheel would slip around the tire beads without turning the tire. Beadlocks, of one form or another including adhesive, are therefore used to keep the beads of off-road tires firmly seated and prevent slip, even when inflation pressure is low.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '106509',
'title': 'Rubber-tyred metro',
'section': 'Section::::Technology.:Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': 'Rubber tyres have higher rolling resistance than traditional steel railway wheels. There are some advantages and disadvantages to increased rolling resistance, causing them to not be used in certain countries.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do shoes/tires have better grip with less surface area touching the ground?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Since you (or your car) have a constant weight, smaller area means more force per unit area. Uniform large surfaces don't give water, snow, whatever, an easy path to escape from under you, which can also cause slipperiness.",
"They don't. The greater the surface area in contact, the greater the friction (grip). Race cars have wide slick tires, rock climbing shoes have smooth soles. The problem is if it is wet then you get a layer of water between road and rubber so no contact and no grip.",
'On a smooth, hard surface, flat things have better grip. This is why race cars have very little, if any, tread. Treads in tires and shoes allow them to dig into water, snow, dirt, and other soft materials, which helps them grip into the material and push through it like a waterwheel. Road car tires and your shoes have a few grooves to help them contact pavement through small amounts of rainwater or dirt. Old tires perform badly in the rain because the treads are too short to reach the ground through the water and instead skim across the water (hydroplane).\n\nI think shoes also have grooves in them to make the soles more flexible while remaining sturdy.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'a017i3',
'query': 'why do shoes/tires have better grip with less surface area touching the ground?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1332031',
'title': 'Spot the Pigeon',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'The lightweight "Pigeons" is driven by a one-note banjolele line that parodies English musician George Formby. Steve Hackett commented in 2009 that "the thing about ‘Pigeons’ was that it was possible for the band to play a whole note for a whole thing: ding-ding-ding-ding. And that was unvarying whilst the keyboard changed and [Banks] tried to do as many different chords as possible."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12431130',
'title': 'Pink-necked green pigeon',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'Pigeons in the genus "Treron" are unusual in the family for not having cooing calls, instead making whistling and quacking noises, but some cooing notes have been recorded for the pink-necked green pigeon, as the male makes a tri-syballic whistling call ending in a coo. It is also reported to make a rasping "krrak krrak..." call, but the species is generally held to not be particularly vocal, usually only calling in communal roosts and when it finds food.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '323559',
'title': 'Common wood pigeon',
'section': 'Section::::Behaviour.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'Its flight is quick, performed by regular beats, with an occasional sharp flick of the wings, characteristic of pigeons in general. It takes off with a loud clattering. It perches well, and in its nuptial display walks along a horizontal branch with swelled neck, lowered wings, and fanned tail. During the display flight the bird climbs, the wings are smartly cracked like a whiplash, and the bird glides down on stiff wings. The common wood pigeon is gregarious, often forming very large flocks outside the breeding season. Like many species of pigeon, wood pigeons take advantage of trees and buildings to gain a vantage point over the surrounding area, and their distinctive call means that they are usually heard before they are seen.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '206964',
'title': 'Homing pigeon',
'section': 'Section::::Navigation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "Various experiments suggest that different breeds of homing pigeons rely on different cues to different extents. Charles Walcott at Cornell University was able to demonstrate that while pigeons from one loft were confused by a magnetic anomaly in the Earth it had no effect on birds from another loft away. Other experiments have shown that altering the perceived time of day with artificial lighting or using air conditioning to eliminate odors in the pigeons' home roost affected the pigeons' ability to return home.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4454101',
'title': 'White-headed pigeon',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'These pigeons are often found alone, in pairs or in small flocks. They are very quiet and elusive. Their flight is swift and direct. Their call is loud and gruff sounding like "WHOO!" followed by a gruff inhalation sounding "uk" (repeated three times). Sometimes the call is a low "oom".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '763624',
'title': 'New Zealand pigeon',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The New Zealand pigeons make occasional soft "coo" sounds (hence the onomatopoeic names), and their wings make a very distinctive "whooshing" sound as they fly. The bird\'s flight is also distinctive. Birds will often ascend slowly before making impressively steep parabolic dives; it is thought that this behaviour is often associated with nesting, or nest failure.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '475641',
'title': 'Palm cockatoo',
'section': 'Section::::Behavior.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'It has a unique territorial display where the bird (typically the male) drums with a large (i.e. up to 2.5\xa0cm diameter, 15\xa0cm long) stick or seed pod against a dead bough or tree, creating a loud noise that can be heard up to 100\xa0m away. After drumming, the male occasionally strips the drum tool into small pieces to line the nest.. Although this drumming behaviour was discovered over two decades ago (in 1984 by G.A. Wood), the reason why palm cockatoos drum is still a mystery. One reason could be that females can assess the durability of the nesting hollow by the resonance of the drumming. Another possibility could be that males drum to mark their territory against other males. The palm cockatoo is an unusual bird, being an ancient species and one of the few bird species known to use tools.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do wood pigeons hoot in the same melodic pattern?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Many bird species have a very specific call that they all do. This is how they recognize fellow members of the same species at a distance'],
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'query_id': '8pzvgm',
'query': 'why do wood pigeons hoot in the same melodic pattern?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '52816',
'title': 'Half-Life (video game)',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': '"Half-Life" sparked numerous fan-made mods, several of them becoming standalone games, notably "Counter-Strike", "Day of Defeat" and "Sven Co-op". A sequel, "Half-Life 2", was released in 2004. An unofficial remake of "Half-Life" titled "Black Mesa" was released in 2012 as a mod of "Half-Life 2".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '575509',
'title': 'Half-Life 2',
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'passage_text': '"Half-Life 2" received critical acclaim, with praise directed towards its advanced physics, animation, sound, AI, graphics, and narrative, and is widely considered to be one of the greatest games of all time. The game won 39 "Game of the Year" awards and the title of "Game of the Decade" at the 2012 Spike Video Game Awards, in addition to sales of 12 million copies by 2011. It was followed by two episodic sequels: "" (2006) and "" (2007).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25395149',
'title': 'First-person shooter',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Advances in 3D graphics: 1995–1999.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Valve\'s "Half-Life" was released in 1998, based upon "Quake"s graphics technology. Initially met with only mild anticipation, it went on to become an unprecedented commercial success. While previous first-person shooters had focused on visceral gameplay with comparatively weak plots, "Half-Life" had a strong narrative; the game featured no cut scenes but remained in the first-person perspective at all times. It featured innovations such as non-enemy characters (featured somewhat earlier in titles such as "") but did not employ power-ups in the traditional sense. "Half-Life" was praised for its artificial intelligence, selection of weapons and attention to detail and "has since been recognized as one of the greatest games of all time" according to GameSpot. Its sequel "Half-Life 2" (released in 2004), was less influential though "arguably a more impressive game".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '575509',
'title': 'Half-Life 2',
'section': 'Section::::Reception.:Awards.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 48,
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'end_paragraph_id': 48,
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'passage_text': 'Guinness World Records awarded "Half-Life 2" the world record for "Highest Rated Shooter by PC Gamer Magazine" in the Guinness World Records: Gamer\'s Edition 2008. Other records awarded the game in the book include, "Largest Digital Distribution Channel" for Valve\'s Steam service, "First Game to Feature a Gravity Gun", and "First PC Game to Feature Developer Commentary". In 2009, "Game Informer" put "Half-Life 2" 5th on their list of "The Top 200 Games of All Time", saying that "With "Half-Life 2", Valve redefined the way first-person shooters were created".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52816',
'title': 'Half-Life (video game)',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Valve co-founder Gabe Newell said the team aimed to create an immersive world rather than a "shooting gallery". "Half-Life" received critical acclaim for its graphics, realistic gameplay, and seamless narrative. It won over fifty PC "Game of the Year" awards and is considered one the most influential titles of the first-person shooter genre, as well as one of the greatest video games of all time. By 2008, the game had sold over 9 million copies.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '575509',
'title': 'Half-Life 2',
'section': 'Section::::Reception.:Critical reception.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In a review of "The Orange Box", IGN stated that although "Half-Life 2" has already been released through other mediums, the game itself is still enjoyable on a console. They also noted that the physics of "Half-Life 2" are very impressive despite being a console title. However, it was noted that the graphics on the Xbox 360 version of "Half-Life 2" were not as impressive as when the title was released on the PC. GameSpot\'s review of "The Orange Box" noticed that the content of both the Xbox 360 releases, and PlayStation 3 releases were exactly alike, the only issue with the PlayStation 3 version was that it had noticeable frame-rate hiccups. GameSpot continued to say that the frame rates issues were only minor but some consider them to be a significant irritation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52816',
'title': 'Half-Life (video game)',
'section': 'Section::::Reception.:Critical reviews.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Several reviewers cited the level of immersion and interactivity as revolutionary. AllGame said, "It isn\'t everyday that you come across a game that totally revolutionizes an entire genre, but Half-Life has done just that." Hot Games commented on the realism, and how the environment "all adds up to a totally immersive gaming experience that makes everything else look quite shoddy in comparison". Gamers Depot found the game engaging, stating that they have "yet to play a more immersive game period". "The Electric Playground" said that "Half-Life" was an "immersive and engaging entertainment experience", but noted that this only lasted for the first half of the game, explaining that the game "peaked too soon".\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why was Half Life 2 considered such a milestone in gaming?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['At the time it was the pinnacle of a game engine, also had a interesting story and great voice acting. ',
"It had amazing graphics and physics at the time, just compare [it's character animations](_URL_2_) with a similar game at the time like [Far Cry](_URL_0_) and you can see it still holds up, and is even better than some [current games](_URL_1_). \n\nNot to mention it's just a really good game to boot.",
'Half Life 1 was fantastic, and the story and gameplay in the 2nd completely lived up to expectations and hopes. Also, the physics engine was incredible at the time. I remember a friend literally called me over to his room to show me that he had figured out you could pin dead bodies to the wall with crossbow bolts, or that ammunition would go through open windows on vehicles, proving they were actually rendered "realistically" rather than just as one solid block like they had been before. It was a big amazing step forward in pretty much every aspect. Physics, graphics, storytelling and complexity, voice acting, franchise advancement, etc.',
'This guy has a good few videos on some of the reasons why, might be worth checking out. _URL_0_',
'Real time physics on machines that were Pentium 4 single core CPUs. Integrated graphics even.',
'The game engine was developed over 9 years, compared to 3 for the Unreal engine. This contributed to its advanced nature. ',
"The main reasons have been already mentioned however, HF2 is a better single player game than 99.99% of recent games. It was made to tell an interesting story in interesting locations that actually needed some basic problem solving skills (quite rare these days).\n\n\n\n\n\n\nTo me it's like asking why Game of Thrones is considered one of the best TV shows of all time. It does all the things it wanted to do well and is still much better than current day's competition. And it does it without hand holding the player and innovating greatly with the engine. Few games (if any) match HF2's physics and believable gameplay. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nAny player can see that Valve made it because they wanted to make a great game first and make money second.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n",
'[This short retro doc](_URL_0_) gives perspective on the entire series if you watch all of it. I linked to where it starts talking about HL2 and its contribution to the series and gaming as a whole.',
"I've waited years for it. It's still one of best games ever.\n\nAtmosphere, physics, smart design and great e3 tech demo",
"It had an engine that could assign properties to materials. You could tell the engine something was 'wood' or 'metal' or 'glass' it wasn't just textures and surfaces, it was actual interactions between materials and lighting. \n\nAnd it was the first well known instance of an actual physics engine- I remember seeing the first time a mattress was lifted up and it flopped around - how barrels would roll on surfaces. \n\nlight shined through red glass would shine out red, and look distorted .\n\nAnd it was the first time living models talked with moving lips and eyes rather than just nutcracker mouths and 'talking in italian gestures'\n\nAnd it gave us G-Mod. ",
'Half life 2 was pretty much my first real pc game and I got to play it with everything on high settings and it’s the most memorable game for me to this date. The physics and just the graphics alone were amazing. Then put in how there was really no cut scenes everything happened right there and then when someone was talking on a tv they were really in a place in the game talking to a camera. Then theres the good acting and story. Not to mention some good physics puzzles and memorable moments like the jet ski. But you had to play this game right when it came to pc in order to respect it because by the time you played it on console all that was lost because everyone already done it to their games. ',
'I have heard the game described as "The thinking man\'s shooter" and I think this is a lot of the reason why it is still considered amoungst the best games.\nA lot of shooters were/are seen as quite lowbrow, half life and half life 2 were much less focused on the action, allowing a lot of puzzle solving and being rewarded fir thinking outside the box. Take Ravenholm, you could get through the whole section only firing one bullet. \nThe story and setting were also quite new at the time, that era was heavily focused on world war 2 and not a lot of shooters tried to tell a story like that.',
'I remember that it had exceptionally good graphics and physics for that era but also managed to run well on low spec devices even back then. Pretty much every other game from the same era had high system requirements but mediocre graphics and physics compared to hl2.',
"I don't think any game has been as good of an FPS experience since.\n\nThe maps and the enemies, how you progress, how you learn the game and get more powerful weapons, how you learn to use them better and how the difficulty of the enemies scale up in such a natural way just felt, natural and the flow of the game is amazing.\n\nThe game mixes it up so much with swarms of enemies, big tough enemies, sneaky scary enemies. Different parts of the game feel different, fighting against zombie monsters when it is dark as hell is a very different feeling compared to fighting against soldiers or big airships etc.\n\nWhen you are hiding from heavy gun fire and hear the bullets hitting the thin sheet of metal you are hiding behind you don't feel safe, you feel the bullets swishing past you and how they might penetrate the cover at anytime. You feel stressed and scared.\n\nThere are a lot of little FPS puzzles that makes the game more than just a shooter.\n\nEngaging characters and story.\n\nIt is just a fantastic game imo and the storytelling and world building is great for a FPS game which is a format that doesn't lend itself well to that.\n\nAs many others say, the game engine being so great was also a factor but the thing that made Half-Life 2 such a milestone in gaming is because it is a great game in so many ways.",
'It was one of the first games to make the physics engine an integral part of the experience. We take ragdoll physics and the ability to pick stuff up and throw them around for granted today but when it came out that was huge and became something of an industry standard. ',
"During the period, Half Life and Half Life 2 were considered trend-setters because nobody had really done what they did before. First-person shooters in the 90s and early 2000s usually followed the same structure when it came to telling stories: you play a bit of shooty stuff, then you get a cutscene with some story, then you shoot more things, repeat until game done. Half Life bucked that trend by having everything take place 100% within the player's control. You never get control of your character taken away from you for a cutscene, you can always move or at least look around where you want. This seems like the standard for games these days, but back then that was something different.\n\nHalf Life 2 built on this by being the first 3D first-person shooting game to have a real physics engine which could contribute to gameplay. Games before that would just have pre-rendered backgrounds and change sprites for things when you interacted with them (like when you open a door or shoot through a wall or something). In Half Life 2 you could pick up a lot of the 3D objects around you and have them interact with the rest of the 3D environment according to what you did with them. Being able to pick up a barrel and throw it at your enemies was a big revolutionary thing back then, not so much because it was a new idea but because this was the first time it had been technically implemented and been woven into the fabric of the game.\n\nNone of this seems like groundbreaking stuff these days because it's all so fundamental to most of our videogames 15 years later, but Half Life 2 did it first. A lot of the games we have today were shaped by what Half Life 2 achieved."],
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'query_id': '9gdjw2',
'query': 'why was half life 2 considered such a milestone in gaming?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '13921852',
'title': 'Redstone Test Stand',
'section': 'Section::::Early development, 1952–1955.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'In the original version of the facility, flames were directed in a trench beneath the rocket in two opposite directions. In December 1955, workers installed a new more durable elbow-shaped flame deflector designed by Rocketdyne engineer Carl Kassner. Water injected through small holes in the elbow quickly turned to steam, keeping the flame away from the metal elbow.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9599972',
'title': 'List of Kirby characters',
'section': 'Section::::Enemies.:Flamer.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 137,
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'passage_text': 'Flamer is a spinning, circular, fire-shooting enemy that grants the Fire ability when inhaled. It tends to attach to surfaces and roll around on them. It first appeared in "Kirby\'s Adventure", and has appeared in multiple games since then.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3917034',
'title': 'Premixed flame',
'section': 'Section::::Premixed flame configuration.:Spherical flame.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
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'passage_text': 'In this configuration, the flame is typically initiated by way of a spark within a homogeneous pre-mixture. The subsequent propagation of the developed premixed flame occurs as a spherical front until the mixture is transformed entirely or the walls of the combustion vessel are reached.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '70868',
'title': 'Flamethrower',
'section': 'Section::::Operation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Liquid-operated flamethrowers use a smaller tank with a pressurized gas to expel the flammable liquid fuel. The propellant gas is fed to two tubes. The first opens in the fuel tanks, providing the pressure necessary for expelling the liquid. The other tube leads to an ignition chamber behind the exit of the gun assembly, where it is mixed with air and ignited through piezo ignition. This pre-ignition line is the source of the flame seen in front of the gun assembly in movies and documentaries. As the fuel passes through the flame, it is ignited and propelled towards the target.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5855287',
'title': 'Rocket (firework)',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'A rocket is a pyrotechnic firework made out of a paper tube packed with gunpowder that is propelled into the air. Types of rockets include the skyrockets, which have a stick to provide stability during airborne flight; missiles, which instead rotate for stability or are shot out of a tube; and bottle rockets, smaller fireworks – 1½ in (3.8\xa0cm) long, though the attached stick extends the total length to approximately 12 in (30\xa0cm) – that usually contain whistle effects.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '262135',
'title': 'Rocket engine',
'section': 'Section::::Principle of operation.:Combustion chamber.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
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'passage_text': 'For chemical rockets the combustion chamber is typically cylindrical, and flame holders are not used. The dimensions of the cylinder are such that the propellant is able to combust thoroughly; different rocket propellants require different combustion chamber sizes for this to occur.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29638',
'title': 'Sierpiński triangle',
'section': 'Section::::Etymology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 59,
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'passage_text': 'The usage of the word "gasket" to refer to the Sierpinski triangle refers to gaskets such as are found in motors, and which sometimes feature a series of holes of decreasing size, similar to the fractal; this usage was coined by Benoit Mandelbrot, who thought the fractal looked similar to "the part that prevents leaks in motors".\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': '"" how is the flame shaped behind a rocket.',
'selftext': 'how is it that when the flaming gas comes out of the exhaust, narrows down in the beginning and then after a bit it becomes wider and the goes back down to be narrow again? & #x200B; I draw a few lines, in the screenshot, I got to show what I mean. & #x200B; [ URL_0 ]( URL_0 )',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['These cones are commonly called shock diamonds and is present in all jet engines not only rocket engines. A jet engines nozzle is designed to output an exhaust at a specific velocity and pressure. Ideally the pressure would be the same as ambient pressure. However, especially for rocket engines that is designed to operate in a wide range of altitudes, the nozzle usually outputs gas with too high or low pressure. So at the edge of the nozzle you have two areas of gas at different pressures meeting. That creates a shockwave through the gasses as the pressure tries to equalize. And because the exhaust gas is moving faster then the speed of sound the shockwave will move backwards in the exast gas forming a cone. As the shockwave from all around the edge of the exhaust meet in the middle there is momentum of the gas which means it creates an overpressure area in the middle of the exhaust gas. This is usually visible as a bright spot in the exhaust. The overpressure again creates a new shockwave now moving outwards. As this shockwave hits the edge of the exhaust it gets reflected back again. And ever time it moves between the edge and center it gets blown further and further back creating repeating shock diamonds.',
"I believe it has to do with the fact that the exhaust (flame) is at a lower pressure than the atmosphere when it exists the nozzle. The higher pressure of the atmosphere compresses the exhaust flow. Shock waves form as the flow is compressed. Eventually the pressure of the exhaust lowers enough for the atmosphere to compress it again. This cycle repeats until the flow dissipates enough to prevent the shock waves from forming as necessary. \n\nIt's a fairly complex process though, and I'm no expert in this. You can probably find some good resources if you look up the design/shape of rocket engine nozzles."],
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'query': '"eli5" how is the flame shaped behind a rocket.',
'query_type': 'Physics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '52842',
'title': 'Valve Corporation',
'section': 'Section::::Products.:Games.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Several of Valve\'s series feature only two primary games, such as "Half-Life" and "Half-Life 2". With no apparent announcements of a third title in these series, Valve has acquired a joking reputation for being unable to count to 3. In the absence of an official announcement of a "Half-Life 3", players and journalists have repeatedly claimed to have found proof that a sequel remained under active development, many of which have been revealed as hoaxes or leaks of dubious authenticity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52816',
'title': 'Half-Life (video game)',
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'passage_text': 'Valve co-founder Gabe Newell said the team aimed to create an immersive world rather than a "shooting gallery". "Half-Life" received critical acclaim for its graphics, realistic gameplay, and seamless narrative. It won over fifty PC "Game of the Year" awards and is considered one the most influential titles of the first-person shooter genre, as well as one of the greatest video games of all time. By 2008, the game had sold over 9 million copies.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6501490',
'title': 'Half-Life (series)',
'section': 'Section::::Games.:Future and cancelled games.:"Half-Life 2: Episode Three".\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': 'In a 2015 interview with Geoff Keighley, Newell said that due to Valve\'s management-free structure, it would only develop "a super classic kind of product" if a large number of employees began working on it together. He said this was unlikely as they would need to heed the lessons learned in supporting "Portal 2". An insider speaking anonymously with "Game Informer" stated that with the flat company structure, there had been many attempts to restart development of "Half-Life", either as "Episode 3" or as "Half-Life 3", but each time, the project had faltered early, only for a new effort with different employees involved to emerge with a new approach based on the cancelled effort. In 2016 and 2017, three key writers for the "Half-Life" and "Portal" series, Marc Laidlaw, Erik Wolpaw, and Chet Faliszek, left Valve. Journalists took this, coupled with the commitment Valve was making to supporting "Dota 2", "Counter-Strike" and Steam, as an indicator that the "Half-Life" series was no longer in development.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3324290',
'title': 'Episodic video game',
'section': 'Section::::Advantages.\n',
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'passage_text': "BULLET::::- The lack of the 'safety net' for disengaging periods provided by longer, less focused games coupled with the need to keep consumers on board for multiple release produces greater motivation for the production of quality and innovative titles.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52923473',
'title': 'Micro Machines World Series',
'section': 'Section::::Reception.:Critical reception.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'Hardcore Gamer awarded it a positive score of 4 out of 5, saying ""Micro Machines World Series" is a great buy for anyone who enjoyed prior entries in the series or simply wants a great racing game that the whole family can enjoy." PlayStation LifeStyle awarded it a more negative score of 4.5 out of 10, saying "This could get fixed into a solid game, but players should be cautious until an overhaul occurs. Hobby Consoles said that the "12 player online mode is not enough to compensate the absence of a career mode, the technical failures and some online design problems (such as the lobby system and menus)."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1301846',
'title': 'Gearbox Software',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
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'passage_text': 'They started with developing expansions to Valve\'s "Half-Life". Porting "Half-Life" to console platforms (each with new game content) followed, building the company\'s experience in console game-making, in addition to enhancing and building upon the successful "Counter-Strike" branch of the "Half-Life" franchise. Prior to "Half-Life 2", they had developed or helped develop every "Half-Life" expansion game or port, including "", "", "", "Half-Life" for the Sony PlayStation 2 (including ""), and "Half-Life" for the Sega Dreamcast (including "Blue Shift"). Branching out to other publishers, they pursued additional port work, each game being released with additional content, but this time from console to PC. These projects included their first non-first-person shooter, "Tony Hawk\'s Pro Skater 3", and "", forging new publisher relationships with Activision and Microsoft Game Studios respectively. Additional new development, in the form of a PC game in the James Bond franchise ("") for Electronic Arts, also occurred during the company\'s initial 5-year period.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '407326',
'title': 'Mod (video gaming)',
'section': 'Section::::Official status of mods.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
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'passage_text': 'Mods can extend the shelf life of games, such as "Half-Life" (1998), which increased its sales figures over the first three years of its release. According to the director of marketing at Valve, a typical shelf-life for a game would be 12 to 18 months, even if it was a "mega-hit". In early 2012, the "DayZ" modification for "ARMA 2" was released and caused a massive increase in sales for the three-year-old game, putting it in the top spot for online game sales for a number of months and selling over 300,000 units for the game. In some cases, modders who are against piracy have created mods that enforce the use of a legal game copy.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "why won't companies like Valve make games such as Half Life 3 which would pretty much guarantee them unimaginable profits? Is there another reason for not doing it apart from the risk of it not being that good?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Valve is making money hand over fist with Steam. Half Life 3 has impossible expectations to live up to so I'm sure they'll wait until the risk doesn't outweigh the reward. Why risk messing things up right now when they're doing really well?\n\nSquare long ago said they would never remake FF7. They're now remaking FF7 because something about their situation changed and they think it's good for business. That might happen in the future to Valve but there is really no way to tell without waiting for it to happen."],
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'query_id': '5onwec',
'query': "why won't companies like valve make games such as half life 3 which would pretty much guarantee them unimaginable profits? is there another reason for not doing it apart from the risk of it not being that good?",
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '27168879',
'title': '4K resolution',
'section': 'Section::::Resolutions.:40962160.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Digital movies made in 4K may be produced, scanned, or stored in a number of other resolutions depending on what storage aspect ratio is used. In the digital cinema production chain, a resolution of 4096 × 3112 is often used for acquiring "open gate" or anamorphic input material, a resolution based on the historical resolution of scanned Super\xa035\xa0mm film.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '700160',
'title': 'Remaster',
'section': 'Section::::Remastering.:Film and television.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
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'passage_text': 'To remaster a movie digitally for DVD and Blu-ray, digital restoration operators must scan in the film frame by frame at a resolution of at least 2,048 pixels across (referred to as 2K resolution). Some films are scanned at 4K, 6K, or even 8K resolution to future proof for higher resolution delivery formats. Scanning a film at 4K—a resolution of 4096\xa0×\xa03092 for a full frame of film—generates at least 12 terabytes of data before any editing is done.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8844',
'title': 'Digital cinema',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Digital cinema refers to the use of digital technology to distribute or project motion pictures as opposed to the historical use of reels of motion picture film, such as 35\xa0mm film. Whereas film reels have to be shipped to movie theaters, a digital movie can be distributed to cinemas in a number of ways: over the Internet or dedicated satellite links, or by sending hard drives or optical discs such as Blu-ray discs. Digital movies are projected using a digital video projector instead of a film projector. Digital cinema is distinct from high-definition television and does not necessarily use traditional television or other traditional high-definition video standards, aspect ratios, or frame rates. In digital cinema, resolutions are represented by the horizontal pixel count, usually 2K (2048×1080 or 2.2 megapixels) or 4K (4096×2160 or 8.8 megapixels). As digital-cinema technology improved in the early 2010s, most of the theaters across the world converted to digital video projection.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46286567',
'title': '5K resolution',
'section': 'Section::::History.:First camera with 5K video capture.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'On April 14, 2008, Red Digital Cinema Camera Company launched one of the first cameras capable of video capture at 5K resolutions. Red Epic uses the Mysterium X sensor which has a resolution of 51202700 and can capture at a framerate of up to 100\xa0fps. Cameras with 5K resolution are used occasionally for recording films in digital cinematography.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24229565',
'title': 'List of Panasonic camcorders',
'section': 'Section::::Consumer high definition models.:HDC-HS300, HDC-SD300, HDC-TM300.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 86,
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'passage_text': 'A special Digital Cinema mode allows shooting progressive-scan video at film-like rates—25p or 24p, depending on region. Video shot in progressive mode is recorded in interlaced container by using either progressive segmented frame technique for 25p mode or 2-3 pulldown for 24p mode.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27168879',
'title': '4K resolution',
'section': 'Section::::4K standards and terminology.:DCI Digital Cinema System Specification.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'In 2005, Digital Cinema Initiatives (DCI), a prominent standards organization in the cinema industry, published the Digital Cinema System Specification. This specification establishes standardized 2K and 4K container formats for digital cinema production, with resolutions of 20481080 and 40962160 respectively. The resolution of the video content inside follows the SMPTE 428-1 standard, which establishes the following resolutions for a 4K distribution:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21985310',
'title': 'Serif products',
'section': 'Section::::Serif MoviePlus.\n',
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'passage_text': "MoviePlus is affordable and popular with home and semi-professional filmmakers. It can be used to edit material from FireWire-attached MiniDV video from a consumer digital video camera, professional DV camera or HDV camera. The software captures video onto the computer's hard drive, where it can be edited and processed. The result can be recorded on MiniDV tape, converted into a format suitable for replaying on a PC, converted into a format suitable for uploading to a web site, or burning onto a DVD. The current version of MoviePlus X6 requires a minimum of an Intel Pentium 4 Hyper-Threading processor or AMD Athlon XP processor and 1\xa0GB of RAM.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do movies go from the raw footage (film or digital) to 4K?',
'selftext': 'I’m mostly curious about the process of converting it from its raw form into ultra high quality, especially if the movie is older. But the question also probably applies to DVD and Blu-ray as well.',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["With digital recordings, the raw footage is usually higher quality than 4K (IIRC, 8K is fairly common). For final release, you just render the video in the release quality and write it to the DVD or blu-ray (or digital download/streaming service).\n\nWith film, we're lucky because film is actually very high quality. People tend to think film has low quality because back in film days, the film *duplication and distribution* technologies were not-so-great, making the version in theaters of lower quality. To go from a film recording to a 4K digital video, you essentially put each frame of the film into a digital scanner (like the one in a multifunction printer) and make sure they line up with software. You can optionally use software to remove defects in the film from the digital file. You then send the scanned images off to be written to the DVD, bluray, etc.",
"While it's correct that 4K video is often shot in higher resolution and converted for the final product I think your confusion may come from what makes a RAW image RAW. \n\nRAW means that the image has not yet been processed into a compressed file yet. Essentially the RAW image is all of the data captured by the sensor, and hasn't thrown some out in creating a JPEG. This is why RAW is really only useful for professional or enthusiast use. There is maximum color and light information that can be tweaked. It's not great for your phone or low end digital camera as in those uses having an easily shareable format and less memory use is more advantageous."],
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'query_id': 'bz4jtf',
'query': 'how do movies go from the raw footage (film or digital) to 4k?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '59666118',
'title': 'Casio AE-1000W',
'section': 'Section::::Operation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The button on the top right is the "Light" button which is used to illuminate the display in the dark. It is also used it set the figures backwards when the watch is in time adjusting mode.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The face of the watch reads "World Time" and the top and "Illuminator" on the bottom of the outer case. The primary functions of the buttons are also mentioned. The secondary functions along with the logo of the company, water resistance range, "5 Alarms," and a "10-year battery" emblem is present on the inner casing of the watch located under the plastic lens.\n',
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'title': 'Casio AE-1000W',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The button on the bottom left is the "Mode" button which is used to cycle between the different screens of the watch and is used to select different portions of the time (hours, minutes, seconds, time zone etc) when the watch is in the time adjusting mode. The button is also used to mute the beep sound made by the pressing of buttons when it is pressed for three seconds in the main time screen.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '4625977',
'title': 'Casio F-91W',
'section': 'Section::::Operation.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The watch is controlled by three side-mounted push-buttons. The upper left button turns on the light, cancels the alarm, resets the stopwatch or marks the split (lap) time, and is used for selecting settings. The lower left button cycles the modes of the watch: time display, alarm, stopwatch, and time/date adjustment. The button on the right is the function button: when used, it starts and stops the stopwatch, changes the settings currently being adjusted, or switches between the 12- and 24-hour modes, depending on what mode the watch is currently in. Pressing all three buttons at the same time will fill all the cells on the LCD until any button is pressed again.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2475889',
'title': 'Dial (measurement)',
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'passage_text': '"Mirror dials" are designed to reduce or eliminate the effect of parallax. They usually consist of a small mirrored strip running parallel to the graduations of the scale under the pointer. When the observer moves his position so that the pointer obscures the pointer\'s reflection in the mirror, an accurate reading may be taken.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '949696',
'title': 'Mainspring',
'section': 'Section::::Power reserve indicator.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Some high grade watches have an extra dial on the face indicating how much power is left in the mainspring, often graduated in hours the watch has left to run. Since both the arbor and the barrel turn, this mechanism requires a differential gear that measures how far the arbor has been turned, compared to the barrel.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A dial is generally a flat surface, circular or rectangular, with numbers or similar markings on it, used for displaying the setting or output of a timepiece, radio, clock, watch, or measuring instrument. There are many instruments used in scientific and industrial applications that use dials with pointers as indicators of a specific physical property. Typical examples include pressure and vacuum gauges, fluid-level gauges (for fuel, engine oil, and so on), voltmeters and ammeters, thermometers and hygrometers, speedometers and tachometers, and indicators (distance amplifying instruments).\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is the purpose of the turnable dial around the face of a watch?',
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'category': 'Technology',
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'answers': ["The ring as we know it today on some watches, also called rotating bezel, actually dates to the first diving watches of the 1950's. At the time, using a stopwatch was impossible, because every additional pusher could further compromise water-resistance, so instead they relied upon the bezel as a basic timing apparatus.\n\nRight before a dive, the wearer aligns the zero mark on the minutes hand. The bezel then indicates the minutes passed since entering water. To add security, the bezel can only be turned counter clockwise, meaning that if it were accidentally rotated, the immersion time would appear longer and the diver would be compelled to return to the surface earlier.\n\nDuring the 1960's and 1970's, the US and British Ministries of Defence also incorporated the bezel into military standard, either to display dive time or hours.",
'It can be used as a lapse timer or a reminder for a specific time. \n\nTurn the point on the rotating bezel to the current minute then at some future time you can see calculate how much time has passed without having to keep up with what time you started. \n\nTurn the point on the bezel to a specific time in the future as a reminder of some event at that time. \n',
"it's a timing feature. you turn the dial so the minute hand is currently on the number of minutes you want to count down, and you know it's been the correct amount of minutes when the minute hand reaches zero. it's originally for diving before digital watches. an alarm doesn't make sense under water and the old school watches didn't have stuff like flashing alarms or digital timers. it's mostly a traditional thing today, but i still use it from time to time, and sometimes when you're diving you may not want your watch to start blinking. ",
"On pilot's chronograph watches, the bezel is used as part of a slide rule, used for calculations. Aviators used to rely on these to handle range and other navigational computations."],
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'query': 'what is the purpose of the turnable dial around the face of a watch?',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '312833',
'title': 'Dots per inch',
'section': 'Section::::DPI measurement in printing.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The DPI measurement of a printer often needs to be considerably higher than the pixels per inch (PPI) measurement of a video display in order to produce similar-quality output. This is due to the limited range of colors for each dot typically available on a printer. At each dot position, the simplest type of color printer can either print no dot, or print a dot consisting of a fixed volume of ink in each of four color channels (typically CMYK with cyan, magenta, yellow and black ink) or 2 = 16 colors on laser, wax and most inkjet printers, of which only 14 or 15 (or as few as 8 or 9) may be actually discernible depending on the strength of the black component, the strategy used for overlaying and combining it with the other colors, and whether it is in "color" mode.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '653442',
'title': 'Hexachrome',
'section': 'Section::::Purpose.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The main purpose of Hexachrome was to create a printing ink system that could depict brighter and clearer pictures by being able to produce more accurate colors. Using this system instead of the CMYK ink system prints also allowed for more accurate skin tones and pastels. The Hexachrome system let users print images from computer screens that were not able to be accurately duplicated before. As well as producing overall better quality than previous systems, Hexachrome also increased efficiency as it produced many more spot colors. Having more spot colors increased efficiency by allowing the press to use one ink set for all jobs, rather than one specified ink set for each job. Keeping a printer configured for Hexachrome also eliminated the number of washes required on the printer; therefore saving times and simplifying printing production.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6325982',
'title': 'CcMmYK color model',
'section': 'Section::::Advantages of CcMmYK over CMYK.\n',
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'passage_text': 'By using light cyan or magenta, the printer can saturate areas that would typically use halftoning with these inks to remove the look of sparse magenta and cyan dots. The downside is the printer needs approximately twice as much light cyan and magenta ink in areas to achieve the same saturation as pure cyan/magenta which can lead to excess ink usage. The end result, however, is significantly better for some photos.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25742',
'title': 'Raster graphics',
'section': 'Section::::Resolution.\n',
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'passage_text': "However, for printing technologies that perform color mixing through dithering (halftone) rather than through overprinting (virtually all home/office inkjet and laser printers), printer DPI and image PPI have a very different meaning, and this can be misleading. Because, through the dithering process, the printer builds a single image pixel out of several printer dots to increase color depth, the printer's DPI setting must be set far higher than the desired PPI to ensure sufficient color depth without sacrificing image resolution. Thus, for instance, printing an image at 250 PPI may actually require a printer setting of 1200 DPI.\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '44682',
'title': 'CMYK color model',
'section': 'Section::::Comparison with RGB displays.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Comparisons between RGB displays and CMYK prints can be difficult, since the color reproduction technologies and properties are very different. A computer monitor mixes shades of red, green, and blue light to create color pictures. A CMYK printer instead uses light-absorbing cyan, magenta, and yellow inks, whose colors are mixed using dithering, halftoning, or some other optical technique.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7371707',
'title': 'Solid ink',
'section': 'Section::::Advantages.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Due to the way solid ink printers put the ink onto the page, print quality is considered to be excellent, with bright colors. Excellent results can be achieved with low-quality stock, as the wax covers the stock with a glossy, almost opaque, surface. Solid ink printers are able to print on many different types and thicknesses of media. They are much less sensitive to changes in media type than are color laser printers.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '10826',
'title': 'Fax',
'section': 'Section::::Capabilities.:Printing process.\n',
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'passage_text': 'One of the advantages of inkjet printing is that inkjets can affordably print in color; therefore, many of the inkjet-based fax machines claim to have color fax capability. There is a standard called ITU-T30e (formally ITU-T Recommendation T.30 Annex E ) for faxing in color; however, it is not widely supported, so many of the color fax machines can only fax in color to machines from the same manufacturer.\n',
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'title': 'Why is a photocopying machine so huge compared to a normal colour printer?',
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'answers': ['There are very small photocopiers too.\n\nOn the large ones, most of the extra size is for complex paper handling: several large supplies of different sizes of paper; a collator that can make 10-20 separate copies of a whole document; sometimes an auto-stapler; a high-speed jam-resistant paper feeding and duplexing mechanism.',
"Normally they are not it's the paper trays and feeds under that make it look bigger than it actually is. But for example in the office I'm in the copier is bigger as it, a Xerox workcentre 7428, is designed to print a lot of pages quickly. But even then most of it is taken up with the large laser toner cartridges ",
'It is not necessarily bigger. You can get photocopier that fits in your bag and you can get printers that take up the room. But even the big photocopier have a modest sized printer and a modest sized scanner. Most of the space is taken up by rollers and shelves for moving and manipulating the paper. And this part is optional. But there is a tendency that on smaller printers you omit the scanner part to make it more compact but for bigger printers you have the scanner module as it does not matter that much and is quite useful. So it is not so much that photocopiers tend to be bigger then printers but more the fact that big printers tend to be photocopiers.',
'8 1/2x5 paper limits how much smaller you can make them without paper storage capacity being unacceptably small. ',
'Besides the extra paper trays and paper handling mechanism, there is also the design constraint of wanting a unit the can be put on the floor, but is tall enough to be used by a standing person. ',
'Photocopiers are not necessarily bigger than printers. What determines the size of a printer will be mostly the speed at which it prints, whether it prints single or double sided (and whether it pulls the page back in to do so), the print quality, the sizes of paper it can print, and, if applicable, the quality and size at which it can scan to copy. Age is also a factor, but comparing my 2 year old HP printer/copier (roughly the size and shape of a PC tower turned on its side) to a commercial copier of the same age, the primary difference will be print speed and quality, and the size of paper which it can print. Less often, you may also see options like a printer that staples stacks of paper for you, which will increase the size as well.',
"You see photocopiers in office environments. They are required to handle a larger load of workflow so require more storage, and other functionalities like scanning.\n\nYour average home printer is small because it needs to take up less room to fit in your computer room at home and it doesn't get used for 10 hours every day. "],
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'query': 'why is a photocopying machine so huge compared to a normal colour printer?',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3317230',
'title': 'Johnny and the Sprites',
'section': 'Section::::Episodes.:Shorts (2005).\n',
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'passage_text': '2. Laugh, Basil, Laugh - When Basil comes down with a cold, Johnny and Ginger discover that the best way to make a sick Sprite feel better is to make them laugh. Johnny sings a song about all the things to make someone laugh, but it doesn\'t work, but Basil laughs when Johnny does silly yoga poses. "Make Someone Laugh", Music and Lyrics by Gary Adler. (Originally aired October 9, 2005)\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '193379',
'title': 'Ginger ale',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Health effects.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Ginger ale, as with other ginger products and other non-ginger-flavored carbonated beverages, is often recommended as a home remedy for indigestion and motion sickness. It is also used to soothe coughs and sore throats.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22216378',
'title': 'Clarification and stabilization of wine',
'section': 'Section::::Stabilization.:Microbiological instability.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A wine that has not been sterilized by filtration might well still contain live yeast cells and bacteria. If both alcoholic and malolactic fermentation have run to completion, and neither excessive oxygen nor "Brettanomyces" yeast are present, this ought to cause no problems; modern hygiene has largely eliminated spoilage by bacteria such as acetobacter, which turns wine into vinegar. If there is residual sugar, however, it may undergo secondary fermentation, creating dissolved carbon dioxide as a by-product. When the wine is opened, it will be spritzy or "sparkling". In a wine intended to be still this is regarded as a serious fault; it can even cause the bottle to explode. Similarly, a wine that has not been put through complete malolactic fermentation may undergo it in bottle, reducing its acidity, generating carbon dioxide, and adding a diacetyl butterscotch aroma. "Brettanomyces" yeasts add 4-ethylphenol, 4-ethylguaiacol and isovaleric acid horse-sweat aromas. These phenomena may be prevented by sterile filtration, by the addition of relatively large quantities of sulfur dioxide and sometimes sorbic acid, by mixing in alcoholic spirit to give a fortified wine of sufficient strength to kill all yeast and bacteria, or by pasteurization. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1202646',
'title': 'Tear gas',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Home remedies.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Vinegar, petroleum jelly, milk and lemon juice solutions have also been used by activists. It is unclear how effective these remedies are. In particular, vinegar itself can burn the eyes and prolonged inhalation can also irritate the airways. Though vegetable oil and vinegar have also been reported as helping relieve burning caused by pepper spray, Kräuter does not suggest the usage of vinegar ("because it is also an acid"), or toothpaste, stating that it traps the particles emanating from the gas near the airways and make it more feasible to inhale. A small trial of baby shampoo for washing out the eyes did not show any benefit.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1463110',
'title': 'Drinking fountain',
'section': 'Section::::Cleanliness.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In recent studies, it has been found that some drinking fountains have been contaminated with pathogens such as bacteria. In one study, a virus commonly known to cause diarrhea in young children known as the rotavirus has been found on drinking fountains in child day care facilities. Due to cases in the past where children have fallen ill due to coliform bacteria poisoning, many governments have placed strict regulations on drinking fountain designs. The vertical spout design is now illegal in most US jurisdictions. Some governments even require water spouts to be as long as four inches to meet health standards. It is also recommended for young children to allow drinking fountains to run before drinking, as the water may also be contaminated with lead. This is especially common in older buildings with obsolete plumbing. In the 1970s, this fear of contamination in tap water was hyped by producers of bottled water, thereby changing attitudes to publicly provided water in drinking fountains, which began to disappear from city streets.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '28500',
'title': 'Sake',
'section': 'Section::::Storage.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In general, it is best to keep sake refrigerated in a cool or dark room, as prolonged exposure to heat or direct light will lead to spoilage. In addition, sake stored at relatively high temperature can lead to formation of dicetopiperazine, a cyclo (Pro-Leu) that makes it bitter as it ages Sake has high microbiological stability due to its high content of ethanol. However, incidences of spoilage have been known to occur. One of the microoganisms implicated in this spoilage is lactic acid bacteria (LAB) that has grown tolerant to ethanol and is referred to as hiochi-bacteria. Sake stored at room temperature is best consumed within a few months after purchase.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18348855',
'title': 'Harmful algal bloom',
'section': 'Section::::Harmful effects.:Human health.:Drinking water.\n',
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'passage_text': "In some locations visitors have been warned not to even touch the water. Boaters have been told that toxins in the water can be inhaled from the spray from wind or waves. Ocean beaches, lakes and rivers have been closed due to algal blooms. After a dog died in 2015 from swimming in a bloom in California's Russian River, officials likewise posted warnings for parts of the river. Boiling the water at home before drinking does not remove the toxins.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is it when you’re sick and can’t keep water down that something like Sprite or ginger ale will stay down?',
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'category': 'Biology',
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'answers': ["Answer: ginger has some medicinal properties that help deal with nausea or indigestion. Pop drinks also have a lot of sugar in them, which is a quick source of energy when you're sick and unable to keep food down. So a flat ginger ale gives you the benefit of soothing your stomach a bit and giving you some energy to keep fighting the sickness.",
"Ginger ale is supposed to work because ginger is used to calm one's stomach. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nI've always had the best luck with gatorade or pedialyte. When you're that sick, you need the electrolytes. Just sip it very slowly, tiny little sips at a time."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query': 'why is it when you’re sick and can’t keep water down that something like sprite or ginger ale will stay down?',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '33894099',
'title': 'Ticks of domestic animals',
'section': 'Section::::Variety of ticks affecting domestic animals.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Ticks are invertebrate animals in the phylum Arthropoda, and are related to spiders. Ticks are in the subclass Acari, which consists of many orders of mites and one tick order, the Ixodida. Some mites are parasitic, but all ticks are parasitic feeders. Ticks pierce the skin of their hosts with specialized mouthparts to suck blood, and they survive exclusively by this obligate method of feeding. Some species of mites may be mistaken for larval ticks at infestations on animal hosts, but their feeding mechanisms are distinctive. All ticks have an incomplete metamorphosis: after hatching from the egg, a series of similar stages (= instars) develops from a six-legged larva, to eight-legged nymph, and then a sexually developed, eight-legged adult. Between each stage is a molt (ecdysis), which enables the developing tick to expand within a new external skeleton. Ticks are grouped in three families, of which two have genera of importance to domestic animals, as follows. The family Argasidae contains the important genera "Argas", "Ornithodoros", and "Otobius". These genera are known as soft ticks because their outer body surfaces lack hard plates. The family Ixodidae contains 14 genera, including "Amblyomma", "Dermacentor", "Haemaphysalis", "Hyalomma", "Ixodes", "Margaropus", and "Rhipicephalus". Also, the important boophilid ticks, formerly of the genus "Boophilus", are now classified as a subgenus within the genus "Rhipicephalus". These genera are known as hard ticks because their outer surfaces have hard plates. Within these genera are, very roughly, 100 species of importance to domestic animals. Some of these species are also important to humans. The only countries that do not have some kind of problem with ticks on domestic animals are those that are permanently cold. An outline classification of the Acari, including the two families of ticks of importance to domestic animals is in the article Mites of livestock.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33894099',
'title': 'Ticks of domestic animals',
'section': 'Section::::Negative impacts to health.:Ticks as vectors of disease.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Because ticks feed repeatedly and only on blood, and have long lives, they are suitable hosts for many types of microbes, which exploit the ticks for transmission between one domestic animal and another. Ticks are thus known as vectors (transmitters) of microbes. If the microbes cause pathological changes, they are known as pathogens. Most of these parasitic relationships are highly developed with a strict biological relationship between the microbe and the tick\'s gut and salivary glands. However, some microbes, such as "Anaplasma marginale" and "A. centrale", can also be transmitted by biting flies, or by blood on injection needles (iatrogenic transmission). A characteristic of diseases caused by tick-transmitted microbes is that herds or flocks of livestock often acquire effective levels of immune resistance to both the vector ticks and the microbes, so outbreaks of acute disease tend to be rare. This stability is often due to immunity to the microbes developing as a result of survival through early infection from ticks carrying small infective doses of the microbe, the epidemiology of infections with "Babesia" species of protozoa is a well described example. The ticks are often constantly present and long-lived. Acquisition of immunity may be aided by the protection of antibodies in the mother\'s colostrum (first milk).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50696779',
'title': 'List of ixodid ticks of Sri Lanka',
'section': 'Section::::Ticks.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Ticks are small arachnids in the order Parasitiformes. Along with mites, they constitute the subclass Acari. Ticks are ectoparasites (external parasites), living by hematophagy on the blood of mammals, birds, and sometimes reptiles and amphibians. Ticks are vectors of a number of diseases that affect both humans and other animals.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23366462',
'title': 'Insect',
'section': 'Section::::Relationship to humans.:As pests.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 134,
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'passage_text': 'Many insects are considered pests by humans. Insects commonly regarded as pests include those that are parasitic ("e.g." lice, bed bugs), transmit diseases (mosquitoes, flies), damage structures (termites), or destroy agricultural goods (locusts, weevils). Many entomologists are involved in various forms of pest control, as in research for companies to produce insecticides, but increasingly rely on methods of biological pest control, or biocontrol. Biocontrol uses one organism to reduce the population density of another organism—the pest—and is considered a key element of integrated pest management.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2520434',
'title': 'Beneficial organism',
'section': 'Section::::Beneficial or pest.:Insects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 385,
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'passage_text': 'Beneficial insects can include predators (such as ladybugs) of pest insects, and pollinators (such as bees, which are an integral part of the growth cycle of many crops). Increasingly certain species of insects are managed and used to intervene where natural pollination or biological control is insufficient, usually due to human disturbance of the balance of established ecosystems.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6779384',
'title': 'Hexapod (robotics)',
'section': 'Section::::Biologically inspired.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 410,
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'passage_text': "Insects are chosen as models because their nervous system are simpler than other animal species. Also, complex behaviours can be attributed to just a few neurons and the pathway between sensory input and motor output is relatively shorter. Insects' walking behaviour and neural architecture are used to improve robot locomotion. Conversely, biologists can use hexapod robots for testing different hypotheses. \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3969819',
'title': 'Evolution of insects',
'section': 'Section::::Evolutionary history.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 309,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Insect evolution is characterized by rapid adaptation due to selective pressures exerted by the environment and furthered by high fecundity. It appears that rapid radiations and the appearance of new species, a process that continues to this day, result in insects filling all available environmental niches.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What function do insects like ticks serve in nature?',
'selftext': 'Just read a disturbing article on [ URL_2 ]( URL_0 ) about savage tick clone armies that are sucking cows to death. I have to wonder what function do insects like ticks serve in nature when it seems all they do is destroy and/or sicken people. Link to article: [ URL_0 /science/2019/07/savage-tick-clone-armies-are-sucking-cows-to-death-experts-fear-for-humans/]( URL_0 /science/2019/07/savage-tick-clone-armies-are-sucking-cows-to-death-experts-fear-for-humans/)',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Evolution does not require a "function" in order to justify an animal existing in a niche, it\'s not all part of some unseen designer\'s "plan".\n\nTicks have a niche because there are things for them to eat. Perhaps one could argue that this keeps "something worse" from filling the niche, but that\'s just humans seeking a pattern where none is required.',
"Why do you assume everything in nature has a 'purpose to serve'?\n\nWhat purpose do *you* serve in nature?",
"They serve no function, they just exist. Or at least, they can help regulate their hosts' population, maybe",
"They serve the purpose of making your day just that much worse. But in seriousness like other's said, all that is needed to justify their existence is the ability to eat and survive. Other things also eat them, so there is that addition to the foodchain.",
"All animals serve at least 2 functions:\n\n1. They eat something.\n2. They are eaten by something.\n\nNo matter how a creature evolves, these two things will always be true. If they don't eat, then they die out. If they aren't eaten by something, then they multiply too quickly, exhaust their food supply, and then die.\n\nTicks, specifically, perform these functions very well.\n\n1. They eat blood, thus spreading disease, and killing just about anything.\n2. They are eaten by birds, insects, and possums.\n\nThat means that ticks are useful for controlling the population of most animals. Because of the diseases they carry, you can think of them like a predator, except that they take a long time to kill a creature, and then the creature is consumed by scavengers and insects. Really, a tick is one of the few things that can take down an apex predator.\n\nIt also means that eradicating ticks from an area creates a hole in the food chain, affecting those animals that eat ticks, and also the animals that eat the animals that eat ticks, etc.\n\n=======\n\nConcerning your article, it looks like it is about an invasive species of tick (Chinese tick found in the US). That means those ticks are in an area where there is not an animal that eats them, and their numbers are growing too fast, and they are in the process of exhausting their food supply."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'ccd5ow',
'query': 'what function do insects like ticks serve in nature?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '20543649',
'title': 'Pasteurized eggs',
'section': 'Section::::Rationale.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'All egg products sold in the U.S that are pasteurized due to the risk of food-borne illnesses are done per U.S. Department of Agriculture rules. They also do not allow any egg products to be sold without going through the process of pasteurization. They also do not recommend eating shell eggs that are raw or undercooked due to the possibility that Salmonella bacteria may be present.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20543649',
'title': 'Pasteurized eggs',
'section': 'Section::::Pasteurized shell eggs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 355,
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'passage_text': 'According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, in-shell pasteurized eggs may be used safely without cooking. For example, they may safely be consumed raw (as in raw cookie dough or eggnog) or in undercooked forms (such as a sunny-side up egg). Many food service and health care providers use these eggs to prevent cross-contamination in their kitchens.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19196010',
'title': 'Egg as food',
'section': 'Section::::Health effects.:Contamination.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 80,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 80,
'end_character': 263,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Health experts advise people to refrigerate washed eggs, use them within two weeks, cook them thoroughly, and never consume raw eggs. As with meat, containers and surfaces that have been used to process raw eggs should not come in contact with ready-to-eat food.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20543649',
'title': 'Pasteurized eggs',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 230,
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'passage_text': 'Pasteurized eggs are eggs that have been pasteurized in order to reduce the risk of food-borne illness in dishes that are not cooked or are only lightly cooked. They may be sold as liquid egg products or pasteurized in the shell.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46238',
'title': 'Refrigeration',
'section': 'Section::::Current applications of refrigeration.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 63,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 63,
'end_character': 396,
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'passage_text': 'Dairy products are constantly in need of refrigeration, and it was only discovered in the past few decades that eggs needed to be refrigerated during shipment rather than waiting to be refrigerated after arrival at the grocery store. Meats, poultry and fish all must be kept in climate-controlled environments before being sold. Refrigeration also helps keep fruits and vegetables edible longer.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19196010',
'title': 'Egg as food',
'section': 'Section::::Culinary properties.:Storage.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 51,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 51,
'end_character': 413,
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'passage_text': 'Refrigeration also preserves the taste and texture, however, intact eggs (unwashed and unbroken) may be left unrefrigerated for several months without spoiling. In Europe, eggs are not usually washed, and the shells are dirtier, however the cuticle is undamaged, and they do not require refrigeration. In the UK in particular, hens are immunized against salmonella and generally, their eggs are safe for 21 days.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '369403',
'title': 'Meat analogue',
'section': 'Section::::Animal flesh analogues.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 217,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Egg substitutes include tofu, tapioca starch, ground flax seed, aquafaba, mashed bananas, applesauce and commercially prepared products that recreate the leavening, binding or textural effects of eggs in baked goods.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why do you have to refrigerate eggs from the grocery store but you don't have to if you get them fresh from a farm?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['There is a membrane that comes out of the chickens that cover the egg. In the US, its standard to have the manufacture plant wash and sanitize them, but in places like the UK, they don’t so they can leave their eggs on the counter or shelf for a while.',
"In North America, eggs are washed before shipping to the grocery store. This removes the protective layer, and requires refrigeration to keep them fresh. Farm fresh eggs still have that layer intact, so they don't have to be refrigerated. Apparently, we North Americans are too delicate for anything but perfectly clean eggshells.",
'Washing eggs removes a protective layer that can keep out bacteria etc, this causes them to go bad sooner. Eggs purchased from a farm are often unwashed keeping this protective layer intact. I only wash eggs from my birds right before use or if they are really dirty.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'c6c914',
'query': "why do you have to refrigerate eggs from the grocery store but you don't have to if you get them fresh from a farm?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '7760112',
'title': 'History of supernova observation',
'section': 'Section::::Early history.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 637,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In 185 CE, Chinese astronomers recorded the appearance of a bright star in the sky, and observed that it took about eight months to fade from the sky. It was observed to sparkle like a star and did not move across the heavens like a comet. These observations are consistent with the appearance of a supernova, and this is believed to be the oldest confirmed record of a supernova event by humankind. SN 185 may have also possibly been recorded in Roman literature, though no records have survived. The gaseous shell RCW 86 is suspected as being the remnant of this event, and recent X-ray studies show a good match for the expected age.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48407',
'title': '367',
'section': 'Section::::Events.:By topic.:Science.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 253,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- In the region of the constellation "Perseus", a star not visible to the naked eye, and 1,533 light years distant from Earth, explodes in a nova. The light from the star, now called GK Persei, will first be seen on Earth on February 21, 1901\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '215164',
'title': 'V838 Monocerotis',
'section': 'Section::::Progenitor star.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 405,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Some details are emerging on the nature of the star that experienced the outburst. Based on an incorrect interpretation of the light echo the eruption generated, the distance of the star was first estimated to be 1,900 to 2,900 light years. Combined with the apparent magnitude measured from pre-eruption photographs, it was thought to be an underluminous F-type dwarf, which posed a considerable enigma.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '57744417',
'title': 'AT2018cow',
'section': 'Section::::Properties.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 489,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'According to astronomers at the time of its discovery, the explosion, with a surface temperature of over and traveling , may have been a cataclysmic variable star (CV), gamma-ray burst (GRB), gravitational wave (GW), supernova (SN), or something else. According to astronomer Kate Maguire of Queen\'s University Belfast: "It really just appeared out of nowhere. There are other objects that have been discovered that are as fast, but the fastness and the brightness, that\'s quite unusual."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29459180',
'title': 'Stellar collision',
'section': 'Section::::Stellar collisions and the Solar System.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 24,
'end_character': 390,
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'passage_text': 'Our star will likely not be directly affected by such an event, but the Earth may be easily affected by a nearby collision. Astronomers say that if a stellar collision happens within 100 light years of the Earth, the resulting gamma-ray burst could possibly destroy all life on Earth. This is still very unlikely though because there are no stellar clusters this close to the Solar System.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '38462710',
'title': 'LRLL 54361',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 854,
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'passage_text': "This newly discovered object may offer insight into a star's early stages of formation, when large masses of gas and dust are falling into a newly forming binary star - called a pulsed accretion model. This object emits a burst of light at regular intervals of 25.34 days, possibly caused by repeated close approaches between the two component stars which are gravitationally linked in an eccentric orbit - the flashes may be the result of large amounts of matter falling into the growing protostars. Since the stars are obscured by the dense disk and envelope of dust surrounding them, direct observation is difficult. This process of star birth has been witnessed in its later stages, but has to date not been seen in such a young system, nor with such intensity and regularity. These new stars are thought to be only a few hundred thousand years old.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43752786',
'title': 'SDSS J001820.5−093939.2',
'section': 'Section::::Identification.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 251,
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'passage_text': 'Although it is not clear whether or not such a very massive star can explode, the yield of an explosion with energy of about 6 ×10 ergs (600 foe) can simultaneously explain both the low Si abundance (compared with Mg) and the low C and Mg abundances.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How is it possible to see a star that might’ve exploded thousands of years ago?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Light takes time to reach us. \n\nA star that is a million light years away may have exploded a thousand years ago, but the light carrying that information hasn't reached us yet.",
'Because it is so far away the light is just now reaching us. If a star is 250000 light years away from Earth, that means it takes two hundred fifty thousand years for the light from that star to reach Earth due to Its distance from Earth. In reality, the light takes longer to reach us than you would expect if you simply went by the distance from Earth at the time it was admitted due to the expansion of the universe, which means that the distance between Earth and any other given point is constantly expanding. Every time you look up into the night sky, you are looking back in time',
"Okay, so you know how it takes time to move your body across the room? Well light takes time too, just significantly less. When a star is producing light, we can see it however many lightyears after the point in time that that bit of light was produced. Our sun for example is 8 minutes away, so at 0 minutes when light is being produced we will see that same bit of light 8 minutes later. Well if the sun decided to explode today for no reason, we wouldn't know for 8 more minutes , because it takes time for that light to travel to us.",
"Light travels very fast, but other stars are very far away. Light from a far away star thus travels thousands or millions of years to reach Earth. This basically means we see light that is thousands of years old, thus we see the past. There might be new stars we can't see yet since the light is still on it's way, and we might see stars that have exploded thousands of years ago, but we still see the light they emitted long before that happened. ",
'Yes it is possible we are seeing stars that have already exploded. \nImagine you lived in say San Francisco in 1845 and your grandmother lived in London. \n\nEach day your grandmother mailed you a letter. \nOne day your grandmother dies but for weeks maybe months following her death letters she wrote keep arriving. You don’t know she is dead when you receive them. \n\nThe light from distant stars is like those letters. It is in transit to you even though no more are being sent so you keep receiving them for some time after. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '916o9z',
'query': 'how is it possible to see a star that might’ve exploded thousands of years ago?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '23785',
'title': 'Phrenology',
'section': 'Section::::Mental faculties.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 453,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "These areas were said to be proportional to a person's propensities. The importance of an organ was derived from relative size compared to other organs. It was believed that the cranial skull—like a glove on the hand—accommodates to the different sizes of these areas of the brain, so that a person's capacity for a given personality trait could be determined simply by measuring the area of the skull that overlies the corresponding area of the brain.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6303406',
'title': 'Largest body part',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 334,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The largest body part is either the largest given body part across all living and extinct organisms or the largest example of a body part within an existing species. The largest animals on the planet are not the only ones to have large body parts, with some smaller animals actually having one particularly enlarged area of the body.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43537463',
'title': 'Size',
'section': 'Section::::Conceptualization and generalization.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 596,
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'passage_text': "In poetry, fiction, and other literature, size is occasionally assigned to characteristics that do not have measurable dimensions, such as the metaphorical reference to the size of a person's heart as a shorthand for describing their typical degree of kindness or generosity. With respect to physical size, the concept of resizing is occasionally presented in fairy tales, fantasy, and science fiction, placing humans in a different context within their natural environment by depicting them as having physically been made exceptionally large or exceptionally small through some fantastic means.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3880495',
'title': 'Life history theory',
'section': 'Section::::Criticism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 91,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 91,
'end_character': 638,
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'passage_text': 'There are also criticisms of size and organ trade-offs, including criticism of the claim of a trade-off between body size and longevity that cites the observation of longer lifespans in larger species, as well as criticism of the claim that big brains promoted sociality citing primate studies in which monkeys with large portions of their brains surgically removed remained socially functioning though their technical problem solving deteriorated in flexibility, computer simulations of chimpanzee social interaction showing that it requires no complex cognition, and cases of socially functioning humans with microcephalic brain sizes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34463932',
'title': "Peto's paradox",
'section': 'Section::::Metabolic and cell size considerations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'Maciak and Michalak argue that cell size is not uniform across mammalian species, making body size an imperfect proxy for the number of cells in an organism. (For example, the volume of an individual red blood cell of an elephant is roughly four times that of one from a common shrew). Furthermore, larger cells divide more slowly than smaller ones, a difference which compounds exponentially over the life-span of the organism. Fewer cell divisions means fewer opportunities for cancer mutations, and mathematical models of cancer incidence are highly sensitive to cell-division rates. Additionally, larger animals generally have lower basal metabolic rates, following a well-defined inverse logarithmic relationship. Consequently, their cells will incur less damage over time per unit of body mass. Combined, these factors may explain much of the apparent paradox.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43537463',
'title': 'Size',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The sizes with which humans tend to be most familiar are body dimensions (measures of anthropometry), which include measures such as human height, and human body weight. These measures can, in the aggregate, allow the generation of commercially useful distributions of products that accommodate expected body sizes, as with the creation of clothing sizes and shoe sizes, and with the standardization of door frame dimensions, ceiling heights, and bed sizes. The human experience of size can lead to a psychological tendency towards size bias, wherein the relative importance or perceived complexity of organisms and other objects is judged based on their size relative to humans, and particularly whether this size makes them easy to observe without aid.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2583286',
'title': 'Perivascular space',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 259,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Perivascular spaces may be enlarged to a diameter of five millimeters in healthy humans and do not imply disease. When enlarged, they can disrupt the function of the brain regions into which they project. Dilation can occur on one or both sides of the brain.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Can people have smaller than average organs and what does it mean?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["If you made it this long with little to no problems, I wouldn't worry about it.\n\nBest thing to do is talk to your doctor about it. She would probably feel bad if she knew what she said made you uncomfortable and she didn't know/therefore couldn't explain things for you so you could feel better.\n\n\nI'm almost 36 and was 7 weeks early at 4lb 5oz. I have a medically documented legit thick skull. Lol. A host of other problems too, but family genetics are to blame. \n"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '76kn6r',
'query': 'can people have smaller than average organs and what does it mean?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '219026',
'title': 'Koji Kondo',
'section': 'Section::::Biography.:Early life.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 332,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'With a love of arcade video games such as "Space Invaders" and the early "Donkey Kong" series, he said video games were the only place where he could find the kind of sound creation that he was looking for. He gained some experience in composing and arranging pieces, using the piano, and a computer by programming sounds in BASIC.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44187',
'title': 'Sound effect',
'section': 'Section::::Video games.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 390,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "The principles involved with modern video game sound effects (since the introduction of sample playback) are essentially the same as those of motion pictures. Typically a game project requires two jobs to be completed: sounds must be recorded or selected from a library and a sound engine must be programmed so that those sounds can be incorporated into the game's interactive environment.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44029501',
'title': 'Development of Red Dead Redemption',
'section': 'Section::::Production.:Music production.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 1641,
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'passage_text': 'From the beginning of development, the sound development team wished to achieve authenticity in the game\'s sounds. After the art department sent artwork to the sound department, the latter were inspired to achieve realism, researching all sounds that were to be used in the game. Throughout development, sound editors often presented ideas, which would then be effortlessly achieved by the audio programmers. In the three main areas of the game world, there are unique ambiences; these are broken down into smaller sounds, such as bugs and animals, which are further refined to reflect the weather and time. The sound department was given specific instructions for the tone of game locations; for example, Thieves\' Landing was to feel "creepy" and "off-putting". The sounds of the game\'s weapons were also intricately developed; in order to feel as realistic as possible, each weapon has a variety of similar firing sounds. The development of the game\'s Foley began with a week-long session, where two Foley artists from Los Angeles were sent to record thousands of sounds relating to the game\'s setting. The sound department also spent time on specific gameplay elements; Dead Eye was meant to sound "organic" as opposed to "sci-fi or electronic", while animals—a feature that the team found challenging—was to immerse players in the experience. For the final sound mix, audio director Jeffrey Whitcher and lead sound designer Matthew Smith worked together to balance and blend the three main aspects of the soundtrack: dialogue, sound effects, and music. Smith coded systems to blend the three aspects, in order to keep the mix "dynamic".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '311632',
'title': 'Video game programmer',
'section': 'Section::::Disciplines.:Sound programmer.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 325,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Many games use advanced techniques such as 3D positional sound, making audio programming a non-trivial matter. With these games, one or two programmers may dedicate all their time to building and refining the game's sound engine, and sound programmers may be trained or have a formal background in digital signal processing.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '56320669',
'title': 'Two Point Hospital',
'section': 'Section::::Development.:Sound.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Their original intention was to create all the sound effects themselves and not use any samples, but they changed their minds when they saw the machines (which diagnose or treat patients) in the game. Many of the sounds they created originally sounded too realistic; for example, Cubism (a disease which causes the patient\'s body to become a set of cubes) sounded "a bit gory" and was changed to make it more bubbly. For the user interface, Puttick and French originally used real-world sounds. One of the most difficult parts of the sound implementation was making the machines sound the same on all three game speeds.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '2343984',
'title': 'The Lost World: Jurassic Park (console game)',
'section': 'Section::::Development.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Bryan Franklin and Erik Kraber of Franklin Media worked on the game\'s sound effects; they had previously created sound effects for "Jurassic Park: The Online Adventure" and . The creature sound effects were created using thousands of animal noises, such as beluga whale songs, vermilion flycatcher clicks, and the grunts of baby jaguars, as well as humans blowing through a 12-foot vacuum tube. A total of 1,400 sounds were created for the game\'s 23 creatures and two human characters, as well as other elements of the game. Sound effects were altered in multiple ways to create the creatures\' various noises.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45204814',
'title': 'Development of The Last of Us',
'section': 'Section::::Production.:Music and sound production.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The sound design team began working on the game early in development, in order to achieve the best results; they immediately realised that it would be challenging. Early in development, Druckmann told the sound team to "make it subtle", and underplay ideas. Audio lead Phillip Kovats was excited to completely create all sounds; no sounds were carried across from previous games. The team looked at ways to create sounds from a naturalistic point-of-view, and how to introduce minimalism into a game. By doing so, they found that it added feelings of tension, loss and hope, and that the game appeared to be a typical "action game" without the minimalism approach. They used a high dynamic range, allowing them the opportunity to inform players on tactical information, and locations to explore. The game\'s sound design was created to reflect a more "grounded" and subtle mood than "Uncharted", particularly focusing on the lack of sound. Taking inspiration from "No Country for Old Men", the team attempted to "do more with less"; Kovats said that the team was trying to tell a story by "going for a reductive quality". Straley stated that the audio is vital to some scenes in the game; "It\'s more about the psychology of what\'s happening on the audioscape than what you\'re seeing," he stated. He felt that this decision allowed a more impactful and meaningful effect with sound occurred. The sound team also attempted to portray the game\'s dark themes through sound. The team felt that it was important to let sounds play for as long as possible in the game, drawing tension. The team used a propagation technique to help players determine the exact locations of enemies, using this as a tactical advantage. This system, created by the team at Naughty Dog, is processed at random in the game engine. For the game\'s audio, the engine throws out 1500–2500 ray casts per frame; though most games avoid this, the game\'s engine allowed it to work. The team spent a lot of time recording sounds for the game, namely doors, and rusty metal. Sound designer Neil Uchitel traveled to Rio de Janeiro, discovering locations to record sounds; he recorded chickens, which were used in the game as the voices of rats. The team continued to add and change the game\'s sounds until the end of development.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
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'answers': ["Many of them will be pre-recorded and just saved into a pack that can be dragged and dropped in. The rest will be Foley sound which is just recording something that sounds like the action in a sound proof room. Off the top of my head the only one I can think of was snapping a piece of celery for a bone breaking. They're normally layered with many other sounds to create the best sound for the film"],
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '7623862',
'title': 'Rubber elasticity',
'section': 'Section::::Molecular-level models.\n',
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'passage_text': "There are actually several physical mechanisms that produce the elastic forces within the network chains as a rubber sample is stretched. Two of these arise from entropy changes and one is associated with the distortion of the molecular bond angles along the chain backbone. These three mechanisms are immediately apparent when a moderately thick rubber sample is stretched manually. Initially, the rubber feels quite stiff, i.e. the force must be increased at a high rate with respect to the strain. At intermediate strains, the required increase in force is much lower to cause the same amount of stretch. Finally, as the sample approaches the breaking point, its stiffness increases markedly. What the observer is noticing are the changes in the modulus of elasticity that are due to the different molecular mechanisms. These regions can be seen in Fig. 1, a typical stress vs. strain measurement for natural rubber. The three mechanisms (labelled Ia, Ib and II) predominantly correspond to the regions shown on the plot. The concept of entropy comes to us from the area mathematical physics called statistical mechanics which is concerned with the study of large thermal systems, e.g. rubber networks at room temperature. Although the detailed behavior of the constituent chains are random and far too complex to study individually, we can obtain very useful information about their 'average' behavior from a statistical mechanics analysis of a large sample. There are no other examples of how entropy changes can produce a force in our everyday experience. One may regard the entropic forces in polymer chains as arising from the thermal collisions that their constituent atoms experience with the surrounding material. It is this constant jostling that produces a resisting (elastic) force in the chains as they are forced to become straight. \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '241223',
'title': "Poisson's ratio",
'section': 'Section::::Origin.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Conversely, if the material is stretched rather than compressed, it usually tends to contract in the directions transverse to the direction of stretching. It is a common observation when a rubber band is stretched, it becomes noticeably thinner. Again, the Poisson ratio will be the ratio of relative contraction to relative expansion and will have the same value as above. In certain rare cases, a material will actually shrink in the transverse direction when compressed (or expand when stretched) which will yield a negative value of the Poisson ratio.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7623862',
'title': 'Rubber elasticity',
'section': 'Section::::Experiments.:Snap-back velocity.\n',
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'passage_text': 'When we stretch a piece of rubber, e.g a rubber band, we notice that it deforms uniformly, lengthwise. Every element along its length experiences the same extension factor as the entire sample. If we release one end, the sample snaps back to its original length very rapidly, too fast for our eye to resolve the process. Our intuitive expectation is that it returns to its original length in the same manner as when it was stretched, i. e. uniformly. However, this is not what happens. Experimental observations by Mrowca et al. show a surprising behavior. To capture the extremely fast retraction dynamics , they utilized a clever experimental method devised by Exner and Stefan in 1874, well before high-speed electronic measuring devices were invented. Their method consisted of a rapidly rotating glass cylinder which, after being coated with lamp black, was placed next to the stretched rubber sample. Styli, attached to the mid-point and free end of the rubber sample, were held in contact with the glass cylinder. Then, as the free end of the rubber snapped back, the styli traced out helical paths in the lamp black coating of the rotating cylinder. By adjusting the rotation speed of the cylinder, they could record the position of the styli in less than one complete rotation. The trajectories were transferred to a graph by rolling the cylinder on a piece of damp blotter paper. The mark left by a stylus appeared as a white line (no lamp black) on the paper.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44111098',
'title': 'Regional function of the heart',
'section': 'Section::::Using Strain to Measure Regional Function.:Principal Strain Components of the Heart.:Circumferential Strain (Ecc).\n',
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'passage_text': 'Similar to peak contraction, peak stretching is the instant when the rubber band is at its maximum length. In the case of the LV, it will correspond with end-diastole, and with the same comment about the variance like end-systole.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Regional function of the heart',
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'passage_text': "Because strain is measured between two points, that strain, therefore, describes the change in distance along the direction connecting the two points. If we think of a rubber band that is stretched, the strain along the band will have a positive value for stretching; i.e. when selecting two points placed along the band length. At the same time, the band width will decrease, resulting in a negative strain orthogonal to the band's length. \n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '512470',
'title': 'Rubber band',
'section': 'Section::::Thermodynamics.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The result is that a rubber band behaves somewhat like an ideal monatomic gas inasmuch as (to good approximation) that elastic polymers do not store any potential energy in stretched chemical bonds. No elastic work is done to "stretch" molecules when work is done upon these bulk polymers. Instead, all work done to the rubber is "released" (not stored) and appears immediately in the polymer as thermal energy. Conversely, when the polymer does work on the surroundings (such as contracting to lift an object) it converts thermal energy to work in the process and cools in the same manner as an ideal gas, expanding while doing work.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '512470',
'title': 'Rubber band',
'section': 'Section::::Rubber band sizes.:Measuring.\n',
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'passage_text': "If one imagines a rubber band during manufacture, that is, a long tube of rubber on a mandrel, before it is sliced into rubber bands, the band's width is decided by how far apart the slices are cut, and its length by the circumference of the tube.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How far do the atoms in a rubber band stretch (separate) in relation to each other compared to the atoms in, say, a steel bar when you pull on it?',
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'answers': ["Rubber is actually something called a polymer which is a long chain of segments called monomers. These long chains are like a big pot of spaghetti. This is what gives rubber (and many other polymers) their ability to stretch and bend. The atomic radius of the atoms in rubber isnt really increasing its actually the polymer chains sliding over eachother much like when you take a scoop out of a pot of spaghetti. \n\nIn a steel bar all of the atoms are held together and are not allowed to slide past eachother like with polymers.\n\nTL:DR The atoms aren't separating the molecules are and steel doesn't have molecules so it can't stretch the same way.",
'Thwres a good vsauce on youtube that explains it. He holds a chain and shakes it to show the movement of energy when the chain is moving the chains shorter but if he pulls from the bottom the chains are stretched out and less clumped together so to speak. Look it up\n\nEdit: found it _URL_0_'],
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'query_id': 'cler8r',
'query': 'how far do the atoms in a rubber band stretch (separate) in relation to each other compared to the atoms in, say, a steel bar when you pull on it?',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3723923',
'title': 'Active networking',
'section': 'Section::::Nanoscale active networks.\n',
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'passage_text': 'As the limit in reduction of transistor size is reached with current technology, active networking concepts are being explored as a more efficient means accomplishing computation and communication. More on this can be found in nanoscale networking.\n',
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'title': 'Integrated circuit',
'section': 'Section::::Advances.\n',
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'passage_text': 'As it becomes more difficult to manufacture ever smaller transistors, companies are using Multi-chip modules, Three-dimensional integrated circuits, 3D NAND, Package on package, and Through-silicon vias to increase performance and reducing size, without having to reduce the size of the transistors. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4791387',
'title': 'Interconnect bottleneck',
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'passage_text': 'Improved performance of computer systems has been achieved, in large part, by downscaling the IC minimum feature size. This allows the basic IC building block, the transistor, to operate at a higher frequency, performing more computations per second. However, downscaling of the minimum feature size also results in tighter packing of the wires on a microprocessor, which increases parasitic capacitance and signal propagation delay. Consequently, the delay due to the communication between the parts of a chip becomes comparable to the computation delay itself. This phenomenon, known as an “interconnect bottleneck”, is becoming a major problem in high-performance computer systems.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '87858',
'title': 'Transputer',
'section': 'Section::::Legacy.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Recent trends have also tried to solve the transistor dilemma in ways that would have been too futuristic even for Inmos. On top of adding components to the CPU die and placing multiple dies in one system, modern processors increasingly place multiple cores in one die. The transputer designers struggled to fit even one core into its transistor budget. Today designers, working with a 1000-fold increase in transistor densities, can now typically place many. One of the most recent commercial developments has emerged from the firm XMOS, which has developed a family of embedded multi-core multi-threaded processors which resonate strongly with the transputer and Inmos. There is an emerging class of multicore/manycore processors taking the approach of a "network on a chip" (NoC), such as the Cell processor, Adapteva Epiphany architecture, Tilera, etc.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '51056408',
'title': 'Carbon nanotubes in interconnects',
'section': 'Section::::Local interconnects.\n',
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'passage_text': 'While smaller dimensions mean better performance for transistors thanks to the decrease of intrinsic transistor gate delay, the situation is quite the opposite for interconnects. Smaller cross-section areas of interconnect would only lead to performance degradation such as increased interconnect resistance and power consumption. Since the 1990s the circuit performance is no longer limited by the transistors, thus interconnects have become a key issue and are as important as the transistors in determining chip performance. As technology scaling continues, the problem of interconnect performance degradation will only become more significant. Local interconnects that are on the lower levels of the interconnect stack connecting nearby logic gates are aggressively scaled down at each generation to follow the miniaturization of transistors and thus are mostly susceptible to performance degradation. On the local level where interconnects are most densely packed, and have pitch sizes close to the minimum feature size, we will need new interconnect materials that suffer much less from sizing effects than copper.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '1819403',
'title': '65-nanometer process',
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'passage_text': 'IEDM papers from Intel in 2002, 2004, and 2005 illustrate the industry trend that the transistor sizes can no longer scale along with the rest of the feature dimensions (gate width only changed from 220\xa0nm to 210\xa0nm going from 90\xa0nm to 65\xa0nm technologies). However, the interconnects (metal and poly pitch) continue to shrink, thus reducing chip area and chip cost, as well as shortening the distance between transistors, leading to higher-performance devices of greater complexity when compared with earlier nodes.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '57688582',
'title': 'CMOS amplifiers',
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'passage_text': 'CMOS technology had been primarily introduced to design digital circuits. In the last decades, in order to improve speed, power consumption, required area and other aspects of digital integrated circuits (ICs), the feature size of MOSFET transistors has shrunk (minimum channel length of transistors reduces in newer CMOS technologies). This phenomenon predicted by Gordon Moore in 1975, which is called Moore’s law, and states that in about each 2 years, the number of transistors doubles for the same silicon area of ICs. Progress in memory circuits design is an interesting example to see how process advancement have affected the required size and their performance in the last decades. In 1956, a 5 MB Hard Disk Drive (HDD) weighed over a ton, while these days having 50000 times more capacity with a weight of several tens of grams is very common.\n',
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'title': 'Since we will eventually hit a wall of reducing the size of transistors on a computer processor, what else can we do to improve its performance?',
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'answers': ["I'm thinking that a fundamental understanding of how an electron moves between two points without passing through all points in between is going to be the next big advancement. That could theoretically open the door to having no wires. ",
'There are a few things that can be done. First, architectural improvements. Processors have individual steps they can do called instructions. As time goes on, these instructions tended to be able to executed in fewer clock cycles on average. You can also add new specialized instructions that are useful for certain cases. Intel and AMD processors use the x86 architecture, which provides instructions to do operations such as addition on multiple numbers at once, which can greatly speed up things where many values are operated on the same way. Second, we can add more cores. This can be done by using multiple processor dies or by enlarging the dies to hold more cores. This is what makes a super computer better than a normal computer in basic terms: they use a whole lot of cores which can do many calculations in parallel.',
"In a way that is already reached. The clock speed increase a lot slower today the it did in the past so the result was that you started to add more and more cores\n\nLook at [40 years microprocessors trend data](_URL_0_) and notice how the frequency have remand relative stable since \\~2005 Single thread performance have still increased because the designs get better and better .\n\nSo when you can't create smaller transistors the rate of speed increase will slow down but you can still improve the speed by changing the design to more do it more efficient.",
"Very simple: streamline code. Make it efficient en cut out the sloppy parts. Don't program an Os that has everything like modern Windows, but go barebones and add what you need.\n\nBasically go back to the minimalist code of way back then.\n\nOh, and cut ads, telemetry.",
'There are a few avenues available once we can no longer brute Force our way with simply more calculations.\n\n1) more efficient coding. Figuring out the elegant solutions to problems rather than simply doing tons of small approximations.\n\nOr if you have to approximate (quite common in many situations) you do it with methods that require fewer overall steps.\n\n2) dedicated chips designed to do a specific type of calculations. We already do this. Graphics cards are optimized on a hardware level to do certain calculations very efficiently. Newer ones even have specific "physics" chips to take some tasks away from the main PC to figure out things like light paths, smoke, and fabric blowing in wind. This can apply to more tasks.\n\n3) parallel processing hardware and software design. Break a task up to different chips so they all do one small part. Then organize and deliver it as a whole when they\'re all done.\n\nWierd solutions: use radio signals to connect parts of the chips or motherboard rather than wires. It takes time for an answer to skip from one side of a chip to the other for further communication. So simply broadcast it wirelessly to use the fastest thing we can: light.\n\nOptical circuits that don\'t use electricity, but instead use light. This takes very different materials and processes to make, and it will be some time before it comes to complete with modern CPU on speed, cost and size. But theoretically much faster.\n\nMoving away from binary coding. Having only on or off in each piece of information is limiting if simple to engineer and code. Moving to a system that had more states (trinary with off, on and kind of on) can help with processing speed if done properly. But also not easily integrated into our current system.',
'An interesting possibility I have seen is making processors three-dimensional, or replacing electrons with photons (aka making the data travel by light instead of by wire)',
'There are a bunch of technologies that will continue to push performance forward for a while:\n\n * [Asynchronous logic](_URL_3_). You know how CPUs are clocked, e.g., 3 GHz (3 billion cycles/second)? Using a clock makes it much easier to synchronize and schedule the work the processor is doing. Unfortunately, the clock itself takes power and needs to get routed around the chip, and all of the work the CPU does has to get chopped up into chunks that can get done within one clock cycle. [In 1997, Intel developed an asynchronous, Pentium-compatible test chip that ran three times as fast, on half the power, as its synchronous equivalent,](_URL_5_) but didn\'t commercialize it because designing asynchronous logic is much harder.\n * [Photonic interconnects](_URL_4_) would eliminate the propagation delay of signals across the chip.\n * Exotic semiconductors like [Gallium arsenide](_URL_1_), [Carbon nanotubes](_URL_0_), and even [diamond](_URL_2_) can be clocked higher than silicon. Silicon has the advantage of being cheap, easy to manufacture, easy to purify, easy to manipulate with "dopants" to change its electrical properties, easy to insulate (SiO2), and being very well understood.\n * Widespread use of programmable hardware (FPGAs). The CPUs we use today are general-purpose. They are optimized to handle a wide variety of tasks, but truly excel at none of them. Nowadays a computer has lots of fixed, specialized hardware that you use only some of the time to decode video, render 3d graphics, decrypt data, and so on. If instead most of a computer\'s hardware was reconfigurable, it\'s as if entirely different chips, optimized to do different functions, can be swapped in and out on the fly.',
'We can make transistor a lot smaller, but there is no longer a guarantee that they will function as intended. They would operate probabilistically not deterministically. As in it probably gave me the correct result. We could simply adjust our way of thinking about computers to accommodate this, or deployed some compensation mechanisms. There are several error correction algorithms out there, especially in the digital radio communicates field. We could also simply parallelize the signal through multiple processors and take the consensus as the result.',
'Josephson junctions? They switch much faster then pure semiconductor or metal gated semiconductor junctions and use symbolic amounts of energy if the magnetic field that provides the junction switching is also superconducting like the rest of the junction.\n\nThe thing has to be very cold though. Not a problem for a supercomputer in a large supercomputing center.'],
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '34382035',
'title': 'Phases of clinical research',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Food effect: A short trial designed to investigate any differences in absorption of the drug by the body, caused by eating before the drug is given. These studies are usually run as a crossover study, with volunteers being given two identical doses of the drug while fasted, and after being fed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Mouthwash',
'section': 'Section::::Ingredients.:Benzydamine/Difflam (analgesics).\n',
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'passage_text': 'In painful oral conditions such as aphthous stomatitis, analgesic mouthrinses (e.g. benzydamine mouthwash, or "Difflam") are sometimes used to ease pain, commonly used before meals to reduce discomfort while eating.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Drug interaction',
'section': 'Section::::Pharmacokinetic interactions.:Absorption interactions.:Changes in motility.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Drug solubility: The absorption of some drugs can be drastically reduced if they are administered together with food with a high fat content. This is the case for oral anticoagulants and avocado.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Paromomycin',
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'passage_text': 'GI absorption is poor. Any obstructions or factors which impair GI motility may increase the absorption of the drug from the digestive tract. In addition, any structural damage, such as lesions or ulcerations, will tend to increase drug absorption.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1264869',
'title': 'Albendazole',
'section': 'Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacokinetics.\n',
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'passage_text': "The absorption also largely depends on gastric pH. People have varying gastric pHs on empty stomachs, and thus absorption from one person to another can vary wildly when taken without food. Generally, the absorption in the GI tract is poor due to albendazole's low solubility in water. It is, however, better absorbed than other benzimidazole carbamates. Food stimulates gastric acid secretion, lowering the pH and making albendazole more soluble and thus more easily absorbed. Oral absorption is especially increased with a fatty meal, as albendazole dissolves better in lipids, allowing it to cross the lipid barrier created by the mucus surface of the GI tract. To target intestinal parasites, albendazole is taken on an empty stomach in order to stay within the gut.\n",
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'passage_text': 'The rate of omeprazole absorption is decreased by concomitant food intake. In addition, the absorption of lansoprazole and esomeprazole is decreased and delayed by food. It has been reported, however, that these pharmacokinetic effects have no significant impact on efficacy.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1128211',
'title': 'Amiloride',
'section': 'Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacokinetics.:Absorption.\n',
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'passage_text': "Amiloride has an oral bioavailability of 50%, meaning that about 50% of an oral dose is absorbed into the blood stream. Coadministration with food reduces the amount of amiloride that is absorbed by the body by about 30%, though it does not affect the rate of absorption. However, taking amiloride with food helps to reduce the incidence of its gastrointestinal side effects. After being taken, amiloride's diuretic effect occurs within 2 hours, with peak diuresis within 6–10 hours. The diuretic effects of amiloride persist for about 24 hours after administration.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Does eating food affect the absorption of painkillers?',
'selftext': 'If you were to take painkillers such as paracetamol or ibuprofen on an empty stomach would they work stronger/quicker as there isn’t any food to get in the way?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["I don't think so. That kind of recommendation sounds more like to avoid of doing something bad to your stomach. Something like when people recommend to eat something with the coffee to counter the acidity.",
"Pharmacist here. It depends which drug specifically. In the case of acetaminophen/paracetamol, food may slightly slow down how the drug is absorbed in the small intestine but it's mostly negligible and the recommendation is to take it regardless of food. \n\nAs for ibuprofen, it's generally recommended to take it with food, mostly to avoid side effects (stomachaches or ulcers). It's thought that food actually increases the absorption of ibuprofen but again, the difference in absorption isn't very significant.\n\nIf you have more detailed drug-related questions I would suggest calling your local pharmacist :)"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'entp0o',
'query': 'does eating food affect the absorption of painkillers?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '794008',
'title': 'Dry eye syndrome',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 574,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Dry eye occurs when either the eye does not produce enough tears or when the tears evaporate too quickly. This can result from contact lens use, meibomian gland dysfunction, allergies, pregnancy, Sjögren's syndrome, vitamin A deficiency, LASIK surgery, and certain medications such as antihistamines, some blood pressure medication, hormone replacement therapy, and antidepressants. Chronic conjunctivitis such as from tobacco smoke exposure or infection may also lead to the condition. Diagnosis is mostly based on the symptoms, though a number of other tests may be used.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '844668',
'title': 'Chalazion',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 1394,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "If they continue to enlarge or fail to settle within a few months, smaller lesions may be injected with a corticosteroid, or larger ones may be surgically removed using local anesthesia. This is usually done from underneath the eyelid to avoid a scar on the skin. If the chalazion is located directly under the eyelid's outer tissue, however, an excision from above may be more advisable so as not to inflict any unnecessary damage on the lid itself. Eyelid epidermis usually mends well, without leaving any visible scar. Depending on the chalazion's texture, the excision procedure varies: while fluid matter can easily be removed under minimal invasion, by merely puncturing the chalazion and exerting pressure upon the surrounding tissue, hardened matter usually necessitates a larger incision, through which it can be scraped out. Any residual matter should be metabolized in the course of the subsequent healing process, generally aided by regular appliance of dry heat. The excision of larger chalazia may result in visible hematoma around the lid, which will wear off within three or four days, whereas the swelling may persist for longer. Chalazion excision is an ambulant treatment and normally does not take longer than fifteen minutes. Nevertheless, owing to the risks of infection and severe damage to the eyelid, such procedures should only be performed by a medical professional.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7322105',
'title': 'Travoprost',
'section': 'Section::::Side effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 227,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Research suggests that wiping the eye with an absorbent pad after the administration of eye drops can result in shorter eyelashes and a lesser chance of hyperpigmentation in the eyelid, compared to not wiping off excess fluid.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2263486',
'title': 'Latanoprost',
'section': 'Section::::Adverse effects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 227,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Research suggests that wiping the eye with an absorbent pad after the administration of eye drops can result in shorter eyelashes and a lesser chance of hyperpigmentation in the eyelid, compared to not wiping off excess fluid.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46933153',
'title': 'IOL Scaffold',
'section': 'Section::::IOL Scaffold for foreign body removal.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 492,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'External foreign bodies can enter the eye and can get lodged on the retina or vitreous. This is often removed through the open method of opening through the sclera (white coat of the eye). While removing large intraocular foreign bodies (IOFB), it may drop or slip onto the back part of eye again. In order to prevent this, the IOL can be placed on the sulcus or glued to the sclera and the IOFB can be removed over it (Fig 4). This will prevent the accidental slippage of IOFB into the eye.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11877595',
'title': 'Gland of Zeis',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 243,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'If eyelashes are not kept clean, conditions such as folliculitis may take place, and if the sebaceous gland becomes infected, it can lead to abscesses and styes. The glands of Zeis are named after German ophthalmologist Eduard Zeis (1807–68).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '219021',
'title': 'Capillary action',
'section': 'Section::::Examples.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 324,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In physiology, capillary action is essential for the drainage of continuously produced tear fluid from the eye. Two canaliculi of tiny diameter are present in the inner corner of the eyelid, also called the lacrimal ducts; their openings can be seen with the naked eye within the lacrymal sacs when the eyelids are everted.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "What happens to an eyeball after it's removed from a body and loses its moisture?",
'selftext': "Sorry if this is gross, I've just always wondered and can never figure out how to Google this. I never participated in dissections and I don't hunt so I've never interacted with an eyeball apart from putting contacts in. If you took an eye out of a person or animal (not suggesting this at all) and just set the eyeball on a table, what would happen to it? Would you have an eyeball raisin after it's all dried out, or a pile of eye dust, or just nothing?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Well, it would definitely depend upon the environment around the eyeball, but since you're particularly curious about it being dried out; in an arid environment (say under a heat lamp or something) yeah, it would turn into basically an eyeball raisin. But under most conditions, it'd basically just eventually rot, turning into a dark goo as it decomposes, like the rest (mostly) of the organs.",
"You might enjoy [this](_URL_0_). It's basically an ophthalmologist (eye doctor) experimenting with a bag of pig eyes and acid, paintball guns, lasers, etc."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'crk29t',
'query': "what happens to an eyeball after it's removed from a body and loses its moisture?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '66554',
'title': 'Dietary fiber',
'section': 'Section::::Activity in the gut.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 45,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 45,
'end_character': 276,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Many molecules that are considered to be "dietary fiber" are so because humans lack the necessary enzymes to split the glycosidic bond and they reach the large intestine. Many foods contain varying types of dietary fibers, all of which contribute to health in different ways.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21525',
'title': 'Nutrition',
'section': 'Section::::Nutrients.:Macronutrients.:Carbohydrates.:Fiber.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 40,
'end_character': 1593,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Dietary fiber is a carbohydrate that is incompletely absorbed in humans and in some animals. Like all carbohydrates, when it is metabolized it can produce four Calories (kilocalories) of energy per gram. However, in most circumstances it accounts for less than that because of its limited absorption and digestibility. Dietary fiber consists mainly of cellulose, a large carbohydrate polymer which is indigestible as humans do not have the required enzymes to disassemble it. There are two subcategories: soluble and insoluble fiber. Whole grains, fruits (especially plums, prunes, and figs), and vegetables are good sources of dietary fiber. There are many health benefits of a high-fiber diet. Dietary fiber helps reduce the chance of gastrointestinal problems such as constipation and diarrhea by increasing the weight and size of stool and softening it. Insoluble fiber, found in whole wheat flour, nuts and vegetables, especially stimulates peristalsis – the rhythmic muscular contractions of the intestines, which move digest along the digestive tract. Soluble fiber, found in oats, peas, beans, and many fruits, dissolves in water in the intestinal tract to produce a gel that slows the movement of food through the intestines. This may help lower blood glucose levels because it can slow the absorption of sugar. Additionally, fiber, perhaps especially that from whole grains, is thought to possibly help lessen insulin spikes, and therefore reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes. The link between increased fiber consumption and a decreased risk of colorectal cancer is still uncertain.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '93827',
'title': 'Human nutrition',
'section': 'Section::::Nutrients.:Fiber.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 1051,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Dietary fiber is a carbohydrate, specifically a polysaccharide, which is incompletely absorbed in humans and in some animals. Like all carbohydrates, when it is metabolized, it can produce four Calories (kilocalories) of energy per gram, but in most circumstances, it accounts for less than that because of its limited absorption and digestibility. The two subcategories are insoluble and soluble fiber. Insoluble dietary fiber consists mainly of cellulose, a large carbohydrate polymer that is indigestible by humans, because humans do not have the required enzymes to break it down, and the human digestive system does not harbor enough of the types of microbes that can do so. Soluble dietary fiber comprises a variety of oligosaccharides, waxes, esters, resistant starches, and other carbohydrates that dissolve or gelatinize in water. Many of these soluble fibers can be fermented or partially fermented by microbes in the human digestive system to produce short-chain fatty acids which are absorbed and therefore introduce some caloric content.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '66554',
'title': 'Dietary fiber',
'section': 'Section::::Activity in the gut.:Physicochemical properties.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 54,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 54,
'end_character': 284,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Dietary fiber has distinct physicochemical properties. Most semi-solid foods, fiber and fat are a combination of gel matrices which are hydrated or collapsed with microstructural elements, globules, solutions or encapsulating walls. Fresh fruit and vegetables are cellular materials.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '93827',
'title': 'Human nutrition',
'section': 'Section::::Nutrients.:Fiber.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 790,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Whole grains, beans and other legumes, fruits (especially plums, prunes, and figs), and vegetables are good sources of dietary fiber. Fiber is important to digestive health and is thought to reduce the risk of colon cancer. For mechanical reasons, fiber can help in alleviating both constipation and diarrhea. Fiber provides bulk to the intestinal contents, and insoluble fiber especially stimulates peristalsis – the rhythmic muscular contractions of the intestines which move digesta along the digestive tract. Some soluble fibers produce a solution of high viscosity; this is essentially a gel, which slows the movement of food through the intestines. Additionally, fiber, perhaps especially that from whole grains, may help lessen insulin spikes and reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '66554',
'title': 'Dietary fiber',
'section': 'Section::::Activity in the gut.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 46,
'end_character': 523,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Dietary fibers make three primary contributions: bulking, viscosity and fermentation. Different fibers have different effects, suggesting that a variety of dietary fibers contribute to overall health. Some fibers contribute through one primary mechanism. For instance, cellulose and wheat bran provide excellent bulking effects, but are minimally fermented. Alternatively, many dietary fibers can contribute to health through more than one of these mechanisms. For instance, psyllium provides bulking as well as viscosity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23978',
'title': 'Polysaccharide',
'section': 'Section::::Function.:Structure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 232,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Not yet formally proposed as an essential macronutrient (as of 2005), dietary fiber is nevertheless regarded as important for the diet, with regulatory authorities in many developed countries recommending increases in fiber intake.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is dietary fibre important?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Fiber is made of complex sugars that makes up the cell walls of plants, such as cellulose, or other sugars such as chitin. Although some animals can digest it, humans can't. Since it is not digested, it makes it into the large intestine, where it absorbs water and makes pooping easier. There are other components and forms of fiber, but this is pretty much the main one.",
'There’s also new evidence that the “good” bacteria in our colon take nutrition from dietary fiber. So even if humans can’t digest it, our gut bacteria can. Having a healthy microbiome is essential to preventing diabetes, heart disease and all sorts of other inflammatory disorders. So, eat your fruits and veggies.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'ajyscc',
'query': 'why is dietary fibre important?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '353148',
'title': 'Heckler & Koch MP7',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 416,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "The proliferation of high-quality body armor has begun to make guns that fire pistol ammunition (such as Heckler & Koch's earlier MP5 submachine gun and USP pistol) ineffective. In response to this trend, Heckler & Koch designed the MP7 (along with the cancelled UCP pistol, which uses the same ammunition) to penetrate body armor while being small enough to be used in place of either a pistol or a submachine gun.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '485541',
'title': 'Interceptor Body Armor',
'section': 'Section::::Effectiveness.:Discussion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 51,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 51,
'end_character': 570,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Body armor is always a compromise: mobility and comfort (and with it speed and stamina) are inevitably sacrificed to some degree when greater protection is achieved. This is a point of contention in the U.S. armed forces, with some favoring less armor in order to maintain mobility and others wanting as much protection as is practical. Troops who primarily ride in vehicles generally want the highest practical level of protection from IEDs and ambushes, while dismounted infantry often make the case that impaired mobility can prove just as fatal as inadequate armor.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13640325',
'title': 'Improved Outer Tactical Vest',
'section': 'Section::::Features.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 427,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Nearly all modern military body armor is designed to prevent penetration from bullets to vital areas of the body, in addition to protection against knives and fragmentation from explosives. Typically this is accomplished through both highly durable woven synthetic fibers such as Kevlar or Dyneema, and either metal or ceramic trauma plates. The IOTV is the standard issue torso protection component to the United States Army.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '149058',
'title': 'Bulletproof vest',
'section': 'Section::::Performance standards.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 49,
'end_character': 1025,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Body armor standards are regional. Around the world ammunition varies and as a result the armor testing must reflect the threats found locally. Law enforcement statistics show that many shootings where officers are injured or killed involve the officer\'s own weapon. As a result, each law enforcement agency or para-military organization will have their own standard for armor performance if only to ensure that their armor protects them from their own weapons. While many standards exist, a few standards are widely used as models. The US National Institute of Justice ballistic and stab documents are examples of broadly accepted standards. In addition to the NIJ, the UK Home Office Scientific Development Branch (HOSDB – formerly the Police Scientific Development Branch (PSDB)) standards are used by a number of other countries and organizations. These "model" standards are usually adapted by other countries by incorporation of the basic test methodologies with modification of the bullets that are required for test.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1141753',
'title': 'Flak jacket',
'section': 'Section::::Ballistic protection.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 454,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'It was not until 1970 that the U.S. National Institute of Justice, which now publishes test and performance standards for body armor, began a deliberate program to develop body armor for law enforcement personnel that would be effective against specific threats that were common causes of officer injury and death. At the time that included .38 Special and .22 Long Rifle bullets, in particular, and also bullets from 9mm, .45, and .32 caliber firearms.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44896210',
'title': 'M9 half-track',
'section': 'Section::::Design.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 289,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'As with the M5, due to the lack of face-hardened armor, homogenous armor was used. Although thicker, it gave less protection and could be penetrated by armor-piercing rifle bullets from rather than . The armor also made the vehicle heavier, though the performance was essentially similar.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '485541',
'title': 'Interceptor Body Armor',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Development and production.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
'end_character': 732,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "In 2007, news reports were being issued on the lack of protection from hard and soft plated body armor from lethal rounds. Due to the coverage of these reports, comparative studies were done on the effectiveness of U.S. Military body armor, included IBA. IBA's performance was deemed inferior compared to other body armor designs and published on the news. The large coverage from this report led to Dean G. Popps, the Acting United States Assistant Secretary of the Army for Acquisition, Logistics, and Technology, to direct all first article testing (FAT) of IBA to the Army Test and Evaluation Command (ATEC). The command headquarters are located at Aberdeen Proving Ground (APG) as a part of the Army Research Laboratory (ARL).\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why is it that modern body armor, like the kind used by the military and police, is very rarely of high enough strength to stop rounds from rifle caliber weapons? Especially in a military context, aren't rifle caliber weapons exceedingly common?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The speed of a rifle bullet is much more than a pistol. The amount of armor that would be required to stop a rifle bullet with the same effectiveness as a pistol round would be too heavy and bulky for the wearer to be able to do anything else effectively. ',
'When I was deployed we had armor with plates. They were rated to stop a round from an AK-47. But like with many things. The more times it gets hit the more it loses its structural integrity. Think of a brick wall and a sledgehammer. Sure, the brick wall maybe able to stop a few hits, but eventually the force is going to weaken it to the point of failure. You also have to consider mobility as well. The armor can’t be so thick and heavy that the person wearing can’t move either. It’s a balance that has to be reached. Too much weight and the soldiers may as well just make a Fox hole and fight from a secure position. ',
'Disclaimer: I was in the navy almost 20 years ago, so I\'m sure things have changed since. \n\nWhen I was on active duty, there were several ports er stopped in where our watch standers were required to wear flak jackets. We were told they were rated for frag and small-to-medium caliber pistol rounds--but not rifle bullets.\n\nWhen I got off watch the first time, I hit the publications to find out why.\n\nAs it turns out, since WWII, upwards of 80% of casualties suffered by soldiers in combat were inflicted by fragments from explosive detonation, not bullets (frag grenades, land mines, artillery shells).\n\nAt the same time, nearly all modern militaries practice a type of warfare called "fire and maneuver." Well over 95% of bullets fired are never even intended to hit their target; they\'re used primarily to force the enemy to stay behind cover (called "suppressive fire") while the rest of the squad maneuvers into position for the kill.\n\nI understand that nowadays, soldiers\' armor is issued with trauma plates, so clearly things have changed a bit.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9ho0y0',
'query': "why is it that modern body armor, like the kind used by the military and police, is very rarely of high enough strength to stop rounds from rifle caliber weapons? especially in a military context, aren't rifle caliber weapons exceedingly common?",
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '397360',
'title': 'Dalton Gang',
'section': 'Section::::Coffeyville bank robbery.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 822,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Grat and Bob Dalton, Dick Broadwell and Bill Power were all killed. Emmett Dalton received 23 gunshot wounds and survived (he was shot through the right arm, below the shoulder, through the left – right, in some accounts – hip and groin, and received 18-23 buckshot in his back). He was given a life sentence in the Kansas State Penitentiary in Lansing, Kansas, of which he served 14 years before being pardoned. He moved to California and became a real estate agent, author and actor, and died in 1937 at age 66. Speculation arose that a "sixth man" had been holding the gang\'s horses in an alleyway and had escaped; he was believed to be Bill Doolin. That has never been confirmed. Bill Doolin, "Bitter Creek" Newcomb, and Charlie Pierce, none of whom were at Coffeyville, were the only members left of the Dalton Gang.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48711453',
'title': '2015 San Bernardino attack',
'section': 'Section::::Victims.:Fatalities.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 33,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 33,
'end_character': 372,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'According to autopsy reports released on May 27, 2016, the 14 deceased all died from multiple gunshot wounds, and almost all of them were shot in the back. Twelve of them died almost immediately from their wounds, while the other two, Shannon Johnson and Bennetta Betbadal, later died at a makeshift triage center set up across the street from the Inland Regional Center.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21183551',
'title': 'First inauguration of Lyndon B. Johnson',
'section': 'Section::::Assassination of John F. Kennedy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 343,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "There were initial reports that Johnson might have also been shot, slightly wounded in the arm or that he had suffered another heart attack (he had suffered one eight years earlier that nearly killed him). Mrs. Johnson confirmed to reporters that he was fine and did not suffer any injury or illness other than being shaken at what he'd seen.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '37402775',
'title': '2012 Azana Spa shootings',
'section': 'Section::::Perpetrator and victims.:Victims.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 19,
'end_character': 438,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The living victims included a woman seven months pregnant who was shot in the neck, another who was shot in the thigh, a third who was shot in the hand, and a fourth whose injuries were not further specified; all were expected to survive. All four were recovering at Froedtert Hospital from their gunshot wounds, three of them being in satisfactory condition and the fourth in critical condition; three of these victims required surgery.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27193234',
'title': 'Westroads Mall shooting',
'section': 'Section::::Aftermath.:Victims.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 725,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Four of the victims shot by Hawkins survived. Two critically injured were store employees. Fred Wilson, 61, was a manager for the customer service department. He was sent to the University of Nebraska Medical Center with a gunshot wound to the upper chest. By the time he reached the ER, he had lost three-quarters of his blood and had no pulse. Wilson was upgraded to stable by the following weekend, and soon after was making some attempts to communicate. The other critically wounded victim was customer service employee Micheale "Mickey" Oldham, 65, who was sent to Creighton University Medical Center. She sustained heavy injuries to the abdomen and back, and, of the surviving victims, she suffered the worst injuries.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '264467',
'title': 'Braxton Bragg',
'section': 'Section::::Later life and death.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 59,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 59,
'end_character': 541,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'On September 27, 1876, at the age of 59, Bragg was walking down a street with a friend in Galveston, Texas, when he suddenly fell over unconscious. Dragged into a drugstore, he was dead within 10 to 15 minutes. A physician familiar with his history believed that he "died by the brain" (or of "paralysis of the brain"), suffering from the degeneration of cerebral blood vessels. An inquest ruled that his death was due to "fatal syncope," possibly induced by organic disease of the heart. He is buried in Magnolia Cemetery, Mobile, Alabama.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14228292',
'title': 'Batasang Pambansa bombing',
'section': 'Section::::The explosion.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': "Four other people were killed or later died from their injuries, and 12 were injured, including Ilagan and Congressman Pryde Henry Teves of Negros Oriental. Both Congressman Teves' eardrums were severely damaged, apparently disabling his hearing. An earlier report stated that his leg would require amputation, but was later revoked upon the doctor's decision that medical intervention short of amputation could be implemented to rehabilitate the wounded legislator's leg.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How can it be some people die after 1 shot but others, like Emmett Dalton gets shot 23 times in the late 19th century without great medical care and live?',
'selftext': 'Seriously, is it purely just dumb luck getting shot in all the "right" places? Also some people die of disease even with the best care they had in that time. Did he have a guardian angel? "Emmett Dalton received 23 gunshot wounds and survived. (He was shot through the right arm, below the shoulder, through the left – right, in some accounts – hip and groin, and received 18-23 buckshot in his back)"',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['There are youtube videos on the effects of handguns. Generally handguns are less powerful than rifles.\n\nYes there are specific deadly areas. Being shot in the heart, head or a major artery is generally fatal.\n\nThe existence of guardian angels is not proven and is suspect. Do not rely on one.\n\nBuckshot is smaller than most bullets. If you are counting each buckshot as being shot the number of wounds can go up. Shotguns have shorter ranges than most other firearms so anything which reduced the severity, such as firing through a wall, would reduce the lethality.\n\nIt is not lucky to be shot 23 times.\n\nDo not count on any one gunshot killing anyone. Always double tap.\n\nDo not expect to survive even one gunshot. Hollywood movies are not good examples of real life.',
"There are a ton of variables involved in how likely one is to die from a gunshot wound. If you take a hit in the torso from a rifle-caliber cartridge, you're probably toast unless you have immediate, expert medical care to save you.\n\nBut a handgun? Unless you take one right in the heart or vital part of the brain (plenty of people have survived head wounds because they missed certain parts of the brain), you have a decent chance of surviving.\n\nAnd of course, you're likely to survive a shot to a limb with any weapon if you can get a tornequit (no idea how to spell that) on in time. An exception to that rule would be a wound that nicks the femoral artery in your thigh. That's tough bleeding to stop.",
"Bullets don't always kill instantly unless you take down the central nervous system or remove blood pressure. \n\n Given the frontal or side area of the body, the central nervous system (aka spine) is very small part of the hitbox. \n\n The circulatory system has 1 major target, the heart, and a mass of smaller targets, blood vessels and organs. \n\nKeep shooting until the threat is down. Don't expect to use only 2 bullets. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6mmapn',
'query': 'how can it be some people die after 1 shot but others, like emmett dalton gets shot 23 times in the late 19th century without great medical care and live?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '25951464',
'title': 'War of Internet Addiction',
'section': "Section::::Kannimei's speech.\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': '"We are so accustomed to silence, but silence doesn’t mean surrender. We can’t stop shouting simply because our voices are low; we can’t do nothing simply because our power is weak. It’s okay to be chided, it’s okay to be misunderstood, it’s okay to be overlooked. But it’s just I no longer want to keep silent."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10493336',
'title': 'Marcia Crosby',
'section': 'Section::::Construction of the Imaginary Indian.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': '"I can hardly speak your words because I think you might not forgive me for telling the story you wanted kept a secret. Yes, some of out leaders, some of our old people and others on our communities want us to be quiet about life on our social and geographical reserves. They want us to be silent and if we are not we are not family. But your silence deadened me gram. This is about love and anger. This is about sadness and joy. About strength and total collapse of the spirit."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10409684',
'title': 'Steven B. Smith (poet)',
'section': 'Section::::Recent.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 58,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 58,
'end_character': 330,
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'passage_text': 'In an interview in 2000, Smith claimed his voice was raspy "because I don\'t talk to anyone anymore." He\'d become a recluse whose doormat said "Go Away." He said, "I had to learn silence. People only remember the old days when I shocked people with what I said or made or did. But there\'s a lot of beauty in the things I\'ve done."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '156635',
'title': 'Glossophobia',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 460,
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'passage_text': 'The aspect of speaking publicly whether it be in front of a group of unknown people, or a close group of friends, is what triggers the anxiety for the speaker. The speaker may be comfortable if they speak in front of a group of complete strangers, but when it comes to speaking in front of family/friends, their anxiety skyrockets, and vice versa. Some speakers are more comfortable in larger groups, and some are more comfortable speaking to smaller groups. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '148951',
'title': 'Speech disorder',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': "Speech disorders or speech impediments are a type of communication disorder where 'normal' speech is disrupted. This can mean stuttering, lisps, etc. Someone who is unable to speak due to a speech disorder is considered mute.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '210542',
'title': 'Audre Lorde',
'section': 'Section::::Work.:Prose.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 38,
'end_character': 1071,
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'passage_text': 'Also in "Sister Outsider" is "The Transformation of Silence into Language and Action." Lorde discusses the importance of speaking, even when afraid because one\'s silence will not protect them from being marginalized and oppressed. Many people fear to speak the truth because of how it may cause pain, however, one ought to put fear into perspective when deliberating whether to speak or not. Lorde emphasizes that "the transformation of silence into language and action is a self-revelation, and that always seems fraught with danger." People are afraid of others\' reactions for speaking, but mostly for demanding visibility, which is essential to live. Lorde adds, "We can sit in our corners mute forever while our sisters and ourselves are wasted, while our children are distorted and destroyed, while our earth is poisoned; we can sit in our safe corners mute as bottles, and we will still be no less afraid." People are taught to respect their fear of speaking more than silence, but ultimately, the silence will choke us anyway, so we might as well speak the truth.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1845106',
'title': 'Aphonia',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 530,
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'passage_text': 'Any injury or condition that prevents the vocal cords, the paired bands of muscle tissue positioned over the trachea, from coming together and vibrating will have the potential to make a person unable to speak. When a person prepares to speak, the vocal folds come together over the trachea and vibrate due to the airflow from the lungs. This mechanism produces the sound of the voice. If the vocal folds cannot meet together to vibrate, sound will not be produced. Aphonia can also be caused by and is often accompanied by fear.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why you can still whisper if you have lost your voice but if you try to talk nothing come out?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Talking uses vibrations of your vocal cords.\n\nWhispering uses the same jaw, lip, and tongue movements to create speech, but only pushing air through open vocal cords. No vibrations = no voice.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'etplsy',
'query': 'why you can still whisper if you have lost your voice but if you try to talk nothing come out?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '3608401',
'title': 'Acoustic foam',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Functionality.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'Acoustic foam is a lightweight material made from polyurethane foam either polyether or polyester, and also extruded melamine foam. It is usually cut into tiles - often with pyramid or wedge shapes - which are suited to placing on the walls of a recording studio or a similar type of environment to act as a sound absorber, thus enhancing the sound quality within a room.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3608401',
'title': 'Acoustic foam',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Acoustic enhancement.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'end_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'The objective is to enhance the properties of sound by improving speech clarity and sound quality. For this reason, acoustic foam is often used in recording studios. The purpose is to reduce, but not entirely eliminate, resonance within the room. This is achieved by placing similar sized pieces of foam, often in the shape of cones or triangles, on opposite walls.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20037207',
'title': 'Vertical cut recording',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'Recording is by mechanical means and the vibrations from acoustic energy, transferred to a cutting needle, make the needle cut a deeper or shallower groove. It is necessary to set the parameters of the cutting depth accurately: too shallow a groove on silent sections and the playback device, also a needle, will slip out of place; too deep a groove risks cutting through the thin layer of recording medium and/or creating excessive wear when the recording is played back. Due to mechanical noise generated by the recording system, the needle is never totally still; total silence would produce a flat even depth groove, so the hill and dale effect exists over all the audio recording section.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '146002',
'title': 'Pet Sounds',
'section': 'Section::::Recording and production.:Backing tracks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 43,
'end_character': 1835,
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'passage_text': 'Tape effects were limited to slapback echo and reverb. Archivist Mark Linett notes: "to my ears, it sounds more like the plate [reverberators] rather than chambers. It should be mentioned that you get a significantly different sound from a chamber when you record it \'live\' as opposed to doing it off tape, and one reason these records sound the way they do is that the reverb was being printed as part of the recording – unlike today where we\'ll record \'dry\' and add the effects later." Although Spector\'s trademark sound was aurally complex, many of the best-known Wall of Sound recordings were recorded on Ampex three-track recorders. Spector\'s backing tracks were recorded live, and usually in a single take. These backing tracks were mixed live, in mono, and taped directly onto one track of the three-track recorder. The lead vocal was then taped, usually (though not always) as an uninterrupted live performance, recorded direct to the second track of the recorder. The master was completed with the addition of backing vocals on the third track before the three tracks were mixed down to create the mono master tape. By comparison, Brian produced tracks that were of greater technical complexity by using state-of-the-art four-track and eight-track recorders. Most backing tracks were recorded onto a Scully four-track 288 tape recorder before being later dubbed down (in mono) onto one track of an eight-track machine. Wilson typically divided instruments by three tracks: drums–percussion–keyboard, horns, and bass–additional percussion–guitar. The fourth track usually contained a rough reference mix used during playback at the session, later to be erased for overdubs such as a string section. "Once he had what he wanted," Britz said, "I would give Brian a 7-1/2 IPS [tape] copy of the track, and he would take it home."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '305638',
'title': 'Reel-to-reel audio tape recording',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 1493,
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'passage_text': 'The great advantage of tape for studios was twofold\xa0– it allowed a performance to be recorded without the 30-minute time limitation of a phonograph disc, and it permitted a recorded performance to be edited. For the first time, audio could be manipulated as a physical entity. Tape editing is performed simply by cutting the tape at the required point, and rejoining it to another section of tape using adhesive tape, or sometimes glue. This is called a splice. The splicing tape has to be very thin to avoid impeding the tape\'s motion, and the adhesive is carefully formulated to avoid leaving a sticky residue on the tape or deck. Usually, the cut is made at an angle across the tape so that any "click" or other noise introduced by the cut is spread across a few milliseconds of the recording. The use of reels to supply and collect the tape also made it very easy for editors to manually move the tape back and forth across the heads to find the exact point they wished to edit. Tape to be spliced was clamped in a special "splicing block" attached to the deck near the heads to hold the tape accurately while the edit was made. A skilled editor could make these edits very rapidly and accurately. A side effect of cutting the tape at an angle is that on stereo tapes the edit occurs on one channel a split-second before the other. Long, angled splices can also be used to create a perceptible dissolve from one sound to the next; periodic segments can induce rhythmic or pulsing effects.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4790608',
'title': 'Rocking and rolling',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 336,
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'passage_text': 'In sound recording, the reels of an open reel tape machine were "rocked and rolled" by turning them back and forth by hand, to cue recordings for playback, and especially for editing, which was done by cutting and splicing the tape. With the passing of reel-to-reel tape recording into obsolescence, the technique is now scarcely used.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3608401',
'title': 'Acoustic foam',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.:Functionality.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 10,
'end_character': 568,
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'passage_text': 'Acoustic foam reduces or eliminates echoes and background noises by controlling the reverberation that sound can make by bouncing off walls. This type of sound absorption is different from soundproofing, which is typically used to keep sound from escaping or entering a room. Therefore, acoustic foam is installed in large rooms like churches, synagogues, concert halls. These rooms have large, flat space and noise will certainly bounce around in the room. These sound absorbers are used to improve the acoustics of the room, which thereby reduces noise in the room.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do the foam cutouts in a recording studio mute out sound?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['sound waves are just vibrations at different frequencies, a dense material like foam absorbs those vibrations more effectively that a harder surface like concrete, thus reducing reverb..',
"They don't mute the sound they absorb it. Picture this: throw a golf ball as hard as you can into a tiny room with concrete walls, floor, and ceiling. What did that golf ball do? Now cover the walls, floor, and ceiling with thick feather pillows and throw that golf ball. The golf ball represents the sound travel. ",
'They both absorb the energy of the sound wave as well as breaking up the reflecting echos in to multiple interference patterns. They use these for testing electronics as well \n\n_URL_0_'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7he5h1',
'query': 'how do the foam cutouts in a recording studio mute out sound?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '30687979',
'title': 'List of mountains in the Philippines',
'section': 'Section::::List.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 386,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'This list contains most of the highest mountains in the country. It is limited to mountain peaks with, if known, an elevation of at least above sea level, and may include those considered as hills. The distinction between a hill and a mountain in terms of elevation is unclear and largely subjective, but a hill is universally considered to be less tall and less steep than a mountain.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18042847',
'title': 'Kiamichi Mountains',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': "Geologists generally define a mountain as a natural landform topping at least 1,000 feet in elevation. Numerous of the mountains, particularly those along the Kiamichi River's lower reaches, measure between 700 and 900 feet in elevation. Although called “mountains” they are, more formally, hills.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '751115',
'title': 'Topographic prominence',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'In topography, prominence measures the height of a mountain or hill\'s summit relative to the lowest contour line encircling it but containing no higher summit within it. It is a measure of the independence of a summit. A peak\'s "key col" (highest gap between two mountains) is a unique point on this contour line and the parent peak is some higher mountain, selected according to various objective criteria.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '751489',
'title': 'Summit',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 640,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The term (mountain top) is generally used only for a mountain peak that is located at some distance from the nearest point of higher elevation. For example, a big massive rock next to the main summit of a mountain is not considered a summit. Summits near a higher peak, with some prominence or isolation, but not reaching a certain cutoff value for the quantities, are often considered "subsummits" (or "subpeaks") of the higher peak, and are considered part of the same mountain. A pyramidal peak is an exaggerated form produced by ice erosion of a mountain top. "Summit" may also refer to the highest point along a line, trail, or route.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '751115',
'title': 'Topographic prominence',
'section': 'Section::::Definitions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The prominence of a peak is "the height of the peak’s summit above the lowest contour line encircling it but containing no higher summit" within it. This allows the prominence of points like Everest to be calculated, as long as a lowest point can be defined.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5281890',
'title': 'Cape Fold Belt',
'section': 'Section::::Geological origin.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'The mountains, although only of moderate height, are majestic and dramatic. This is due in part to numerous geological factors; The ranges usually have few to no foothills and rise directly from valley floors. The bases of the mountains are usually at or near sea level.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31377132',
'title': 'Steinernes Meer',
'section': 'Section::::Peaks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 258,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'If a prominence of 30 metres is taken as the criterion in counting the number of peaks, there are at least 63 in the Steinernes Meer. 47 summits have a prominence of at least 50 metres, 22 have a prominence of over 100 metres, but only five over 200 metres.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What’s the difference between a mountain’s height and its prominence? How are each measured?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Height usually refers to the height of the mountain above sea level; basically, what is the difference in height between the peak of the mountain and the average sea level below.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nProminence refers to how much the peak of a mountain stands out from the surrounding landscape. Technically speaking, it's the difference in height between the peak of the mountain and the lowest contour line you can draw around it without including any other peaks."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'c84nen',
'query': 'what’s the difference between a mountain’s height and its prominence? how are each measured?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2296',
'title': 'Adrenal gland',
'section': 'Section::::Function.:Catecholamines.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 51,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 51,
'end_character': 854,
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'passage_text': 'Primarily referred to in the United States as epinephrine and norepinephrine, adrenaline and noradrenaline are catecholamines, water-soluble compounds that have a structure made of a catechol group and an amine group. The adrenal glands are responsible for most of the adrenaline that circulates in the body, but only for a small amount of circulating noradrenaline. These hormones are released by the adrenal medulla, which contains a dense network of blood vessels. Adrenaline and noradrenaline act at adrenoreceptors throughout the body, with effects that include an increase in blood pressure and heart rate. actions of adrenaline and noradrenaline are responsible for the fight or flight response, characterised by a quickening of breathing and heart rate, an increase in blood pressure, and constriction of blood vessels in many parts of the body.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15548640',
'title': 'Adrenaline',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Adrenaline, also known as epinephrine, is a hormone, neurotransmitter, and medication. Adrenaline is normally produced by both the adrenal glands and certain neurons. It plays an important role in the fight-or-flight response by increasing blood flow to muscles, output of the heart, pupil dilation response, and blood sugar level. It does this by binding to alpha and beta receptors. It is found in many animals and some single cell organisms. Napoleon Cybulski first isolated adrenaline in 1895.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15548640',
'title': 'Adrenaline',
'section': 'Section::::Biosynthesis and regulation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 39,
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'passage_text': 'In chemical terms, adrenaline is one of a group of monoamines called the catecholamines. It is produced in some neurons of the central nervous system, and in the chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla from the amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15548640',
'title': 'Adrenaline',
'section': 'Section::::Biosynthesis and regulation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
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'passage_text': 'Adrenaline is synthesized in the medulla of the adrenal gland in an enzymatic pathway that converts the amino acid tyrosine into a series of intermediates and, ultimately, adrenaline. Tyrosine is first oxidized to -DOPA by Tyrosine hydroxylase, this is the rate-limiting step. Then it is subsequently decarboxylated to give dopamine by DOPA decarboxilase (Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase). Dopamine is then converted to noradrenaline by dopamine beta-hydroxylase or dopmanine beta-monooxygenase which utilizes ascorbic acid (Vitamin C and copper. The final step in adrenaline biosynthesis is the methylation of the primary amine of noradrenaline. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme phenylethanolamine "N"-methyltransferase (PNMT) which utilizes "S"-adenosyl methionine (SAMe) as the methyl donor. While PNMT is found primarily in the cytosol of the endocrine cells of the adrenal medulla (also known as chromaffin cells), it has been detected at low levels in both the heart and brain.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35799849',
'title': 'Sympathoadrenal system',
'section': 'Section::::Function.:Chemical messengers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'end_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'The two main chemical messengers of the sympathoadrenal system are norepinephrine and epinephrine (also called noradrenaline and adrenaline respectively). These chemicals are created by the adrenal glands after receiving neuronal signals from the sympathetic nervous system. The different physiological effects of these chemicals depend on the particular tissue that it innervates. As part of the sympathoadrenal system, these chemicals act rapidly and dispel quickly as opposed to the longer lasting effect of hormones.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '197296',
'title': 'Cortisone',
'section': 'Section::::Effects and uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 209,
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'passage_text': 'Cortisone, a glucocorticoid, and epinephrine (adrenaline) are the main substances released by the body as a reaction to stress. They elevate blood pressure and prepare the body for a fight or flight response.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '569399',
'title': 'Stimulus (physiology)',
'section': 'Section::::Systematic response.:Endocrine-system response.:Epinephrine.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 45,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 45,
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'passage_text': 'Epinephrine, also known as adrenaline, is also used commonly to respond to both internal and external changes. One common cause of the release of this hormone is the Fight-or-flight response. When the body encounters an external stimulus that is potentially dangerous, epinephrine is released from the adrenal glands. Epinephrine causes physiological changes in the body, such as constriction of blood vessels, dilation of pupils, increased heart and respiratory rate, and the metabolism of glucose. All of these responses to a single stimuli aid in protecting the individual, whether the decision is made to stay and fight, or run away and avoid danger.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is the difference between adrenaline and noradrenaline?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
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'answers': ['Two different neurotransmitters which signal in different way. Noradrenaline doesn’t have a direct action on the heart. Instead it increases vascular tone. Also, adrenaline has a methyl group on it!'],
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'query_id': 'ciha6a',
'query': 'what is the difference between adrenaline and noradrenaline?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '396056',
'title': 'Wire recording',
'section': 'Section::::Handling and editing.\n',
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'passage_text': 'A break in the wire is repaired by tying the ends together and trimming. When such a repair is made to an existing recording, a jump in the sound results during playback, but because of the high speed of the wire the loss of an inch due to tying and trimming is trivial and might pass unnoticed. Unfortunately, if the wire breaks it can easily become tangled, and snarls are extremely difficult to fix. Sometimes the only practical solution is to carefully cut the tangled portion away from the spool—an operation which runs the risk of endlessly enlarging the problem—and discard it. The difficulty of handling the wire itself when necessary is arguably the only serious shortcoming, among several definite advantages, of steel wire as a monophonic recording medium.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4191862',
'title': 'Body cord',
'section': 'Section::::Repair.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
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'passage_text': 'Body cords must be kept in good working order lest their condition deteriorate. Common causes of broken body cords include breaks and damage to the prongs. Many body cords are made with clear plastic insulation so that any corrosion of the copper wire can be seen more easily.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2938316',
'title': 'Punch-down block',
'section': 'Section::::Reliable connections.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'It is possible to insert wiring without the proper tool, but this requires great care to avoid damaging the connectors. For example, pushing a screwdriver down the middle of the block is a bad practice as it forces the two blades of the terminal post apart, leading to bad contacts. It is also possible to punch-down multiple wires on top of each other in a single post of a punch-down block, but this practice is discouraged because of reliability concerns. If these multiple wires are of different thicknesses (wire gauges), it is even more likely that the thinner wire will develop contact problems. Similarly, stranded wire can be used on punch-down blocks, even though they were originally designed for solid wire connections.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '167132',
'title': 'Brain transplant',
'section': 'Section::::Existing challenges.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'One of the most significant barriers to the procedure is the inability of nerve tissue to heal properly; scarred nerve tissue does not transmit signals well (this is why a spinal cord injury is so devastating). Research at the Wistar Institute of the University of Pennsylvania involving tissue-regenerating mice (known as MRL mice) may provide pointers for further research as to how to regenerate nerves without scarring. It is possible that a completely clean cut will not generate scarred tissue.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '537422',
'title': 'National Electrical Code',
'section': 'Section::::Requirements.:Conduit and cable protection.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
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'passage_text': 'A wire pulled with excessive force may break inside the conduit, requiring costly removal and replacement. However, a wire pulled with enough force to stretch the wire, but not break it, creates a hazard of future failure or fire. The stretched wire section will have a thinner cross section and higher resistance than other parts of the cable, and may have damaged insulation. Breaks may form in the stretched insulation, which may not be discovered until the circuit is powered and damage from arcing or shorting has occurred.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40133432',
'title': 'Self-amalgamating tape',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': 'Compared to most other electrical and utility tapes, centerline tape is not particularly tough mechanically. Silicone rubber feels soft and is also susceptible to cuts and abrasion, having low tear resistance. This weakness is made worse because this tape is wrapped while stretched, and remains under internal tension even while fused, so that any nicks or cuts may start to tear and expand without additional external tension. However, these same properties, combined with the lack of traditional gum adhesive, make tape removal, if needed, quick, clean, and easy.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '537422',
'title': 'National Electrical Code',
'section': 'Section::::Requirements.:Conduit and cable protection.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
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'passage_text': 'Wires must be protected from sharp metal edges of cut conduits or cabinet holes. The NEC specifies measures to protect wire insulation from damage by these edges during installation and use. For example, insulated cables may not be inserted directly through knockouts, due to the sharp edge around nearly all knockout holes. Clamping and other wire protection is often not required for plastic conduit parts, as plastic is not likely to damage insulation in contact with it.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'It is so easy to reconnect a torn wire, any person with some duct tape can do it. How come it’s so difficult and often impossible to fix/reconnect a torn nerve?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["A nerve isn't a solid or stranded piece of metal with some insulation where simply twisting two broken ends together will do."],
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'query_id': 'dcspvi',
'query': 'it is so easy to reconnect a torn wire, any person with some duct tape can do it. how come it’s so difficult and often impossible to fix/reconnect a torn nerve?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '2651093',
'title': 'Edge enhancement',
'section': 'Section::::Viewing conditions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'For this reason, home cinema enthusiasts who invest in larger, higher quality screens often complain about the amount of edge enhancement present in commercially produced DVD videos, claiming that such edge enhancement is optimized for playback on smaller, poorer quality television screens, but the loss of detail as a result of the edge enhancement is much more noticeable in their viewing conditions.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33142291',
'title': 'Near-surface geophysics',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.:Data processing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'The reduced data may not provide a good enough image because of background noise. The signal-to-noise ratio may be improved by repeated measurements of the same quantity followed by some sort of averaging such as "stacking" or signal processing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2655280',
'title': 'Image noise',
'section': 'Section::::Image noise reduction.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
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'passage_text': 'The high sensitivity image quality of a given camera (or RAW development workflow) may depend greatly on the quality of the algorithm used for noise reduction. Since noise levels increase as ISO sensitivity is increased, most camera manufacturers increase the noise reduction aggressiveness automatically at higher sensitivities. This leads to a breakdown of image quality at higher sensitivities in two ways: noise levels increase and fine detail is smoothed out by the more aggressive noise reduction.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1075916',
'title': 'Generalized signal averaging',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'In many cases only one image with noise is available, and averaging is then realized in a local neighbourhood. Results are acceptable if the noise is smaller in size than the smallest objects of interest in the image, but blurring of edges is a serious disadvantage. In the case of smoothing within a single image, one has to assume that there are no changes in the gray levels of the underlying image data. This assumption is clearly violated at locations of image edges, and edge blurring is a direct consequence of violating the assumption. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33870490',
'title': 'Image formation',
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'passage_text': 'The quality of an image is dependent upon both geometric and physical items. Geometrically, higher density of pixels across an image will give less blocky pixelation and thus a better geometric image quality. Lens aberrations also contribute to the quality of the image. Physically, diffraction due to the aperture stop will limit the resolvable spatial frequencies as a function of f-number.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '42474866',
'title': 'Stereo photography techniques',
'section': 'Section::::Base line selection.:Baseline tailored to viewing method.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 87,
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'passage_text': 'When images are viewed on a small screen from a short distance, differences in parallax are smaller and the stereo effect is muted. For this reason, stereo images are sometimes "optimized" for this situation, by using a larger baseline.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3616597',
'title': 'Digital photography',
'section': 'Section::::The digital camera.:Performance metrics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 24,
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'passage_text': 'Resolution in pixels is not the only measure of image quality. A larger sensor with the same number of pixels generally produces a better image than a smaller one. One of the most important differences is an improvement in image noise. This is one of the advantages of digital SLR (single-lens reflex) cameras, which have larger sensors than simpler cameras (so-called point and shoot cameras) of the same resolution.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'If making images larger decreases quality, why doesn’t the same go for sound?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Increasing pixels is by definition increasing quality. Making an image larger by increasing the size of the pixels is what decreases the perceived quality.\n\nAnd sound is nothing at all like an image, at least in terms of loudness. More decibels just means more amplitude (strength) on the wave. The rest of it stays the same.',
"You don't increase the amount of pixels though, that's why. Larger amount of pixels means bigger images yes, but once you take the image on your digital camera that's when the amount of pixels are determined. You can't increase the amount of pixels, only stretch them larger and larger until you can clearly see them and the image quality is poor.\n\nGoogle pixel versus vectors and that should help.\nThis is my basic knowledge of photography and design. I know nothing about sound.",
'To enlarge an image, it has to be resampled. There is no "extra" information in the photo that will increase the resolution upon doing so, so an enlarged image will be larger, but not more detailed. That\'s why enlarged images are blocky and horrible. Audio does not need to be resampled to be played louder, as all of the waveform information is sampled at discrete time intervals. For example, audio CDs are sampled at 44,100 Hz and 16-bit depth, meaning 44,100 times per second a 16-bit number indicates what frequency the sound plays at. Playing a song louder just increases the volume that particular frequency is played at. \n\nThe analog to enlarging an image for audio might be making the song *longer*. There\'s no extra information to use when resampling the song, so each discrete time-sample would either be played longer (song would sound slowed down) or the frequency would change (sound would be distorted).',
'You can\'t compare resizeing a picture and changing the volume of a soundfile. The equivalent of resizing a picture would more be something like resizeing the sound file (making it longer/slower). In both cases you still have the same information (pixelvalues/"air pressure"values) but bigger (size of picture/length of soundfile) - > less information for the same size - > worse quality. The equivalent of changing the volume however would be something like changing the colorvalues of the picture or making it brighter for example. Here the "information-size-ratio" stays the same, only the values themself change - > quality is still the same. Hope it\'s at least a bit understandable. English isn\'t my first language.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'dxeonc',
'query': 'if making images larger decreases quality, why doesn’t the same go for sound?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '19568',
'title': 'Microscope',
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'passage_text': 'A microscope (from the , "mikrós", "small" and , "skopeîn", "to look" or "see") is an instrument used to see objects that are too small to be seen by the naked eye. Microscopy is the science of investigating small objects and structures using such an instrument. Microscopic means invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '19567',
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'passage_text': 'Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view objects and areas of objects that cannot be seen with the naked eye (objects that are not within the resolution range of the normal eye). There are three well-known branches of microscopy: optical, electron, and scanning probe microscopy, along with the emerging field of X-ray microscopy.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19568',
'title': 'Microscope',
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'passage_text': 'Microscopes can be separated into several different classes. One grouping is based on what interacts with the sample to generate the image, i.e., light or photons (optical microscopes), electrons (electron microscopes) or a probe (scanning probe microscopes). Alternatively, microscopes can be classified based on whether they analyze the sample via a scanning point (confocal optical microscopes, scanning electron microscopes and scanning probe microscopes) or analyze the sample all at once (wide field optical microscopes and transmission electron microscopes).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19568',
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'passage_text': 'There are many types of microscopes, and they may be grouped in different ways. One way is to describe the way the instruments interact with a sample to create images, either by sending a beam of light or electrons to a sample in its optical path, or by scanning across, and a short distance from the surface of a sample using a probe. The most common microscope (and the first to be invented) is the optical microscope, which uses light to pass through a sample to produce an image. Other major types of microscopes are the fluorescence microscope, the electron microscope (both the transmission electron microscope and the scanning electron microscope) and the various types of scanning probe microscopes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9730',
'title': 'Electron microscope',
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'passage_text': 'Electron microscopes are used to investigate the ultrastructure of a wide range of biological and inorganic specimens including microorganisms, cells, large molecules, biopsy samples, metals, and crystals. Industrially, electron microscopes are often used for quality control and failure analysis. Modern electron microscopes produce electron micrographs using specialized digital cameras and frame grabbers to capture the images.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11503447',
'title': 'Immunolabeling',
'section': 'Section::::Specific immunolabeling techniques.:Immunolabeling for light microscopy.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Light microscopy is the use of a light microscope, which is an instrument that requires the usage of light to view the enlarged specimen. In general, a compound light microscope is frequently used, where two lenses, the eyepiece, and the objective work simultaneously to generate the magnification of the specimen. Light microscopy frequently uses immunolabeling to observe targeted tissues or cells. For instance, a study was conducted to view the morphology and the production of hormones in pituitary adenoma cell cultures via light microscopy and other electron microscopic methods. This type of microscopy confirmed that the primary adenoma cell cultures keep their physiological characteristics "in vitro", which matched the histology inspection. Moreover, cell cultures of human pituitary adenomas were viewed by light microscopy and immunocytochemistry, where these cells were fixed and immunolabeled with a monoclonal mouse antibody against human GH and a polyclonal rabbit antibody against PRL. This is an example of how a immunolabeled cell culture of pituitary adenoma cells that were viewed via light microscopy and by other electron microscopy techniques can assist with the proper diagnosis of tumors.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6897386',
'title': 'Max Planck Institute of Neurobiology',
'section': 'Section::::Scientific Focus.:Research Groups.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The best microscopes are only of little aid if the cells or processes to be investigated are hardly discernible from their background. Dr. Oliver Griesbeck and his Research Group Cellular Dynamics develop biosensors, which stain specific cells or change their fluorescent hue when something goes on in the investigated nerve cell.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How is it that microscopes can see through an organism?',
'selftext': 'How is it that microscopes can see through an organism via "layers?" Like, my friend said that he can see through a fruit fly using a microscope (I think olympus bh2 or something) and see at different layers? I super don\'t understand how they do that.',
'category': 'Biology',
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'answers': ["The microscope focuses on a very thin plane. Everything above and below is blurred out. So as long as light is getting through then you can see an image.\n\nIf you think about it, MRI's get their pictures the same way. One layer is in sharp detail. Every thing else is taken out.\n\nI never tried to do anything but sex a fruit fly with with a microscope. It was a dissecting scope which was different.\n\nBut most of the time microscope images are transmitted light modified by the organism viewed. Thin slices are used to view bacteria. The slide is generally stained first to enhance detail. You can also view with reflected light.",
"It's possible that your friend sliced up the fruit fly or bleached it before looking through it. It's also possible that he was looking at fruit fly larvae, which are quite small and pretty see-through.",
"Slice it thin enough, and light will get through! You need a light source below the microscope shining up through the stage the slide is placed on of course. Can't see anything until you switch that on. \n\nIt's not just flies either, this technique can be done with any blood and tissue samples, plants, or even rocks if like I say, you slice them thin enough. Standard thickness for a rock sample on a slide is 0.03 mm, thinner than a human hair! That way light gets through and you can tell a lot from the colours and patterns it creates in the rock. ",
"In the same way that, if you take a picture of something through a glass window, you can either focus at the subject behind it or at the window (especially if it's dirty or has some water droplets)\n\nWhatever is out of focus becomes a blur. Also things at microscopic dimensions are usually more transparent"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '5p2658',
'query': 'how is it that microscopes can see through an organism?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '24559497',
'title': 'Meat on the bone',
'section': 'Section::::Health issues.:BSE.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), also known as "mad cow disease", is a fatal brain disease affecting cattle. It is believed by most scientists that the disease may be transmitted to human beings who eat the brain or spinal cord of infected carcasses.ref name="FDA/CFSAN"\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26051975',
'title': 'Cattle',
'section': 'Section::::Health.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Cattle diseases were in the center of attention in the 1980s and 1990s when the Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), also known as mad cow disease, was of concern. Cattle might catch and develop various other diseases, like blackleg, bluetongue, foot rot too.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '171865',
'title': 'Agricultural policy',
'section': 'Section::::Agriculture policy concerns.:Biosecurity.:Bovine spongiform encephalopathy.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), commonly known as "mad cow disease", is a fatal, neurodegenerative disease of cattle, which infects by a mechanism that surprised biologists upon its discovery in the late 20th century. In the UK, the country worst affected, 179,000 cattle were infected and 4.4 million killed as a precaution. The disease can be transmitted to human beings who eat or inhale material from infected carcasses. In humans, it is known as new variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (vCJD or nvCJD), and by June 2007, it had killed 165 people in Britain, and six elsewhere with the number expected to rise because of the disease\'s long incubation period. Between 460,000 and 482,000 BSE-infected animals had entered the human food chain before controls on high-risk offal were introduced in 1989.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '153174',
'title': 'Susan Lindquist',
'section': 'Section::::Research.\n',
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'passage_text': 'What do "mad cows", people with neurodegenerative diseases, and an unusual type of inheritance in yeast have in common? They are all experiencing the consequences of misfolded proteins. ... In humans the consequences can be deadly, leading to such devastating illnesses as Alzheimer\'s Disease. In one case, the misfolded protein is not only deadly to the unfortunate individual in which it has appeared, but it can apparently be passed from one individual to another under special circumstances – producing infectious neurodegenerative diseases such as mad-cow disease in cattle and Creutzfeldt–Jacob Disease in humans.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19344418',
'title': 'Bovine spongiform encephalopathy',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), commonly known as mad cow disease, is a neurodegenerative disease of cattle. Symptoms include abnormal behavior, trouble walking, and weight loss. Later in the course the cow becomes unable to move. The time between infection and onset of symptoms is generally four to five years. Time from onset of symptoms to death is generally weeks to months. Spread to humans is believed to result in variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (vCJD). As of 2018, a total of 231 cases of vCJD have been reported globally.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6173994',
'title': 'Cannibalism',
'section': 'Section::::Diseases transmitted through cannibalism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'Bovine spongiform encephalopathy, or mad cow disease is another prion disease which is usually caused by feeding contaminated bovine tissue to other cattle. It is a neurodegenerative disease and could be spread to humans if the individual were to consume contaminated beef. The spread of parasites such as nematodes may also be facilitated by cannibalism as eggs from these parasites are transferred more easily from one host to another.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20465921',
'title': 'Sickness behavior',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'Sick animals have long been recognized by farmers as having different behavior. Initially it was thought that this was due to physical weakness that resulted from diverting energy to the body processes needed to fight infection. However, in the 1960s, it was shown that animals produced a blood-carried "factor X" that acted upon the brain to cause sickness behavior. In 1987, Benjamin L. Hart brought together a variety of research findings that argued for them being survival adaptations that if prevented would disadvantage an animal’s ability to fight infection. In the 1980s, the blood-borne factor was shown to be proinflammatory cytokines produced by activated leukocytes in the immune system in response to lipopolysaccharides (a cell wall component of Gram-negative bacteria). These cytokines acted by various humoral and nerve routes upon the hypothalamus and other areas of the brain. Further research showed that the brain can also learn to control the various components of sickness behavior independently of immune activation..\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is the Mad Cow Disease? Why can humans get it?',
'selftext': 'A good family friend had contacted this disease. Previously I had thought that this was a disease for cows (from the name), and thought it didn’t affect humans.',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The Mad Cow disease is a thing called a Prion disease. It's a rare type of malformed protein which supposedly there is no cure for.",
"Mad Cow is a prion disease. Prions are misfolded proteins, large biological molecules that compose large parts of our bodies and do a huge number of things depending on their type. Being misfolded has two problems: Due to their new shape they don't do what they should. The other huge problem is they cause normal proteins to become misfolded as well.\n\nThis means that one bad protein will gradually spread the problem throughout the body, breaking all the similar proteins and also whatever those proteins did in the body. With Mad Cow it destroys the brain and causes it to become spongy, leading to loss of brain function.\n\nDue to the resilience of proteins and similarity to other structures of the body, prion diseases are generally speaking both untreatable and invariably fatal.",
'I\'m sorry to hear about your friend. \n\nBovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (mad cow disease) and the version humans get (Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease) are both caused by a "corrupted" or misfolded version of a certain protein that both cow and human cells make, called the prion protein (PrP). The disease doesn\'t spread as a virus or bacteria, your body puts proteins together by using existing versions as template. If that template is corrupted, the new copies are corrupted too.\n\nIn the nervous system, misfolded PrP sticks together and grows into fibrous masses, destroying and displacing cells.\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8c46ms',
'query': 'what is the mad cow disease? why can humans get it?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '39295523',
'title': 'Colleen Plumb',
'section': 'Section::::Exhibitions.:Thirty Times a Minute.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': 'Plumb traveled to over sixty zoos in the US and Europe, filming captive elephants exhibiting what biologists refer to as stereotypy, a behavior only seen in captive animals, which includes rhythmic rocking, head bobbing, stepping back and forth, and pacing. This compulsive movement is a coping mechanism for stress, and causes debilitating damage to the animals\' joints. "Thirty Times a Minute"is a video that weaves together dozens of captive elephants, caught in unending cycles of movement, bearing the weight of an unnatural existence in their small enclosures.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2537487',
'title': 'Dumb Bunnies',
'section': 'Section::::Book appearances.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 1283,
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'passage_text': 'The Dumb Bunnies latest appearance is in the book "The Dumb Bunnies Go to the Zoo". They first go outside to pick things in their garden (using pickaxes). They later drive to the zoo, only to discover the animals they are seeing are a lot smaller than they really are (they mistake a small bird perched on the "Elephant" sign as being the elephant and a butterfly perched on the "Lion" sign as being the lion). When the butterfly flutters off the sign they think the lion escaped and go crazy all over the zoo and letting all the animals loose (including the "real" lion). The S.W.A.T. cops arrive to capture the lion, but the Dumb Bunnies say he flew away. As they leave the zoo (the book says that they decide to go home, but they really got kicked out by the zookeeper), they come across two giant apes which they mistake for being "Free Kitties" (the box that the words were written on did contain real kittens, but when the apes climbed over the wall, they scared all the kittens, and the owner who carried the box, away). Baby Bunny decides to keep them, but as they drive out, the apes fall off the top of the car they had been tied to. They return home at the end of the day and get into their new waterbed (with a series of hoses spraying water on the bed) and fall asleep.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '285913',
'title': 'Common degu',
'section': 'Section::::As pets.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 446,
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'passage_text': 'One disadvantage of the common degu as a pet is their predisposition to chewing, due to their continually growing incisor and molar teeth. For this reason, common degus cannot be housed in plastic-bottomed cages typically found in pet stores. A metal cage with multiple levels made for rats and secured double latches works best. It is important to line the levels with grass mats or a soft fabric so that the common degus do not get bumblefoot.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '521784',
'title': 'River Out of Eden',
'section': 'Section::::Do good by stealth.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 670,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Dawkins goes on to illustrate his point by demonstrating how scientists have been able to fool creatures big and small using seemingly dumb triggers. For instance, stickleback fish treat a pear-shape as a sex bomb (a supernormal stimulus). Gulls' hard-wired instincts make them reach over and roll back not just their own stray eggs, but also wooden cylinders and cocoa tins. Honeybees push out their live and protesting companion from their hive, when the companion is painted with a drop of oleic acid. Furthermore, a turkey will kill anything which moves in its nest unless it cries like a baby turkey. If the turkey is deaf, it will mercilessly kill its own babies.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '264602',
'title': 'Cadborosaurus',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 748,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Dr. Paul LeBlond, director of Earth and Ocean Sciences at UBC, and Dr. Edward Blousfield, retired chief zoologist of the Canadian Museum of Nature, state every elongated animal has been put forward as an explanation for Caddy. These animals include Conger eels, humpback whales, elephant seals, ribbon or oarfish, basking sharks, and sea lions. LeBlond and Blousfield state no known creature matches the characteristics found in over 200 sightings collected over a century, noting that Caddy is described as having flippers both anteriorly and posteriorly. Darren Naish contends that LeBlond and Blousfield are engaging in bad science and have incorrectly assumed that different, conflicting eyewitness reports are all descriptions of one species.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '142867',
'title': 'Ferret',
'section': 'Section::::Biology.:Behavior.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 389,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'If excited, they may perform a behavior called the "weasel war dance", characterized by frenzied sideways hops, leaps and bumping into nearby objects. Despite its common name, it is not aggressive but is a joyful invitation to play. It is often accompanied by a unique soft clucking noise, commonly referred to as "dooking". When scared, ferrets will hiss; when upset, they squeak softly.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1531560',
'title': 'List of Star Wars creatures',
'section': 'Section::::L.:Loper.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 262,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 262,
'end_character': 293,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Lopers are small, opossum-like rodents from the fourth moon of Yavin. They are readily identified by their luxurious red fur, sharp teeth and claws, and hairless, bone-plated tail that ends in wicked barbs. Though nasty when cornered, Lopers will tend to avoid conflict with larger creatures.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What causes ‘the zoomies’ in animals?',
'selftext': 'My human kids get whacked out when they’re overtired, or when they get a belt of highly refined sugar. What mechanism explains why my fur-bearing family members of all ages sometimes lose their marbles and run around wide-eyed and crazy-pants?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Children do not get hyperactive from ingesting sugar. If they become more active than before, it\'s because their blood sugar was LOW, before. \n\nIf high blood sugar made people hyperactive, diabetics would be the most physically active people on earth, which is the opposite of what is observed. \n\nIf your family members " sometimes lose their marbles and run around wide-eyed and crazy-pants? " then they are, indeed, crazy.',
"from what I've observed it's usually a form of stimming, where they have too much pent up nervous energy they haven't been able to find an outlet for and then ALL OF A SUDDEN\n\nkids do it too, think about christmas morning"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'd028mi',
'query': 'what causes ‘the zoomies’ in animals?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '5808493',
'title': 'List of essential oils',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Essential oils are volatile and liquid aroma compounds from natural sources, usually plants. They are not oils in a strict sense, but often share with oils a poor solubility in water. Essential oils often have an odor and are therefore used in food flavoring and perfumery. They are usually prepared by fragrance extraction techniques (such as distillation, cold pressing, or Solvent extraction). Essential oils are distinguished from aroma oils (essential oils and aroma compounds in an oily solvent), infusions in a vegetable oil, absolutes, and concretes. Typically, essential oils are highly complex mixtures of often hundreds of individual aroma compounds.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '281028',
'title': 'Essential oil',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 802,
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'passage_text': 'An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile (easily evaporated at normal temperatures) chemical compounds from plants. Essential oils are also known as volatile oils, ethereal oils, aetherolea, or simply as the oil of the plant from which they were extracted, such as oil of clove. An essential oil is "essential" in the sense that it contains the "essence of" the plant\'s fragrance—the characteristic fragrance of the plant from which it is derived. The term "essential" used here does not mean indispensable, as with the terms essential amino acid or essential fatty acid, which are so called because they are nutritionally required by a given living organism. In contrast to fatty oils, essential oils typically evaporate completely without leaving a stain or residue.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18353908',
'title': 'Geranium macrorrhizum',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'passage_text': "properties. Essential oil is prepared from it so it is also used in aromatherapy. In Bulgaria an oil is extracted from this plant, the name of which in Bulgarian means 'the healthy one'. In addition to essential oil, it contains flavonoids, sesquiterpenes, phenolic acids, pigments, vitamins, and mineral salts. A major component of essential oil is the sesquiterpene ketone germacrone.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4207510',
'title': 'Oil',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 540,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The general definition of oil includes classes of chemical compounds that may be otherwise unrelated in structure, properties, and uses. Oils may be animal, vegetable, or petrochemical in origin, and may be volatile or non-volatile. They are used for food (e.g., olive oil), fuel (e.g., heating oil), medical purposes (e.g., mineral oil), lubrication (e.g. motor oil), and the manufacture of many types of paints, plastics, and other materials. Specially prepared oils are used in some religious ceremonies and rituals as purifying agents.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '281028',
'title': 'Essential oil',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 336,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Interest in essential oils has revived in recent decades with the popularity of aromatherapy, a branch of alternative medicine that uses essential oils and other aromatic compounds. Oils are volatilized, diluted in a carrier oil and used in massage, diffused in the air by a nebulizer, heated over a candle flame, or burned as incense.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22478',
'title': 'Olive oil',
'section': 'Section::::Constituents.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 108,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 108,
'end_character': 312,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Olive oil is composed mainly of the mixed triglyceride esters of oleic acid and palmitic acid and of other fatty acids, along with traces of squalene (up to 0.7%) and sterols (about 0.2% phytosterol and tocosterols). The composition varies by cultivar, region, altitude, time of harvest, and extraction process.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25611728',
'title': 'Aromatherapy',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 309,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Oils are described by Dioscorides, along with beliefs of the time regarding their healing properties, in his "De Materia Medica", written in the first century. Distilled essential oils have been employed as medicines since the eleventh century, when Avicenna isolated essential oils using steam distillation.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'essential oils.',
'selftext': 'Just that.',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["All of them? Lavender has no scientific backing to help you sleep or calm you down. Tea tree has been proven to be a mild disinfectant. Most essential oils have proof or have none. They smell pretty, and that's always nice. ",
'The placebo effect, is when something have an effect, because people think it will have an effect. Homeopathy, oils, etc are basically that. Unfortunately the effects are limited compared to actual medicine. ',
'They\'re the extracted/refined "essence" of plants, condensed down to an oil. Some people think they have all sorts of amazing healing properties but there\'s not a whole lot of science behind that. Currently, it\'s somewhat of a hot topic because a few big MLM schemes are marketing them fairly aggressively. ',
'ok\n\nbasically the volatile "smelly" chemicals from whatever plant condensed and refined down to be very pure and intense. can be useful for making things smell interesting and making perfumes, and occasionally in making baking extracts to make things taste nice. some say they have medicinal effects, which a few do, but there\'s also a lot of overblown hype. can sometimes be dangerous especially to pets because they\'re so concentrated.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'aak3lj',
'query': 'essential oils.',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '4613942',
'title': 'Intention tremor',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 1452,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "More persistent intention tremors are often caused by damage to certain regions of the brain. The most common cause of intention tremors is damage and/or degeneration in the cerebellum. The cerebellum is a part of the brain responsible for motor coordination, posture and balance. It is responsible for fine motor movements. When the cerebellum is damaged, a person may have difficulty executing a fine motor movement, such as attempting to touch one's nose with one's finger. One common way for the cerebellum to become damaged is through the development of cerebellar lesions. The most common site for cerebellar lesions that lead to intention tremors has been reported to be the superior cerebellar peduncle, through which all fibers carrying information to the midbrain pass, and the dentate nucleus, which is also responsible for linking the cerebellum to the rest of the brain. Alcohol abuse is one typical cause of this damage to the cerebellum. The alcohol abuse causes degeneration of the anterior vermis of the cerebellum. This leads to an inability to process fine motor movements in the individual and the development of intention tremors. In Multiple Sclerosis, damage occurs due to demyelination and neuron death, which again produces cerebellar lesions and an inability for those neurons to transmit signals. Because of this tight association with damage to the cerebellum, intention tremors are often referred to as cerebellar tremors.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2183007',
'title': 'Startle response',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 693,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "In animals, including humans, the startle response is a largely unconscious defensive response to sudden or threatening stimuli, such as sudden noise or sharp movement, and is associated with negative affect. Usually the onset of the startle response is a startle reflex reaction. The startle reflex is a brainstem reflectory reaction (reflex) that serves to protect vulnerable parts, such as the back of the neck (whole-body startle) and the eyes (eyeblink) and facilitates escape from sudden stimuli. It is found across the lifespan of many species. An individual's emotional state may lead to a variety of responses. The startle response is implicated in the formation of specific phobias.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31595228',
'title': 'Psychological stress',
'section': 'Section::::Management.:Coping mechanisms.:Mental inhibition/disavowal mechanisms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 101,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 101,
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'passage_text': 'These mechanisms cause the individual to have a diminished (or in some cases non-existent) awareness about their anxiety, threatening ideas, fears, etc., that come from being conscious of the perceived threat.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '62580',
'title': 'Motion sickness',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.:Defense against perception of poisoning.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 1432,
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'passage_text': "A very different alternate is the defense mechanism theory holding that motion sickness functions as a defense mechanism against neurotoxins. The area postrema in the brain is responsible for inducing vomiting when poisons are detected, and for resolving conflicts between vision and balance. When feeling motion but not seeing it (for example, in the cabin of a ship with no portholes), the inner ear transmits to the brain that it senses motion, but the eyes tell the brain that everything is still. As a result of the incongruity, the brain concludes that the individual is hallucinating and further concludes that the hallucination is due to poison ingestion. The brain responds by inducing vomiting, to clear the supposed toxin. Treisman's indirect argument has recently been questioned via an alternative direct evolutionary hypothesis, as well as modified and extended via a direct poison hypothesis. The direct evolutionary hypothesis essentially argues that there are plausible means by which ancient real or apparent motion could have contributed directly to the evolution of aversive reactions, without the need for the co-opting of a poison response as posited by Treisman. Nevertheless, the direct poison hypothesis argues that there still are plausible ways in which the body's poison response system may have played a role in shaping the evolution of some of the signature symptoms that characterize motion sickness.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '62580',
'title': 'Motion sickness',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Motion is felt but not seen.:Carsickness.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
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'passage_text': 'A specific form of terrestrial motion sickness, being carsick is quite common and evidenced by disorientation while reading a map, a book, or a small screen during travel. Carsickness results from the sensory conflict arising in the brain from differing sensory inputs. Motion sickness is caused by a conflict between signals arriving in the brain from the inner ear, which forms the base of the vestibular system, the sensory apparatus that deals with movement and balance, and which detects motion mechanically. If someone is looking at a stationary object within a vehicle, such as a magazine, their eyes will inform their brain that what they are viewing is not moving. Their inner ears, however, will contradict this by sensing the motion of the vehicle. Varying theories exist as to cause. The sensory conflict theory notes that the eyes view motion while riding in the moving vehicle while other body sensors sense stillness, creating conflict between the eyes and inner ear. Another suggests the eyes mostly see the interior of the car which is motionless while the vestibular system of the inner ear senses motion as the vehicle goes around corners or over hills and even small bumps. Therefore, the effect is worse when looking down but may be lessened by looking outside of the vehicle.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23585',
'title': 'Psychoanalysis',
'section': 'Section::::Psychopathology (mental disturbances).:Adult patients.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 78,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 78,
'end_character': 1032,
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'passage_text': 'Panic, phobias, conversions, obsessions, compulsions and depressions (analysts call these "neurotic symptoms") are not usually caused by deficits in functions. Instead, they are caused by intrapsychic conflicts. The conflicts are generally among sexual and hostile-aggressive wishes, guilt and shame, and reality factors. The conflicts may be conscious or unconscious, but create anxiety, depressive affect, and anger. Finally, the various elements are managed by defensive operations – essentially shut-off brain mechanisms that make people unaware of that element of conflict. "Repression" is the term given to the mechanism that shuts thoughts out of consciousness. "Isolation of affect" is the term used for the mechanism that shuts sensations out of consciousness. Neurotic symptoms may occur with or without deficits in ego functions, object relations, and ego strengths. Therefore, it is not uncommon to encounter obsessive-compulsive schizophrenics, panic patients who also suffer with borderline personality disorder, etc.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '32316519',
'title': 'Wild man syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Symptoms.:Motor activity disturbances.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 452,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'There are also motor activity disturbances such as hyperactivity, spontaneous attacks, shouting, scattering objects, and disrupting individuals gathered in groups. Someone suffering from this disorder may not always appear to be in control of their body. The individual may fall down, bump into things inadvertently, and have difficulty making movements with arms and legs. It has been noted that loss of bowel and bladder control can also be present.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What physiologically causes that "lurch" in your gut - when you get scared you\'ve forgotten something or that you\'ve upset someone etc',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["There is a biochemical signalling path called the 'gut-brain axis'. It connects the gastrointestinal tract with the central nervous system via the vagus nerves. It is why you are able to become nauseous from eating bad food. It is important for the regulation of the immune system, and has a great influence on neurotransmitters. If you do a quick google search on the impact of probiotics on mental health you will come across a great amount of information regarding the incredible influence the 'gut-brain axis' has on a multitude of physiological mechanisms."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'dou4uv',
'query': 'what physiologically causes that "lurch" in your gut - when you get scared you\'ve forgotten something or that you\'ve upset someone etc',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '46253',
'title': 'Fever',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 552,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A fever can be caused by many medical conditions ranging from non serious to life-threatening. This includes viral, bacterial and parasitic infections such as the common cold, urinary tract infections, meningitis, malaria and appendicitis among others. Non-infectious causes include vasculitis, deep vein thrombosis, side effects of medication, and cancer among others. It differs from hyperthermia, in that hyperthermia is an increase in body temperature over the temperature set point, due to either too much heat production or not enough heat loss.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46253',
'title': 'Fever',
'section': 'Section::::Society and culture.:Fever phobia.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 85,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 85,
'end_character': 695,
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'passage_text': 'Fever phobia is the name given by medical experts to parents\' misconceptions about fever in their children. Among them, many parents incorrectly believe that fever is a disease rather than a medical sign, that even low fevers are harmful, and that any temperature even briefly or slightly above the oversimplified "normal" number marked on a thermometer is a clinically significant fever. They are also afraid of harmless side effects like febrile seizures and dramatically overestimate the likelihood of permanent damage from typical fevers. The underlying problem, according to professor of pediatrics Barton D. Schmitt, is "as parents we tend to suspect that our children’s brains may melt."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46253',
'title': 'Fever',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.:Hyperpyrexia.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 597,
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'passage_text': "Infections are the most common cause of fevers, but as the temperature rises other causes become more common. Infections commonly associated with hyperpyrexia include roseola, measles and enteroviral infections. Immediate aggressive cooling to less than has been found to improve survival. Hyperpyrexia differs from hyperthermia in that in hyperpyrexia the body's temperature regulation mechanism sets the body temperature above the normal temperature, then generates heat to achieve this temperature, while in hyperthermia the body temperature rises above its set point due to an outside source.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '378661',
'title': 'Thermoregulation',
'section': 'Section::::Variation in animals.:Variations due to fever.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 85,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 85,
'end_character': 287,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Fever is a regulated elevation of the set point of core temperature in the hypothalamus, caused by circulating pyrogens produced by the immune system. To the subject, a rise in core temperature due to fever may result in feeling cold in an environment where people without fever do not.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46253',
'title': 'Fever',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "Fever, also known as pyrexia and febrile response, is defined as having a temperature above the normal range due to an increase in the body's temperature set point. There is not a single agreed-upon upper limit for normal temperature with sources using values between . The increase in set point triggers increased muscle contractions and causes a feeling of cold. This results in greater heat production and efforts to conserve heat. When the set point temperature returns to normal, a person feels hot, becomes flushed, and may begin to sweat. Rarely a fever may trigger a febrile seizure. This is more common in young children. Fevers do not typically go higher than .\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46253',
'title': 'Fever',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.:Hyperthermia.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 30,
'end_character': 293,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Hyperthermia is an example of a high temperature that is not a fever. It occurs from a number of causes including heatstroke, neuroleptic malignant syndrome, malignant hyperthermia, stimulants such as substituted amphetamines and cocaine, idiosyncratic drug reactions, and serotonin syndrome.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '46253',
'title': 'Fever',
'section': 'Section::::Other animals.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 89,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Fever can also be behaviorally induced by invertebrates that do not have immune-system based fever. For instance, some species of grasshopper will thermoregulate to achieve body temperatures that are 2–5\xa0°C higher than normal in order to inhibit the growth of fungal pathogens such as "Beauveria bassiana" and "Metarhizium acridum". Honeybee colonies are also able to induce a fever in response to a fungal parasite "Ascosphaera apis".\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why high fevers make us loopy/silly',
'selftext': 'I understand that the heat and inflammation negatively affects the brain, but why and how exact does this affect our ability to form coherent thoughts and speech? I always feel high as a kite during a fever.',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The purpose of a fever is to cook whatever invader is inside of you. Your body is going into the most primitive for of survival so it's not too worried about higher level things such as say doing algebra. \n\nHomeostasis (maintaining an even environment in the body) is very important for overall function. At a certain point of heating somethings can be stopped or sped up depending on the area/function. \n\nThis is a very basic break down"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'dj8qe2',
'query': 'why high fevers make us loopy/silly',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '23604',
'title': 'Photography',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Color.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 38,
'end_character': 582,
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'passage_text': 'Implementation of color photography was hindered by the limited sensitivity of early photographic materials, which were mostly sensitive to blue, only slightly sensitive to green, and virtually insensitive to red. The discovery of dye sensitization by photochemist Hermann Vogel in 1873 suddenly made it possible to add sensitivity to green, yellow and even red. Improved color sensitizers and ongoing improvements in the overall sensitivity of emulsions steadily reduced the once-prohibitive long exposure times required for color, bringing it ever closer to commercial viability.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43234',
'title': 'Green flash',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "Green flashes occur because the Earth's atmosphere can cause the light from the sun to separate out into different colors. Green flashes are a group of similar phenomena which stem from slightly different causes, and therefore some types of green flashes are more common than others.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '459362',
'title': 'Flag of Venezuela',
'section': 'Section::::Original flag.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': '""First he explained to me the way the iris transforms light into the three primary colors […] then he proved to me why yellow is the most warm, noble and closest to [white] light; why blue is that mix of excitement and serenity, a distance that evokes shadows; and why red is the exaltation of yellow and blue, the synthesis, the vanishing of light into shadow".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3300999',
'title': 'Selective yellow',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': "The intent of selective yellow is to improve vision by removing short, blue to violet wavelengths from the projected light. These wavelengths are difficult for the human visual system to process properly, and they cause perceived dazzle and glare effects in rain, fog and snow. Removing the blue-violet portion of a lamp's output to obtain selective yellow light can entail filter losses of around 15%, though the effect of this reduction is said to be mitigated or countervailed by the increased visual acuity available with yellow rather than white light in bad weather. \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1241750',
'title': 'Actinism',
'section': 'Section::::Photography.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'Early "non colour-sensitive" (NCS) films, plates and papers were only sensitive to the high-energy end of the visible spectrum from green to UV (shorter-wavelength light). This would render a print of the red areas as a very dark tone because the red light was not actinic. Typically, light from xenon flash lamps is highly actinic, as is daylight as both contain significant green-to-UV light.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1241750',
'title': 'Actinism',
'section': 'Section::::Photography.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 412,
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'passage_text': 'In the first half of the 20th century, developments in film technology produced films sensitive to red and yellow light, known as orthochromatic and panchromatic, and extended that through to near infra-red light. These gave a truer reproduction of human perception of lightness across the color spectrum. In photography, therefore, actinic light must now be referenced to the photographic material in question.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34599886',
'title': 'Aurora Max',
'section': 'Section::::The northern lights.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 445,
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'passage_text': 'In the upper atmosphere between 300-400 kilometers, red instead of green is caused by the collision with atomic oxygen. It takes longer for the lights to be produced at higher altitudes because the atmosphere is less dense so it takes more energy and more time for the red lights to be produced. Blue and purple lights are also produced by the collision with hydrogen and helium but they are difficult for the eyes to see against the night sky.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is it only red light that develops photos? What makes red able to do this as opposed to any other color, or even natural daylight?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Red light doesn't develop photos. Photos are developed with chemicals. They use red lights in dark rooms because black and white film is insensitive to red light, so you can see what you're doing without exposing the film more.\n\nFor colour film, you in fact open the film and put it in a lightproof tank, in a lightproof bag, after which you can just turn regular lights on. You just see them using the red lights in the movies because pitch black rooms don't make for the most exciting footage.",
"It doesn't. I'm guessing you're thinking of the red lights used in darkrooms? Those are used because the red light (a safelight) is actually a frequency that *doesn't* develop b & w prints. \n\nUnprocessed black and white film needs to be handled in complete darkness to avoid ruining it. Once that's done though you project that image onto photo paper and that paper doesn't respond to red light so at least you can see what you're doing under the safelight. Color film and paper needs to be handled in complete darkness until chemically fixed."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9s1jxi',
'query': 'why is it only red light that develops photos? what makes red able to do this as opposed to any other color, or even natural daylight?',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '52991',
'title': 'Pressure cooking',
'section': 'Section::::Operation.:Pressure settings.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 97,
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'end_character': 560,
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'passage_text': 'The higher temperature causes food to cook faster; cooking times can typically be reduced to one-third of the time for conventional cooking methods. The actual cooking time also depends on the pressure release method used after timing "(see Pressure release methods for details)" and the thickness and density of the food, since thicker (and denser) foods take longer to cook. Meat joints and some other foods like sponge puddings and Christmas puddings are typically timed according to their weight. Frozen foods need extra cooking time to allow for thawing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1728409',
'title': 'Sous-vide',
'section': 'Section::::Temperature.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'end_character': 693,
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'passage_text': 'Non-sous-vide cooking times are determined by when the center of the cooked item reaches a few degrees below the targeted temperature. Then heating should be stopped immediately. While the food rests, residual heat will continue to cook it for a while. If the heating continues, the food will be overcooked. Sous-vide cooking continues until the center of the food has reached its target temperature. If it continues after this, the food will not be overcooked, and it will not cook more after it stops being heated. The time taken for the center of food to reach the target temperature depends on the initial temperature, the thickness and shape of the food, and the temperature of the bath.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58017',
'title': 'Microwave oven',
'section': 'Section::::Heating characteristics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 60,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Due to this phenomenon, microwave ovens set at too-high power levels may even start to cook the edges of frozen food while the inside of the food remains frozen. Another case of uneven heating can be observed in baked goods containing berries. In these items, the berries absorb more energy than the drier surrounding bread and cannot dissipate the heat due to the low thermal conductivity of the bread. Often this results in overheating the berries relative to the rest of the food. "Defrost" oven settings either use low power levels or turn the power off and on repeatedly - designed to allow time for heat to be conducted within frozen foods from areas that absorb heat more readily to those which heat more slowly. In turntable-equipped ovens, more even heating will take place by placing food off-centre on the turntable tray instead of exactly in the centre, so that no part of the food item will be continuously unheated by the center "dead zone".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1530612',
'title': 'Solar cooker',
'section': 'Section::::Operation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The cooking time depends primarily on the equipment being used, the amount of sunlight at the time, and the quantity of food that needs to be cooked. Air temperature, wind, and latitude also affect performance. Food cooks faster in the two hours before and after the local solar noon than it does in either the early morning or the late afternoon. Large quantities of food, and food in large pieces, take longer to cook. As a result, only general figures can be given for cooking time. With a small solar panel cooker, it might be possible to melt butter in 15 minutes, to bake cookies in 2 hours, and to cook rice for four people in 4 hours. With a high performing parabolic solar cooker, you may be able to grill a steak in minutes. However, depending on local conditions and the solar cooker type, these projects could take half as long, or twice as long.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23311067',
'title': 'Gentle frying',
'section': 'Section::::Disadvantages.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "In deep-fat frying, if done incorrectly, low temperatures may substantially increase oil absorption, leaving the food greasy, soggy, and unappetizing. However, Cook's Illustrated developed a recipe where French Fries are left in cold oil for 25 minutes as the oil is slowly heated to 280°F, and this was found to contain 30% less oil than French Fries cooked by the traditional method with oil between 325° and 350°F. \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58017',
'title': 'Microwave oven',
'section': 'Section::::Heating characteristics.:Safety benefits and features.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 71,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 71,
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'passage_text': 'The lower temperature of cooking (the boiling point of water) is a significant safety benefit compared to baking in the oven or frying, because it eliminates the formation of tars and char, which are carcinogenic. Microwave radiation also penetrates deeper than direct heat, so that the food is heated by its own internal water content. In contrast, direct heat can burn the surface while the inside is still cold. Pre-heating the food in a microwave oven before putting it into the grill or pan reduces the time needed to heat up the food and reduces the formation of carcinogenic char. Unlike frying and baking, microwaving does not produce acrylamide in potatoes, however unlike deep-frying, it is of only limited effectiveness in reducing glycoalkaloid (i.e., solanine) levels. Acrylamide has been found in other microwaved products like popcorn.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '58017',
'title': 'Microwave oven',
'section': 'Section::::Hazards.:High temperatures.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 79,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 79,
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'passage_text': 'Products that are heated for too long can catch fire. Though this is inherent to any form of cooking, the rapid cooking and unattended nature of the use of microwave ovens results in additional hazard.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why does doubling cooking temperature not cut cooking time in half?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It can do, but there are too many variables for it to be a direct relationship like heating all the way through, what the water percentage is, the size of object or even size of oven.',
"That would lead to a burned exterior and a raw or undercooked interior. It takes time for heat to be conducted through what it is you're cooking, and your goal is to reach a certain *internal* temperature without destroying the exterior.",
'Think about it this way. If you needed to bake something at 350 degrees Fahrenheit, and you tried baking it at 700 degrees Fahrenheit, you might think that\'s twice as hot, right?\n\nBut just convert it to Kelvin instead. 350 F = 450 K, and 700 F = 644 K. From the Kelvin perspective, you didn\'t "double the temperature" from 450 to 644.\n\nThis is because the degree in the F and C scales is an arbitrary measurement that is derived from the fraction of the difference between two reactions (like water freezing and water boiling). It doesn\'t have anything to do with how hot it is because it doesn\'t start at an objective "zero" like Kelvin does.',
"This statement seems obvious but is key to your question: almost all cooking involves water. If you have a pot of water, and you double the heat of the burner, you don't increase the temperature of that water at all (assuming you've let it come to a boil). The water will come to a boil *quicker*, but in both cases (at sea level) it will be at 212F / 100C. Similarly for food containing water (usually *large amounts* of water), only when you have removed the water can you increase the temperature of what you're cooking much above the boiling point. This is why for foods that you wish to brown, recipes will usually tell you to dry off the surface with paper towels for the like.\n\nNow for certain types of cooking, adding additional heat will speed things up. If you're steaming your food, steam is not limited to the boiling point temperature, and more heat - > more steam - > faster cooking (I think the temperature of the steam will go up, too). Similarly, pressure cookers raise the boiling point and as such will speed up cooking, sometimes tremendously so."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'cwube1',
'query': 'why does doubling cooking temperature not cut cooking time in half?',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '27154',
'title': 'Epileptic seizure',
'section': 'Section::::Management.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 80,
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'passage_text': 'Potentially sharp or dangerous objects should be moved from the area around a person experiencing a seizure, so that the individual is not hurt. After the seizure if the person is not fully conscious and alert, they should be placed in the recovery position. A seizure longer than five minutes, or two or more seizures occurring within the time of five minutes is a medical emergency known as status epilepticus. Contrary to a common misconception, bystanders should not attempt to force objects into the mouth of the person suffering a seizure, as doing so may cause injury to the teeth and gums.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11287720',
'title': 'Generalized tonic–clonic seizure',
'section': 'Section::::Management.\n',
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'passage_text': "For a person experiencing a tonic–clonic seizure, first-aid treatment includes rolling the person over into the recovery position, which can prevent asphyxiation by preventing fluid from entering the lungs. Other general actions to take as recommended by the Epilepsy Foundation include: staying with a person until a seizure is over, paying attention to length of seizure as a possible indication for status epilepticus and/or indication to give rescue medication and call for emergency help, moving close objects out of the way to prevent injury. It is also not recommended to hold a person down that is having a seizure as that can lead to injury, as well as not putting anything in a person's mouth as these items can become choking hazards. Long-term therapy may include the use of antiepileptic drugs, surgical therapy, diet therapy, vagus nerve stimulation, or radio surgery.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1683306',
'title': 'Atonic seizure',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'An atonic seizure (also called drop seizure, akinetic seizure or drop attack) is a type of seizure that consists of partial or complete loss of muscle tone that is caused by temporary alterations in brain function. These seizures are brief – usually less than fifteen seconds. They begin in childhood and may persist into adulthood. The seizure itself causes no injury, but the loss of control, predominantly in trunk muscles, can result in direct injury from falling. Electroencephalography can be used to confirm diagnosis. It is rare and can be indicative of Lennox-Gastaut syndrome ("see" Henri Gastaut).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1683306',
'title': 'Atonic seizure',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Atonic seizures can occur while standing, walking, or sitting, and are often noticeable by a head drop (relaxing of the neck muscles). Fall injuries may result in impact to the face or head. As with common epileptic occurrences, no first aid is needed post-seizure, except in the instances where falling injuries have occurred. In some cases, a person may become temporarily paralyzed in part of his or her body. This usually does not last longer than 3 minutes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8409047',
'title': 'Racine stages',
'section': 'Section::::Development.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'A seizure is described as large amounts of synchronized action potentials which cause the body to perform uncontrollable muscle contractions resulting in involuntary movement and an incapacity to control ones actions. This synchronized action potential must surpass a certain threshold, which is different for each patient, which then reverberates throughout the body. For Epileptic patients, seizure occurs constantly and continue to grow in intensity. When a patient suffers from epilepsy, they are always at risk of experiencing a seizure. However, for each patient, different environmental stimuli can cause the patient to experience a seizure. For each patient, the treatment method and the success of that treatment method is different. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44061',
'title': 'Convulsion',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Generalized seizures.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'end_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'The most common type of seizure is called a generalized seizure, also known as a generalized convulsion. This is characterized by a loss of consciousness which may lead to the person collapsing. The body stiffens for about a minute and then jerks uncontrollably for the next minute. During this, the patient may fall and injure themselves or bite their tongue and lose control of their bladder. A familial history of this puts a person at a greater risk for developing them.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29115005',
'title': 'Issues for people with epilepsy',
'section': 'Section::::Mental health.:Cognition.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'end_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'But a seizure can be disruptive to the process of normal life. During the seizure, depending on the type, the patient may be totally or partially unconscious, and out of commission to perform normal activities. Following the seizure the patient may be confused and disoriented for a period of time. The patient may also require rest after the seizure.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'what should I do when someone around me has a seizure?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Help them to the ground and put them in the recovery position. Call 911 regardless. Worst case they'll just check his vitals and leave. Seizures can cause permanent damage the longer they run. EMS will have Clonazepam they can give to help ease the seizure. They'll also check for a medic-alert bracelet or necklace that should have further instructions/contact info. \n\nSource: Parent of a 12 year-old epileptic. ",
"Why wouldn't you call 911? If there is a medical emergency where someone's life is in danger, of course you should call 911.\n\nRoll them on to their side so they don't choke on their own spit. \n\nKeep airway free and open. Use a wooden spoon or something if there's an obstruction. Do NOT put your finger in their mouth. The human jaw can bite your finger off without trying.",
'This happened in a bio lecture in college once. I was scrolling Facebook on my laptop--bored. and I hear a shriek from across the aisle from other students and I glanced over, and I was like "oh that kid is having a seizure" and then did a double take and leapt up and did the whole pardon me excuse me thing going through the aisle. Most of the class had cleared out around him and no one was really helping him at all. I attributed my knowledge to learning about it just a week prior in one of my parks and recreation classes.\n\nThe professor was legit freaking out asking what the number was for 911... He was utterly useless., Which boggled my mind. (The EMTs checked him out after they took care of the student.)The best thing to do is put them in the recovery position on their side, and make sure they don\'t swallow their tongue. Obviously after they finish the episode. Give them space because tend to trash about violently. I got kicked in the shin pretty hard.\n\nThe freshman having the seizure had gashed his head on the folding desk he was sitting in. No one around him attempted to take him out of the desk because I think they were all shocked or something.\n\nOh another thing, It\'s also important not to grab their hands while the seizure is going on - people experiencing them turn into the Hulk and have superhuman strength.\n\nWhen he came to I asked him his name and the date and where he was - and about 5 min later the EMTs showed up. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '9le37s',
'query': 'what should i do when someone around me has a seizure?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '41512342',
'title': 'USB-C',
'section': 'Section::::Hardware support.:USB-C cables.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 111,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 111,
'end_character': 276,
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'passage_text': 'Many cables claiming to support USB-C are actually not compliant to the standard. Using these cables would have a potential consequence of damaging devices that they are connected to. There are reported cases of laptops being destroyed due to the use of non-compliant cables.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3677894',
'title': 'MagSafe',
'section': 'Section::::Earlier power systems.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 35,
'end_character': 420,
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'passage_text': 'Tripping on an iBook cord or yanking the cord out at an angle could bend the spring contacts inside the connector or break the solder pads under the connector, resulting in a laptop that would fail to charge when connected to the cord, or would only charge if the inserted plug were propped up or pushed down at an angle. An especially forceful yank could flare the outer flange or even break the tip of the power plug.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19108933',
'title': '2.4 GHz radio use',
'section': 'Section::::Bluetooth.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 413,
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'passage_text': 'The USB 3.0 computer cable standard has been proven to generate significant amounts of electromagnetic interference that can interfere with any Bluetooth devices a user has connected to the same computer. Various strategies can be applied to resolve the problem, ranging from simple solutions such as increasing the distance of USB 3.0 devices from any Bluetooth devices to purchasing better shielded USB cables.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50645678',
'title': 'List of USB-C Power Delivery chargable laptops',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 220,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Some USB-PD charging laptops and USB-PD chargers may not be fully compliant, resulting in undesirable behavior such as: slow charging, refusal to charge, or damage to the laptop or charger in very rare cases\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4418397',
'title': 'Motorola A1000',
'section': 'Section::::Known limitations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 290,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- "Missing autoconnection" - Unlike other UIQ phones, a1000 is not able to auto-connect to PC when USB cable is connected: user intervention is required to tap the screen to activate connection; this makes it impossible to recover data from phone in case of screen damages/crash.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47915029',
'title': 'Juice jacking',
'section': 'Section::::Mitigation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 284,
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'passage_text': "Apple's iOS has taken multiple security measures to reduce the attack surface over USB including no longer allowing the device to automatically mount as a hard drive when plugged in over USB, as well as release security patches for vulnerabilities such as those exploited by Mactans.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12235075',
'title': 'I/O Controller Hub',
'section': 'Section::::ICH5.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 42,
'end_character': 461,
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'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In particular, when connecting USB devices via front panels, the chips died by discharges of static electricity. Intel reacted to the problem by shipping ICH5 with increased ESD tolerance. Effective ESD preventive measures on USB ports are difficult and costly, since they can impair the quality of the USB-2.0 high-speed signals. Many motherboard manufacturers had omitted the necessary high-quality safety devices for front panel connectors for cost reasons.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why cables - like laptop charging cable and phone usb cables- stop working without any obvious damage ?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The wire inside the cable might break over time, that's why sometimes your headphones work in only certain positions, and then stop working altogether. It might also be that the electronics inside the adapter got messed up due to prolonged use, since using it makes it heat up. I hope that answer was detailed enough. "],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '88y0ci',
'query': 'why cables - like laptop charging cable and phone usb cables- stop working without any obvious damage ?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '15020052',
'title': 'Vapor cone',
'section': 'Section::::Examples.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'These condensation clouds can often be seen appearing around space-bound rockets as they accelerate through the atmosphere. For example, they were frequently seen during Space Shuttle launches, about 25 to 33 seconds after launch, when the vehicle was traveling at transonic speeds. Similar effects were also visible in archival footage of some nuclear tests. Scientists observing the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests in 1946 named the transitory cloud a "Wilson cloud" for its superficial similarity to the Wilson cloud chamber effect.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4397048',
'title': 'Twilight phenomena',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'The phenomenon typically occurs with launches that take place either 30 to 60 minutes before sunrise or after sunset when a booster rocket or missile rises out of the darkness and into a sunlit area, relative to an observer\'s perspective on the ground. Because rocket trails extend high into the stratosphere and mesosphere, they catch high altitude sunlight long after the sun has set on the ground. The small particles in the expanding exhaust plume or "cloud" diffract sunlight and produce the rose, blue, green and orange colors—much like a dispersive prism can be used to break light up into its constituent spectral colors (the colors of the rainbow) -- thereby making the twilight phenomenon all the more spectacular.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3909680',
'title': 'Solar Dynamics Observatory',
'section': 'Section::::Launch.:Sun dog phenomenon.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
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'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 296,
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'passage_text': "Moments after launch, SDO's Atlas V rocket flew past a sun dog hanging suspended in the blue Florida sky and when the rocket penetrated the cirrus cloud, shock waves rippled through the cloud and destroyed the alignment of the crystals of the sun dog making a visible rippling effect in the sky.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '362160',
'title': 'Gemini 5',
'section': 'Section::::Flight.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
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'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 417,
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'passage_text': 'Film of the launch revealed a series of unexplained light flashes in the first stage exhaust plume, but telemetry data failed to indicate anything that could have caused them. Subsequent review of previous Gemini launches as well as film of Titan II ICBM tests also showed the presence of these light flashes. This phenomenon was thought to be caused by duct tape securing desiccant bags to the turbine exhaust pipe.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4397048',
'title': 'Twilight phenomena',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'The exhaust plume may also take on a corkscrew appearance as it is whipped around by upper level wind currents. It is typically seen within two to three minutes after a launch has occurred. Depending on weather conditions, it could remain in the sky for up to half an hour before dispersing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4397048',
'title': 'Twilight phenomena',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Twilight phenomenon is produced when exhaust particles from missile or rocket propellant left in the vapor trail of a launch vehicle condenses, freezes and then expands in the less dense upper atmosphere. The exhaust plume, which is suspended against a dark sky is then illuminated by reflective high altitude sunlight through dispersion, which produces a spectacular, colorful effect when seen at ground level.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '263209',
'title': 'Mushroom cloud',
'section': 'Section::::Physics.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 208,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'After the mass of hot gases reaches its equilibrium level, the ascent stops, and the cloud starts flattening the characteristic mushroom shape, usually aided by surface growth due to the decaying turbulence.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'what causes the vibrant clouds when a rocket is launched at night',
'selftext': 'As seen in this spaceX video. What causes the bright clouds, and why are they multicolored, what do the colors come from? URL_0',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["You're seeing condensation trails from the rocket exhaust. As the rocket fuel burns, it creates water vapor. That water vapor condenses and freezes in the upper atmosphere. It happened to show up very well in this launch because of the time of the launch. It was past sunset & dark on the ground, but the sunlight was still visible at the launch altitudes so you could see the faint reflections of the setting sun off the ice crystals. The colors were from the same reason sunsets give you crazy colors, the sunlight is filtered through much more atmosphere."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9mghmv',
'query': 'what causes the vibrant clouds when a rocket is launched at night',
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1983036',
'title': 'Neck stiffness',
'section': '',
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'end_paragraph_id': 1,
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'passage_text': 'Neck stiffness, stiff neck and nuchal rigidity are terms often used interchangeably to describe the medical condition when one experiences discomfort or pain when trying to turn, move, or flex the neck. Possible causes include muscle strain or sprain, cervical spine disorders, meningitis, and subarachnoid hemorrhage.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '237876',
'title': 'Deformation (engineering)',
'section': 'Section::::Types of deformation.:True stress and strain.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
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'end_paragraph_id': 30,
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'passage_text': 'Additionally, based on the true stress-strain curve, we can estimate the region where necking starts to happen. Since necking starts to appear after ultimate tensile stress where the maximum force applied, we can express this situation as below:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11198392',
'title': 'Neck pain',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Neck pain, although felt in the neck, can be caused by numerous other spinal problems. Neck pain may arise due to muscular tightness in both the neck and upper back, or pinching of the nerves emanating from the cervical vertebrae. Joint disruption in the neck creates pain, as does joint disruption in the upper back.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3586686',
'title': 'Spinal lock',
'section': 'Section::::Neck crank.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 635,
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'passage_text': 'A neck crank (sometimes also referred to as a neck lock, and technically known as a cervical lock) is a spinal lock applied to the cervical spine causing hyperextension, hyperflexion, lateral hyperflexion, hyperrotation or extension-distraction. This happens either through bending, twisting or elongating. A neck crank is typically applied by pulling or twisting the head beyond its normal ranges of rotation. Neck cranks are usually banned from sports competitions, with notable exceptions in combat sports such as submission wrestling and mixed martial arts, where they are used as submission holds or as a guard passing technique.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2769033',
'title': 'Necking (engineering)',
'section': 'Section::::Formation.:Neck stability.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 636,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'As deformation proceeds the geometric instability causes strain to continue concentrating in the neck until the material either ruptures or the necked material hardens enough, as indicated by the second tangent point in the top diagram, to cause other regions of the material to deform instead. The amount of strain in the stable neck is called the "natural draw ratio" because it is determined by the material\'s hardening characteristics, not the amount of drawing imposed on the material. Ductile polymers often exhibit stable necks because molecular orientation provides a mechanism for hardening that predominates at large strains.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '291791',
'title': 'Dry suit',
'section': 'Section::::Hazards of use.:Carotid-sinus reflex.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 139,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 139,
'end_character': 279,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'An over-tight neck seal can put pressure on the carotid artery, causing a reflex which slows the heart, resulting in poor oxygen delivery to the brain, light-headedness and eventual unconsciousness. For this reason, neck seals should be stretched or trimmed to the correct size.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '240568',
'title': 'Stress–strain curve',
'section': 'Section::::Stages.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'The third stage is the necking region. Beyond tensile strength, a "neck" forms where the local cross-sectional area becomes significantly smaller than the average. The necking deformation is heterogenous and will reinforce itself as the stress concentrates more at small section. Such positive feedback leads to quick development of necking and leads to fracture. Note that though the pulling force is decreasing, the work strengthening is still progressing, that is, the true stress keeps growing but the engineering stress decreases because the shrinking section area is not considered. This region ends up with the fracture. After fracture, percent elongation and reduction in section area can be calculated.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why does putting pressure on a specific point on your neck 'cure' a creak in the neck?",
'selftext': "And then when you take the pressure off, it's suddenly as annoying and uncomfortable as ever?",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['It\'s possible you have a "pinched nerve" essentially the muscles in your neck are cramping and by pressing on it you release some of that pressure on the nerve. It\'s also possible that it\'s just simple muscle fatigue and pressing on the affected muscle group stretches it out like stretching out your back. As for exactly how stretching helps with fatigued muscles I\'m not sure.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'fvb8ra',
'query': "why does putting pressure on a specific point on your neck 'cure' a creak in the neck?",
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '29201097',
'title': 'Graffiti removal',
'section': 'Section::::Removal methods.:Environmentally sustainable removal.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 18,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 18,
'end_character': 280,
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'passage_text': 'Baking Soda or Dry Ice Blasting is an environmentally sustainable method of removing graffiti. This process involves using abrasive particles to safely remove the paint without damaging surfaces. Surfaces that respond well to blasting are concrete, brick, stone, wood, and glass.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10168169',
'title': 'Baking stone',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 297,
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'passage_text': 'Baking stones can be cleaned with a dry brush or scouring pad followed by plain hot water. Because it is porous, a baking stone will absorb any fluid it contacts, including detergent. Use of any detergents may taint the stone, imparting the flavor of detergent to foods later cooked on the stone.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15627257',
'title': 'Plate glass',
'section': 'Section::::Quality and damage.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 14,
'end_character': 247,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Scratches can occur on sheet glass from accidental causes. In glass trade terminology these include "block reek" produced in polishing, "runner-cut" caused by grinding, or a "sleek" or hairline scratch, as well as "crush" or "rub" on the surface.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13198770',
'title': 'Abrasive blasting',
'section': 'Section::::Media.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 52,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 52,
'end_character': 477,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Synthetic: This category includes corn starch, wheat starch, sodium bicarbonate, and dry ice. These "soft" abrasives are also used to avoid damaging the underlying material such when cleaning brick or stone, removing graffiti, or the removal of coatings from printed circuit boards being repaired. Sodablasting uses baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) which is extremely friable, the micro fragmentation on impact exploding away surface materials without damage to the substrate.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19061336',
'title': 'Bresle method',
'section': 'Section::::Importance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 696,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Salt contamination beneath a coating, such as paint on steel, can cause adhesion and corrosion problems due to the hygroscopic nature of salt. Its tendency to attract water through a permeable coating creates a build-up of water molecules between substrate and coating. These molecules, together with salt and other oxidation agents trapped during coating or migrating through the coating, create an electrolytic cell, causing corrosion. Blast cleaning is frequently used to clean surfaces before coating; however, with salt contamination, blast cleaning may increase the problem by forcing salt into the base material. Washing a surface with deionized water before coating is a common solution.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1145905',
'title': 'Tooth whitening',
'section': 'Section::::Methods.:At Home.:Natural (alternative) methods.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 68,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 68,
'end_character': 604,
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'passage_text': 'Baking Soda is a safe, low abrasive and effective stain removal and tooth whitening dentrifice. Dentrifices that have excessive abrasivity are harmful to dental tissue, therefore baking soda is a desirable alternative. To date, clinical studies on baking soda report that there have been no reported adverse effects. It also contains acid-buffering components that makes baking soda biologically antibacterial at high concentrations and capable of preventing growth of "Streptococcus Mutans." Baking soda might be useful for caries prone patients as well as those who are after a tooth whitening effect.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '702721',
'title': 'Brasso',
'section': 'Section::::Other applications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 309,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- It is used to polish CDs, DVDs, screens, and pools to repair scratches. It is a mild solvent and an extremely fine abrasive, so when applied to the reflective surface of the disc and rubbed radially (in straight lines between the edge and centre), it can smooth scratches and reduce their effect.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does baking soda remove scratches from spectacles',
'selftext': "So one of the things to removes scratches from spectacles is to use baking soda as a paste and use it to buff your specs to remove it. I'm confused how does that work",
'category': 'Chemistry',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["It is a really mild abrasive. It will only remove tiny scratches. That is also why it is a tooth whitener.\n\nBasically if it doesn't fully dissolve, it is slightly harder than glass and grinds it down.\n"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9bvnb4',
'query': 'how does baking soda remove scratches from spectacles',
'query_type': 'Chemistry',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '31848417',
'title': 'Upper motor neuron syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 1067,
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'passage_text': 'Research has clearly shown that exercise is beneficial for impaired muscles, even though it was previously believed that strength exercise would "increase" muscle tone and impair muscle performance further. Also, in previous decades there has been a strong focus on other interventions for impaired muscles, particularly stretching and splinting, but the evidence does not support these as effective. One of the challenges for health professionals working with UMNS movement disorders is that the degree of muscle weakness makes developing an exercise programme difficult. For muscles that lack any volitional control, such as after complete spinal cord injury, exercise may be assisted, and may require equipment, such as using a standing frame to sustain a standing position. Often, muscles require specific stimulation to achieve small amounts of activity, which is most often achieved by weight-bearing (e.g. positioning and supporting a limb such that it supports body weight) or by stimulation to the muscle belly (such as electrical stimulation or vibration).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '841074',
'title': 'Muscle fatigue',
'section': 'Section::::Molecular mechanisms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 28,
'end_character': 389,
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'passage_text': 'Muscle fatigue may be due to precise molecular changes that occur "in vivo" with sustained exercise. It has been found that the ryanodine receptor present in skeletal muscle undergoes a conformational change during exercise, resulting in "leaky" channels that are deficient in calcium release. These "leaky" channels may be a contributor to muscle fatigue and decreased exercise capacity.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '841074',
'title': 'Muscle fatigue',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Muscle fatigue is the decline in ability of a muscle to generate force. It can be a result of vigorous exercise but abnormal fatigue may be caused by barriers to or interference with the different stages of muscle contraction. There are two main causes of muscle fatigue: the limitations of a nerve’s ability to generate a sustained signal (neural fatigue); and the reduced ability of the muscle fiber to contract (metabolic fatigue).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '805912',
'title': 'Delayed onset muscle soreness',
'section': 'Section::::Prevention.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 26,
'end_character': 679,
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'passage_text': 'Delayed onset muscle soreness can be reduced or prevented by gradually increasing the intensity of a new exercise program, thereby taking advantage of the repeated-bout effect. Soreness can theoretically be avoided by limiting exercise to concentric and isometric contractions. But eccentric contractions in some muscles are normally unavoidable during exercise, especially when muscles are fatigued. Limiting the length of eccentric muscle extensions during exercise may afford some protection against soreness, but this may also not be practical depending on the mode of exercise. Static stretching or warming up the muscles before or after exercise does not prevent soreness.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21496931',
'title': 'Exercise prescription',
'section': 'Section::::For specific diseases.:Osteoarthritis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 328,
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'passage_text': 'Studies show that exercise prescription aids in both preventing and minimizing the effects of joint disorders such as osteoarthritis. Evidence shows that in addition to the general physiological, psychological and functional benefits gained from exercise, greater quadriceps strength has a mitigating effect on knee joint pain.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '395477',
'title': 'Exercise physiology',
'section': 'Section::::Fatigue.:Intense activity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 45,
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'passage_text': 'Researchers once attributed fatigue to a build-up of lactic acid in muscles. However, this is no longer believed. Rather, lactate may stop muscle fatigue by keeping muscles fully responding to nerve signals. The available oxygen and energy supply, and disturbances of muscle ion homeostasis are the main factor determining exercise performance, at least during brief very intense exercise.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20731515',
'title': 'Central governor',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Archibald Hill.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'passage_text': 'This hypothesis was disregarded and further research upon exercise fatigue was modeled in terms of it being due to a mechanical failure of the exercising muscles ("peripheral muscle fatigue"). This failure was caused either by an inadequate oxygen supply to the exercising muscles, lactic acid buildup, or total energy depletion in the exhausted muscles.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do some exercises really have a noticeable effect on my muscles and others just makes my muscles tired?',
'selftext': 'I\'ll try to explain: Imagine doing bicep curls. After a few sets you\'re like "man that was a good work out, my arm is super worked!" But then if you do somethin like arm circles (do those even do anything) for an extended period of time, it just makes your arm tired, but no feeling of actually being worked, or soreness the next day. You can\'t do the arm circles indefinitely, as you eventually can\'t hold your arms up anymore, just as you can\'t life the dumbbell after a few sets, but one is actually a strenuous workout that improves muscle composition that your body adapts to, and the other is just exhausting your arm, but no gain. Clear as mud? great.',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["In the first scenario (curls), you're working your muscle near its maximum ability. This causes small tears in the muscle, and your body rebuilds those tears stronger than they were before as a way to adapt to it (get stronger).\n\nIn the second scenario (circles), you're not working your muscle as hard as you can: you're just working it so *long* that it's exhausted. It wasn't beyond your muscle's ability.\n\nWhat *does* improve in that scenario is your muscle's endurance. If you did arm circles to absolute exhaustion every day, you'd be able to do it for longer and longer. Your arms may not get stronger, though.",
'Yeah u/bazmonkey essentially got the entire basic gist of it.\n\nI am only here to provide a longer (though not as ELI5) explanation for the interested. First, when you do reps of curls, you are "forcing" your body to move significant amounts of weight that it probably isn\'t used to. Your body adapts by expanding your muscle system that was worked out so you can meet the physical demands of the workout the next time around. You feel sore later from a combination of muscle microscopically tearing (the tears are filled in with bigger or more muscle fibers to strengthen mechanical capacity) and the build up of muscular biological waste from the workout (a prominent waste product of muscles is lactic acid, this is what causes cramping in excess and it is removed by getting good levels of oxygen to your muscles). \n\nAs for the circles. Well, remember what I said about lactic acid before? It comes into play because when you do these repetitive motions, the amount of lactic acid being produced is outweighing the rate that this acid is being removed by the bloodstream so you get very quick buildups of this waste product. The longer you keep it going, the harder that "cramp" feeling becomes. This is mitigated a little by stretching as the stretching expands important blood ways near your muscles to prepare them for an increased removal of lactic acid. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6tl30j',
'query': 'why do some exercises really have a noticeable effect on my muscles and others just makes my muscles tired?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '4459886',
'title': 'Password strength',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Using strong passwords lowers overall risk of a security breach, but strong passwords do not replace the need for other effective security controls. The effectiveness of a password of a given strength is strongly determined by the design and implementation of the factors (knowledge, ownership, inherence). The first factor is the main focus in this article.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4459886',
'title': 'Password strength',
'section': 'Section::::Guidelines for strong passwords.:Examples of weak passwords.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 59,
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'passage_text': 'As with any security measure, passwords vary in effectiveness (i.e., strength); some are weaker than others. For example, the difference in weakness between a dictionary word and a word with obfuscation (i.e., letters in the password are substituted by, say, numbers — a common approach) may cost a password cracking device a few more seconds; this adds little strength. The examples below illustrate various ways weak passwords might be constructed, all of which are based on simple patterns which result in extremely low entropy, allowing them to be tested automatically at high speeds.:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4459886',
'title': 'Password strength',
'section': 'Section::::Guidelines for strong passwords.:Examples of weak passwords.\n',
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'passage_text': 'There are many other ways a password can be weak, corresponding to the strengths of various attack schemes; the core principle is that a password should have high entropy (usually taken to be equivalent to randomness) and "not" be readily derivable by any "clever" pattern, nor should passwords be mixed with information identifying the user. On-line services often provide a restore password function that a hacker can figure out and by doing so bypass a password. Choosing hard-to-guess restore password questions can further secure the password.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4459886',
'title': 'Password strength',
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'passage_text': 'Password strength is a measure of the effectiveness of a password against guessing or brute-force attacks. In its usual form, it estimates how many trials an attacker who does not have direct access to the password would need, on average, to guess it correctly. The strength of a password is a function of length, complexity, and unpredictability.\n',
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'passage_text': "Password strength is the likelihood that a password cannot be guessed or discovered, and varies with the attack algorithm used. Cryptologists and computer scientists often refer to the strength or 'hardness' in terms of entropy.\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '4459886',
'title': 'Password strength',
'section': 'Section::::Password guess validation.:Human-generated passwords.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The full strength associated with using the entire ASCII character set (numerals, mixed case letters and special characters) is only achieved if each possible password is equally likely. This seems to suggest that all passwords must contain characters from each of several character classes, perhaps upper and lower case letters, numbers, and non-alphanumeric characters. In fact, such a requirement is a pattern in password choice and can be expected to reduce an attacker\'s "work factor" (in Claude Shannon\'s terms). This is a reduction in password "strength". A better requirement would be to require a password NOT to contain any word in an online dictionary, or list of names, or any license plate pattern from any state (in the US) or country (as in the EU). If patterned choices are required, humans are likely to use them in predictable ways, such a capitalizing a letter, adding one or two numbers, and a special character. This predictability means that the increase in password strength is minor when compared to random passwords.\n',
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'title': 'Passphrase',
'section': 'Section::::Compared to passwords.\n',
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'passage_text': 'But passwords are typically not safe to use as keys for standalone security systems (e.g., encryption systems) that expose data to enable offline password guessing by an attacker. Passphrases are theoretically stronger, and so should make a better choice in these cases. First, they usually are (and always should be) much longer—20 to 30 characters or more is typical—making some kinds of brute force attacks entirely impractical. Second, if well chosen, they will not be found in any phrase or quote dictionary, so such dictionary attacks will be almost impossible. Third, they can be structured to be more easily memorable than passwords without being written down, reducing the risk of hardcopy theft. However, if a passphrase is not protected appropriately by the authenticator and the clear-text passphrase is revealed its use is no better than other passwords. For this reason it is recommended that passphrases not be reused across different or unique sites and services.\n',
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'title': 'What makes a password stronger than another?',
'selftext': 'How is a password that has uppercase and lowercase letters, numbers, and special characters more secure if every character is always a possibility?',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Because some types of attacks will do what's called a 'dictionary attack' and try dictionary words and thing based on them (apple, Apple, APPLE, etc). If you have to brute force a password (meaning try every possible combination) then as you add numbers, case, and specials the number of possible combinations goes through the roof (keep in mind, on average you'd have to try 50% of the possible combinations to get it right).\n\nHaving those all be possible characters in a password increases the amount of possible passwords and hence makes it hard to guess.",
'Case sensitivity, and adding a variety of numbers in an unpredictable matter makes it harder for not only us humans, but also programs that try to find a password because of an unfollowable algorithm. \nAlthough every character is a possibility, uppercases numbers etc.. widens the range of what has to be searched .',
'Depends on what you mean by more secure.\n\nRandom uppercase and lowercase letters will make it more difficult for humans to guess. ("PassWord" is different from "password") Computers don\'t care. You can arrange 4 numbers in 24 unique ways. You can arrange 8 numbers in 40320 ways.\n\nWhen cracking a password with a computer the number of variables adds complexity. But for your usual password that does not matter bc usually they are usually broken by leaked databases.\n\nEDIT// They force number and uppercase to force complexity. The majority of people will still use Password123 unfortunately.\n\nEDIT2// _URL_0_',
'This is actually a common fallacy. "Stronger" in this case means more entropy, or to put it another way, harder for a computer to guess or brute force. What people aren\'t telling you enough is that longer is better than shorter.\nSuppose a password had only 8 upper/ lower case letters in it. That would give 52^8 possibilities, or 53,459,728,531,456. Adding in 10 special characters (@#$_ & -+*!) for example, gives you 62^8 or 218,340,105,584,896. Better, but not remarkably so (4x ish the size), considering how many guesses can be made per second.\nIf you had simply added another letter, you would then have 52^9 or 2,779,905,883,635,712 which is literally exponentially better.\n\nFor a fun way to visualize this, I recommend xkcd.\n_URL_0_\n\n**EDIT\nI feel like I should add here that you should make sure to use a DIFFERENT, LONG password for each service that requires one. As people are pointing out, and I failed to mention, the easiest ways to "hack" an account are 1) find the same or similar username in a password dump from another breach and check if they re-use their password and 2) just call customer service and tell them you forgot it and no longer have access to your email. If you know who you are trying to "hack" you can probably find the answers to most of their "security questions" by being their facebook friend, checking their instagram, or just googling them. Hell, half the time its like "what is your favorite football team" and if joe blow lives in Philly, you probably have your answer.',
'I go for the single most important quality of a secure password: *LENGTH*. Recent mathematical studies into passwords show that nothing else - not obfuscation, not substitution, *nothing* - is as effective as sheer length.\n\nAs such, I use the maximum length allowed by a site or service, up to 64 characters from the lower UTF-8 character set. This means that up to 80% of characters in any of my passwords are just not found on a standard ANSI US keyboard, and can be any one of up to one million different potential characters per character. That dramatically increases the complexity, when combined with sheer length.\n\nWhat sometimes trips me up is when you have really shitty programmers that do one of three things:\n\n* Save/process passwords in ASCII. Who the fuck still does this? This does nothing but demonstrate severe incompetence in today’s connected (international) world, and they seriously need to relinquish their programmer’s card.\n* Have different password lengths between their website and app, with (usually) the website being longer. Because once I’ve created an account on the site, I find I cannot log onto the app since the app password field truncates a valid password to an invalid password. Also a sign of incompetence, but more of a managerial/project management sort unless the same dev that did the site also did the app (and should therefore have known better).\n* Limit password length to something stupidly low, like sixteen characters *I’m looking at you, Microsoft*. Anything under 12 characters in length is trivially easy to crack, and anything under 16 is becoming rather easy. It’s only when you start hitting the 20-24 character range that the limitations of today’s tech starts making any attempt to crack it impractical.\n\nAnd then you have the really stupidly brain-dead things that are also done by far too many devs:\n\n* Have passwords stored in plain text. If resetting your password involves them sending you your old one, it’s not encrypted and can be stolen!!\n* Store any part of the password in plain text (same problem, just *slightly* less problematic).\n* Roll their own password encryption, instead of using a widely accepted and well-tested off-the-shelf tool.\n* Use a third-party authentication service, such as Facebook or Google, while *not* providing the option of an internal Auth system for the paranoid. Yes, relying *only* on third-party Auth is putting all your password eggs into one basket, and is no different than reusing your password across multiple sites. Plus, with the recent Facebook privacy revelations, I most definitely do *not* want to use *any* third-party Auth for *any* login, thanks. I will make a custom one for every service I use. *And I am looking at PushBullet in particular, ya dinguses. Your Cletus-level attitude on not having your own internal Auth doesn’t look so good right about now, does it? I see you’ve recently removed your Facebook Auth in a frothy panic, but Google Auth has the potential to suck just as badly.*',
'Many folks have provided good answers. I would add that the "complexity" requirement is no longer viewed as best practice. The more serious risk is using an easy-to-guess password. "Easy" here meaning a password that, based on breach data, other humans have chosen before, and worse one that many humans have chosen.\n\n\nNIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology) recently published some [new guidelines](_URL_0_) that basically say:\n\n* don\'t require complexity (the subject of OP\'s question)\n* do check proposed passwords against breach lists and other sources of commonly chosen passwords\n* do require long passwords\n* do not set a maximum password length (they suggest allowing at least 64 characters)\n* do not use password hints\n* do not set up security questions for password reset\n\nGiven that the previous argument for complexity was (at least in part) based upon 2003 NIST guidelines, this revision is noteworthy.'],
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'title': 'Precor StretchTrainer',
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'passage_text': 'An active stretching regimen can strengthen muscles because stretching affects muscles in a way similar to strength training, just on a smaller scale. A stretching regimen has been shown to increase weight-lifting abilities, improve endurance, and assist in plyometrics. Research shows that StretchTrainer users can increase their flexibility (as judged by a basic sit and reach test) after 30 days of use, regardless of age.\n',
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'title': 'Human leg',
'section': 'Section::::Structure.:Flexibility.:Stretching.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Stretching prior to strenuous physical activity has been thought to increase muscular performance by extending the soft tissue past its attainable length in order to increase range of motion. Many physically active individuals practice these techniques as a “warm-up” in order to achieve a certain level of muscular preparation for specific exercise movements. When stretching, muscles should feel somewhat uncomfortable but not physically agonizing.\n',
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{'wikipedia_id': '5300182',
'title': 'Flexibility (anatomy)',
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'passage_text': 'Flexibility is improved by stretching. Stretching should only be started when muscles are warm and the body temperature is raised. To be effective while stretching, force applied to the body must be held just beyond a feeling of pain and needs to be held for at least ten seconds. Increasing the range of motion creates good posture and develops proficient performance in everyday activities increasing the length of life and overall health of the individual.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Flexibility (anatomy)',
'section': 'Section::::Limits of Flexibility.:Signs of Injury.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Stretching for too long or too much can give way to an injury. For most activities, the normal range of motion is more than adequate. Any sudden movements or going too fast can cause a muscle to tighten. This leads to extreme pain and the performer should let the muscle relax by resting.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '868983',
'title': 'Stretching',
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'passage_text': 'Stretching can be dangerous when performed incorrectly. There are many techniques for stretching in general, but depending on which muscle group is being stretched, some techniques may be ineffective or detrimental, even to the point of causing hypermobility, instability, or permanent damage to the tendons, ligaments, and muscle fiber. The physiological nature of stretching and theories about the effect of various techniques are therefore subject to heavy inquiry.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '52715112',
'title': 'Kinesiological stretching',
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'passage_text': "Kinesiological stretching isolates muscles' actions one by one. It concentrates mainly on the muscles which are tighter than the others. This stretching method goes deeper and also helps in acquiring flexibility and strength faster than other methods of stretching.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
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'passage_text': "Stretching is a form of physical exercise in which a specific muscle or tendon (or muscle group) is deliberately flexed or stretched in order to improve the muscle's felt elasticity and achieve comfortable muscle tone. The result is a feeling of increased muscle control, flexibility, and range of motion. Stretching is also used therapeutically to alleviate cramps.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
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'answers': ['There is no good evidence that shows static stretching does anything useful. Dynamic stretching (which is actually just moving around) is evidence based to be useful.',
"Pretty sure this is a false premise.\n\nWhat makes you think stretching a muscle helps it heal faster? Do you mean from tears? From exercise? I don't know of any research that has shown static or dynamic stretches hastening recovery from either.\n\nThe lactic acid thing thing that the top comment suggests is just bullshit. That's stuff taught in exercise physiology 101 classes from the 1990s."],
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'query': 'why does stretching a muscle help it heal faster?',
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'title': 'Illusions of self-motion',
'section': 'Section::::Sea legs, dock rock, or stillness illness.\n',
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'passage_text': "After being on a small boat for a few hours and then going back onto land, it may feel like there is still rising and falling, as if one is still on the boat. It can also occur on other situations, such as after a long train journey or after working up a swaying tree. It is not clear whether sea legs is a form of aftereffect to the predominant frequency of the stimulation (e.g., the waves or the rocking of the train), whether it is a form of learning to adjust one's gait and posture, or whether it is a form of the Tetris effect. Sea legs needs to be distinguished from mal de debarquement, which is much more disturbing and long-lasting.\n",
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'title': 'Tetris effect',
'section': 'Section::::Other examples.\n',
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'passage_text': 'On a perceptual level, sea legs are a kind of Tetris effect. A person newly on land after spending long periods at sea may sense illusory rocking motion, having become accustomed to the constant work of adjusting to the boat making such movements (see "Illusions of self-motion" and "Mal de debarquement"). The poem "Boots" by Rudyard Kipling describes the effect, resulting from repetitive visual experience during a route march:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '49202946',
'title': "Derren Brown's Ghost Train",
'section': 'Section::::Ride experience.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The train feels as though it has started to move and the ride begins. Riders watch the events through virtual reality, involving a passenger on the train discussing the consequences of a fracking disaster and an infected passenger appearing to attack the rider. Following the scene of a train crash, guests are instructed to leave their seats and exit the carriage.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7990266',
'title': 'Wipeout (ride)',
'section': 'Section::::Ride cycle.\n',
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'passage_text': 'During the duration of the ride, the ride changes speeds. When the ride is fluctuating in its wavelike manner, the person will feel like the ride is not going that fast. However, when the ride is almost over, the person will feel forces on their body, and get pushed toward the outside of the cars. This happens when the ride starts lowering to the ground in a non-wavelike manner. When the ride moves in this way, it acts like a Himalaya / Musik Express ride.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'Kiteboarding',
'section': 'Section::::The wind.:Arbitrary atmosphere volume swept by the kite.\n',
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'passage_text': 'For instance, a user riding towards the beach rises the kite to slow it down and convert traction into lift. Then, instead of speed he feels an increase of the force upwards, necessary to keep himself above the breaking waves.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1961494',
'title': 'Tom Vaughn (musician)',
'section': 'Section::::Retirement.\n',
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'passage_text': "That feeling, when it's right, there's nothing better – carnality, food, throw it all out the window. When I get in a groove, I'm detached, almost like losing consciousness, like flying some sort of super aircraft. It's close to an out-of-body experience.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48476127',
'title': 'Sports et divertissements',
'section': 'Section::::Music and texts.\n',
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'passage_text': '"Graciously". To the strains of an innocuous waltz theme a pair of pleasure-seekers prepare to go on a water slide. The more reluctant of the two is persuaded with dubious reassurances ("You will feel as if you were falling off a scaffolding"). Following an expectant musical pause the ride itself is evoked with dizzying plunging scales. The squeamish one feels sick afterwards but is told, "That proves you needed to have some fun."\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "What is actually happening when, after a day in the ocean or riding rollercoasters, the body will almost simulate the feelings when you're staying still?",
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'answers': ['There\'s a few reasons why this happens, and it\'s actually been a source of contention for centuries now. This is part of where the term "Sea Legs" comes from.\n\nWhen you are on a boat, or a roller coaster or other similar behaviours, your brain, vestibulocochlear system (The tubes of fluid in your ears that help maintain balance) and muscles all grow accustomed to that environment.\n\nWhat you\'re actually experiencing after coming back from such things is actually almost the opposite of what you were feeling; your body is so used to that swaying motion of a boat that the complete steadiness of dry land temporarily "Confuses" it.\n\nHave you ever been on a trampoline for a moderate length of time? That\'s a very similar scenario; after coming off the trampoline your legs feel heavy and your muscles seem weak because you\'ve become used to the "Springy" terrain.\n\nIt\'s a similar situation here; You\'re used to the movement, and in its absence your brain is preemptively simulating movement that is no longer there, making you feel like you\'re moving even when you\'re sitting still.'],
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'passage_text': 'In intonation, sharp can also mean "slightly higher in pitch" (by some unspecified amount). If two simultaneous notes are slightly out-of-tune, the higher-pitched one (assuming the lower one is properly pitched) is "sharp" with respect to the other. Furthermore, the verb "sharpen" means to raise the pitch of a note, typically by a small musical interval.\n',
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'passage_text': 'If the lower pitch is sharp or the upper pitch is flat, the interval may be said to be flat given that as a whole it is too narrow; while if the lower pitch is flat or the upper pitch is sharp, the interval may be said to be sharp given that as a whole it is too wide. Intervals are conventionally measured from the bottom, as such in an interval that is too wide the upper pitch is thus sharp. For example, the "flat fifth" of meantone temperament.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In music, sharp, dièse (from French), or diesis (from Greek) means higher in pitch. More specifically, in musical notation, sharp means "higher in pitch by one semitone (half step)". Sharp is the opposite of flat, which is a lowering of pitch.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In music, flat (Italian bemolle for "soft B") means "lower in pitch". Flat is the opposite of sharp, which is a raising of pitch. In musical notation, flat means "lower in pitch by one semitone (half step)", notated using the symbol which is derived from a stylised lowercase \'b\'.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In intonation, flat can also mean "slightly lower in pitch" (by some unspecified amount). If two simultaneous notes are slightly out-of-tune, the lower-pitched one (assuming the higher one is properly pitched) is "flat" with respect to the other. Furthermore, the verb "flatten" means to lower the pitch of a note, typically by a small musical interval.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
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'title': 'A-flat minor',
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'passage_text': "More often, pieces in a minor mode that have A-flat's pitch as tonic are notated in the enharmonic key, G-sharp minor, because that key has just five sharps as opposed to the seven flats of A-flat minor.\n",
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{'wikipedia_id': '4168648',
'title': 'List of symphonies by key',
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'passage_text': 'Because A-flat minor has seven flats in its key signature, composers usually use the enharmonic equivalent G-sharp minor, which only has five sharps. It is infrequent even in piano music, and even rarer in orchestral music in general.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
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'answers': ['Sharp is going up 1 semitone, Flat is going down 1 semitone. \n\nFor example C# would be 1 semitone higher in pitch than C and Cb would be 1 semitone lower than C',
'So from your previous comment I see you asked about a song being in a certain key. I think you are asking 2 separate questions and you don\'t know it.\n\nA sharped note is a semitone above a given note and a flatted not is a semitone below. These notes are useful in Western music to build a scale, or a group of notes that follow a specific pattern that is familiar and pleasing to our ears.\n\nA song\'s key, let\'s say E-flat to go with your previous comment, is different. When you say a song is in the key of E-flat major that means that the song follows the melodic rules of E-flat being "do". When I say "do" I mean the prime note of a scale, or "do a deer a female deer" as it is explained in The Sound of Music. \n\nThat means when you listen to the song it will follow the scale, do-re-mi-fa-sol-la-ti-do, and much of the song is going to resolve, or come back to, the note E-flat as a kind of home base. We call that the tonic. Because it is the TONal center.\n\nSo if a song is in G-major that just means home base is the note G. D-major would be D and so on. '],
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'passage_text': 'The typhoid outbreak may have encouraged replacement of traditional laundered roller towels in public toilets, which allowed bacterial cross-infection from person to person, by disposable paper towels and warm air hand driers.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Routine cleaning of (hand, food, drinking water) sites and surfaces (such as toilet seats and flush handles, door and tap handles, work surfaces, bath and basin surfaces) in the kitchen, bathroom and toilet reduces the risk of spread of pathogens. The infection risk from flush toilets is not high, provided they are properly maintained, although some splashing and aerosol formation can occur during flushing, particularly when someone has diarrhea. Pathogens can survive in the scum or scale left behind on baths, showers and wash basins after washing and bathing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '173652',
'title': 'Hemorrhoid',
'section': 'Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Internal.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 10,
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'passage_text': 'Internal hemorrhoids usually present with painless, bright red rectal bleeding during or following a bowel movement. The blood typically covers the stool (a condition known as hematochezia), is on the toilet paper, or drips into the toilet bowl. The stool itself is usually normally coloured. Other symptoms may include mucous discharge, a perianal mass if they prolapse through the anus, itchiness, and fecal incontinence. Internal hemorrhoids are usually only painful if they become thrombosed or necrotic.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '51080253',
'title': 'Toilet plume',
'section': 'Section::::Mechanism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'Aerosol droplets produced by flushing the toilet can enter the air of the room. Larger droplets will settle on a surface before they can dry, and can contaminate surfaces such as the toilet seat and handle which can then be contacted by hands. Smaller aerosol particles can become droplet nuclei as a result of evaporation of the water in the droplet, which have negligible settling velocity and are carried by natural air currents. Disease transmission through droplet nuclei is not a concern for many pathogens, because they are not excreted in feces or vomit, or are susceptible to drying. The critical size dividing these depends on the evaporation rate and vertical distance between the toilet and the surface.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '338154',
'title': 'Wound',
'section': 'Section::::Management.:Cleaning.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 43,
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'passage_text': "Evidence to support the cleaning of wounds before closure is scant. For simple lacerations, cleaning can be accomplished using a number of different solutions, including tap water and sterile saline solution. Infection rates may be lower with the use of tap water in regions where water quality is high. Cleaning of a wound is also known as 'wound toilet'.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '51080253',
'title': 'Toilet plume',
'section': 'Section::::Possible effects on disease transmission.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
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'passage_text': 'There is indirect evidence that toilet aerosol can be a vector for diseases that involve acute gastroenteritis with the shedding of large numbers of pathogens through feces and vomit, with normal use of a toilet unlikely to be a major health risk. For example, some epidemiological studies indicate transmission of norovirus in passenger airplanes and ships, and SARS coronavirus through a contaminated building sewage system, via contaminated toilets rather than other routes. The feces and vomit of infected people can contain high concentrations of pathogens, many of which are known to survive on surfaces for weeks or months, and toilets may continue to produce contaminated toilet plumes over multiple successive flushes. Some other pathogens speculatively identified as being of potential concern for these reasons include gram-positive MRSA, "Mycobacterium tuberculosis", and the pandemic H1N1/09 virus commonly known as "swine flu".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '30350408',
'title': 'New York Rescue Workers Detoxification Project',
'section': 'Section::::Outcomes.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': 'It was reported in October 2007 that 838 people had completed the program. The clinic displayed towels with colored stains, as evidence that toxic material had been sweated out in the saunas. According to its Director, Jim Woodworth, during the Purification Rundown firefighters had passed odd-colored bowel movements and sweated out mercury, aluminium and magnesium. The Fire Department\'s chief medical officer, Dr. Kerry Kelly, criticized the lack of objective evidence, saying, "I have trouble believing in these purple-stained towels."\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'After several trips to the bathroom with diarrhea and eventual chafing of the wiped area as evidenced by specks of blood on toilet paper, how do these wounds generally not lead to illness by infection?',
'selftext': "I'm sure I'm not the only one who has experienced this and is wondering why.",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Your bodies immune system is the answer! There are many things involved and probably some people can explain it better than me, but also you probably could experience an infection especially if your immune system was compromised in some way. The lymphatic system helps to filter the blood and is involved in transporting lyphocytes that aid in dealing with infection. Even the way the wounds heal, seals off the point of entry pretty quickly and begins almost as soon as it occurs. ',
'To add to what the other guy said: typically, the chances of infection are based on how deep the wound is. Something like scrapes or chafing are *very* unlikely to cause infections.',
'Fecal bacteria is generally very good for us, but they can cause an infection if it they grow in the wrong part of our body.\n\nWe’ve lived in harmony with certain bacteria so long that we have a hard-coded system in place to recognize when they get into the wrong place. There are molecules on the surface of those bacteria that are different then ours, and white blood cells in our blood are born knowing to attack them. They’re called “pathogen associated molecular patterns” or “PAMPs”.\n\nCertain white blood cells are born with instructions to kill anything that has a PAMP. Those cells don’t go into where the bacteria normally live, but they do travel in the blood.\n\nThis is part of what we call the “innate” immune system. The innate immune system is born with the ability to attack some things without having to be taught to attack them, but they don’t learn from being exposed to new things. The “adaptive” immune system can learn about new things, but it has to be shown the thing first and study it.\n\nWhen I teach immunology, I call them “George and Lenny.” Lenny knows some things are bad, and he kills them right away. If there’s something Lenny doesn’t know about, he takes it to George and asks if it’s a bad thing. George can learn about new things, but it takes time. If George decides the thing is bad, he can tell Lenny to kill it.\n\nLenny knows most of the fecal bacteria, and he knows that they’re not allowed in the body. He doesn’t need George to tell him that. If something slips by Lenny, it’s up to George to decide if it belongs there or not. George is smart, but he’s not perfect. It takes time to learn about new things, and George can be wrong sometimes. But most of the time, George and Lenny are very good at keeping bacteria where they belong.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8r65tf',
'query': 'after several trips to the bathroom with diarrhea and eventual chafing of the wiped area as evidenced by specks of blood on toilet paper, how do these wounds generally not lead to illness by infection?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '398940',
'title': 'Paresthesia',
'section': 'Section::::Causes.:Transient.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 752,
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'passage_text': 'The most common, everyday cause is temporary restriction of nerve impulses to an area of nerves, commonly caused by leaning or resting on parts of the body such as the legs (often followed by a pins and needles tingling sensation). Other causes include conditions such as hyperventilation syndrome and panic attacks. A cold sore outside the mouth (not a canker sore inside the mouth) can be preceded by tingling because a cold sore is caused by herpes simplex virus. The varicella zoster virus (shingles) also notably may cause recurring pain and tingling in skin or tissue along the distribution path of that nerve (most commonly in the skin, along a dermatome pattern, but sometimes feeling like a headache, chest or abdominal pain, or pelvic pain).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '758763',
'title': 'Cold-stimulus headache',
'section': 'Section::::Cause and frequency.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 446,
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'passage_text': 'A cold-stimulus headache is the direct result of the rapid cooling and rewarming of the capillaries in the sinuses leading to periods of vasoconstriction and vasodilation. A similar but painless blood vessel response causes the face to appear "flushed" after being outside on a cold day. In both instances, the low temperature causes the capillaries in the sinuses to constrict and then experience extreme rebound dilation as they warm up again.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24825331',
'title': 'Nerve compression syndrome',
'section': 'Section::::Signs/symptoms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 381,
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'passage_text': 'Tingling, numbness, and/ or a burning sensation in the area of the body affected by the corresponding nerve. These experiences may occur directly following insult or may occur several hours or even days afterwards. Pain is less common than tingling or numbness as a symptom of nerve entrapment, although a burning sensation, if it occurs, may (subjectively) be classified as pain.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6548141',
'title': 'Syrinx (medicine)',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 589,
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'passage_text': 'In the case of syringomyelia, the syrinx can expand and elongate over time, destroying the spinal cord. Since the spinal cord connects the brain to nerves in the extremities, this damage may result in pain, weakness, and stiffness in the back, shoulders, arms, or legs. Other symptoms may include headaches and a loss of the ability to feel extremes of hot or cold, especially in the hands. Each patient experiences a different combination of symptoms. These symptoms typically vary depending on the extent and, often more critically, to the location of the syrinx within the spinal cord.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '18446225',
'title': 'Chronic actinic dermatitis',
'section': 'Section::::Diagnosis.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
'end_character': 987,
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'passage_text': "Reactions, which vary depending on the severity of the case, include rashes, flared 'bumpy' patches, affected areas being extremely hot to touch, and outbreaks shortly (or within 24 hours) after direct or indirect exposure to UVA and/or UVB light. The skin most likely reacts on the upper chest, hands and face, however it is not unlikely for reactions to happen all over the body. The patient may feel burning, stinging or throbbing sensations in these areas, which causes mild, yet uncomfortable pain in some patients. Others liken the pain and sensation to a chemical burn that doesn't go away. It is a mistake to think that the reaction is like a sunburn, it is far deeper in the skin and often requires the use of ingestible steroids as well as topical steroids in order to alleviate the condition to a degree. The best protection is to be fully covered from sunlight, even when cloudy or hazy. The use of UV-rated clothing is suggested as well as a UV-rated umbrella for outdoors.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1409950',
'title': 'Nerve biopsy',
'section': 'Section::::Uses.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 263,
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'passage_text': 'A nerve biopsy can potentially find the cause of the numbness and/or pain experienced in the limbs. It can reveal if these symptoms are caused by damage to the myelin sheath, damage to the small nerves, destruction of the axon in the nerve cells or neuropathies.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '479413',
'title': 'Vasodilation',
'section': 'Section::::Examples and individual mechanisms.:Cold-induced vasodilation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 275,
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'passage_text': 'Cold-induced vasodilation (CIVD) occurs after cold exposure, possibly to reduce the risk of injury. It can take place in several locations in the human body but is observed most often in the extremities. The fingers are especially common because they are exposed most often.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What exactly is happening during a cold when your sinuses become extremely painful for a moment?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['I recently battled a cold and I think I know what you mean. All of a sudden, the inside of your nostrils will hurt for a good 30 seconds. I believe it is because they are dry. Maybe someone with more knowledge in the medical field can help us out?'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7vewzv',
'query': 'what exactly is happening during a cold when your sinuses become extremely painful for a moment?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '40149201',
'title': 'Docker (software)',
'section': 'Section::::Technology.:Tools.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
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'passage_text': "BULLET::::- Docker Compose is a tool for defining and running multi-container Docker applications. It uses YAML files to configure the application's services and performs the creation and start-up process of all the containers with a single command. The codice_3 CLI utility allows users to run commands on multiple containers at once, for example, building images, scaling containers, running containers that were stopped, and more. Commands related to image manipulation, or user-interactive options, are not relevant in Docker Compose because they address one container. The docker-compose.yml file is used to define an application's services and includes various configuration options. For example, the codice_4 option defines configuration options such as the Dockerfile path, the codice_5 option allows one to override default Docker commands, and more. The first public version of Docker Compose (version 0.0.1) was released on December 21, 2013. The first production-ready version (1.0) was made available on October 16, 2014.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40149201',
'title': 'Docker (software)',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Docker is a set of coupled software-as-a-service and platform-as-a-service products that use operating-system-level virtualization to develop and deliver software in packages called containers. The software that hosts the containers is called Docker Engine. It was first started in 2013 and is developed by Docker, Inc. The service has both free and premium tiers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40149201',
'title': 'Docker (software)',
'section': 'Section::::Technology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
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'passage_text': 'Docker is developed primarily for Linux, where it uses the resource isolation features of the Linux kernel such as cgroups and kernel namespaces, and a union-capable file system such as OverlayFS and others to allow independent "containers" to run within a single Linux instance, avoiding the overhead of starting and maintaining virtual machines (VMs). The Linux kernel\'s support for namespaces mostly isolates an application\'s view of the operating environment, including process trees, network, user IDs and mounted file systems, while the kernel\'s cgroups provide resource limiting for memory and CPU. Since version 0.9, Docker includes the library as its own way to directly use virtualization facilities provided by the Linux kernel, in addition to using abstracted virtualization interfaces via libvirt, LXC and systemd-nspawn.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40149201',
'title': 'Docker (software)',
'section': 'Section::::Technology.:Components.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Software: The Docker daemon, called codice_1, is a persistent process that manages Docker containers and handles container objects. The daemon listens for requests sent via the Docker Engine API. The Docker client program, called codice_2, provides a command-line interface that allows users to interact with Docker daemons.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '43236529',
'title': 'GOFF',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'end_paragraph_id': 5,
'end_character': 407,
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'passage_text': 'Note that this article will use the term "module" to refer to any name or equivalent symbol, which is used to provide an identifier for a piece of code or data external to the scope to which it is referenced. A module may refer to a subroutine, a function, a method or property of an object or class, or any other named routine or identifier external to that particular scope referencing the external name.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '528136',
'title': 'Perl module',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 382,
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'passage_text': 'A module defines its source code to be in a "package" (much like a Java package), the Perl mechanism for defining namespaces, e.g. "CGI" or "Net::FTP" or "XML::Parser"; the file structure mirrors the namespace structure (e.g. the source code for "Net::FTP" is in "Net/FTP.pm"). Furthermore, a module is the Perl equivalent of the class when object-oriented programming is employed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39177582',
'title': 'Discourse (software)',
'section': 'Section::::Server requirements.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'The Docker-based distribution includes the web server (which is based on nginx and Unicorn), database system (PostgreSQL), cache (Redis), and background processing services (Sidekiq). The launcher script defaults to running them all on the same server, but supports running them separately. The Discourse developers do not support using Discourse with any builds of these services other than their own, but they do support using a separate web server or load balancer to run Discourse side-by-side with another website on the same domain.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'What is Docker and Docker-Compose',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Docker is a Tool for container virtualization, it is like running a virtual machine but multiple container can use one operation system, making docker more scalable, faster and smaller.\n\nDocker compose is the file with the commands which are getting executed. In there you are using Docker Images.\n\nImagine images like a receipe, and the container like the cake. You can find these receipes in the Docker Registry, which is basically like the AppStore on your Smartphone. ',
'Imagine you throw a party. To party like ELI5 you need soft drinks, popcorn and music.\n\nYou could buy *Magical Party Maker 2000* (MPM2k) which does all this stuff and more. Or you could buy soda machine, popcorn popper and bluetooth speaker.\n\nProblem with MPM2k is that\n\n* It\'s kinda complicated and it does some unnecessary things.\n* If for the next day you go to the beach and just need the music, you still have to carry this heavy thing with all these unnecessary features with you.\n* If you just want to practice your party dance beforehand, you need to fire up the huge machine instead of just small speaker.\n* If your guests eat more popcorn than drink soft drinks, with MPM2k you\'d still would need to buy another huge machine instead of just extra popcorn popper.\n* If soda machine breaks guests might not even notice it, but if the MPM2k breaks, there is no party anymore. Unacceptable. The party must go on.\n\nSo it\'s better to have these small lightweight machines that are specialized in doing one job really well. You can change them, add more and fix them more easily than to do all this with one huge machine.\n\nDocker containers are just like the popcorn machine. Docker is a platform for your party. Docker Compose is this super awesome girl who can use all of the party equipment together to host a party of a century or tool for defining and running these containers.\n\nE: Oh, one more:You make awesome mixtape and copy that to CD and send it to your friend for their party. Next week you get a note that your friend didn\'t get the CD to work as their CD player is just tiny bit different than yours. Imagine if instead of sending just the CD you could copy your *CD player* and send it to your friend.\n\nDocker enables you to run exactly same stuff on your development computer and production server. No more "this works on local machine but not our production server" type of problems!'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9zmbty',
'query': 'what is docker and docker-compose',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '34169427',
'title': 'Neutral buoyancy simulation as a training aid',
'section': 'Section::::Characteristics.:Task performance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
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'passage_text': 'In EVA, most work is done slowly, carefully and methodically not because of the neutral buoyancy training but because that is how a task must be performed by a pressurized astronaut in weightlessness. It takes more force to accelerate a mass to a higher velocity, and then to slow the mass back down, than to move it slowly to its destination. It is also easier to control its movement if it is moving slowly. Thus, the drag of water on movement in neutral buoyancy simply necessitates a slowness of movement that is also appropriate to spaceflight.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34169427',
'title': 'Neutral buoyancy simulation as a training aid',
'section': 'Section::::Characteristics.:Need for simulation.\n',
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'passage_text': "Astronauts rehearse extra-vehicular activity tasks in underwater neutral buoyancy before attempting those tasks in space to gain an understanding that they cannot use their weight to provide a force and that they may move or reposition themselves if they provide a propulsive force in any vector, either planned or inadvertent. Articles describing neutral buoyancy simulation generally point out that the astronaut's spacesuit is made neutrally buoyant but that the astronaut still feels gravity inside the spacesuit so the fit of the suit is very important, and that moving around in water, a viscous fluid, creates drag that is not present in EVA.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '34095626',
'title': 'Neuroscience in space',
'section': 'Section::::Posture, movement, and locomotions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
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'end_paragraph_id': 15,
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'passage_text': "Difficulties with standing, walking, turning corners, climbing stairs, and a slowing of gait are experienced as astronauts re-adapt to Earth's gravity, until terrestrial motor strategies are fully re-acquired. Adaptation to spaceflight also induces a significant increase in the time required to traverse an obstacle course on landing day, and recovery of functional mobility takes an average of two weeks. These difficulties can have adverse consequences for an astronauts’ ability to stand up or escape from the vehicle during emergencies and to function effectively immediately after leaving the spacecraft after flight. Thus it is important to understand the cause of these profound impairments of posture and locomotion stability, and develop countermeasures.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40892497',
'title': 'Space Engineers',
'section': 'Section::::Gameplay.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
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'end_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': 'Astronauts floating in space are able to move forward, backward, upwards, downwards, left, or right without restriction by using a jetpack. They are also able to rotate clockwise or counterclockwise. Astronauts and structures can also enable or disable inertial dampeners, which automatically attempt to reduce speed to zero when force is not being applied, and the required thrusters are installed.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1773',
'title': 'Apollo 7',
'section': 'Section::::Mission highlights.:On-orbit operations.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Early fears that the movement of the astronauts inside the CM would make it hard for the spacecraft\'s attitude control system to stabilize it proved unfounded, and they reported that motion was "incredibly easy" with no gravity to work against. As sleeping in the fetal position was cramping and painful, a stretching device called the Exer-Genie was provided for relaxing aching muscles.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '516838',
'title': 'Micro-g environment',
'section': 'Section::::Impacts to worker safety.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 41,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 41,
'end_character': 1429,
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'passage_text': 'Space motion sickness can lead to degraded astronaut performance. SMS threatens operational requirements, reduces situational awareness, and threatens the safety of those exposed to micro-g environments. Lost muscle mass leads to difficulty with movement, especially when astronauts return to earth. This can pose a safety issue if the need for emergency egress were to arise. Loss of muscle power makes it extremely difficult, if not impossible, for astronauts to climb through emergency egress hatches or create unconventional exit spaces in the case of a crash upon landing. Additionally, bone resorption and inadequate hydration in space can lead to the formation of kidney stones, and subsequent sudden incapacitation due to pain. If this were to occur during critical phases of flight, a capsule crash leading to worker injury and/or death could result. Short-term and long-term health effects have been seen in the cardiovascular system from exposure to the micro-g environment that would limit those exposed after they return to Earth or a regular gravity environment. Steps need to be taken to ensure proper precautions are taken into consideration when dealing a micro-g environment for worker safety. Orthostatic intolerance can lead to temporary loss of consciousness due to the lack of pressure and stroke volume. This loss of consciousness inhibits and endangers those affected and can lead to deadly consequences.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '50775420',
'title': 'Glossary of aerospace engineering',
'section': 'Section::::A.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 418,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Aerobraking — is a spaceflight maneuver that reduces the high point of an elliptical orbit (apoapsis) by flying the vehicle through the atmosphere at the low point of the orbit (periapsis). The resulting drag slows the spacecraft. Aerobraking is used when a spacecraft requires a low orbit after arriving at a body with an atmosphere, and it requires less fuel than does the direct use of a rocket engine.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "Why are astronaut's movements in space seemingly slow motion when there's no air/water resistance to slow them down?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Physics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['There are a few reasons. Their suits are pressurized. The joints of these suits want to fully extend due to this pressure. This makes it difficult to move and do things, and reduces precision substantially. Not only this, but the suits are quite heavy, and have inertia to slow movements. Lastly, the astronauts do not have anything to stand on. Fast movements will make their bodies start to rotate and further reduce the precision of their motions.',
'Since there is no resistance there is no way to slow down. It allows them to move around with that huge spacesuit. Fast moves can cause a big response. Any bump in the wrong direction may cause them to lose control. Therefore everything is in slow motion.',
'It\'s precisely because there is nothing to slow them down. They move deliberately because if you flip something it\'s not going to be slowed down by air. Move your arm too fast, and you\'ll rap your wrist on something. "Every action has an equal an opposite reaction" said Newton, and without gravity to stick you to the ground that reaction has to come from your other hand or some Velcro gizmo.',
'Even if you have not air/water resistance the suites sill have mass that you need to accelerate. The suites used on the moon had a total mass of 200 lb (91 kg) so the movement is a bit like if you would push the same amount of mass in forn of you in a cart on wheels with no friction like a shopping cart that you put a adult human in. It is a lot harder to move if you push a cart like that even if there is not wheel friction.\n\nOn the moon the gravity is 1/6 of earth if you look at a lot of videos the do not exactly waling but more skipping a long and the rate that they fall toward the surface is 1/6 of what we are used to and it look like slow motion.\n\nThere might no be any external resistance but the astronauts are in a pressure suite and bending it require force. Look at a apollo space suite without any protective outer layer [_URL_3_](_URL_1_) and at the joint you bend. It is a bit like bending a balloon or a water pipe that is pressurized and it require a force. The skipping around on the moon instead of walking have a lot to do with the fact that thee suites are hard to bend.\n\nThe space suite that is used today on ISS for the US is the [Extravehicular\\_Mobility\\_Unit](_URL_2_) that have a total mass of 319 lb (145 kg) When you are weightless the lesgs are almost useless on the outside of the space station so the astronaut move around by pulling themselves with the hand. So lay on a low friction shopping cart that have a the same mass and pull yourself along with you hand. You also need to move safety line along because you what to be attached to the station all the time. You do also need to avoid bumping stuff to protect your self and the space station slow and safe way is user.\n\nIf you look at videos of EVAs on ISS you notice that the might move around quite slowly but arm movement can be faster because today there is rotation pressure joint is the suites. You can see them on the future models at [_URL_0_](_URL_0_). The current have similar joints in the shoulder, waist, elbow and wrist that the Apollo suited did not have.',
"Your actions on earth are made safe by gravity keeping you anchored and effectively eating most of the energy your muscles produce. \n\nYour muscles are incredibly powerful. They can lift your entire body from a sitting to standing position with very little effort, a dead lift of 80lbs is so easy that it does not even register to you as a meaningful expenditure of energy. \n\nIn micro-gravity standing up with that same force would send you painfully crashing into the surface directly above you.\n\nAny movement of your arms would add rotational energy that you wouldn't be able to counteract without holding on to something that would anchor you and eat that energy. When you throw a ball if you lean into the throw then you might have to extend a leg behind you to act as an anchor and keep you from falling forward. In microgravity you'd just start spinning, possibly with a leg extended in a goofy way.",
'Two other considerations are consumables and training. \n\nIf they work hard (starting/stopping/rapid motions) they will breathe out more carbon dioxide as a result of the extra effort. The life support system on the EMU has a finite ability per spacewalk to scrub CO2 out of the breathing gas. Harder work = shorter spacewalk. \n\nThe other reason is that a good deal of in-the-suit spacewalk training is performed underwater where there is definitely is a lot of drag. This results in the normalization of slower motions during training that carries over to the actual spacewalks.\n\nEdit: autocorrect',
'Because if you drop something in space, its gone forever,so they try to be extra careful. The first spacewalk was almost a total disaster due to the pressure difference turning the astronaut into a giant balloon man. Aleksey Leonov was almost unable to bend his joints at all and get back into the capsule.',
'Good answers, but one factor hasn\'t been mentioned yet that has nothing to do with reality: in movies and TV, it\'s really difficult to capture the look of low- or zero-gravity on Earth, So many TV shows and movies will literally film the astronauts in slow motion to make things look a bit more "floaty". This was especially true for older and cheaper stuff that didn\'t have access to good CGI or a "vomit comet" aircraft.',
'Not sure if anyone else has mentioned it, but one of the reasons is a lack of gravity and sudden movements can make your inner ear freak out and the last thing you wanna do is vomit in space.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'dl3mi6',
'query': "why are astronaut's movements in space seemingly slow motion when there's no air/water resistance to slow them down?",
'query_type': 'Physics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '34311891',
'title': 'Cephalopod beak',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Fossilised remains of beaks are known from a number of cephalopod groups, both extant and extinct, including squids, octopuses, belemnites, and vampyromorphs. Aptychi – paired plate-like structures found in ammonites – may also have been jaw elements.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3259874',
'title': 'Aralosaurus',
'section': 'Section::::Description.\n',
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'passage_text': '"Aralosaurus" was about the size of an elephant. Although only one near complete skull has been found, this allowed to identify it due to the presence of a beak with nearly 1,000 small teeth in 30 rows. These teeth were used for breaking up plant matter by chewing, a feature common in herbivorous dinosaurs, but unusual for reptiles.The back of an "Aralosaurus" skull was wide, a feature suggestive of large jaw muscles used to power its chewing apparatus.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25631460',
'title': 'Tooth',
'section': 'Section::::Birds.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 47,
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'passage_text': 'A skull of Ichthyornis discovered in 2014 suggests that the beak of birds may have evolved from teeth to allow chicks to escape their shells earlier, and thus avoid predators and also to penetrate protective covers such as hard earth to access underlying food.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1214539',
'title': 'Feathered dinosaur',
'section': "Section::::History of research.:'Dinosaur renaissance'.\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': "Before the discovery of feathered dinosaur fossils, the evidence was limited to Huxley and Ostrom's comparative anatomy. Some mainstream ornithologists, including Smithsonian Institution curator Storrs L. Olson, disputed the links, specifically citing the lack of fossil evidence for feathered dinosaurs. By the 1990s, however, most paleontologists considered birds to be surviving dinosaurs and referred to 'non-avian dinosaurs' (all extinct), to distinguish them from birds (Avialae).\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3539477',
'title': 'Heterodontosaurus',
'section': 'Section::::Palaeobiology.:Tooth replacement and aestivation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
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'passage_text': 'Much controversy has surrounded the question of whether or not, and to what degree, "Heterodontosaurus" showed the continuous tooth replacement that is typical for other dinosaurs and reptiles. In 1974 and 1978, Thulborn found that the skulls known at that time lacked any indications of continuous tooth replacement: The cheek teeth of the known skulls are worn uniformly, indicating that they formed simultaneously. Newly erupted teeth are absent. Further evidence was derived from the wear facets of the teeth, which were formed by tooth-to-tooth contact of the lower with the upper dentition. The wear facets were merged into one another, forming a continuous surface along the complete tooth row. This surface indicates that food procession was achieved by back and forth movements of the jaws, not by simple vertical movements which was the case in related dinosaurs such as "Fabrosaurus". Back and forth movements are only possible if the teeth are worn uniformly, again strengthening the case for the lack of a continuous tooth replacement. Simultaneously, Thulborn stressed that a regular tooth replacement was essential for these animals, as the supposed diet consisting of tough plant material would have led to quick abrasion of the teeth. These observations led Thulborn to conclude that "Heterodontosaurus" must have replaced its entire set of teeth at once on a regular basis. Such a complete replacement could only have been possible within phases of aestivation, when the animal did not feed. Aestivation also complies with the supposed habitat of the animals, which would have been desert-like, including hot dry seasons when food was scarce.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31528468',
'title': 'Cephalopod attack',
'section': 'Section::::Defenses.:Beak.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
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'end_character': 381,
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'passage_text': 'One of the largest beaks ever recorded was on a colossal squid. The beak had a lower rostral length of . Many beaks have also been discovered in the stomachs of sperm whales, as the stomach juices dissolve the soft flesh of the squid, leaving the hard beaks behind. The largest beak ever discovered this way had a lower rostral length of , indicating that the original squid was .\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '24824',
'title': 'Pterosaur',
'section': 'Section::::Description.:Skull, teeth and crests.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'Most pterosaur skulls had elongated jaws with a full complement of needle-like teeth. In some cases, fossilized keratinous beak tissue has been preserved, though in toothed forms, the beak is small and restricted to the jaw tips and does not involve the teeth. Some advanced beaked forms were toothless, such as the pteranodonts and azhdarchids, and had larger, more extensive, and more bird-like beaks.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why is it not possible that dinosaurs had beaks that didn’t fossilize?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Many dinos did have beaks, and those beaks fossilized with them. That said, even if no part of the beak remained, it would still be obvious that the had a beak, as we'd be able to see it in the skull structure, the same way we find feather and muscle attachment points on the other bones in the body.",
'Beaks are hard material that usually gets fossilized along with the bones. Finding many specimens without fossilized beaks is telling'],
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'query_id': '8qvoti',
'query': 'why is it not possible that dinosaurs had beaks that didn’t fossilize?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1245539',
'title': 'History of mobile phones',
'section': 'Section::::4G – Native IP networks.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 79,
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'passage_text': 'By 2009, it had become clear that, at some point, 3G networks would be overwhelmed by the growth of bandwidth-intensive applications like streaming media. Consequently, the industry began looking to data-optimized 4th-generation technologies, with the promise of speed improvements up to 10-fold over existing 3G technologies. The first two commercially available technologies billed as 4G were the WiMAX standard (offered in the U.S. by Sprint) and the LTE standard, first offered in Scandinavia by TeliaSonera.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '31586643',
'title': 'Policies promoting wireless broadband in the United States',
'section': 'Section::::Technology and infrastructure.:New technologies.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
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'passage_text': 'Technology is growing at an incredible speed, with one important technology being the speed of information. The newest generation of speed at "4G" is being deployed at rapid speeds throughout the United States by the leading carriers, and promises to be greatly beneficial to the economy and society. Next-generation technology is ten times faster than current speeds and is capable of benefiting all Americans, helping public safety increase, and further progressing the innovation for wireless applications, equipment and services. The advancement of technology is intended to move us forward and catch up with other nations that have already implemented these technologies. The technological advances in wireless broadband, like mobile broadband, provide a solid foundation for improved delivery of services.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19644137',
'title': 'Mobile phone',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
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'passage_text': 'By 2009, it had become clear that, at some point, 3G networks would be overwhelmed by the growth of bandwidth-intensive applications, such as streaming media. Consequently, the industry began looking to data-optimized fourth-generation technologies, with the promise of speed improvements up to ten-fold over existing 3G technologies. The first two commercially available technologies billed as 4G were the WiMAX standard, offered in North America by Sprint, and the LTE standard, first offered in Scandinavia by TeliaSonera.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27350573',
'title': 'Mobile broadband modem',
'section': 'Section::::History.:3G.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': '3G networks have taken this approach to a higher level, using different underlying technology but the same principles. They routinely provide speeds over 300kbit/s. Due to the now increased internet speed, internet connection sharing via WLAN has become a workable reality. Devices which allow internet connection sharing or other types of routing on cellular networks are called also cellular routers.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3276234',
'title': 'Spectrum auction',
'section': 'Section::::Innovation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 485,
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'passage_text': 'In the past decade, telecommunications has turned into a highly competitive industry where companies are competing to buy valuable spectrum. This competition has been triggered by technological advancements, privatization, and liberalization. Mobile communication in particular has made many transitions since 2000, mobile technology has moved from second generation (2G) to third generation (3G) to fourth generation (4G) and is now in transition to fifth generation (5G) technology.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33172',
'title': 'Wireless network',
'section': 'Section::::Properties.:Performance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 50,
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'end_paragraph_id': 50,
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'passage_text': 'The performance of wireless networks satisfies a variety of applications such as voice and video. The use of this technology also gives room for expansions, such as from 2G to 3G and, 4G and 5G technologies, which stand for the fourth and fifth generation of cell phone mobile communications standards. As wireless networking has become commonplace, sophistication increases through configuration of network hardware and software, and greater capacity to send and receive larger amounts of data, faster, is achieved. Now the wireless network has been running on LTE, which is a 4G mobile communication standard. Users of an LTE network should have data speeds that are 10x faster than a 3G network. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33385570',
'title': 'Envelope tracking',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': 'The need for greater efficiency arises particularly as modulation schemes become more complicated and their peak to average power ratio increases. Older modulation schemes based on phase or frequency modulation with no amplitude information carried on the signal can use amplifiers that are driven into compression and offer high levels of efficiency. As of 2014 mobile communications basestations consumed ~1% of global electricity.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is there so much innovation & improvement with Cellular technologies & speed(3G, 4G, 4G LTE, 5g), but not with wired speeds?',
'selftext': "Over the past 10 years, there has been tremendous improvement with cellular speeds. It used to be that cellular internet was good for text-based webpages, and that was about it. Nowadays, in many cases people have cellular internet that's faster than broadband available to them. What are some of the reasons why cellular internet makes such huge strides while wired internet speeds have hardly budged in most regions?",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["You would be referring to the US I suppose? Because the cable companies have a monopoly and don't have an incentive to upgrade their service.",
" > What are some of the reasons why cellular internet makes such huge strides while wired internet speeds have hardly budged in most regions?\n\nBecause with cellular internet, you have to wire a few cell towers with high-speed wired Internet, and then the rest is wireless.\n\nFor wired to-the-home Internet, you have to run high-speed cable *to every single house*. The infrastructure cost is orders of magnitude more expensive. And in areas without a large population density, companies don't think that they can recoup the cost.\n\nSo long story short, wired Internet is much faster than cellular Internet, but it's just too expensive to replace all of the cables in many areas.",
"I think there may be more going on than you may give the wired world credit for. At the time people were on 2G flip phones, their wired internet was, what, 10 meg down, with tons of people still on 1.5 meg DSL?\n\nNowadays wired lines are getting gigabit speeds in some areas, with 100 meg not that uncommon. That's a pretty big jump.\n\nSo perhaps the better question is--why is it not as obvious? The monopoly/duopoly mentioned is a part of it. There's more competition in the wireless space, so those companies blast advertisements all over the place about how much faster/more advanced they are. The cable internet company? They may well have speed upgrades available, but they don't have to constantly pound you with the option, so you may not notice it.\n\nAlso, to use a driving analogy, going from 20 to 60 mph on a freeway will often seem like much more of a speed change than going from 60 to 100, even though its the same amount of change. ",
"I love a good anti-ISP circlejerk as much as the next guy, but this really isn't true. If we are looking at coax/cable speeds, [DOCSIS](_URL_0_) (the 'language' that your modem uses to send data) has seen *massive* jumps in speed. \n\n > Nowadays, in many cases people have cellular internet that's faster than broadband available to them.\n\nThis is really more a question of what people are willing to pay. I'm a little bit of an 'old' here, but in the late 90s, my first employer paid ~$500/mo to have a dedicated T1 (old tech / pre-cable) put into the study at my apartment. It reliably got me 4-5mbps up/down. Today I can get 1GB for $149/mo and higher speeds are coming in the not too distant future. And if you *really* want it, you can get a dedicated fiber link to your house for ~$500-$1500/mo (plus equipment) that can see speeds of up to 10GB.\n\n\n\n ",
"- Cheaper and easier to deploy. To upgrade the network, you pretty much just have to go around and stick new hardware on your existing cellular towers. The infrastructure is largely already there and the consumer is expected to keep up with new hardware that can tap into it so you dont have to handle that half. To upgrade your wired network, you are going to have to dig up thousands of miles of suburban streets to install fiber or whatever and then likely have to give the consumer hardware which can interface with it.\n\n- More a function of the above than anything else, but you reach a far larger market for that money spent. One tower can service an area that could represent a million people, you get far better return on wireless services than wired.\n\n- Its an area where there is innovation to be had. Wired technology is pretty set right now, there isn't much more that can be done until we hit something big that revolutionizes everything. Right now achieving greater bandwidth isn't a question of figuring out new technology, its just laying a beefier cable. With fiber optics we already have data moving at the speed of light after all.",
'Long haul optical rates have increased at a rate FASTER than Moore’s law would have predicted. Today, individual optical wavelength channels have rates that can exceed 400gbps. These line rates are available to your town or cities central office. \n\nThe issue is the last mile to consumer residences. That infrastructure was never designed with high data rates in mind and so has been undergoing limited upgrades where it is cost effective for a telecom company to do so. '],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '7typo4',
'query': 'why is there so much innovation & improvement with cellular technologies & speed(3g, 4g, 4g lte, 5g), but not with wired speeds?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '206790',
'title': 'Spirochaete',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Spirochaetes are distinguished from other bacterial phyla by the location of their flagella, sometimes called axial filaments, which run lengthwise between the bacterial inner membrane and outer membrane in periplasmic space. These cause a twisting motion which allows the spirochaete to move about. When reproducing, a spirochaete will undergo asexual transverse binary fission. Most spirochaetes are free-living and anaerobic, but there are numerous exceptions. Spirochaetes bacteria are diverse in their pathogenic capacity and the ecological niches that they inhabit, as well as molecular characteristics including guanine-cytosine content and genome size.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '35056506',
'title': 'Teuthowenia megalops',
'section': 'Section::::Ecology and biology.\n',
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'passage_text': 'As a result of this adaptation, "Teuthowenia megalops" are sluggish swimmers. Unlike other squids, they do not need to contract their mantle muscles to breathe, but their modified flotation and respiratory systems restrict their ability to jet away from threats. They generally float passively in the "cockatoo" posture typical of glass squids (which are also known as cockatoo squids for this reason). They resemble a horizontal cockatoo, hence the name. In this posture, they rotate around their spindle-shaped digestive glands, the only internal organs of the squid clearly visible through their mostly transparent bodies. Regardless of the direction their heads or mantles are facing, the digestive glands are always kept oriented vertically.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '203711',
'title': 'Bioluminescence',
'section': 'Section::::Uses in nature.:Defense.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
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'end_paragraph_id': 40,
'end_character': 521,
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'passage_text': 'Many cephalopods, including at least 70 genera of squid, are bioluminescent. Some squid and small crustaceans use bioluminescent chemical mixtures or bacterial slurries in the same way as many squid use ink. A cloud of luminescent material is expelled, distracting or repelling a potential predator, while the animal escapes to safety. The deep sea squid "Octopoteuthis deletron" may autotomise portions of its arms which are luminous and continue to twitch and flash, thus distracting a predator while the animal flees.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '59791781',
'title': 'Wunderpus photogenicus',
'section': 'Section::::Appearance.:Chromatophores.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
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'end_paragraph_id': 9,
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'passage_text': 'Since these chromatophores operates upon the environment, it gives the octopus the ability to select, at any time, a particular body pattern. This gives the octopus the ability to camouflage and hide from their predators. Another function of chromatophores is intraspecific communication which helps them signal to each other. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27291141',
'title': 'Chlamys hastata',
'section': 'Section::::Ecology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
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'passage_text': 'The spiny scallop usually has a symbiotic relationship with an encrusting sponge which grows on its left valve. This is most often the orange "Myxilla incrustans" but is sometimes the purple or brown "Mycale adhaerens". The sponge provides camouflage for the scallop and may deter predators from attacking it as sponges often produce a repulsive odour and tend to be distasteful. It also makes it more difficult for a starfish to get the strong grip with its tube feet that it needs to force the two valves of the scallop apart.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22780',
'title': 'Octopus',
'section': 'Section::::Behaviour and ecology.:Locomotion.\n',
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'end_paragraph_id': 57,
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'passage_text': 'Cirrate octopuses cannot produce jet propulsion and rely on their fins for swimming. They have neutral buoyancy and drift through the water with the fins extended. They can also contract their arms and surrounding web to make sudden moves known as "take-offs". Another form of locomotion is "pumping", which involves symmetrical contractions of muscles in their webs producing peristaltic waves. This moves the body slowly.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '4021016',
'title': 'Escape response',
'section': 'Section::::Examples.:Other examples.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 28,
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'end_paragraph_id': 28,
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'passage_text': 'Squids have developed a multitude of anti-predator escape responses, including: jet-driven escape, postural displays, inking and camouflage. Inking and jet-driven escape are arguably the most salient responses, in which the individual squirts ink at the predator as it speeds away. These blobs of ink can vary in size and shape; larger blobs can distract the predator while smaller blobs can provide a cover under which the squid can disappear. Finally, the released ink also contains hormones such as L-dopa and dopamine that can warn other conspecifics of danger while blocking olfactory receptors in the targeted predator.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How can certain camouflaging octopi and squid emulate their surroundings as close as they do?',
'selftext': 'I tried to look around this sub for a similar question and cannot see one, but I’m really curious how it works.',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['I can only answer on a cellular level: the skin cells of the octopus/squid have little packets of pigment stored within the cells. When the squid wants to change color, its brain sends a signal to these cells, which directs some proteins to transport these packets from the interior of the cell to the exterior (cell plasma membrane). \nThe packets fuse with the membrane and the pigments are exposed to the outside. As cells across the skin perform the process together, the squid appears to change color. \n\nTo change back, the process is reversed and the pigments are pinched back into their packets and stored away to be reused.',
'This is what I want to know. How does a flounder, which doesn’t even have any freakin eyes on one side, know what the surface under its blind side looks like to match it? Does it feel differences in color as heat or wavelengths or something?',
'Cant ELI5 it as im not ocean expert, but my best guess is simply eye sight. I remember reading that octopi/similar can see in a few more wavelengths and ways than we can, so its entirely possible they "see" things that we cant yet that help them form their camouflage correctly. I\'d also add that genetic and evolutionary memory is entirely possible, where as the body retains what patterns worked with what, and what didnt. Kind of similar the way they can open complex items like jars etc, once its learnt, the cephalopod can re-use that "memory bank" information to recreate it anytime it needs to.',
'[This](_URL_0_). Seems to suggest that their skin has light receptors as well as in their eyes. After skimming the article, I think it says that they likely gather most info about the light, colour, pattern, etc from their eyes, but their skin is also used in conjunction to also sense and add to the picture of their surroundings. It also says relatives like clams and muscles also sense light with their skin.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'buafu8',
'query': 'how can certain camouflaging octopi and squid emulate their surroundings as close as they do?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '54005385',
'title': 'Power amplifier classes',
'section': 'Section::::Power amplifier classes.:Class A.:Advantages of class-A amplifiers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- Because the device is never \'off\' there is no "turn on" time, no problems with charge storage, and generally better high frequency performance and feedback loop stability (and usually fewer high-order harmonics).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '27195518',
'title': 'Turn It On Again',
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'passage_text': '"Turn It On Again" is a single by the English rock band Genesis, from their 1980 album "Duke". It reached number 8 in the UK Singles Chart. The lyrics, by Mike Rutherford, concern a man who does nothing more than watch television. He becomes obsessed with the people he watches on it, believing them to be his friends.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '14766448',
'title': 'Time switch',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Time switches can be used for many purposes, including saving electric energy by consuming it only when required, switching equipment on, off, or both at times required by some process, and home security (for example switching lights in a pattern that gives the impression that premises are attended) to reduce the likelihood of burglary or prowling.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1001628',
'title': 'Power electronics',
'section': 'Section::::AC/AC converters.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 75,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- ON/OFF Control: Typically used for heating loads or speed control of motors, this control method involves turning the switch on for n integral cycles and turning the switch off for m integral cycles. Because turning the switches on and off causes undesirable harmonics to be created, the switches are turned on and off during zero-voltage and zero-current conditions (zero-crossing), effectively reducing the distortion.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5146334',
'title': 'Over illumination',
'section': 'Section::::Energy and economic considerations.:Leaving lights turned on.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
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'passage_text': 'Likewise, not switching off the lights when exiting a room will also cause higher energy consumption. Some people avoid frequently turning off CFL bulbs because they think that doing so will cause them to burn out prematurely. While this is true to a certain extent, the US Department of Energy recommends that 15 minutes is an appropriate time frame. If someone plans to leave the room for less than 15 minutes, then the light should be left on. If the room will be unoccupied for more than 15 minutes, then the light should be switched off. Another concern is that turning on a fluorescent bulb consumes large amounts of energy. While fluorescent bulbs do need more energy to turn on, the amount of electricity consumed is equal to only a few seconds of normal operation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19220905',
'title': 'Turn-off notice',
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'passage_text': 'A turn-off notice, cut-off notice, or shut-off notice is a warning letter sent out by the provider of a service for a residence or other building, such as utility, phone service, or cable television, that if payment is not sent by the date indicated in the notice, the service will be interrupted. Turn-off notices, which are sent after a regular bill has been sent, but may resemble a bill, are generally sent several days to weeks before the planned date, giving the customer a sufficient amount of time to make a payment that would avert the interruption.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1670816',
'title': 'Sticky keys',
'section': 'Section::::Enabling.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The feature can also be turned on and off via the Accessibility icon in the Windows Control Panel. To turn the feature off once enabled, press 3 or more of the Sticky Keys (Ctrl, Alt, Shift, Windows Button) at the same time.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why is it recommended that we wait a little bit after turning something off to turn it back on?',
'selftext': 'Also why can we restart PCs since this contradicts this recommendation?',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["When you restart a pc it doesn't immediately turn back on again. The waiting is to let lingering electricity dissipate.",
"Most electronics contain capacitors. Capacitors act like little buffers to even out current in a system. A bit like having a header tank in a plumbing system. Think of them like tiny batteries that are constantly charging and discharging.\n\nWhen you turn off an item, the charge in the capacitors doesn't go away straight away. You have to wait for a few seconds to allow it yo dissipate. The charge can be enough to mean that certain buffers or bits of memory aren't properly reset, so without waiting, the restart alone doesn't always fix it.",
'You can think of electronics having some energy still in the circuits. Imaging letting off the gas in your car, it doesn\'t stop immediately. You the to the the circuit come to a "complete stop" before turning it back on or some of the messy settings that you are trying to wipe clean could still be saved.',
"Nobody really addressed the restarting a PC part. When you tell Windows to restart, the computer itself never really shuts down. The hardware stays powered up, and just goes through the boot process again. All of the physical components are still on. That's why sometimes a tech, or that computer savvy family member, will tell you to specifically do one or the other. Turning it off and waiting a few seconds does exactly the same as what the others have said: allows the capacitors to discharge.",
'Two different answers depending on device. \n\n\n1) For a modem, or something you want to "reset", you need to wait for the internal electrical charge stored in something called capacitors to go away. These capacitors hold the charge that causes the lights on some devices to stay on after you turn it off. Just like those lights didn\'t turn off, the buggy part of the device might not be off yet. \n\n\n2) For many devices rapidly "power cycling" the device will damage it. When a device is turned on, the inrush of electricity (called the "inrush current") is difficult to manage from a circuit design perspective. The inrush typically always causes wear to electrical components. \n\n\nBut for a quick off/on cycle things are more complex. Many circuit components want heaps of power while starting up, and compete with other parts to get the electricity. Parts of the device supplying and regulating the power struggle to keep up with the demand at startup. It comes together in a orchestrated sequence that the electrical engineer planned. If however not everything was discharged from the previous cycle, the startup orchestration is off because something was not draining as much power as expected, when expected. Leaving the device of for say 20 seconds is a good way to avoid this. \n\n\nNB:There are some other niche factors as well that make rapid on off cycles bad for specific types of devices, including cooling concerns for parts that should not start warm and moving parts to return to a \'home position\' before the next run.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': 'g27971',
'query': 'why is it recommended that we wait a little bit after turning something off to turn it back on?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '5096985',
'title': 'Wii Remote',
'section': 'Section::::Features.:Sensing.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The use of an infrared sensor to detect position can cause some detection problems in the presence of other infrared sources, such as incandescent light bulbs or candles. This can be alleviated by using fluorescent or LED lights, which emit little to no infrared light, around the Wii. Innovative users have used other sources of IR light, such as a pair of flashlights or a pair of candles, as Sensor Bar substitutes. The Wii Remote picks up traces of heat from the sensor, then transmits it to the Wii console to control the pointer on your screen. Such substitutes for the Sensor Bar illustrate the fact that a pair of non-moving lights provide continuous calibration of the direction that the Wii Remote is pointing and its physical location relative to the light sources. There is no way to calibrate the position of the cursor relative to where the user is pointing the controller without the two stable reference sources of light provided by the Sensor Bar or substitutes. Third-party wireless sensor bars have also been released, which have been popular with users of Wii emulators since the official Sensor Bar utilizes a proprietary connector to connect to the Wii console.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '105803',
'title': 'Remote control',
'section': 'Section::::Technique.:Infrared, line of sight and operating angle.\n',
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'passage_text': "Since infrared (IR) remote controls use light, they require line of sight to operate the destination device. The signal can, however, be reflected by mirrors, just like any other light source. If operation is required where no line of sight is possible, for instance when controlling equipment in another room or installed in a cabinet, many brands of IR extenders are available for this on the market. Most of these have an IR receiver, picking up the IR signal and relaying it via radio waves to the remote part, which has an IR transmitter mimicking the original IR control. Infrared receivers also tend to have a more or less limited operating angle, which mainly depends on the optical characteristics of the phototransistor. However, it's easy to increase the operating angle using a matte transparent object in front of the receiver.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23303',
'title': 'Personal area network',
'section': 'Section::::Wireless personal area network.:IrDA.\n',
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'passage_text': "Infrared Data Association (IrDA) uses infrared light, which has a frequency below the human eye's sensitivity. Infrared is used in other wireless communications applications, for instance, in remote controls. Typical WPAN devices that use IrDA include printers, keyboards, and other serial communication interfaces.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '48446867',
'title': 'Assistive Technology for Deaf and Hard of Hearing',
'section': 'Section::::Hearing Technology.:Assistive Listening Devices.:Infrared.\n',
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'passage_text': 'These systems utilize light waves to transmit sound from the transmitter to a special light sensitive receiver. The signal can be broadcast to a whole room through speakers or a person who wears an individual receiver. There must be a clear line of connection between the transmitter and receiver so that the light signal is not interrupted. The benefit of infrared systems is that they only work in the room where the transmitter and receiver are located resulting in significantly fewer issues with cross-over. These systems can be sensitive to external light sources or interfering objects.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15022',
'title': 'Infrared',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Night vision.\n',
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'passage_text': ' Infrared is used in night vision equipment when there is insufficient visible light to see. Night vision devices operate through a process involving the conversion of ambient light photons into electrons that are then amplified by a chemical and electrical process and then converted back into visible light. Infrared light sources can be used to augment the available ambient light for conversion by night vision devices, increasing in-the-dark visibility without actually using a visible light source.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '105803',
'title': 'Remote control',
'section': 'Section::::Technique.:Opto components and circuits.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Most remote controls for electronic appliances use a near infrared diode to emit a beam of light that reaches the device. A 940 nm wavelength LED is typical. This infrared light is invisible to the human eye but picked up by sensors on the receiving device. Video cameras see the diode as if it produces visible purple light. With a single channel (single-function, one-button) remote control the presence of a carrier signal can be used to trigger a function. For multi-channel (normal multi-function) remote controls more sophisticated procedures are necessary: one consists of modulating the carrier with signals of different frequency. After the receiver demodulates the received signal, it applies the appropriate frequency filters to separate the respective signals. One can often hear the signals being modulated on the infrared carrier by operating a remote control in very close proximity to an AM radio not tuned to a station. Today, IR remote controls almost always use a pulse width modulated code, encoded and decoded by digital computer: a command from a remote control consists of a short train of pulses of carrier-present and carrier-not-present of varying widths.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '15368428',
'title': 'Radio',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.:Remote control.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Radio remote control is the use of electronic control signals sent by radio waves from a transmitter to control the actions of a device at a remote location. Remote control systems may also include telemetry channels in the other direction, used to transmit real-time information of the state of the device back to the control station. Unmanned spacecraft are an example of remote controlled machines, controlled by commands transmitted by satellite ground stations. Most handheld remote controls used to control consumer electronics products like televisions or DVD players actually operate by infrared light rather than radio waves, so are not examples of radio remote control. A security concern with remote control systems is spoofing, in which an unauthorized person transmits an imitation of the control signal to take control of the device. Examples of radio remote control:\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do remote controls use infrared light instead of other wavelengths?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Very low wavelength bands are already occupied by radios and microwaves and have a lot of noise.\n\nVisible light is visible of course.\n\nUltraviolet is too energy intensive to generate, and you definitely don't want to be shooting x-rays around the living room.\n\nSo the near-IR it is.",
"It is cheap to make and have the advantage that is it line of sight so without adding any complex pair system is it limited to the room and will not control stuff in different room or apartments or even houses that would be the case it you just transmitted for example radio wave. \n\nIt had the drawback that it is line of sight so stuff like game consoles uses radio waves. But then you need to pair the device and the remote. That add user complexity and radio is a bit more expensive to use.\n\nYou use IR and not visible light so you can't see the blinking like you can with many digital cameras.",
'LEDs are the only practical light source for cheap, everyday remote controls. Red and particularly infrared LEDs were available long before other colours.',
"IR sensors are cheap and easy to manufacturer and do not require approval from the FCC. Since you'll always be facing the TV, there's no need for an RF remote, as the IR sensor will always be facing you. Also, since IR is mostly limited to line of sight, it's highly unlikely that if your neighbor has the same make and model of TV, that their remote will be able to control your TV if they're very close. Where as with RF, this could be possible, which would make the system more complicated as special encoding methods would be necessary.",
'IR is cheap and energy-efficient. \nAlso, the waves attenuate very quickly and can’t penetrate through material, which is actually very beneficial for TVs. \nIf the waves could over-penetrate, you would have to worry about your neighbor changing your channel. Generally speaking, you’re only going to be using the remote in front of the actual TV, so LOS isn’t an issue. \nNot only that, but the lack of interference from other TVs makes it easier to program the remote itself, because you don’t need as many complex ID mechanisms to make sure the right remote is interacting with the right TV. \nYou can use much more generic signals because of this, which makes everything cheaper and simpler.',
'fun fact, if you point your phone camera at the tip of your remote and push a button you will see the light turn on in your phone camera but not with your eyes',
'The [top answer](_URL_0_) already covered this a bit, but I want to expand upon one thing.\n\nSome early remote controls, like the "Flashmatic", worked by having a photosensitive receiver at each corner of the TV screen. You would control volume or channel, respectively, by shining a light on one of these.\n\nThe problem here may be pretty obvious: a stray sunbeam, a reflection off a watch/glass/mirror, or just some asshole with a flashlight can now flip through your channels or max your volume and there\'s nothing you can do.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'brqi1n',
'query': 'why do remote controls use infrared light instead of other wavelengths?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '31124119',
'title': 'Social stigma of obesity',
'section': 'Section::::Trait attribution.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Anti-fat bias leads people to associate individuals who are overweight or obese with negative personality traits such as "lazy", "gluttonous", "stupid", "smelly", "slow", or "unmotivated". This bias is not restricted to clinically obese individuals, but also encompasses those whose body shape is in some way found unacceptable according to society\'s modern standards (although still within the normal or overweight BMI range). It is a classical example of the halo effect in cultures where physical preferences favor low body fat. Fat-shaming is fairly common in the United States, even though most adult Americans are overweight. "Huffington Post" wrote "two-thirds of American adults are overweight or obese. Yet overweight and obese individuals are subject to discrimination from employers, healthcare professionals and potential romantic partners". Charlotte Gill argues in The Independent that fat-shaming women is much less accepted than short-shaming men, although the latter is even worse.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '39972028',
'title': 'Jane Wardle',
'section': 'Section::::Policy advocacy.\n',
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'passage_text': 'In 2009, Wardle appeared in BBC Horizon: Why Are Thin People Not Fat? (season 45, episode 8), a documentary which examined why some people manage to stay slim while the world is being affected by an obesity epidemic. In it, she explored whether eating habits are genetic or learned.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6319249',
'title': 'Health at Every Size',
'section': 'Section::::Criticism.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': 'In May 2017, scientists at the European Congress on Obesity expressed scepticism about the possibility of being "fat but fit". A twenty-year observational study of 3.5 million participants showed that "fat but fit" people are still at higher risk of a number of diseases and adverse health effects than the general population.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29383109',
'title': 'Obesity in the Middle East and North Africa',
'section': 'Section::::By percentage.:Morocco.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 52,
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'passage_text': 'Obesity is linked to a greater availability of food, particularly from the West, and an increasingly sedentary lifestyle in urban areas. A woman who has a low level of schooling or no education in urban areas is significantly more likely to be obese. She, along with the general public, are not aware of the medical conditions that result from obesity. Rather, female fatness is embraced as it "is viewed as a sign of social status and is a cultural symbol of beauty, fertility, and prosperity". Being thin is a sign of sickness or poverty.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6319249',
'title': 'Health at Every Size',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Health At Every Size first appeared in the 1960s, advocating that the changing culture toward aesthetics and beauty standards had negative repercussions to fat people. They believed that because the slim and fit body type had become the acceptable standard of attractiveness, fat people were going to great pains to lose weight, and that this was not, in fact, always healthy for the individual. They contend that some people are naturally a larger body type, and that in some cases losing a large amount of weight could in fact be extremely unhealthy for some. On November 4, 1967, Lew Louderback wrote an article called “More People Should Be Fat!” that appeared in a major national magazine, "The Saturday Evening Post". In the opinion piece, Louderback argued that:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16540346',
'title': 'Health in Morocco',
'section': 'Section::::Health status.:Obesity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 14,
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'passage_text': 'Obesity is linked to a greater availability of food, particularly from the West, and an increasingly sedentary lifestyle in urban areas. A woman who has a low level of schooling or no education in urban areas is significantly more likely to be obese. The general public is not aware of the medical conditions that result from obesity. Rather, female fatness is embraced, as it "is viewed as a sign of social status and is a cultural symbol of beauty, fertility, and prosperity". Being thin is a sign of sickness or poverty.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5733924',
'title': 'Big Beautiful Woman',
'section': 'Section::::Usage.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Some women may adopt the term as a personal preference over the term "Rubenesque", or "full-figured", because they may not necessarily have large breasts or hips. Such terms, and others such as "queen-sized", "plus-sized", or "fat" may lead to feelings of marginalization or non-inclusion for some women. However, some strongly prefer the term "fat" over other words which they consider unnecessary euphemisms.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do some people look "good" fat, and others look "bad" fat?',
'selftext': "Kind of a strange question, but I feel like some people get fat and look okay, whereas other people get fat and look terrible. Does it have to do with the allocation of where the fat is stored? Does it have to do with the person's natural looks? I'm asking because I'm a decent looking person, but I feel like when I gain a little weight I look terrible. Then when I see people who are visibly fatter than me they don't look too bad. Is this all in my head? Thanks in advance.",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Confidence goes a long way in this respect. If you feel less confident when you gain weight, you'll feel like you look less attractive. As for others, the ones that look good to you are likely not only confident but also dress for their body in a way that is flattering. Personal grooming goes a long way, too.\n\nDifferent people have different body shapes, too, and society has deemed some more attractive than others. For example, there's the classic female hour glass that is largely considered the sexiest of female shapes because bigger hips are a sign of fertility. For men, even if they have a heavier midsection, having muscular arms and shoulders tend to make them more attractive because it is a sign of strength. That attraction is partly influenced human nature (the desire to survive and reproduce) and partly by traditional gender roles, but still very present today in determining what society deems attrative. \n\nIn the end, it's all about working with what you've got. ",
"I know exactly what you mean. I can't offer a scientific explanation, only opinion. As a guy who likes a fuller figure on a woman, there are attractive full figured shapes - think 50's style/Marilyn Monroe. And confidence goes a long way. Confidence itself can create an attractive aura around a full figured woman not lucky enough to possess the 'right' kind of shape - think Melissa Mcarthy. Personally I think dresses provide the most flattering outline for a larger woman. Had a quick look on Pinterest for dress types I'm thinking of, came back with A-line, sun dress and apron dress as the closest. Hope this is helpful.",
"If you're talking about women, genetics determine where women deposit fat. That may make certain women look more attractive when they gain weight. And the clothes they wear can be another factor. I'm not attracted to men so I'm not qualified to talk about men's attractiveness.",
'It has to do with body type and where the fat is stored.\nI have an "apple" body shape, all of my fat is located along my midsection and so as a female I have to build my legs with muscle to look even remotely normal in comparison to my torso even at my thinnest or else I look like an emaciated 3rd world child with bloated gut and twig limbs, whereas a "pear" shaped woman who stores fat on her legs will have a very slim/defined waist even when fairly fat with shapely legs. It\'s a very feminine look and is really pretty.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6cdjhf',
'query': 'why do some people look "good" fat, and others look "bad" fat?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '36957127',
'title': 'Broodiness',
'section': 'Section::::Broodiness in non-avian animals.:Mouthbrooding.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Mouthbrooding, also known as oral incubation, refers to the care given by some groups of animals to fertilized eggs or their offspring by holding them in the mouth of the parent for extended periods of time. Although it has been observed in a variety of animals, most mouthbrooders are fish. The parent performing this behavior invariably feeds less often and afterwards will be underweight, requiring a period of feeding and restoring the depleted energy reserves.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6641326',
'title': 'Baby-led weaning',
'section': 'Section::::General information.\n',
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'passage_text': "Baby-led weaning (term self-attributed to Gill Rapley) places the emphasis on exploring taste, texture, color and smell as the baby sets their own pace for the meal, choosing which foods to concentrate on. Instead of the traditional method of spooning pureed food into the baby's mouth, the baby is presented with a plate of varied finger food from which to choose. \n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '351856',
'title': 'Mouthbrooder',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': "Mouthbrooding, also known as oral incubation and buccal incubation, is the care given by some groups of animals to their offspring by holding them in the mouth of the parent for extended periods of time. Although mouthbrooding is performed by a variety of different animals, such as the Darwin's frog, fishes are by far the most diverse mouthbrooders. Mouthbrooding has evolved independently in several different families of fish.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6641326',
'title': 'Baby-led weaning',
'section': 'Section::::General information.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
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'passage_text': 'When infants bring solid foods to their own mouth, they are the ones guiding the sensory experience, starting and stopping when they are comfortable and ready. When food does move too posteriorly in the mouth triggering a gag reflex, the "entire" bolus is expelled from the mouth. Also, food moves slowly in comparison to liquid, and is not often sucked into the pharynx, allowing for laryngeal penetration or aspiration of the bolus. The food bolus will trigger a gag response first and be expelled before it hits the laryngeal vestibule. Infants therefore utilize the gag reflex for learning three important concepts: the borders of their mouth, desensitizing their gag reflex, and how to protect their airway when volitionally swallowing solid foods (Rapley & Murkett, 2008).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5198307',
'title': 'Thumb sucking',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'At birth, a baby will reflexively suck any object placed in its mouth; this is the sucking reflex responsible for breastfeeding. From the very first time they engage in nutritive feeding, infants learn that the habit can not only provide valuable nourishment, but also a great deal of pleasure, comfort, and warmth. Whether from a mother, bottle, or pacifier, this behavior, over time, begins to become associated with a very strong, self-soothing, and pleasurable oral sensation. As the child grows older, and is eventually weaned off the nutritional sucking, they can either develop alternative means for receiving those same feelings of physical and emotional fulfillment, or they can continue experiencing those pleasantly soothing experiences by beginning to suck their thumbs or fingers. This reflex disappears at about 4 months of age; thumb sucking is not purely an instinctive behavior and therefore can last much longer. Moreover, ultrasound scans have revealed that thumb sucking can start before birth, as early as 15 weeks from conception; whether this behavior is voluntary or due to random movements of the fetus in the womb is not conclusively known.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12214093',
'title': 'Parental care',
'section': 'Section::::In groups of animals.:In fish.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
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'passage_text': "Mouthbrooding is the care given by some groups of fish (and a few other animals such as Darwin's frog) to their offspring by holding them in their mouth for extended periods of time. Mouthbrooding has evolved independently in several different families of fish including the cardinalfish, sea catfish, bagrid catfish, cichlids, snakeheads, jawfishes, gouramis, and arowanas.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19347033',
'title': 'Breastfeeding',
'section': 'Section::::Process.:Latching on.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': "Latching on refers to how the baby fastens onto the breast while feeding. The rooting reflex is the baby's natural tendency to turn towards the breast with the mouth open wide; mothers sometimes make use of this by gently stroking the baby's cheek or lips with their nipple to induce the baby to move into position for a breastfeeding session. Infants also use their sense of smell in finding the nipple. Sebaceous glands called Glands of Montgomery located in the areola secrete an oily fluid that lubricates the nipple. The visible portions of the glands can be seen on the skin's surface as small round bumps. They become more pronounced during pregnancy and it is speculated that the infant is attracted to the odor of the secretions.\n",
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why do people open their own mouth when spoon-feeding a baby?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['To give the baby a visual cue of what to do and hope they mimic the movement. ',
'Trying to model the behaviour. If the baby sees them opening their mouth, the baby might open their own mouth so they can be fed.',
'Because babies imitate what they see. So when you open your mouth at them, they copy you and open theirs. It helps them understand that it’s time to feed.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'a7gpt4',
'query': 'why do people open their own mouth when spoon-feeding a baby?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '151443',
'title': 'Hyper-threading',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'For each processor core that is physically present, the operating system addresses two virtual (logical) cores and shares the workload between them when possible. The main function of hyper-threading is to increase the number of independent instructions in the pipeline; it takes advantage of superscalar architecture, in which multiple instructions operate on separate data in parallel. With HTT, one physical core appears as two processors to the operating system, allowing concurrent scheduling of two processes per core. In addition, two or more processes can use the same resources: if resources for one process are not available, then another process can continue if its resources are available.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23548810',
'title': 'Manycore processor',
'section': 'Section::::Contrast with multicore architecture.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The broader category of multi-core processors, by contrast, are usually designed to efficiently run "both" parallel "and" serial code, and therefore place more emphasis on high single thread performance (e.g. devoting more silicon to out of order execution, deeper pipelines, more superscalar execution units, and larger, more general caches), and shared memory. These techniques devote runtime resources toward figuring out implicit parallelism in a single thread. They are used in systems where they have evolved continuously (with backward compatibility) from single core processors. They usually have a \'few\' cores (e.g. 2,4,8), and may be complemented by a manycore accelerator (such as a GPU) in a heterogeneous system.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '151443',
'title': 'Hyper-threading',
'section': 'Section::::Overview.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Unlike a traditional dual-processor configuration that uses two separate physical processors, the logical processors in a hyper-threaded core share the execution resources. These resources include the execution engine, caches, and system bus interface; the sharing of resources allows two logical processors to work with each other more efficiently, and allows a logical processor to borrow resources from a stalled logical core (assuming both logical cores are associated with the same physical core). A processor stalls when it is waiting for data it has sent for so it can finish processing the present thread. The degree of benefit seen when using a hyper-threaded or multi core processor depends on the needs of the software, and how well it and the operating system are written to manage the processor efficiently.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '7901943',
'title': 'Java concurrency',
'section': 'Section::::Processes and threads.:Thread objects.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 6,
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'passage_text': 'Each thread can be scheduled on a different CPU core or use time-slicing on a single hardware processor, or time-slicing on many hardware processors. There is no generic solution to how Java threads are mapped to native OS threads. Every JVM implementation can do it in a different way.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21803100',
'title': 'Micro-Threads (multi core)',
'section': 'Section::::Introduction.\n',
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'passage_text': "Micro-threading is a software-based threading framework that creates small threads inside multi-core or many-core processors. Each core may have two or more tiny threads that utilize its idle time. It is like hyper-threading invented by Intel or the general multi-threading architecture in modern micro-processors. It enables the existence of more than one thread running on the same core without performing expensive context switching to system's main memory, even if this core does not have multi-threading hardware logic. Micro-threads mainly hide memory latency inside each core by over lapping computations with memory requests. The main difference between micro-threads and current threading models is that micro-threads context switching overhead is very small. For example, the overhead micro-threads implementation on Cell Broadband Engine is 160 nano seconds; meanwhile, the overhead of context switching of the whole core's (SPE) thread is around 2000 micro-seconds. This low overhead is due to three main factors. First, micro-threads are very small. Each micro-thread runs one or two simple but critical functions. Second, micro-threads context include only the register file of the core currently the micro-thread is executing on. Third, micro-threads are context switched to core's dedicated cache, which makes this process very fast and efficient.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2783351',
'title': 'BMDFM',
'section': 'Section::::Background.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Multi-cores are intended to exploit a thread-level parallelism, identified by software. Hence, the most challenging task is to find an efficient way of how to harness power of multi-core processors for processing an application program in parallel. Existent OpenMP paradigm of the static parallelization with a fork-join runtime library works pretty well for loop-intensive regular array-based computations only, however, compile-time parallelization methods are weak in general and almost inapplicable for irregular applications:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '45303',
'title': 'Thread (computing)',
'section': 'Section::::Single vs multiprocessor systems.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Systems with a single processor generally implement multithreading by time slicing: the central processing unit (CPU) switches between different "software threads". This context switching generally happens very often and rapidly enough that users perceive the threads or tasks as running in parallel. On a multiprocessor or multi-core system, multiple threads can execute in parallel, with every processor or core executing a separate thread simultaneously; on a processor or core with "hardware threads", separate software threads can also be executed concurrently by separate hardware threads.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How can a single CPU core run multiple threads and how is that beneficial?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["Well, a single core can't directly run several threads. What happens is your operating system (windows) switches between these threads when it needs to, with only one ever active at a time. \n\nThe prime benefit is that it lets you do multiple things in time that otherwise would be wasted. For example when you press a button to do something, like submit a post to reddit, one thread will handle the posting to reddit while another does the animation of the button and shows the little spinner. Meanwhile another thread is making sure your clock is showing the current time. Without threads every time you press a button everything would grind to a halt while that button did what it needed to. ",
'Single CPU core running a single thread can be idle very often. It can wait for user interaction, wait for data from network, wait for data from disk etc.\n\nSwitching this core to different task incurs small penalty (so called contex switch, that is saving state of CPU to memory, and restoring from memory to CPU state relevant of other task).\nBut allows to perform calculations needed for other task while waiting.\n\nHyperthreading means that single CPU core has internal space to store additional state internally, so context switch penalty for switching to that task is much smaller.',
"The problem is that when people talk about this subject, they cut out so many technicalities that they miss the entire point (like other threads about the same subject in this sub). I'll try to cut as much of the technical stuff that I can. \n\nSo think of it this way: a core has 2 parts. One deals with integer operations and one deals with floating point operations (decimal numbers). \n\n & nbsp;\n\nThe first situation where 2 threads per core can help: \n**The integer part of the core is used, but not the floating point part.** That means that if conditions are right, the second thread is ready to be executed in the floating point part. \nHowever this _rarely_ happens, because data from a thread has to be executed serially, instruction by instruction. You cannot cherry pick floating point operations to perform, you will have to perform whatever comes next from the thread. This makes the likelihood of a floating point operation coming from one thread while an integer operation is coming from the other thread quite unlikely. Especially because these threads have differing priorities. As a result, this does not give a very good performance increase. \n\nThe second situation: \n**The CPU core is stalled, doing nothing because of other bottlenecks.** One good example is when the CPU is waiting for the RAM to give it data. \nThe CPU has a very fast memory, called cache memory. When an instruction comes the core searches for the necessary data in cache. If it doesn't find the data, it asks the RAM for the data. RAM is very slow compared to cache, so the core is just waiting for the RAM to return with the data it needs. During this waiting period the core can execute the second thread, thus negating the performance penalty. \n\n & nbsp;\n\nSo practically simultaneous multithreading makes the processor work closer to 100% over a given period of time. Without a second thread the processor has more 'breaks' between its operations. \nDo note that these breaks happen extremely fast and you can't see them in task manager's CPU usage for example. \n\nIt's a very complicated piece of tech and I've only scratched the general idea. There's _a lot_ more to explain, like other types of core stalls, but I think that's more than just the general idea. \nI hope my answer was clear enough. If you have any questions ask. ",
'The same way that a human can do things with both hands at once! The CPU does different things with different parts of itself, and sometimes it can do multiple threads with one part concurrently (like both hands) while sometimes it can only do one thread at a time with a part (like swallowing).'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
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'query_id': '60fy5a',
'query': 'how can a single cpu core run multiple threads and how is that beneficial?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '18996908',
'title': 'Live streaming',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Notable applications to publish and record live streams at the same time include MotionCaster, Open Broadcaster Software, Wirecast, and XSplit Broadcaster. They are used to publish streams to Youtube, Facebook, Periscope and Twitch.tv, among others.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '59438621',
'title': 'Online streamer',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
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'passage_text': "While streamers as we know today didn't come about until the early 2010s, their origins can be traced back to sites like YouTube where users could upload videos of themselves in the form of vlogs or Let's Plays. While all content was not live, users were still able to gain a sizable audience and good amount of subscribers to their channels. Many became so popular that they were able to pursue a career and make a living off of their content. It wasn't until the popularity of streaming sites like Twitch that more and more people were able to stream themselves online and make even better money from it to become full-time streamers. Today, there are many different platforms where people can stream and create a niche for themselves with their own unique content.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1230174',
'title': 'Flow (television)',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
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'passage_text': 'Since the 1990s, the concept of flow has been threatened by new technologies and programming strategies that free the viewer from the old television model. VCRs, DVDs, DVRs (such as TiVo), Video-on-Demand, and online video sources all allow the viewer to construct their own flow. They are no longer limited to a choice of three or four networks, as they were in the 1950s–1960s. Consequently, the concept of flow is under attack and may not survive beyond the broadcast era of television.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6048839',
'title': 'Internet video',
'section': 'Section::::Live streaming.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Live streaming has also been used as a means of promoting exposure for a particular product or business. This is largely because platforms such as YouTube provide a cheap, and usually free, means to access millions of users. Whether that be potential customers on laptops, smartphones, tablets, and smart TVs. A study conducted by SocialMediaExaminer supports this hypothesis using YouTube as a particular example.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '638514',
'title': 'BBC Online',
'section': 'Section::::Technical details.:Streaming media.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 75,
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'passage_text': "Initially streams were generally broadcast in the RealAudio and RealVideo formats controlled by RealNetworks and the BBC drew criticism with some for using those closed formats which, at the time, could only be played using RealPlayer. In response to such criticisms, the BBC negotiated a deal with RealNetworks a 'cut-down' version of RealPlayer which did not contain as much advertising and marketing.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '60845455',
'title': 'Quibi',
'section': 'Section::::Product.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 5,
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'passage_text': "Unlike other streaming video platforms like Netflix and Hulu, Quibi's content is made specifically to be only viewed on mobile devices and can be viewed in either horizontal or vertical video, with the user able to shift to one or the other within the same video. Instead of typical half-hour TV episodes or two-hour movies, content on Quibi will be delivered in episode chapters of 10 minutes or less.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '791921',
'title': 'Television special',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
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'passage_text': 'In the era before cable and home video, television audiences often had to wait an entire year or more to see a special program or film that had a great impact on first viewing. Today, online streaming often makes it possible for viewers to watch a television show again almost immediately after it is aired, and home video--which has largely given way to digital downloads--makes it possible for the general public to own copies of television shows and films.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do all legitimate streams run almost half a minute behind their television counterparts?',
'selftext': "You could be watching a 100m final but they've already finished on your TV stream where they're still in the blocks on your internet stream",
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["i'll give you a placeholder answer that you can hold onto until someone who's worked with this technology at a lower level can speak on it.\n\n\n\nThere is a lot of preprocessing that goes on with video, sending it too. You don't get sent raw video data of every pixel at every frame - which is why you can select the quality at any one point. This preprocessing didn't really exist for TV since the bandwidth is always there to send pretty much whatever the camera and microphone read from the world as-is into the air for your TV to pick up.\n\nThis preprocessing can be put into analogy if you've ever worked on project based office jobs. You tell your manager what you think you can do according to a relatively conservative estimate, and in that you factor in many things which might not be related to you (in this case, it would be latency or server load from twitch or anything else that would consistently slow down packets from being sent, read, processed and spat out to consumers). \n\n\nWe can deduce from this that the shortest common stream delay is probably that conservative estimate that most streaming services recommend (or sometimes, enforce).",
'Modern video streaming protocols (e.g., Apple\'s HLS) require the player, when starting playback, to accumulate the video stream without actually playing it for about 18-30 seconds. This is needed for two reasons: first, player needs time to measure the speed of the network connection in order to choose the suitable quality of the stream. E.g., if the network connection is bad, the video will be streamed in a low resolution like 420p, while for a good connection an HD or even 4k stream will be selected. The second reason is that the player needs to make sure that the amount of buffering ("the spinner") will be minimal. So the player wants to have some of the video in it\'s buffer ready in anticipation that network connection can go off in the next 10 or 20 seconds. This is based on the assumption that people psychologically prefer to wait 10 seconds for the video to start rather than to watch a video that is stopping for "the spinner" and resumes again all the time. As a result of these precautions, live digital stream are usually behind the TV to allow this 20-30 seconds buffer.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'e7guez',
'query': 'why do all legitimate streams run almost half a minute behind their television counterparts?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '25141939',
'title': 'Data Terminal Ready',
'section': 'Section::::Signaling for modems.\n',
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'passage_text': 'The DTR signal is an important call control signal for a data modem. According to the RS232 standard, dropping DTR from active to inactive for at least two seconds tells the modem to disconnect (end) a call or data connection. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6269624',
'title': 'Command and Data modes (modem)',
'section': 'Section::::Practical contemporary use.\n',
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The modem interprets the Data Terminal Ready (DTR) pin as a signal from the computer to know when it wants to terminate a call. DTR is a signal from the computer to the modem. The computer keeps DTR high at all times until it wants to terminate a call, at which time the computer lowers DTR for a second or two. The computer also keeps DTR low when no programs are running that want to use the modem - this keeps the modem from answering calls due to auto-answer or otherwise doing something unexpected or undesired. The computer may safely assume that after DTR has been brought low for a couple seconds, that the modem will be in command mode.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8041438',
'title': 'Voice modem command set',
'section': 'Section::::Recording audio data.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 52,
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'passage_text': 'The modem never stops transmitting until the computer tells it to stop, which is usually with CTRL-C. The data is always terminated with DLE+!, and all DLE bytes naturally occurring in the stream are sent twice to differentiate them from normal DLE messages.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6269624',
'title': 'Command and Data modes (modem)',
'section': 'Section::::Data Link Escape (DLE) messages.\n',
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'passage_text': "DLE is also used lightly in communication from the computer to the modem. One specific DLE event signals the end of a fax page, or the end of an audio file. That event returns the modem back into command mode. Unlike in standard dial-up data mode, dropping DTR isn't an appropriate way to resume command mode since a hangup is not desired, and an escape code with mandatory pauses isn't suitable either. Because of this, literal 0x10 bytes in data are doubled from the computer to the modem as well.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8041438',
'title': 'Voice modem command set',
'section': 'Section::::Transmitting audio data.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
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'passage_text': 'When the modem wants the computer to temporarily pause so the playback can catch up, it temporarily lowers the CTS (Clear to Send) signal on the RS232 serial port. The modem re-raises the signal in time for the computer to resume sending audio data before the playback buffer becomes completely empty.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26232076',
'title': 'PROFIenergy',
'section': 'Section::::Use cases.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Brief pauses (say up to one hour) - In general, such pauses are planned - e.g. lunchtime breaks – enabling devices to be routinely switched off. Safety-related functions are protected. On restart, the system restarts devices in a switch-on sequence and checks that they all have started up correctly. The production process is then restarted.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '293094',
'title': 'DMX512',
'section': 'Section::::DMX in practice.:Termination.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 102,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 102,
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'passage_text': 'It is important for users to check whether their devices have automatic or switched termination, as otherwise they may end up with the DMX line being terminated multiple times or not at all when they believed it to be correct.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why you’re told to wait 30 seconds when unplugging a modem or DVR.',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['When you unplug it, there is still electricity in the device. Think of it like a sink, and electricity is water. Pull the plug and let it drain.',
'Electric circuits have parts called capacitors which can hold on to electric charge for a bit.\n\nIn order for the modem to get a fresh start, you are told to wait a “longer than necessary just to be safe” amount of time, so all the capacitors will discharge.',
"There are things in the electronics called capacitors that take wall power and trickle it in to parts that don't want full wall power like a funnel under a kitchen faucet. The capacitors will continue to discharge into the parts just like it takes a little bit for the funnel to empty after you turn off the faucet. During this time, the parts may still have enough power to remember their previous, possibly messed up settings. Leaving the device off for a longer period lets everything drain out and ensures the device starts with a clean slate."],
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'query_id': 'ej72gj',
'query': 'why you’re told to wait 30 seconds when unplugging a modem or dvr.',
'query_type': 'Technology',
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{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '69893',
'title': 'Headache',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.\n',
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'passage_text': 'Migraines are currently thought to be caused by dysfunction of the nerves in the brain. Previously, migraines were thought to be caused by a primary problem with the blood vessels in the brain. This vascular theory, which was developed in the 20th century by Wolff, suggested that the aura in migraines is caused by constriction of intracranial vessels (vessels inside the brain), and the headache itself is caused by rebound dilation of extracranial vessels (vessels just outside the brain). Dilation of these extracranial blood vessels activates the pain receptors in the surrounding nerves, causing a headache. The vascular theory is no longer accepted. Studies have shown migraine head pain is not accompanied by extracranial vasodilation, but rather only has some mild intracranial vasodilation.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '69893',
'title': 'Headache',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Currently, most specialists think migraines are due to a primary problem with the nerves in the brain. Auras are thought to be caused by a wave of increased activity of neurons in the cerebral cortex (a part of the brain) known as cortical spreading depression followed by a period of depressed activity. Some people think headaches are caused by the activation of sensory nerves which release peptides or serotonin, causing inflammation in arteries, dura and meninges and also cause some vasodilation. Triptans, medications which treat migraines, block serotonin receptors and constrict blood vessels.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40748148',
'title': 'Genetics of migraine headaches',
'section': 'Section::::Evolution.:Conflicts with other organisms.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 579,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'A headache-prone CNS may have resulted from interactions with other organisms in two ways. The first possibility is that migraine offers an advantage to the organism in fighting infection by increasing blood flow to the brain. The second possibility is that certain pathogens evolved to cause headache as a way of speeding their transmission to other organisms. Finally, migraine may benefit neither the host nor the pathogen, but may simply be the result of certain infections. This last explanation is concordant with the apparent negative impact of migraine on human fitness.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '40748148',
'title': 'Genetics of migraine headaches',
'section': '',
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'passage_text': 'Because genetics influence susceptibility to migraine, it can be shaped by evolution. Fitness-impairing disorders, including severe headache, tend to disappear as a result of natural selection, and their frequency decreases to near the rate of spontaneous mutation. However, migraine has not diminished over millions of years of evolution. Its prevalence has at least been maintained at a high level, and has even been shown to be increasing. This phenomenon suggests that a central nervous system (CNS) susceptible to severe, intermittent headache has been linked to an important survival or reproductive advantage. Five possible evolutionary explanations exist: i) migraine as a defense mechanism, ii) migraine as a result of conflicts with other organisms, iii) migraine as a result of novel environmental factors, iv) migraine as a compromise between genetic harms and benefits, and v) headache as a design constraint. These considerations allow the treatment and prevention of migraine to be approached from an evolutionary medicine perspective.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21035',
'title': 'Migraine',
'section': 'Section::::Pathophysiology.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 582,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Migraines are believed to be a neurovascular disorder with evidence supporting a mechanism starting within the brain and then spreading to the blood vessels. Some researchers believe neuronal mechanisms play a greater role, while others believe blood vessels play the key role. Others believe both are likely important. One theory is related to increased excitability of the cerebral cortex and abnormal control of pain neurons in the trigeminal nucleus of the brainstem. Low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin, also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine, are believed to be involved.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21381229',
'title': 'NIH classification of headaches',
'section': 'Section::::Vascular.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 449,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The most common type of vascular headache is "migraine". Migraine headaches are usually characterized by severe pain on one or both sides of the head, an upset stomach, and, for some people, disturbed vision. It is more common in women. While vascular changes are evident during a migraine, the cause of the headache is neurological, not vascular. After migraine, the most common type of vascular headache is the "toxic" headache produced by fever.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '21381229',
'title': 'NIH classification of headaches',
'section': 'Section::::Traction/inflammatory.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
'end_character': 281,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Like other types of pain, headaches can serve as warning signals of more serious disorders. This is particularly true for headaches caused by inflammation, including those related to meningitis as well as those resulting from diseases of the sinuses, spine, neck, ears, and teeth.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'why do humans get headaches? Is there a sole reason or is it a combination of factors? And does the factor(s) also cause migraines?',
'selftext': "I realize when I am dehydrated, I get headaches, but also over stimulation may also cause it for Me? I'm extremely curious and any help/ answers would be greatly appreciated.",
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The exact mechanism that causes headaches isn't/aren't yet fully understood. All we know is that there are many known factors that can trigger it. Like blood vessel constriction/dilation, and a change in hormone levels. (And that's also why more women suffer headaches than men.)\n\n\nCertain patterns of brain activity have been found to trigger blood vessel constrictions, which will reduce the oxygen supplied to the brain. Consequently, the blood vessels dilate and some chemicals that cause inflammation are released. The nerves nearby have pain sensitive endings and these can be triggered by that, activating the pain centres in return.\n\n\nAs for migraines, we are less familiar wih how they work but apparently have something to do with the constriction and dilation of blood vessels too.",
"One of the major causes of headaches in someone who get's them a lot for no obvious reason is an Undiagnosed eye condition. Basically the person is a little bit short sighted/ long sighted etc. and doesn't realize it. This means their eye muscles have to really strain beyond their normal capacity to bring certain things into focus. This causes them to start aching in a similar way that any other muscles does when overworked and bingo suddenly you have a headache.\n\n"],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '6jcvy9',
'query': 'why do humans get headaches? is there a sole reason or is it a combination of factors? and does the factor(s) also cause migraines?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '1023019',
'title': 'Hypertrophic scar',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 493,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'When a normal wound heals, the body produces new collagen fibres at a rate which balances the breakdown of old collagen. Hypertrophic scars are red and thick and may be itchy or painful. They do not extend beyond the boundary of the original wound, but may continue to thicken for up to six months. They usually improve over one or two years, but may cause distress due to their appearance or the intensity of the itching; they can also restrict movement if they are located close to a joint.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '331151',
'title': 'Tonsillectomy',
'section': 'Section::::Post-surgery care.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 46,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 46,
'end_character': 474,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'At some point, most commonly 7 to 11 days after the surgery (but occasionally as long as two weeks after), bleeding can occur when scabs begin sloughing off from the surgical sites. The overall risk of bleeding is approximately 1–2%. It is higher in adults, especially males over age 70 and three quarters of bleeding incidents occur on the same day as the surgery. Approximately 3% of adults develop bleeding at this time which may sometimes require surgical intervention.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2536716',
'title': 'Dental extraction',
'section': 'Section::::Post-extraction healing.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 37,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 37,
'end_character': 1007,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The chance of further bleeding reduces as healing progresses, and is unlikely after 24 hours. If bleeding occurs beyond 8 –12 hours, it is referred as post-extraction bleeding. The blood clot is covered by epithelial cells which proliferate from the gingival mucosa of socket margins, taking about 10 days to fully cover the defect. In the clot, neutrophils and macrophages are involved as an inflammatory response takes place. The proliferative and synthesizing phase next occurs, characterized by proliferation of osteogenic cells from the adjacent bone marrow in the alveolar bone. Bone formation starts after about 10 days from when the tooth was extracted. After 10–12 weeks, the outline of the socket is no longer apparent on an X-ray image. Bone remodeling as the alveolus adapts to the edentulous state occurs in the longer term as the alveolar process slowly resorbs. In maxillary posterior teeth, the degree of pneumatization of the maxillary sinus may also increase as the antral floor remodels.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '619451',
'title': 'Internal bleeding',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Stop the bleed.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 42,
'end_character': 337,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'It is important to stop bleeding (achieve hemostasis) after identifying the cause of internal bleeding. It taking longer to achieve hemostasis in people with traumatic causes (e.g. pelvic fracture) and non-traumatic causes (e.g. gastrointestinal bleeding, ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm) is associated with an increased death rate. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '641156',
'title': 'Bruise',
'section': 'Section::::Cause.:Severity.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 22,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 22,
'end_character': 398,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Low levels of damaging forces produce small bruises and generally cause the individual to feel minor pain straight away. Repeated impacts worsen bruises, increasing the harm level. Normally, light bruises heal nearly completely within two weeks, although duration is affected by variation in severity and individual healing processes; generally, more severe or deeper bruises take somewhat longer.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '970932',
'title': 'Anal masturbation',
'section': 'Section::::Safety.:Risks associated with bleeding.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 11,
'end_character': 382,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Minor injuries that cause some bleeding to the rectum pose measurable risk, and often need treatment. Injury can be contained by cessation of anal stimulation at any sign of injury, bleeding, or pain. While minor bleeding may stop of its own accord, individuals with serious injury, clotting problems, or other medical factors could face serious risk and require medical attention.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '514458',
'title': 'Wound healing',
'section': 'Section::::Maturation and remodeling.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 79,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 79,
'end_character': 387,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'As the phase progresses, the tensile strength of the wound increases. Collagen will reach approximately 20% of its tensile strength after 3 weeks, increasing to 80% by 12th week. The maximum scar strength is 80% of that of unwounded skin. Since activity at the wound site is reduced, the scar loses its red appearance as blood vessels that are no longer needed are removed by apoptosis.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why can your body stop the bleeding from a small cut over the course of a few minutes, but bruises can continue to develop and worsen over the course of a few days?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["What you're seeing isn't the bruise getting worse but the blood spreading out. When you get a cut say on your finger, the blood leaves your body and the wound closes. A bruise is a localized, internal bleed, so even after the capillaries close off, there's nowhere for the blood that's already leaked out to go, so it spreads out in the surrounding tissue until your body clears it.",
'Well when you get a cut the blood rushes there to clot and stop the bleeding however a bruise is damaged tissue and takes more time to heal',
'A bruise is from thousands of capillaries in the area breaking and releasing a little bit of blood into the surrounding tissue. The breaks in the vessels will clot of just as fast, if not faster than those from a cut. The reason it changes color/intensity over time is that the blood will pool in areas that may be easier to see through your skin, and the hemoglobin breaks down into different molecules over time that have different colors'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'fj3sno',
'query': 'why can your body stop the bleeding from a small cut over the course of a few minutes, but bruises can continue to develop and worsen over the course of a few days?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '53843551',
'title': '2017 Venezuelan protests',
'section': 'Section::::International reactions.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 122,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 122,
'end_character': 316,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Venezuelans and activists harassed government officials and their families who enjoyed luxurious lifestyles compared to Venezuelan citizens. The top income of a Venezuelan official would be approximately $700 per year. Despite this, families of Bolivarian officials live abroad and even attend foreign universities.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '224893',
'title': 'List of highest paid Major League Baseball players',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 1037,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The highest-paid player in Major League Baseball (MLB) from the 2018 Major League Baseball season is Los Angeles Angels\' Center Fielder Mike Trout with an annual salary of $34,000,000 on a 7 year contract for $426,500,000. MLB does not have a hard salary cap, instead employing a luxury tax which applies to teams whose total payroll exceeds certain set thresholds for a given season. Free agency did not exist in MLB prior to the end of the reserve clause in the 1970s, allowing owners before that time to wholly dictate the terms of player negotiations and resulting in significantly lower salaries. Babe Ruth, widely regarded as one of the greatest baseball players ever, earned an estimated $910,696 ($ inflation-adjusted from 1931 dollars) over his entire playing career. When asked whether he thought he deserved to earn $80,000 a year ($ inflation-adjusted), while the president, Herbert Hoover, had a $75,000 salary, Ruth famously remarked, "What the hell has Hoover got to do with it? Besides, I had a better year than he did."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '16829056',
'title': 'Poverty in South America',
'section': 'Section::::Conditions by nation.:Venezuela.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 40,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 40,
'end_character': 434,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'It is worth mentioning that the above statistics measure only cash income and therefore does not include access to free health care and other basic services. The government of Venezuela has attempted to measure the rate of households unable to cover their basic necessities through income or government services. The figure for this group stands at 21.2% poverty, of which 14.5% is considered non-extreme and 6.7% considered extreme.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '19288592',
'title': 'Maximum wage',
'section': 'Section::::Implementation.:Direct earnings limit.:Public salary limit.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
'end_character': 365,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'In 2011 Venezuela announced that from January 2012 its public officials would be subject to salary limits, with different types of official positions subject to different maximum salaries. At the highest level, officials may receive salaries no higher than 12 times the minimum wage. State governors, for example, may receive a maximum of 9 times the minimum wage.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22653083',
'title': 'Hispanic and Latino communities in Metro Atlanta',
'section': 'Section::::Demographics.:Female immigrants.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 65,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 65,
'end_character': 476,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "Men earn enough in the U.S. to live and send money home, but not enough to support a typical family of 5. In 2000, a man could earn $1100 per month, or up to $1300 with two jobs, and his living expenses were at least $500. He could live and work in the U.S. and send money home, where his wife and children worked and lived cheaply. In Atlanta, expenses for a family of 5 were at least $1400 per month, more than one man's salary, but within the reach of a two-worker family.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '22003933',
'title': 'Economic policy of the Hugo Chávez administration',
'section': 'Section::::Government policies.:Taxation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 42,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 42,
'end_character': 331,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "The Venezuelan government instituted several new taxes on non-priority and luxury goods, aiming to shift the nation's tax burden from the poor to the wealthy, and to control inflation. In 2012, Venezuela's taxes were ranked 188th out of 189 countries due to the high number of payments per year and a 61.7% tax on income per year.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '12857883',
'title': 'Suitcase scandal',
'section': 'Section::::Economic background.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 21,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 21,
'end_character': 475,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Venezuela has had strict foreign currency controls since 2003. CADIVI is the commission established by the government to regulate currency; it prohibits taking more than US$10,000 in cash out of the country without declaring the money. Venezuelans can only take US$500 or €400 cash out of the country in a single trip and there is a yearly quota of US$2,500 on credit card expenditures; a special government permit is needed to take additional US dollars out of the country.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do people afford to live in Venezuela if a monthly salary is 3$?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["The first thing to go are any valuable items like jeweler, then electronics. They sell these, live off of the money as far as possible (not very long) and then resort to scavenging, stealing, eating the lowest quality food possible (its cheap or free). \n\nThey have literally no expenses that a normal person would. No cellphone contract, no broadband, no electricity or running water. They don't drive themselves anywhere because they either never had a car or sold theirs. So they don't really pay for transport, at least not directly.\n\nIt is possible, with much effort and sacrifice. ",
'It\'s worth pointing out that Venezuelans can*not* afford to live, if by "live" you mean "afford to pay for food and necessities". As of last year, [Venezuelans lost an average of 19 pounds and 93% said they did not have enough money to pay for food](_URL_0_). Unfortunately the situation has worsened since then. I can\'t find any hard statistics on the food situation, but it seems almost everyone is now living in poverty, child malnutrition is rampant, and eating 1 meal per day is common. This sometimes means cutting out other things that we might consider "necessities" such as electricity or clean water.\n\nIf by "live" you mean literally avoid death, the human body is pretty resilient. POWs have survived several months and sometimes even years of near-starvation. If you cut out almost everything else in your life, and don\'t care about the quality of your food, it is possible to avoid dying on very little money.',
"It's now common for entire families to be dependant on remittances to provide food for their family members. Someone working in Perú can send monthly at least US$200 to Venezuela and that is already enough to fed two families eating only cheap stuff like grains, rice, sardines. After I left Venezuela some months ago, I'm constatly sending money to my family because that is the only way they can afford food.\n\nThose who don't have any help from outside are already planing to leave or just selling their stuff and make the money last long enough until they can find another source of income which could sustain their necessities.\n\nNow you can read on facebook pages about people offering services in exchange of dollars, working for companies translating stuff from other languages into spanish and viceversa, others are working online filling surveys or solving captchas for pennies/day. At the end of the month you can make enough to buy yourself enough food to avoid starvation."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '9ckptr',
'query': 'how do people afford to live in venezuela if a monthly salary is 3$?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '15584148',
'title': 'Japanese script reform',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Reforms.:"Tōyō kanji".\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 38,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 38,
'end_character': 324,
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'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'However, the recent prevalence of computers has made it easier for Japanese speakers to identify and use rarer characters, and the idea of having a list of approved characters has come under reconsideration. The Japanese media has increasingly used non-approved kanji with furigana to aid the reader in place of "mazegaki".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33290042',
'title': 'Thumb-shift keyboard',
'section': 'Section::::Background.:Inputting Japanese sentences with computers.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
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'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 933,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'When word processors for the Japanese language developed in the late 1970s, one of the most difficult tasks was how to input Japanese sentences. Since the Japanese writing system uses three character-sets (hiragana, katakana and kanji), with a large number of individual characters (about 80 for hiragana and katakana, and thousands for kanji), it is not possible to accommodate all these on standard keyboards. Kanji posed the greatest challenge, and developers tried various methods, such as handwriting recognition, large tablet-type input devices, assigning multiple key-codes to each character and so on, but the method called kana-kanji transformation became the primary input method. It works by inputting transliteration, either in kana or by using Latin characters (rōmaji), and the dictionary in the computer changes the input sequences into kanji. The program that accomplishes this task is called an input method editor.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '2941182',
'title': 'Japanese input method',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 363,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'There are two main methods of inputting Japanese on computers. One is via a romanized version of Japanese called "rōmaji" (literally "Roman character"), and the other is via keyboard keys corresponding to the Japanese "kana". Some systems may also work via a graphical user interface, or GUI, where the characters are chosen by clicking on buttons or image maps.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '8619915',
'title': 'Chinese telegraph code',
'section': 'Section::::Application.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 272,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The Chinese telegraph code can be used for a Chinese input method for computers. Ordinary computer users today hardly master it because it needs a lot of rote memorization. However, the related Four-Corner Method, which allows one to look up characters by shape, is used.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '333528',
'title': 'Japanese language and computers',
'section': 'Section::::Text input.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 13,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 13,
'end_character': 1184,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Written Japanese uses several different scripts: kanji (Chinese characters), 2 sets of "kana" (phonetic syllabaries) and roman letters. While kana and roman letters can be typed directly into a computer, entering kanji is a more complicated process as there are far more kanji than there are keys on most keyboards. To input kanji on modern computers, the reading of kanji is usually entered first, then an input method editor (IME), also sometimes known as a front-end processor, shows a list of candidate kanji that are a phonetic match, and allows the user to choose the correct kanji. More-advanced IMEs work not by word but by phrase, thus increasing the likelihood of getting the desired characters as the first option presented. Kanji readings inputs can be either via romanization ("rōmaji nyūryoku," ) or direct kana input ("kana nyūryoku," ). Romaji input is more common on PCs and other full-size keyboards (although direct input is also widely supported), whereas direct kana input is typically used on mobile phones and similar devices – each of the 10 digits (1–9,0) corresponds to one of the 10 columns in the gojūon table of kana, and multiple presses select the row.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44365',
'title': 'Typewriter',
'section': 'Section::::Legacy.:Keyboard layouts.:Other layouts.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 134,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 134,
'end_character': 278,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Typewriters were also made for East Asian languages with thousands of characters, such as Chinese or Japanese. They were not easy to operate, but professional typists used them for a long time until the development of electronic word processors and laser printers in the 1980s.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '333528',
'title': 'Japanese language and computers',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 691,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In relation to the Japanese language and computers many adaptation issues arise, some unique to Japanese and others common to languages which have a very large number of characters. The number of characters needed in order to write English is very small, and thus it is possible to use only one byte (2=256 possible values) to encode one English character. However, the number of characters in Japanese is much more than 256 and thus cannot be encoded using a single byte - Japanese is thus encoded using two or more bytes, in a so-called "double byte" or "multi-byte" encoding. Problems that arise relate to transliteration and romanization, character encoding, and input of Japanese text.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do Japanese internet users use so many different characters to make custom emoticons and why did no one else do the same?',
'selftext': 'How did Japanese internet users know the right symbols to use out of the thousands of Unicode symbols to make a particular face? Emoticons such as ლ( ◕ 益 ◕ ) ლ ԅ༼ ･ 〜 ･ ༽╯(⁄ ⁄•⁄ω⁄•⁄ ⁄) use symbols from relatively obscure languages and typesets from all over the Unicode catalog that are sometimes otherwise almost never used. When and how did this start? Did Japanese people simply peruse through the entire Unicode looking for the symbols to make a face they already came up with in their heads? Do they have to memorize ALT+ codes to be able to type them? It seems so easy and everyday for them, so why did it never really catch on in other countries besides the ( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°) "Lenny" face?',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['As a non-japanese person with a basic understanding of the japanese language:\n\nBecause Japanese uses the chinese characters (of which there are many thousands) they just have a autocomplete-like feature where they enter a word in one of their syllabaries (hiragana and katakana) and can choose from a list of possible characters based on their input.\n\nThe Japanese simply added those multi-character faces to the list of possibilities they can select from.',
'It started on [2channel](_URL_1_). The culture and large audience of this text-only site led its denizens to go looking for characters to make pictures from, first [the Shift JIS character set](_URL_0_), but then later the whole Unicode character set.\n\nJust like on Reddit, text that looks like a picture stands out and brings in praise, and the community want to one-up it or continue with pictures to make a story.\n\nWestern bulletin boards, message boards, USENET had already been doing the same since the 1980s with ASCII art and ANSI art.\n\n4chan copied what they saw on 2ch and brought their ideas to English-speaking sites. However, their Japanese origin might make them seem niche or undesirable (e.g. for weebs only)\n\nI suspect most people who repeat these little faces store them in a text file so they can copy-and-paste them on demand.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'cjnn8j',
'query': 'how do japanese internet users use so many different characters to make custom emoticons and why did no one else do the same?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '91221',
'title': 'Telephone tapping',
'section': 'Section::::Methods.:Location data.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 31,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 31,
'end_character': 245,
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'passage_text': 'Mobile phones are, in surveillance terms, a major liability. This liability will only increase as the new third-generation (3G), LTE, WiMAX, and fourth-generation (4G) phones are introduced, as the base stations will be located closer together.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '3276234',
'title': 'Spectrum auction',
'section': 'Section::::Innovation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 485,
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'passage_text': 'In the past decade, telecommunications has turned into a highly competitive industry where companies are competing to buy valuable spectrum. This competition has been triggered by technological advancements, privatization, and liberalization. Mobile communication in particular has made many transitions since 2000, mobile technology has moved from second generation (2G) to third generation (3G) to fourth generation (4G) and is now in transition to fifth generation (5G) technology.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '29031926',
'title': 'Mobile phone recycling',
'section': 'Section::::Recycling.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 514,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "A cell phone's shelf life is only about 24 months for the average user. This means that newer cell phone models are constantly put up on the market to replace older ones. This is as a result of the rapid progression of technology in the mobile industry. According to Matt Ployhar of Intel, the industry is rapidly evolving, possibly even at “Moore's law pace or faster.” This means that newer cell phone models are continually on the rise of consumerism and more outdated models are likely to end up in landfills.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '47267734',
'title': 'List of mobile phone generations',
'section': 'Section::::5G.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 49,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 49,
'end_character': 371,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Next Generation Mobile Networks Alliance feel that 5G should be rolled out by 2020 to meet business and consumer demands. In addition to simply providing faster speeds, they predict that 5G networks will also need to meet the needs of new use-cases such as the Internet of things (IoT) as well as broadcast-like services and lifeline communications in times of disaster.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '33825721',
'title': 'Attempted purchase of T-Mobile USA by AT&T',
'section': 'Section::::Effects on consumers.:Frequencies.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 36,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 36,
'end_character': 541,
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'passage_text': 'AT&T and T-Mobile use different 3G radio frequencies on their wireless networks. This could mean that T-Mobile customers would need to eventually replace their 3G phones had this merger gone through. Some users were declining to upgrade their phones due to this issue. AT&T had plans to shift T-Mobile users over to a different 3G frequency and that T-Mobile users would need to buy new phones. AT&T claims that this shift would have been spread over several years to allow consumers to replace phones at the time they normally would do so.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '9504079',
'title': 'BT Smart Hub',
'section': 'Section::::Features.:Hub Phone.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 25,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 25,
'end_character': 239,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'The phones are only partially compatible with newer or older versions of the hub, able to make and receive calls, but with the loss of features including call waiting, call transfer, internal calls, phonebook, call lists and Hi-def sound.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41015991',
'title': 'Telecommunications lease',
'section': 'Section::::Industry growth.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 393,
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'passage_text': 'The telecommunication industry is growing as the need for 4G and 5G networks flourishes. As a result of this growth there is a constant demand for cellular networks to increase their coverage. Therefore, more cellular towers are constructed and more leases are drawn up between the cellular provider and landowners, which can include municipalities and private landowners, such as homeowners.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why won’t “old phone” be able to work in a 5G network? Do we have to get new phones when 5G becomes a more prominent thing?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['The way I like to explain it:\n\nThink of network technologies like languages. \n\n5G speaks Arabic.\n\n4G speaks Chinese.\n\n3G speaks English.\n\nYour phone now only speaks Chinese and English. You will need a new one to understand Arabic. \n\nIt gets more complex than this, in a technical sense, but the concept is the same.',
'5G uses a different part of the EM spectrum than existing phones’ internal antennas as well. It’s like trying to have a conversation with a fax machine with your primitive human mouth.\n\nEDIT: A DSL modem would be a more accurate simile.',
"One thing nobody's mentioned yet is that existing 4G infrastructure isn't going away anytime soon so there's no rush to upgrade your phone unless you specifically want 5G",
"I wouldn't worry about getting a 5G phone in the nearest 5 years at least. you simply don't need this speed in places where it is going to be available. a solid LTE connectivity is fine.",
'to answer your Q, 5G requres a 5G modem which your current phone does not have. like blu-ray and DVD. they ar both disks, but they are not the same, and need specially created harware to make use of it.',
"3G and 4G coexisted long enough that almost all 3G phones were junk and out of service anyway. By the time 4G is ready to die you'll likely have a new 5G phone anyway."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'bbox3h',
'query': 'why won’t “old phone” be able to work in a 5g network? do we have to get new phones when 5g becomes a more prominent thing?',
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '60912660',
'title': 'MDMA-assisted psychotherapy',
'section': 'Section::::Society and culture.:Controversy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 29,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 29,
'end_character': 451,
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'passage_text': 'MDMA is unpredictable and produces different responses in different people. The drug causes neurotransmitter activation across the main neural pathways (including serotonin and dopamine, noradrenaline) that can result in large mood swings and changes. The memories that emerge under the influence of MDMA can evoke unwanted emotions. Side effects of MDMA use by recreational users include appetite fluctuations, food cravings, and disordered eating. \n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '23664335',
'title': 'Serenic',
'section': 'Section::::Examples.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 3,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 3,
'end_character': 911,
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'passage_text': 'The recreational drug MDMA ("ecstasy") and a variety of related drugs have been described as "empathogen-entactogens", or simply as "entactogens". These agents possess serenic and empathy-increasing properties in addition to their euphoriant effects, and have been associated with increased sociability, friendliness, and feelings of closeness to others as well as emotional empathy and prosocial behavior. The entactogenic effects of these drugs are thought to be related to their ability to temporarily increase the levels of certain brain chemicals, including serotonin, dopamine, and, particularly, oxytocin. Certain other serotonergic drugs, such as 5-HT receptor agonists, also increase oxytocin levels and may possess serenic properties as well. The phenylpiperazine mixed 5-HT and 5-HT receptor agonists eltoprazine, fluprazine, and batoprazine have been described based on animal research as serenics.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '252866',
'title': 'Altered state of consciousness',
'section': 'Section::::Induction methods.:Pharmacological.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 39,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 39,
'end_character': 377,
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'passage_text': "MDMA (ecstasy) is a drug that also alters one's state of consciousness. The state of consciousness brought about by MDMA ingestion includes a rise in positive feelings and a reduction in negative feelings (Aldridge, D., & Fachner, J. ö. 2005). Users' emotions are increased and inhibitions lowered, often accompanied by a sensation of intimacy or connection with other people.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25949',
'title': 'Recreational drug use',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Euphoriants.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 111,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 111,
'end_character': 214,
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'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- MDMA: The "euphoriant drugs such as MDMA (\'ecstasy\') and MDEA (\'eve\')" are popular among young adults. MDMA "users experience short-term feelings of euphoria, rushes of energy and increased tactility."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '185896',
'title': 'Club drug',
'section': 'Section::::Types.:Ecstasy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 720,
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'passage_text': 'MDMA (ecstasy) is a popular club drug in the rave and electronic dance music scenes and in nightclubs. It is known under many nicknames, including "e" and "Molly". MDMA is often considered the drug of choice within the rave culture and is also used at clubs, festivals, house parties and free parties . In the rave environment, the sensory effects from the music and lighting are often highly synergistic with the drug. The psychedelic quality of MDMA and its amphetamine-like energizing effect offers multiple reasons for its appeal to users in the rave setting. Some users enjoy the feeling of mass communion from the inhibition-reducing effects of the drug, while others use it as "party fuel" for all-night dancing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25164479',
'title': 'Substituted amphetamine',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 11,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Since the mid-1990s, MDMA has become a popular entactogenic drug among the youth and quite often non-MDMA substances were sold as ecstasy. Ongoing trials are investigating its efficacy as an adjunct to psychotherapy in the management of treatment-resistant post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10024',
'title': 'MDMA',
'section': "Section::::History.:Shulgin's research.\n",
'start_paragraph_id': 106,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 106,
'end_character': 1007,
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'passage_text': 'While not finding his own experiences with MDMA particularly powerful, Shulgin was impressed with the drug\'s disinhibiting effects and thought it could be useful in therapy. Believing MDMA allowed users to strip away habits and perceive the world clearly, Shulgin called the drug "window". Shulgin occasionally used MDMA for relaxation, referring to it as "my low-calorie martini", and gave the drug to friends, researchers, and others who he thought could benefit from it. One such person was Leo Zeff, a psychotherapist who had been known to use psychedelic substances in his practice. When he tried the drug in 1977, Zeff was impressed with the effects of MDMA and came out of his semi-retirement to promote its use in therapy. Over the following years, Zeff traveled around the United States and occasionally to Europe, eventually training an estimated four thousand psychotherapists in the therapeutic use of MDMA. Zeff named the drug "Adam", believing it put users in a state of primordial innocence.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How does MDMA make people feel happy and magical? Was the happiness already inside the mind in the first place?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': [" > Was the happiness already inside the mind in the first place?\n\nYes. MDMA releases all of your serotonin in your brain. That's what creates the feel good feeling.\n\nOf course, you can squeeze all that out at once at the cost of never feeling good about anything the next couple of days until your body can resupply. ",
'Your brain has a savings account of happiness (Serotonin). Normally you would just use a little bit for your daily needs, so that your savings account never gets empty. With MDMA you can empty it all at once. You then experience all this magical happiness, but you also have to live the next days with that empty savings account.',
'You basically borrow your future happiness at a shitty interest rate. The more you do it, the more profound the depletion and deeper the cycle.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '8604e2',
'query': 'how does mdma make people feel happy and magical? was the happiness already inside the mind in the first place?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '32716244',
'title': 'Servicios Aeronáuticos de Oriente',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 4,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 4,
'end_character': 315,
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'passage_text': 'The airline filed for bankruptcy in May 2002, but the bankruptcy was declared invalid in July later that year; however the airline did not resume operations due to the lack of investments, personnel and infrastructure. Aeromexico attempted to buy and rescue the airline in April 2003, but soon abandoned this plan.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '522091',
'title': 'Air America (radio network)',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Sale and closure.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 103,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 103,
'end_character': 539,
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'passage_text': 'The very difficult economic environment has had a significant impact on Air America\'s business. This past year has seen a "perfect storm" in the media industry generally. National and local advertising revenues have fallen drastically, causing many media companies nationwide to fold or seek bankruptcy protection. From large to small, recent bankruptcies like Citadel Broadcasting and closures like that of the industry\'s long-time trade publication Radio & Records have signaled that these are very difficult and rapidly changing times.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1942',
'title': 'Airline',
'section': 'Section::::History.:U.S. airline industry.:US airline deregulation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 50,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 50,
'end_character': 438,
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'passage_text': 'Thus the last 50 years of the airline industry have varied from reasonably profitable, to devastatingly depressed. As the first major market to deregulate the industry in 1978, U.S. airlines have experienced more turbulence than almost any other country or region. In fact, no U.S. legacy carrier survived bankruptcy-free. Among the outspoken critics of deregulation, former CEO of American Airlines, Robert Crandall has publicly stated:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1293554',
'title': 'Canada 3000',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 8,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 8,
'end_character': 1266,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': "On November 8, 2001 the company suddenly collapsed with no warning for travelers or employees. The company filed for bankruptcy, citing a downturn in air travel during the weeks following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States. The fleet was left grounded at various airports around the world, leaving 50,000 vacationers stranded. September 10, 2001 was a record booking day, but within a few days air traffic declined by 50%. The airline was offered a $75 million loan guarantee from the Canadian government under the condition of a 'viable business plan' being produced. By November 7, 2001, the airline had $260 million in debt, and only had $1.49 million in cash. In secret, it had applied to the Canada Labour Board for permission to cut labour costs by 30% by closing its Royal division immediately. The Board would not approve without union agreement. Union offers to cut 700 pilot and flight attendant positions did not provide enough savings immediately and the airline applied for bankruptcy protection on November 8, while it planned to continue flying. By the end of the day, airport authorities in Toronto and St. John's, Newfoundland has seized planes under court authority and the company directors decided to cease operations.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1658451',
'title': 'Champion Air',
'section': 'Section::::History.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 7,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 7,
'end_character': 449,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'On March 31, 2008, Champion President and CEO Lee Steele announced that ""the company will cease all flight operations as of May 31, 2008."" He cited high fuel costs and the inefficiency of their aging Boeing 727-200 fleet as some of the major reasons behind the shutdown. ""Our business model is no longer viable in a world of $110 oil, a struggling economy and rapidly changing demand for our services"" The carrier will not be filing bankruptcy.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '77549',
'title': 'Delta Air Lines',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Bankruptcy.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 235,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'On September 14, 2005, the company filed bankruptcy, citing rising fuel costs. It emerged from bankruptcy in April 2007 after fending off a hostile takeover from US Airways and its shares were re-listed on the New York Stock Exchange.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '6141982',
'title': 'Progressive talk radio',
'section': 'Section::::Struggles vs. conservative talk radio.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 23,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 23,
'end_character': 543,
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'passage_text': '"The very difficult economic environment has had a significant impact on Air America\'s business. This past year has seen a "perfect storm" in the media industry generally. National and local advertising revenues have fallen drastically, causing many media companies nationwide to fold or seek bankruptcy protection. From large to small, recent bankruptcies like Citadel Broadcasting and closures like that of the industry\'s long-time trade publication Radio and Records have signaled that these are very difficult and rapidly changing times."\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'How do massive companies like Thomas Cook Airlines go bust?',
'selftext': 'Thomas cook airlines ceases trading today with almost 200,000 brits currently abroad and due to fly home with them. Millions of people have upcoming bookings with them. They have thousands of staff as well. How can they go bust? I’m not well read on economics or business but it seems to me that they should be raking in the money.',
'category': 'Economics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['By having expenses that are even greater than the amount of money they bring in. For example an airline has to lease incredibly expensive planes, and pay for vast amounts of fuel and labor.',
'Earlier this year in May they issued a profit warning that dropped t share value, the profit loss was £1.5 billion for the FIRST half of 2019. They blamed Brexit and the heatwave we had, more people stayed at home to vacation because the pound was doing badly against the Euro. \n\nIn some places you get £1 to €1 when exchanging, this doesn’t help tourists from this country and they are less likely to travel abroad. \n\nThey also are about half owned by a giant Chinese company that will probably use this opportunity to snap up the rest.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'd82lme',
'query': 'how do massive companies like thomas cook airlines go bust?',
'query_type': 'Economics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '54245',
'title': 'Technological singularity',
'section': 'Section::::Plausibility.:Speed improvements.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 30,
'end_character': 356,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'It is difficult to directly compare silicon-based hardware with neurons. But notes that computer speech recognition is approaching human capabilities, and that this capability seems to require 0.01% of the volume of the brain. This analogy suggests that modern computer hardware is within a few orders of magnitude of being as powerful as the human brain.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '84632',
'title': 'Information Age',
'section': 'Section::::Progression.:Computation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 1057,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'The world\'s technological capacity to compute information with humanly guided general-purpose computers grew from 3.0 × 10 MIPS in 1986, to 4.4 × 10 MIPS in 1993, 2.9 × 10 MIPS in 2000 to 6.4 × 10 MIPS in 2007. An article in the recognized Journal Trends in Ecology and Evolution reports that by now digital technology "has vastly exceeded the cognitive capacity of any single human being and has done so a decade earlier than predicted. In terms of capacity, there are two measures of importance: the number of operations a system can perform and the amount of information that can be stored. The number of synaptic operations per second in a human brain has been estimated to lie between 10^15 and 10^17. While this number is impressive, even in 2007 humanity\'s general-purpose computers were capable of performing well over 10^18 instructions per second. Estimates suggest that the storage capacity of an individual human brain is about 10^12 bytes. On a per capita basis, this is matched by current digital storage (5x10^21 bytes per 7.2x10^9 people)".\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '20044858',
'title': 'Predictions made by Ray Kurzweil',
'section': 'Section::::Future predictions.:"The Age of Spiritual Machines" (1999).:2019.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 92,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 92,
'end_character': 202,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'BULLET::::- The computational capacity of a $4,000 computing device (in 1999 dollars) is approximately equal to the computational capability of the human brain (20 quadrillion calculations per second).\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '1908395',
'title': 'Artificial brain',
'section': 'Section::::Approaches to brain simulation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 16,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 16,
'end_character': 605,
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'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'There are good reasons to believe that, regardless of implementation strategy, the predictions of realising artificial brains in the near future are optimistic. In particular brains (including the human brain) and cognition are not currently well understood, and the scale of computation required is unknown. Another near term limitation is that all current approaches for brain simulation require orders of magnitude larger power consumption compared with a human brain. The human brain consumes about 20\xa0W of power, whereas current supercomputers may use as much as 1\xa0MW—i.e., an order of 100,000 more.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '87966',
'title': 'The Age of Spiritual Machines',
'section': 'Section::::Content.:Building new brains.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 19,
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'passage_text': 'To build an artificial brain requires formulas, knowledge and sufficient computational power, explains Kurzweil. He says "by around the year 2020" a $1,000 personal computer will have enough speed and memory to match the human brain, based on the law of accelerating returns and his own estimates of the computational speed and memory capacity of the brain. Kurzweil predicts Moore\'s law will last until 2020 so current integrated circuits should come close to human brain levels of computation, but he says three dimensional chips will be the next big technology, followed potentially by optical computing, DNA computing, nanotubes, or quantum computing.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '586357',
'title': 'Artificial general intelligence',
'section': 'Section::::Processing power needed to simulate a brain.:Complications of and criticisms to AI approaches, based on simulation.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 53,
'start_character': 0,
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'passage_text': 'Desktop computers using microprocessors capable of more than 10 cps (Kurzweil\'s non-standard unit "computations per second", see above) have been available since 2005. According to the brain power estimates used by Kurzweil (and Moravec), this computer should be capable of supporting a simulation of a bee brain, but despite some interest no such simulation exists . There are at least three reasons for this:\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '25479785',
'title': 'Exascale computing',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 2,
'end_character': 282,
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'passage_text': 'Exascale computing would be considered to be a significant achievement in computer engineering, for it is estimated to be the order of processing power of the human brain at neural level (functional might be lower). It is, for instance, the target power of the Human Brain Project.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': "How much power does the computer need to fully emulate human's brain?",
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Technology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ["since we don't have anywhere near enough knowledge of how the human brain works to be able to make a computer emulate one, the correct answer is:\n\nNo one has a clue. ",
'Deep blue, a super computer took 30 or so minutes to simulate 1 second of average human brain activity.',
'What is amazing is that the human brain is only powered by about 12 watts of electricity. About as much as a cfl light bulb.',
"We don't know, but using the deep thinking massive data processing is coming online to simulate a human mind to where, in just a few more years, we'll have computers like Alexa and Google Home that you won't be able to tell if you are talking to a human or not. Or maybe you will, but it won't matter as the device will have it's own place in your life, maybe we won't need it to be indistinguishable from a human. It could be, that we'll see these artificial minds as a really good friend. Just think of a friend who is always there for you, can answer any question rationally and without any type of malice or dishonesty. We already like being on the web more than just about any other activity, I think we'll have new best friends soon.",
"Some rough estimations and fun background.\n\n[The human brain has been estimated to have a processing power or roughly **38 petaflops and a memory of at least 3.6 petabytes**](_URL_2_). That's a lot. Our top supercomputer, the Chinese [**Sunway TaihuLight**](_URL_0_) has a processing power of about 93 petaflops, though it lacks a little memory sitting at 1.31 petabytes. It was just built too (June 2016). It cost over $270 million.\n\nThe previous top supercomputer - also Chinese, [Tianhe-2](_URL_1_) only had about 34 petaflops.\n\nTo give you some contrast, currently the top i7 processor only has about 120 gigaflops (peta = giga * million). The GTX Titan X has about 11 teraflops (tera = giga* thousand).\n\n**Can the Sunway TaihuLight emulate the human brain?** *Not really*. Emulation usually requires the emulator to have processing power orders of magnitude larger than the emulated hardware. As a rough example - look at game console emulators (a bit of an ancient example but eh), they require PCs at least 5-6 years youger than the consoles they're emulating.\n\n**How much processing power is actually needed to emulate the human brain?** *We likely won't know until we try.* We definitely won't know until we actually fully understand how the brain works. However, I would call it a safe bet to assume that it will take orders of magnitude more than 38 petaflops. Likely X or XX exaflops.\n\nMy personal, completely biased and unburdened with research or evidence opinion is that by the time we get together to actually write the software, the hardware won't be a problem."],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '5lvlzr',
'query': "how much power does the computer need to fully emulate human's brain?",
'query_type': 'Technology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '341394',
'title': 'The Analyst',
'section': 'Section::::Influence.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 575,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "Despite these attempts calculus continued to be developed using non-rigorous methods until around 1830 when Augustin Cauchy, and later Bernhard Riemann and Karl Weierstrass, redefined the derivative and integral using a rigorous definition of the concept of limit. The concept of using limits as a foundation for calculus had been suggested by d'Alembert, but d'Alembert's definition was not rigorous by modern standards . The concept of limits had already appeared in the work of Newton , but was not stated with sufficient clarity to hold up to the criticism of Berkeley .\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '420373',
'title': 'Π-calculus',
'section': 'Section::::Informal definition.:Process constructs.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 15,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 15,
'end_character': 567,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Although the minimalism of the -calculus prevents us from writing programs in the normal sense, it is easy to extend the calculus. In particular, it is easy to define both control structures such as recursion, loops and sequential composition and datatypes such as first-order functions, truth values, lists and integers. Moreover, extensions of the have been proposed which take into account distribution or public-key cryptography. The "applied " due to Abadi and Fournet put these various extensions on a formal footing by extending the with arbitrary datatypes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5176',
'title': 'Calculus',
'section': 'Section::::Principles.:Limits and infinitesimals.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 35,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 35,
'end_character': 711,
'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'In the late 19th century, infinitesimals were replaced within academia by the epsilon, delta approach to limits. Limits describe the value of a function at a certain input in terms of its values at nearby inputs. They capture small-scale behavior in the context of the real number system. In this treatment, calculus is a collection of techniques for manipulating certain limits. Infinitesimals get replaced by very small numbers, and the infinitely small behavior of the function is found by taking the limiting behavior for smaller and smaller numbers. Limits were thought to provide a more rigorous foundation for calculus, and for this reason they became the standard approach during the twentieth century.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5176',
'title': 'Calculus',
'section': 'Section::::Applications.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 73,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 73,
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'bleu_score': None,
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'passage_text': 'Calculus is used in every branch of the physical sciences, actuarial science, computer science, statistics, engineering, economics, business, medicine, demography, and in other fields wherever a problem can be mathematically modeled and an optimal solution is desired. It allows one to go from (non-constant) rates of change to the total change or vice versa, and many times in studying a problem we know one and are trying to find the other.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5176',
'title': 'Calculus',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Foundations.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 26,
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'passage_text': "Limits are not the only rigorous approach to the foundation of calculus. Another way is to use Abraham Robinson's non-standard analysis. Robinson's approach, developed in the 1960s, uses technical machinery from mathematical logic to augment the real number system with infinitesimal and infinite numbers, as in the original Newton-Leibniz conception. The resulting numbers are called hyperreal numbers, and they can be used to give a Leibniz-like development of the usual rules of calculus. There is also smooth infinitesimal analysis, which differs from non-standard analysis in that it mandates neglecting higher power infinitesimals during derivations.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '5176',
'title': 'Calculus',
'section': 'Section::::History.:Significance.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 30,
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'passage_text': 'Calculus is also used to gain a more precise understanding of the nature of space, time, and motion. For centuries, mathematicians and philosophers wrestled with paradoxes involving division by zero or sums of infinitely many numbers. These questions arise in the study of motion and area. The ancient Greek philosopher Zeno of Elea gave several famous examples of such paradoxes. Calculus provides tools, especially the limit and the infinite series, that resolve the paradoxes.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '26478',
'title': 'Real analysis',
'section': 'Section::::Scope.:Limits and convergence.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 17,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 17,
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'passage_text': 'Roughly speaking, a limit is the value that a function or a sequence "approaches" as the input or index approaches some value. (This value can include the symbols formula_29 when addressing the behavior of a function or sequence as the variable increases or decreases without bound.) The idea of a limit is fundamental to calculus (and mathematical analysis in general) and its formal definition is used in turn to define notions like continuity, derivatives, and integrals. (In fact, the study of limiting behavior has been used as a characteristic that distinguishes calculus and mathematical analysis from other branches of mathematics.) \n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'Why do we study Limits in Calculus?',
'selftext': '',
'category': 'Mathematics',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['Limits are essential to proving that calculus works. Much of an intro calculus class involves proofs of how & why calculus works & exists.\n\nThe derivative is the limit of the slope of the line from from f(x-δ) to f(x+δ) as δ goes to zero. Integrals are similarly defined.',
"Calculus, both integral and differential calculus, is based upon limits. We don't actually reach our answers but we get infinitely close to it. You can't calculate instantaneous rate of change (the value of the derivative) without using two infinitely close points. Well, you *do*, but not without using limits to derive that ability. The rules of differentiation can be derived (no pun intended) by taking the limit as delta approaches zero blahblahblah you know the rest. Similarly, when calculating area, you're actually calculating the sum of an infinite number of rectangles. As you approach an infinite number of rectangles, you approach the actual area under a curve.",
'Precision.\n\nImagine you have a problem in the real world where you have to figure out *precisely* how far away from a starting point a gigantic traveling machine is going to stop. \n\nIt\'s an engineering problem and it\'s way way too expensive to build a full working model. \n\nBut you know that at the starting point the machine is going at 10 feet per second, and it loses exactly half of its speed every second it travels.\n\nYou can estimate it in stages, saying, "after one second it\'s going at 5 feet per second, so in one second the average tells me it\'s gone about (10+5)/2 = 7.5 feet. Then in second number two it slows down to 2.5 feet per second and it goes another..." bla bla "...so by the time it\'s practically stopped moving, it\'s gone about X far."\n\nBut this is engineering and that\'s an *estimate*, and you need *precision* or people might get crushed if you\'re not exactly right. \n\nBy working the problem out using limits, you can figure out that, even if that giant machine never stops, it\'ll never ever exceed a certain precise distance even years later. \n\n'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': '625611',
'query': 'why do we study limits in calculus?',
'query_type': 'Mathematics',
'wellFormedAnswers': []},
...]
cat_data[0]
{'passages': [{'wikipedia_id': '25294051',
'title': 'Franz Rautek',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 2,
'start_character': 0,
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'end_character': 749,
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'passage_text': 'Bring the victim into a sitting position, making sure that both legs are free. Approach him from behind, putting both your arms under his armpits. Both your hands then grab one of the lower arms of the victim with all fingers and the thumbs being placed on top of that lower arm and parallel to each other (so called monkey grip, ). This avoids injury to the ribs of the victim by the thumb of the rescuer. The victims arm should now be horizontal and pressed across his chest. Gently lifting the upper body of the victim by the grabbed arm and supporting him with your thigh, you can now drag him backwards. The victim contacts the ground with buttocks and legs, which are not "soft parts". If a second rescuer is available, he can carry the legs.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '11005224',
'title': 'Penetrating trauma',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 659,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Penetrating trauma is an injury that occurs when an object pierces the skin and enters a tissue of the body, creating an open wound. In blunt, or non-penetrating trauma, there may be an impact, but the skin is not necessarily broken. The penetrating object may remain in the tissues, come back out the way it entered, or pass through the tissues and exit from another area. An injury in which an object enters the body or a structure and passes all the way through is called a perforating injury, while "penetrating trauma" implies that the object does not pass through. Perforating trauma is associated with an entrance wound and an often larger exit wound.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '515534',
'title': 'Injury',
'section': '',
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 246,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Injury, also known as physical trauma, is damage to the body caused by external force. This may be caused by accidents, falls, hits, weapons, and other causes. Major trauma is injury that has the potential to cause prolonged disability or death.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '13877484',
'title': 'Conflict archaeology',
'section': 'Section::::A Case Study: The Bare Bones; body parts and conflict behavior.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 9,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 9,
'end_character': 610,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'Essentially our bodies act as physical manifestations of past conflicts. The physical effects that violence inflicts upon our bodies are allowed for the characterization of the surrounding conflict which was participated in. Our bodies tell us the human interaction enacted and the course of the conflict, whether one side was dominated in regards to another, based on physical evidence. As Callow states, "Permanent wounds such as scars or missing body parts convey messages about the success or failure of casing wounds to one another...and the military success of the individual who carries out such acts."\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '41121722',
'title': 'Spinal interneuron',
'section': 'Section::::Function.:Excitatory interneurons.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 20,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 20,
'end_character': 1415,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'An important reflex initiated by cutaneous receptors and pain receptors is the flexor reflex. This reflex mechanism allows for quick withdrawal of the body parts, in this case a limb, from the harmful stimulus. The signal travels to the spinal cord and a response is initiated even before it travels up to the brain centers for a conscious decision to be made. The reflex circuit involves the activation of the Group III afferents of pain receptors due to a stimulus affecting the foot. These afferents enter the spinal cord and travel up to the lumbar region, where they synapse an excitatory interneuron. This interneuron excites the alpha motor neuron that causes contraction of the thigh flexor muscle. Also, Group III afferent travels up to L2 vertebra, where they branch onto another excitatory interneuron. This interneuron excites the alpha motor neurons, which then excite the hip flexor muscle. This synchronized communication allows for the removal of the whole leg from the painful stimulus. This is an example of the spinal cord circuitry coordinating movement at several joints simultaneously. In addition, during flexor reflex, when the knee joints and hip joints are flexed, the antagonist extensor muscles must be inhibited. This inhibitory effect is achieved when Group III afferents synapse inhibitory interneurons that in turn synapse the alpha motor neurons innervating the antagonists muscle.\n',
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '44788205',
'title': 'Basic airway management',
'section': 'Section::::Treatment.:Abdominal thrusts.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 27,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 27,
'end_character': 272,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': "A person may also perform abdominal thrusts on himself by using a fixed object such as a railing or the back of a chair to apply pressure where a rescuer's hands would normally do so. As with other forms of the procedure, it is possible that internal injuries may result.\n",
'is_selected': 1},
{'wikipedia_id': '10972528',
'title': 'Incident (Scientology)',
'section': 'Section::::"A History of Man" Incidents.:Bodies in pawn.\n',
'start_paragraph_id': 12,
'start_character': 0,
'end_paragraph_id': 12,
'end_character': 386,
'bleu_score': None,
'meta': None,
'passage_text': 'They can apparently cause major problems for people undergoing medical operations, as "pain, an anaesthetic or a serious accident cause him to change to the other area with a shocking impact on the other body. The other body quite commonly dies or is deranged by the sudden impact". This gives the patient a repressed feeling of having died and leaves him "very, very badly disturbed".\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'title': 'We do we instinctively grab a part of our body after it is hurt?',
'selftext': 'I just tweaked my wrist and my immediate reaction was to grasp it. I have no idea if grabbing it actually does anything, but it seems to be a natural reaction for most people when a body part hurts. Why is that?',
'category': 'Biology',
'subreddit': 'explainlikeimfive',
'answers': ['A) instinct. To protect it from further damage (if the damaging agent is ongoing) or to prevent bleeding and such.\n\nB) pain. Our brain knows that pressure sensation blocks pain sensation from experience. So we reflexively grab the injury site because it alleviates the pain.\n\nEdit: English and clarity',
'So you have 2 different types of pressure sensors in your skin, superficial or closer to the surface and deep. Pressure sensors report back to the brain faster than pain sensors do so you can "jam the signal" ish by applying pressure. Say you put your hand on a hot burner, the spine has limited commands it can give to the body in case the brain can\'t give commands (see stroke victims) or to protect the body from further damage. This means that the pain signal follows tracks of nerve impulses to the spine where a quick response is sent back while a detailed report of the pain is sent to the sensory part of the brain for further analysis. The brain follows up the damage report by checking sensation, applying pressure or grabbing the area. Typically you also visually check it as well to see how the skin in the area is doing.'],
'title_urls': ['url'],
'selftext_urls': ['url'],
'query_id': 'elzx1n',
'query': 'we do we instinctively grab a part of our body after it is hurt?',
'query_type': 'Biology',
'wellFormedAnswers': []}
# # Saving cleaned version
with open(path_prefix + "/Eli5_categorized/eli5_categorized.json", 'w') as f:
json.dump(cat_data, f)
wow_data['passages_text']
{'0': 'The Chicago Blackhawks (spelled Black Hawks until 1986, and known colloquially as the Hawks) are a professional ice hockey team based in Chicago, Illinois. They are members of the Central Division of the Western Conference of the National Hockey League (NHL). They have won six Stanley Cup championships since their founding in 1926. The Blackhawks are one of the "Original Six" NHL teams along with the Detroit Red Wings, Montreal Canadiens, Toronto Maple Leafs, Boston Bruins and New York Rangers. Since , the club\'s home rink is the United Center, which they share with the National Basketball Association\'s Chicago Bulls. The club had previously played for 65 years at Chicago Stadium.\n',
'1': 'In modern medicine, a surgeon is a physician who performs surgical operations. There are also surgeons in podiatry, dentistry maxillofacial surgeon and the veterinary fields.\n',
'2': "Equestrianism (from Latin , , , 'horseman', 'horse'), more often known as horse riding (British English) or horseback riding (American English), refers to the skill and sport of riding, driving, steeplechasing or vaulting with horses. This broad description includes the use of horses for practical working purposes, transportation, recreational activities, artistic or cultural exercises, and competitive sport.\n",
'3': 'Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid and -ascorbic acid, is a vitamin found in various foods and sold as a dietary supplement. It is used to prevent and treat scurvy. Vitamin C is an essential nutrient involved in the repair of tissue and the enzymatic production of certain neurotransmitters. It is required for the functioning of several enzymes and is important for immune system function. It also functions as an antioxidant. \n',
'4': 'In the United States, Canada, the Republic of Ireland, and United Kingdom, hiking means walking outdoors on a trail, or off trail, for recreational purposes. A day hike refers to a hike that can be completed in a single day. However, in the United Kingdom, the word walking is also used, as well as rambling, while walking in mountainous areas is called hillwalking. In Northern England, Including the Lake District and Yorkshire Dales, fellwalking describes hill or mountain walks, as fell is the common word for both features there.\n',
'5': 'Pop music is a genre of popular music that originated in its modern form in the United States and United Kingdom during the mid-1950s. The terms "popular music" and "pop music" are often used interchangeably, although the former describes all music that is popular and includes many diverse styles. "Pop" and "rock" were roughly synonymous terms until the late 1960s, when they became increasingly differentiated from each other.\n',
'6': 'The cat ("Felis catus") is a small carnivorous mammal. It is the only domesticated species in the family Felidae and often referred to as the domestic cat to distinguish it from wild members of the family. The cat is either a house cat or a farm cat, which are pets, or a feral cat, which ranges freely and avoids human contact.\n',
'7': 'Fishing tackle is the equipment used by anglers when fishing. Almost any equipment or gear used for fishing can be called fishing tackle. Some examples are hooks, lines, sinkers, floats, rods, reels, baits, lures, spears, nets, gaffs, traps, waders and tackle boxes.\n',
'8': 'The Vietnam War (), also known as the Second Indochina War, and in Vietnam as the Resistance War Against America () or simply the American War, was a conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and South Vietnam. North Vietnam was supported by the Soviet Union, China, and other communist allies; South Vietnam was supported by the United States, South Korea, the Philippines, Australia, Thailand and other anti-communist allies. The war, considered a Cold War-era proxy war by some, lasted 19 years, with direct U.S. involvement ending in 1973, and included the Laotian Civil War and the Cambodian Civil War, resulting in all three countries becoming communist in 1975.\n',
'9': '4chan is an English-language imageboard website. Users generally post anonymously, with the most recent posts appearing above the rest. 4chan is split into various boards with their own specific content and guidelines. Registration is not possible (except for staff).\n',
'10': "Robert James Ritchie (born January 17, 1971), known professionally as Kid Rock, is an American singer-songwriter, rapper, musician, record producer, and actor. In a career spanning over 20 years, Rock's musical style has alternated between rock, hip hop, and country. A self-taught multi-instrumentalist who can play every instrument in his backing band, Twisted Brown Trucker, he has overseen his own production on nine of his eleven studio albums.\n",
'11': 'Garlic oil is typically prepared using steam distillation, whereby crushed garlic is steamed with the resultant condensation containing the oil. Garlic oil contains volatile sulfur compounds such as diallyl disulfide, which is the "most abundant constituent" of essential garlic oil. Steam-distilled garlic oil typically has a pungent odor and a yellow-brownish coloration. Its odor has been attributed to the presence of diallyl disulfide. To produce around 1 g of pure steam-distilled garlic oil, around 500 g garlic is required. Steam-distilled garlic oil has around 900 times the strength of fresh garlic, and around 200 times the strength of dehydrated garlic.\n',
'12': 'SpongeBob SquarePants is an American animated television series created by marine science educator and animator Stephen Hillenburg for Nickelodeon. The series chronicles the adventures and endeavors of the title character and his various friends in the fictional underwater city of Bikini Bottom. The fifth-longest-running American animated series, its popularity has made it a media franchise, as well as the highest rated series to ever air on Nickelodeon, and the most distributed property of Viacom Media Networks. As of late 2017, the media franchise has generated $13 billion in merchandising revenue for Nickelodeon.\n',
'13': 'Veganism is the practice of abstaining from the use of animal products, particularly in diet, and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals. A follower of the diet or the philosophy is known as a vegan. Distinctions may be made between several categories of veganism. "Dietary vegans" (also known as strict vegetarians) refrain from consuming animal products, not only meat but also eggs, dairy products and other animal-derived substances. The term "ethical vegan" is often applied to those who not only follow a vegan diet but extend the philosophy into other areas of their lives, and oppose the use of animals for any purpose. Another term is "environmental veganism", which refers to the avoidance of animal products on the premise that the industrial farming of animals is environmentally damaging and unsustainable.\n',
'14': 'Hiking is the preferred term, in Canada and the United States, for a long, vigorous walk, usually on trails (footpaths), in the countryside, while the word walking is used for shorter, particularly urban walks. On the other hand, in the United Kingdom, and the Republic of Ireland, the word "walking" is acceptable to describe "all forms" of walking, whether it is a walk in the park or backpacking in the Alps. The word hiking is also often used in the UK, along with rambling (a slightly old-fashioned term), hillwalking, and fell walking (a term mostly used for hillwalking in northern England). The term bushwalking is endemic to Australia, having been adopted by the Sydney Bush Walkers club in 1927. In New Zealand a long, vigorous walk or hike is called tramping. It is a popular activity with numerous worldwide, and studies suggest that all forms of walking have health benefits.\n',
'15': 'The Blue Ridge Mountains are a physiographic province of the larger Appalachian Mountains range. The mountain range is located in the eastern United States, and extends 550 miles southwest from southern Pennsylvania through Maryland, West Virginia, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama. This province consists of northern and southern physiographic regions, which divide near the Roanoke River gap. To the west of the Blue Ridge, between it and the bulk of the Appalachians, lies the Great Appalachian Valley, bordered on the west by the Ridge and Valley province of the Appalachian range.\n',
'16': 'The Humane Society of the United States (HSUS), based in Washington, D.C., is an American nonprofit organization founded by journalist Fred Myers and Helen Jones, Larry Andrews, and Marcia Glaser in 1954, to address what they saw as animal-related cruelties of national scope, and to resolve animal welfare problems by applying strategies beyond the resources or abilities of local organizations. In 2013, the "Chronicle of Philanthropy" identified HSUS as the 136th largest charity in the United States in its Philanthropy 400 listing. \n',
'17': 'The Nordic countries or the Nordics are a geographical and cultural region in Northern Europe and the North Atlantic, where they are most commonly known as "Norden" (literally "the North"). The term includes Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden, as well as Greenland and the Faroe Islands—which are both part of the Kingdom of Denmark—and the Åland Islands and Svalbard archipelagos that belong to Finland and Norway respectively, whereas the Norwegian Antarctic territories are often not considered a part of the Nordic countries, due to their geographical location. Several regions in Europe, such as the Northern Isles of Scotland, share cultural or ethnic ties with Nordic nations, but are not considered to be Nordic countries. Scandinavians, who comprise over three quarters of the region\'s population, are the largest group, followed by Finns, who comprise the majority in Finland; other ethnic groups are the Greenlandic Inuit, the Sami people, and recent immigrants and their descendants. The native languages Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic, and Faroese are all North Germanic languages rooted in Old Norse. Native non-Germanic languages are Finnish, Greenlandic and several Sami languages. The main religion is Lutheran Christianity.\n',
'18': 'Community theatre refers to theatrical performance made in relation to particular communities—its usage includes theatre made by, with, and for a community. It may refer to theatre that is made entirely by a community with no outside help, or to a collaboration between community members and professional theatre artists, or to performance made entirely by professionals that is addressed to a particular community. Community theatres range in size from small groups led by single individuals that perform in borrowed spaces to large permanent companies with well-equipped facilities of their own. Many community theatres are successful, non-profit businesses with a large active membership and, often, a full-time professional staff. Community theatre is often devised and may draw on popular theatrical forms, such as carnival, circus, and parades, as well as performance modes from commercial theatre.\n',
'19': 'Surfing is a surface water sport in which the wave rider, referred to as a surfer, rides on the forward or face of a moving wave, which usually carries the surfer towards the shore. Waves suitable for surfing are primarily found in the ocean, but can also be found in lakes or rivers in the form of a standing wave or tidal bore. However, surfers can also utilize artificial waves such as those from boat wakes and the waves created in artificial wave pools.\n',
'20': 'Nursing is a profession within the health care sector focused on the care of individuals, families, and communities so they may attain, maintain, or recover optimal health and quality of life. Nurses may be differentiated from other health care providers by their approach to patient care, training, and scope of practice. Nurses practice in many specialties with differing levels of prescription authority. Many nurses provide care within the ordering scope of physicians, and this traditional role has shaped the public image of nurses as care providers. However, nurse practitioners are permitted by most jurisdictions to practice independently in a variety of settings. Since the postwar period, nurse education has undergone a process of diversification towards advanced and specialized credentials, and many of the traditional regulations and provider roles are changing.\n',
'21': 'A genre is the subject matter or category that writers use. For instance, science fiction, fantasy and mystery fiction are genres. Genre fiction also known as popular fiction, is plot-driven fictional works written with the intent of fitting into a specific literary genre, in order to appeal to readers and fans already familiar with that genre.\n',
'22': "Ice hockey is a contact team sport played on ice, usually in a rink, in which two teams of skaters use their sticks to shoot a vulcanized rubber puck into their opponent's net to score points. The sport is known to be fast-paced and physical, with teams usually consisting of six players each: one goaltender, and five players who skate up and down the ice trying to take the puck and score a goal against the opposing team.\n",
'23': 'The earliest known mention of ravioli appears in the personal letters of Francesco di Marco Datini, a merchant of Prato in the 14th century. In Venice, the mid-14th-century manuscript "Libro per cuoco" offers ravioli of green herbs blanched and minced, mixed with beaten egg and fresh cheese, simmered in broth and seasoned with "sweet and strong spices". In Rome, ravioli were already well-known when Bartolomeo Scappi served them with boiled chicken to the papal conclave of 1549.\n',
'24': 'The United States Postal Service (USPS; also known as the Post Office, U.S. Mail, or Postal Service) is an independent agency of the executive branch of the United States federal government responsible for providing postal service in the United States, including its insular areas and associated states. It is one of the few government agencies explicitly authorized by the United States Constitution.\n',
'25': "Walmart Inc. (; formerly Wal-Mart Stores, Inc.) is an American multinational retail corporation that operates a chain of hypermarkets, discount department stores, and grocery stores, headquartered in Bentonville, Arkansas. The company was founded by Sam Walton in 1962 and incorporated on October 31, 1969. It also owns and operates Sam's Club retail warehouses. Walmart has 11,368 stores and clubs in 27countries, operating under 55 differentnames. The company operates under the name Walmart in the United States and Canada, as Walmart de México y Centroamérica in Mexico and Central America, as Asda in the United Kingdom, as the Seiyu Group in Japan, and as Best Price in India. It has wholly owned operations in Argentina, Chile, Canada, and South Africa. Since August 2018, Walmart only holds a minority stake in Walmart Brasil, with 20-percent of the company's shares, and private equity firm Advent International holding 80-percent ownership of the company.\n",
'26': 'The common hippopotamus ("Hippopotamus amphibius"), or hippo, is a large, mostly herbivorous, semiaquatic mammal and ungulate native to sub-Saharan Africa. It is one of only two extant species in the family Hippopotamidae, the other being the pygmy hippopotamus ("Choeropsis liberiensis" or "Hexaprotodon liberiensis"). The name comes from the ancient Greek for "river horse" (). After the elephant and rhinoceros, the common hippopotamus is the third-largest type of land mammal and the heaviest extant artiodactyl. Despite their physical resemblance to pigs and other terrestrial even-toed ungulates, the closest living relatives of the Hippopotamidae are cetaceans (whales, dolphins, porpoises, etc.) from which they diverged about 55 million years ago.\n',
'27': 'A telenovela is a type of a limited-run television serial drama or soap opera produced primarily in Latin America. The word combines "tele" (for "television") and "novela" (meaning "novel"). Similar genres around the world include teleserye (Philippines), téléroman (Canada, specifically Quebec), or simply dramas (Asia and the rest of the Arab World). \n',
'28': 'Meatloaf is a dish of ground meat that has been mixed with other ingredients and formed into the shape of a loaf, then baked or smoked. The final shape is either hand-formed on a flat pan or created by cooking it in a loaf pan. It is usually made with ground beef, although ground lamb, pork, veal, venison, poultry and seafood are also used.\n',
'29': 'The domestic dog ("Canis lupus familiaris" when considered a subspecies of the wolf or "Canis familiaris" when considered a distinct species) is a member of the genus "Canis" (canines), which forms part of the wolf-like canids, and is the most widely abundant terrestrial carnivore. The dog and the extant gray wolf are sister taxa as modern wolves are not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated, which implies that the direct ancestor of the dog is extinct. The dog was the first species to be domesticated and has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes.\n',
'30': 'The City of New York, usually called either New York City (NYC) or simply New York (NY), is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2018 population of 8,398,748 distributed over a land area of about , New York is also the most densely populated major city in the United States. Located at the southern tip of the state of New York, the city is the center of the New York metropolitan area, the largest metropolitan area in the world by urban landmass and one of the world\'s most populous megacities, with an estimated 19,979,477 people in its 2018 Metropolitan Statistical Area and 22,679,948 residents in its Combined Statistical Area. A global power city, New York City has been described as the cultural, financial, and media capital of the world, and exerts a significant impact upon commerce, entertainment, research, technology, education, politics, tourism, art, fashion, and sports. The city\'s fast pace has inspired the term "New York minute". Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy.\n',
'31': 'Being overweight or fat is having more body fat than is optimally healthy. Being overweight is especially common where food supplies are plentiful and lifestyles are sedentary.\n',
'32': 'Homeschooling, also known as home education is the education of children at home or a variety of places other than school. Home education is usually conducted by a parent or tutor or online teacher. Many families use less formal ways of educating. "Homeschooling" is the term commonly used in North America, whereas "home education" is commonly used in the United Kingdom, Europe, and in many Commonwealth countries.\n',
'33': '"Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D." is an American television series created for ABC by Joss Whedon, Jed Whedon, and Maurissa Tancharoen, based on the Marvel Comics organization S.H.I.E.L.D. (Strategic Homeland Intervention, Enforcement and Logistics Division), a fictional peacekeeping and spy agency in a world of superheroes. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), sharing continuity with the feature and short films of the franchise.\n',
'34': 'The Little Mermaid is a 1989 American animated musical romantic fantasy film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and Walt Disney Pictures. The 28th Disney animated feature film and first film in "The Little Mermaid" franchise, the film is loosely based on the Danish fairy tale of the same name by Hans Christian Andersen. The film tells the story of a mermaid princess named Ariel who dreams of becoming human, after falling in love with a human prince named Eric. Written and directed by Ron Clements and John Musker, with music by Alan Menken and Howard Ashman (who also served as co-producer alongside John Musker), and art direction by Michael Peraza Jr. and Donald A. Towns, the film features the voices of Jodi Benson, Christopher Daniel Barnes, Pat Carroll, Samuel E. Wright, Jason Marin, Kenneth Mars, Buddy Hackett, and René Auberjonois.\n',
'35': 'Collies form a distinctive type of herding dogs, including many related landraces and standardised breeds. The type originated in Scotland and Northern England. Collies are medium-sized, fairly lightly built dogs, with pointed snouts. Many types have a distinctive white color over the shoulders. Collies are very active and agile, and most types of collies have a very strong herding instinct. Collie breeds have spread through many parts of the world (especially Australia and North America), and have diversified into many varieties, sometimes mixed with other dog types. Some collie breeds have remained as working dogs for herding cattle, sheep, and other livestock, while others are kept as pets, show dogs or for dog sports, in which they display great agility, stamina and trainability. While the American Kennel Club has a breed they call "collie", in fact "collie dogs" are a distinctive type of herding dog inclusive of many related landraces and formal breeds. There are usually major distinctions between show dogs and those bred for herding trials or dog sports, the latter typically display great agility, stamina and trainability, and, more importantly, sagacity.\n',
'36': "The Beatles were an English rock band formed in Liverpool in 1960. The line-up of John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr led them to be regarded as the most influential band of all time. With a sound rooted in skiffle, beat and 1950s rock and roll, the group were integral to the evolution of pop music into an art form, and to the development of the counterculture of the 1960s. They often incorporated elements of classical music, older pop, and unconventional recording techniques in innovative ways, and they experimented with a number of musical styles in later years, ranging from pop ballads and Indian music to psychedelia and hard rock. As they continued to draw influences from a variety of cultural sources, their musical and lyrical sophistication grew, and they came to be seen as embodying the era's socio-cultural movements.\n",
'37': 'The word "anime" is the Japanese term for "animation", which means all forms of animated media. Outside Japan, "anime" refers specifically to animation from Japan or as a Japanese-disseminated animation style often characterized by colorful graphics, vibrant characters and fantastical themes. The culturally abstract approach to the word\'s meaning may open up the possibility of anime produced in countries other than Japan. For simplicity, many Westerners strictly view anime as a Japanese animation product. Some scholars suggest defining anime as specifically or quintessentially Japanese may be related to a new form of Orientalism.\n',
'38': 'Eric Arthur Blair (25 June 1903 – 21 January 1950), better known by his pen name George Orwell, was an English novelist and essayist, journalist and critic, whose work is characterised by lucid prose, awareness of social injustice, opposition to totalitarianism, and outspoken support of democratic socialism.\n',
'39': 'A milkshake is a sweet, cold beverage that is usually made from milk, ice cream, and/or ice milk, and sometimes flavorings or sweeteners such as butterscotch, caramel sauce, chocolate syrup, or fruit syrup.\n',
'40': 'Moussaka (, or ) is an eggplant- (aubergine) or potato-based dish, often including ground meat, in the Levant, Middle East, and Balkans, with many local and regional variations.\n',
'41': "Ice hockey is a contact team sport played on ice, usually in a rink, in which two teams of skaters use their sticks to shoot a vulcanized rubber puck into their opponent's net to score points. The sport is known to be fast-paced and physical, with teams usually consisting of six players each: one goaltender, and five players who skate up and down the ice trying to take the puck and score a goal against the opposing team.\n",
'42': 'Morning sickness, also called nausea and vomiting of pregnancy (NVP), is a symptom of pregnancy that involves nausea or vomiting. Despite the name, nausea or vomiting can occur at any time during the day. Typically these symptoms occur between the 4th and 16th week of pregnancy. About 10% of women still have symptoms after the 20th week of pregnancy. A severe form of the condition is known as hyperemesis gravidarum and results in weight loss.\n',
'43': 'The domestic dog ("Canis lupus familiaris" when considered a subspecies of the wolf or "Canis familiaris" when considered a distinct species) is a member of the genus "Canis" (canines), which forms part of the wolf-like canids, and is the most widely abundant terrestrial carnivore. The dog and the extant gray wolf are sister taxa as modern wolves are not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated, which implies that the direct ancestor of the dog is extinct. The dog was the first species to be domesticated and has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes.\n',
'44': 'Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat (red meat, poultry, seafood, and the flesh of any other animal), and may also include abstention from by-products of animals processed for food.\n',
'45': "The Egyptian pyramids are ancient pyramid-shaped masonry structures located in Egypt. As of November 2008, sources cite either 118 or 138 as the number of identified Egyptian pyramids. Most were built as tombs for the country's pharaohs and their consorts during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods.\n",
'46': "Honda has been the world's largest motorcycle manufacturer since 1959, as well as the world's largest manufacturer of internal combustion engines measured by volume, producing more than 14 million internal combustion engines each year. Honda became the second-largest Japanese automobile manufacturer in 2001. Honda was the eighth largest automobile manufacturer in the world in 2015.\n",
'47': 'Ford Motor Company is an American multinational automaker that has its main headquarters in Dearborn, Michigan, a suburb of Detroit. It was founded by Henry Ford and incorporated on June 16, 1903. The company sells automobiles and commercial vehicles under the Ford brand and most luxury cars under the Lincoln brand. Ford also owns Brazilian SUV manufacturer Troller, an 8% stake in Aston Martin of the United Kingdom and a 32% stake in Jiangling Motors. It also has joint-ventures in China (Changan Ford), Taiwan (Ford Lio Ho), Thailand (AutoAlliance Thailand), Turkey (Ford Otosan), and Russia (Ford Sollers). The company is listed on the New York Stock Exchange and is controlled by the Ford family; they have minority ownership but the majority of the voting power.\n',
'48': 'The English Mastiff is a breed of extremely large dog. National kennel clubs, including the KC and the AKC, refer to the breed as simply the Mastiff. They perhaps descended from the ancient Alaunt and Pugnaces Britanniae, with a significant input from the Alpine Mastiff in the 19th century. Distinguished by its enormous size, massive head, short coat in a limited range of colours, and always displaying a black mask, the Mastiff is noted for its gentle and loving nature. The lineage of modern dogs can be traced back to the early 19th century, but the modern type was stabilised in the 1880s and refined since. Following a period of sharp decline, the Mastiff has increased its worldwide popularity. Throughout its history the Mastiff has contributed to the development of a number of dog breeds, some generally known as mastiff-type dogs, or, confusingly, just as "Mastiffs".\n',
'49': 'Duck is the common name for a large number of species in the waterfowl family Anatidae which also includes swans and geese. Ducks are divided among several subfamilies in the family Anatidae; they do not represent a monophyletic group (the group of all descendants of a single common ancestral species) but a form taxon, since swans and geese are not considered ducks. Ducks are mostly aquatic birds, mostly smaller than the swans and geese, and may be found in both fresh water and sea water.\n',
'50': 'The name "Marathon" comes from the legend of Philippides (or Pheidippides), the Greek messenger. The legend states that he was sent from the battlefield of Marathon to Athens to announce that the Persians had been defeated in the Battle of Marathon (in which he had just fought), which took place in August or September, 490 BC. It is said that he ran the entire distance without stopping and burst into the assembly, exclaiming ("nenikēkamen", "we have won!"), before collapsing and dying. The account of the run from Marathon to Athens first appears in Plutarch\'s "On the Glory of Athens" in the 1st century AD, which quotes from Heraclides Ponticus\'s lost work, giving the runner\'s name as either Thersipus of Erchius or Eucles. Satirist Lucian of Samosata (2nd century AD) first gives an account closest to the modern version of the story, but is writing tongue in cheek and also names the runner Philippides (not Pheidippides).\n',
'51': 'Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat (red meat, poultry, seafood, and the flesh of any other animal), and may also include abstention from by-products of animals processed for food.\n',
'52': "Walmart Inc. (; formerly Wal-Mart Stores, Inc.) is an American multinational retail corporation that operates a chain of hypermarkets, discount department stores, and grocery stores, headquartered in Bentonville, Arkansas. The company was founded by Sam Walton in 1962 and incorporated on October 31, 1969. It also owns and operates Sam's Club retail warehouses. Walmart has 11,368 stores and clubs in 27countries, operating under 55 differentnames. The company operates under the name Walmart in the United States and Canada, as Walmart de México y Centroamérica in Mexico and Central America, as Asda in the United Kingdom, as the Seiyu Group in Japan, and as Best Price in India. It has wholly owned operations in Argentina, Chile, Canada, and South Africa. Since August 2018, Walmart only holds a minority stake in Walmart Brasil, with 20-percent of the company's shares, and private equity firm Advent International holding 80-percent ownership of the company.\n",
'53': 'A steak () is a meat generally sliced across the muscle fibers, potentially including a bone. Exceptions, in which the meat is sliced parallel to the fibers, include the skirt steak cut from the plate, the flank steak cut from the abdominal muscles, and the silverfinger steak cut from the loin and includes three rib bones. In a larger sense, fish steaks, ground meat steaks, pork steak, and many more varieties of steak are known.\n',
'54': 'Gardening is the practice of growing and cultivating plants as part of horticulture. In gardens, ornamental plants are often grown for their flowers, foliage, or overall appearance; useful plants, such as root vegetables, leaf vegetables, fruits, and herbs, are grown for consumption, for use as dyes, or for medicinal or cosmetic use. Gardening is considered by many people to be a relaxing activity.\n',
'55': 'Parenting or child rearing is the process of promoting and supporting the physical, emotional, social, and intellectual development of a child from infancy to adulthood. Parenting refers to the intricacies of raising a child and not exclusively for a biological relationship.\n',
'56': 'The name "Marathon" comes from the legend of Philippides (or Pheidippides), the Greek messenger. The legend states that he was sent from the battlefield of Marathon to Athens to announce that the Persians had been defeated in the Battle of Marathon (in which he had just fought), which took place in August or September, 490 BC. It is said that he ran the entire distance without stopping and burst into the assembly, exclaiming ("nenikēkamen", "we have won!"), before collapsing and dying. The account of the run from Marathon to Athens first appears in Plutarch\'s "On the Glory of Athens" in the 1st century AD, which quotes from Heraclides Ponticus\'s lost work, giving the runner\'s name as either Thersipus of Erchius or Eucles. Satirist Lucian of Samosata (2nd century AD) first gives an account closest to the modern version of the story, but is writing tongue in cheek and also names the runner Philippides (not Pheidippides).\n',
'57': 'Pecans are native to the southern United States. Archaeological evidence found in Texas indicates that Native Americans used pecans more than 8,000 years ago. The word "pecan" is a derivative of an Algonquin word, "pakani", referring to several nuts.\n',
'58': 'A no-kill or limited admit shelter is a shelter that saves healthy, treatable and rehabilitatable animals. As a benchmark, at least 90% of the animals entering the shelter are expected to be saved. The save rate must be based on all animals entering the shelter: "It does not matter if the animals are old, blind, deaf, missing limbs, or traumatized. All of these animals are worthy of our compassion, all of them can find homes, and all of them deserve to."\n',
'59': 'Taylor Alison Swift (born December 13, 1989) is an American singer-songwriter. She is known for narrative songs about her personal life, which have received widespread media coverage. Born and raised in Pennsylvania, Swift moved to Nashville, Tennessee, at the age of 14 to pursue a career in country music. She signed with label Big Machine Records and became the youngest artist ever signed by the Sony/ATV Music publishing house. Her 2006 self-titled debut album was the longest-charting album of the 2000s in the US, where it peaked at number five. The album\'s third single, "Our Song", made her the youngest person to single-handedly write and perform a number-one song on the Hot Country Songs chart. Swift\'s second album, "Fearless", was released in 2008. Buoyed by the success of pop crossover singles "Love Story" and "You Belong with Me", "Fearless" became the best-selling album of 2009 in the US. The album won four Grammy Awards, with Swift becoming the youngest Album of the Year winner.\n',
'60': "The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place mostly during the 1930s, beginning in the United States. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations; in most countries it started in 1929 and lasted until the late 1930s. It was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how intensely the world's economy can decline.\n",
'61': 'Magnesium is a chemical element with the symbol\xa0Mg and atomic number\xa012. It is a shiny gray solid which bears a close physical resemblance to the other five elements in the second column (group 2, or alkaline earth metals) of the periodic table: all group 2 elements have the same electron configuration in the outer electron shell and a similar crystal structure.\n',
'62': 'Cue sports (sometimes written cuesports), also known as billiard sports, \n',
'63': "The Kansas Jayhawks men's basketball program is the intercollegiate men's basketball program of the University of Kansas. The program is classified in the NCAA's Division I and the team competes in the Big 12 Conference. Kansas is considered one of the most prestigious college basketball programs in the country with 5 overall claimed National Championships (3 NCAA Tournament championships, 2 Helms National Championships), as well being a National Runner-Up six times and having the most conference titles in the nation. Kansas is the all-time consecutive conference titles record holder with 14 consecutive titles, a streak that ran from 2005 through 2018. The Jayhawks also own the NCAA record for most consecutive NCAA Tournament appearances with an active streak of 30 consecutive appearances. Another notable active streak for the Jayhawks is they have been ranked in the AP poll for 200 consecutive polls, a streak that has stretched from the poll released on February 3, 2009 poll through the poll released on March 11, 2019, which is the longest active streak in the nation. That streak is 21 behind UCLA's record run of 222 straight from 1966-1980.\n",
'64': 'Childhood sweetheart is a reciprocating phrase for a relationship (but not a partnership) between young persons. This may come about by an extension of friendship, physical attraction or develop from natural affinity.\n',
'65': "Manchester () is a city and metropolitan borough in Greater Manchester, England, with a population of 545,500 as of 2017 (5th most populous English district). It lies within the United Kingdom's second-most populous urban area, with a population of 2.7 million, and third-most populous metropolitan area, with a population of 3.287 million. It is fringed by the Cheshire Plain to the south, the Pennines to the north and east, and an arc of towns with which it forms a continuous conurbation. The local authority for the city is Manchester City Council.\n",
'66': 'The domestic dog ("Canis lupus familiaris" when considered a subspecies of the wolf or "Canis familiaris" when considered a distinct species) is a member of the genus "Canis" (canines), which forms part of the wolf-like canids, and is the most widely abundant terrestrial carnivore. The dog and the extant gray wolf are sister taxa as modern wolves are not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated, which implies that the direct ancestor of the dog is extinct. The dog was the first species to be domesticated and has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes.\n',
'67': 'In broadcast television, cord-cutting refers to the pattern of viewers, referred to as cord-cutters, cancelling their subscriptions to multichannel subscription television services available over cable or satellite, dropping pay television channels or reducing the number of hours of subscription TV viewed in response to competition from rival media available over the Internet such as Amazon Prime, Crunchyroll, Hulu, Netflix, Philo, Sling TV and YouTube Premium. This Internet content is either free or significantly cheaper than the same content provided via cable.\n',
'68': "Christmas is an annual festival commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ, observed on December 25 as a religious and cultural celebration among billions of people around the world. A feast central to the Christian liturgical year, it is preceded by the season of Advent or the Nativity Fast and initiates the season of Christmastide, which historically in the West lasts twelve days and culminates on Twelfth Night; in some traditions, Christmastide includes an octave. Christmas Day is a public holiday in many of the world's nations, is celebrated religiously by a majority of Christians, as well as culturally by many non-Christians, and forms an integral part of the holiday season centered around it.\n",
'69': "The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is a British public service broadcaster. Its headquarters are at Broadcasting House in Westminster, London, and it is the world's oldest national broadcasting organisation and the largest broadcaster in the world by number of employees. It employs over 20,950 staff in total, 16,672 of whom are in public sector broadcasting. The total number of staff is 35,402 when part-time, flexible, and fixed-contract staff are included.\n",
'70': 'Georgia is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. Georgia is the 24th largest and 8th-most populous of the 50 United States. Georgia is bordered to the north by Tennessee and North Carolina, to the northeast by South Carolina, to the southeast by the Atlantic Ocean, to the south by Florida, and to the west by Alabama. The state\'s nicknames include the "Peach State" and the "Empire State of the South." Atlanta, a "beta(+)" global city, is both the state\'s capital and largest city. The Atlanta metropolitan area, with an estimated population of 5,949,951 in 2018, is the 9th most populous metropolitan area in the United States and contains about 60% of the entire state population.\n',
'71': 'Indian cuisine consists of a wide variety of regional and traditional cuisines native to the Indian subcontinent. Given the range of diversity in soil type, climate, culture, ethnic groups, and occupations, these cuisines vary substantially from each other and use locally available spices, herbs, vegetables, and fruits. Indian food is also heavily influenced by religion, in particular Hindu, cultural choices and traditions. The cuisine is also influenced by centuries of Islamic rule, particularly the Mughal rule. Samosas and pilafs can be regarded as examples.\n',
'72': 'Football is a family of team sports that involve, to varying degrees, kicking a ball to score a goal. Unqualified, the word "football" normally means the form of football that is the most popular where the word is used. Sports commonly called "football" include association football (known as "soccer" in some countries); gridiron football (specifically American football or Canadian football); Australian rules football; rugby football (either rugby league or rugby union); and Gaelic football. These various forms of football are known as football codes.\n',
'73': 'Red wine is a type of wine made from dark-colored (black) grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from intense violet, typical of young wines, through to brick red for mature wines and brown for older red wines. The juice from most purple grapes is greenish-white, the red color coming from anthocyan pigments (also called anthocyanins) present in the skin of the grape; exceptions are the relatively uncommon teinturier varieties, which produce a red-colored juice. Much of the red-wine production process therefore involves extraction of color and flavor components from the grape skin.\n',
'74': 'Cake decorating is one of the sugar arts that uses icing or frosting and other edible decorative elements to make plain cakes more visually interesting. Alternatively, cakes can be molded and sculpted to resemble three-dimensional persons, places and things.\n',
'75': '98 Degrees (stylized as 98°) is an American pop and contemporary R&B vocal group consisting of four vocalists: brothers Nick and Drew Lachey, their friends Justin Jeffre, and Jeff Timmons. The group was formed by Timmons in Los Angeles, California, although all of its members originate from Ohio.\n',
'76': 'The tomato is the edible, often red, berry of the plant "Solanum lycopersicum", commonly known as a tomato plant. The species originated in western South America and Central America. The Nahuatl (Aztec language) word "tomatl" gave rise to the Spanish word "tomate", from which the English word "tomato" derived. Its domestication and use as a cultivated food may have originated with the indigenous peoples of Mexico. The Aztecs used tomatoes in their cooking at the time of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, and after the Spanish encountered the tomato for the first time after their contact with the Aztecs, they brought the plant to Europe. From there, the tomato was introduced to other parts of the European-colonized world during the 16th century.\n',
'77': 'Jeopardy! is an American television game show created by Merv Griffin. The show features a quiz competition in which contestants are presented with general knowledge clues in the form of answers, and must phrase their responses in the form of questions. The original daytime version debuted on NBC on March 30, 1964, and aired until January 3, 1975. A weekly nighttime syndicated edition aired from September 1974 to September 1975, and a revival, "The All-New Jeopardy!", ran on NBC from October 1978 to March 1979. The current version, a daily syndicated show produced by Sony Pictures Television, premiered on September 10, 1984.\n',
'78': 'A factory, manufacturing plant or a production plant is an industrial site, usually consisting of buildings and machinery, or more commonly a complex having several buildings, where workers manufacture goods or operate machines processing one product into another.\n',
'79': "The Golden Retriever is a large-sized gun dog that retrieve shot waterfowl, such as ducks and upland game birds, during hunting and shooting parties. They were named 'retriever' because of their ability to retrieve shot game undamaged due to their soft mouth. Golden retrievers have an instinctive love of water, and are easy to train to basic or advanced obedience standards. They are a long-coated breed, with a dense inner coat that provides them with adequate warmth in the outdoors, and an outer coat that lies flat against their bodies and repels water. Golden retrievers are well suited to residency in suburban or country environments. They shed copiously, particularly at the change of seasons, and require fairly regular grooming. The Golden Retriever was originally bred in Scotland in the mid-19th century.\n",
'80': "Baked goods have been around for thousands of years. The art of baking was developed early during the Roman Empire. It was a highly famous art as Roman citizens loved baked goods and demanded for them frequently for important occasions such as feasts and weddings etc. Due to the fame and desire that the art of baking received, around 300 BC, baking was introduced as an occupation and respectable profession for Romans. The bakers began to prepare bread at home in an oven, using mills to grind grain into the flour for their breads. The oncoming demand for baked goods vigorously continued and the first bakers' guild was established in 168 BC in Rome. This drastic appeal for baked goods promoted baking all throughout Europe and expanded into the eastern parts of Asia. Bakers started baking breads and goods at home and selling them out on the streets.\n",
'81': 'Wilderness or wildland is a natural environment on Earth that has not been significantly modified by human activity. It may also be defined as: "The most intact, undisturbed wild natural areas left on our planet—those last truly wild places that humans do not control and have not developed with roads, pipelines or other industrial infrastructure." The term has traditionally referred to terrestrial environments, though growing attention is being placed on marine wilderness. Recent maps of wilderness suggest it covers roughly one quarter of Earth\'s terrestrial surface, but is being rapidly degraded by human activity. Even less wilderness remains in the ocean, with only 13.2% free from intense human activity. \n',
'82': 'Yellow is the color between orange and green on the spectrum of visible light. It is evoked by light with a dominant wavelength of roughly 570590 nm. It is a primary color in subtractive color systems, used in painting or color printing. In the RGB color model, used to create colors on television and computer screens, yellow is a secondary color made by combining red and green at equal intensity. Carotenoids give the characteristic yellow color to autumn leaves, corn, canaries, daffodils, and lemons, as well as egg yolks, buttercups, and bananas. They absorb light energy and protect plants from photodamage. Sunlight has a slight yellowish hue when sun is near a horizon, due to atmosphere scattering shorter wavelengths (green, blue, and violet).\n',
'83': 'The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson is an American talk show hosted by Johnny Carson under the "Tonight Show" franchise from October 1, 1962 through May 22, 1992.\n',
'84': 'The culture of the United States of America is primarily of Western culture (European) origin and form, but is influenced by a multicultural ethos that includes African, Native American, Asian, Polynesian, and Latin American people and their cultures. It also has its own social and cultural characteristics, such as dialect, music, arts, social habits, cuisine, and folklore. The United States of America is an ethnically and racially diverse country as a result of large-scale migration from many countries throughout its history. Many American cultural elements, especially from popular culture, have spread across the globe through modern mass media.\n',
'85': "Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic (), also known as Hellas (Greek: Ελλάς), is a country located in Southern and Southeast Europe, with a population of approximately /1e6 round 0 million as of . Athens is the nation's capital and largest city, followed by Thessaloniki.\n",
'86': 'Polyamory (from Greek \', "many, several", and Latin \', "love") is the practice of, or desire for, intimate relationships with more than one partner, with the consent of all partners involved. It has been described as "consensual, ethical, and responsible non-monogamy". People who identify as polyamorous believe in an open relationship with a conscious management of jealousy; they reject the view that sexual and relational exclusivity are necessary for deep, committed, long-term loving relationships.\n',
'87': "Baked goods have been around for thousands of years. The art of baking was developed early during the Roman Empire. It was a highly famous art as Roman citizens loved baked goods and demanded for them frequently for important occasions such as feasts and weddings etc. Due to the fame and desire that the art of baking received, around 300 BC, baking was introduced as an occupation and respectable profession for Romans. The bakers began to prepare bread at home in an oven, using mills to grind grain into the flour for their breads. The oncoming demand for baked goods vigorously continued and the first bakers' guild was established in 168 BC in Rome. This drastic appeal for baked goods promoted baking all throughout Europe and expanded into the eastern parts of Asia. Bakers started baking breads and goods at home and selling them out on the streets.\n",
'88': 'Radiology is the medical specialty that uses medical imaging to diagnose and treat diseases within the human body.\n',
'89': 'Wonder Woman is a 2017 American superhero film based on the DC Comics character of the same name, produced by DC Entertainment in association with RatPac Entertainment and Chinese company Tencent Pictures, and distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures. It is the fourth installment in the DC Extended Universe (DCEU). Directed by Patty Jenkins from a screenplay by Allan Heinberg and a story by Heinberg, Zack Snyder, and Jason Fuchs, "Wonder Woman" stars Gal Gadot in the title role, alongside Chris Pine, Robin Wright, Danny Huston, David Thewlis, Connie Nielsen, and Elena Anaya. It is the second live action theatrical film featuring Wonder Woman following her debut in 2016\'s "". In "Wonder Woman", the Amazon princess Diana sets out to stop World War I, believing the conflict was started by the longtime enemy of the Amazons, Ares, after American pilot and spy Steve Trevor crash-lands on their island Themyscira and informs her about it.\n',
'90': 'Pierogi ( ) are filled dumplings of Central and Eastern European origin, made by wrapping unleavened dough around a savory or sweet filling and cooking in boiling water, or pan-frying. Pierogi which consist of noodle dough and have to be cooked in boiling water are associated with the Central and Eastern European kitchens where they are considered national dishes, especially in Poland. Pierogi are popular in West Slavic (Polish, Slovak), Hungarian, East Slavic (Belarusian, Ukrainian and Russian), some Baltic (Latvian and Lithuanian) and other Central and Eastern European cuisines, where they are known under their local names.\n',
'91': "Retirement is the withdrawal from one's position or occupation or from one's active working life. A person may also semi-retire by reducing work hours.\n",
'92': 'International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) is an American multinational information technology company headquartered in Armonk, New York, with operations in over 170 countries. The company began in 1911, founded in Endicott, New York, as the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (CTR) and was renamed "International Business Machines" in 1924.\n',
'93': 'A kayak is a small, narrow watercraft which is typically propelled by means of a double-bladed paddle. The word kayak originates from the Greenlandic word "qajaq" ().\n',
'94': "Retirement is the withdrawal from one's position or occupation or from one's active working life. A person may also semi-retire by reducing work hours.\n",
'95': 'When Algeria gained its independence from France in 1962, there were only around 300 doctors across the whole country and no proper system of healthcare. Over the next few decades, great progress was made in building up the health sector, with the training of doctors and the creation of many health facilities. Today, Algeria has an established network of hospitals (including university hospitals), clinics, medical centres and small health units or dispensaries. While equipment and medicines may not always be the latest available, staffing levels are high and the country has one of the best healthcare systems in Africa. Access to health care is enhanced by the requirement that doctors and dentists work in public health for at least five years. The government provides universal health care.\n',
'96': 'Volunteering is generally considered an altruistic activity where an individual or group provides services for no financial or social gain "to benefit another person, group or organization". Volunteering is also renowned for skill development and is often intended to promote goodness or to improve human quality of life. Volunteering may have positive benefits for the volunteer as well as for the person or community served. It is also intended to make contacts for possible employment. Many volunteers are specifically trained in the areas they work, such as medicine, education, or emergency rescue. Others serve on an as-needed basis, such as in response to a natural disaster.\n',
'97': 'Italian cuisine is food typical of Italy. It has developed through centuries of social and economic changes, with roots stretching to antiquity.\n',
'98': "A pet or companion animal is an animal kept primarily for a person's company, entertainment, or as an act of compassion such as taking in and protecting a hungry stray cat, rather than as a working animal, livestock, or laboratory animal. Popular pets are often noted for their attractive appearances, intelligence, and relatable personalities, or may just be accepted as they are because they need a home.\n",
'99': 'In Australia, drivers of trucks and truck and trailer combinations with gross vehicle mass greater than 12 tonnes must rest for 15 minutes every 5.5 hours, 30 minutes every 8 hours and 60 minutes every 11 hours (includes driving and non-driving duties). In any 7 day period, a driver must spend 24 hours away from his/her vehicle. Truck drivers must complete a logbook documenting hours and kilometres spent driving.\n',
'100': 'The Chevrolet Corvette (C3) was a sports car that was produced from 1967 to 1982 by Chevrolet for the 1968 through 1982 model years. Engines and chassis components were mostly carried over from the previous generation, but the body and interior were new. It set new sales records with 53,807 produced for the 1979 model year. The C3 is the third generation of the Chevrolet Corvette, and marks the second time the Corvette would carry the Stingray name, though only for the 1969 - 1976 model years. This time it was a single word as opposed to Sting Ray as used for the 1963 - 1967 C2 generation. The name would then be retired until 2014 when it was re-introduced with the release of the C7.\n',
'101': 'The United States, Canada and United Kingdom militaries often serves weekend brunch in the dining facilities. They offer both breakfast and lunch options and are open from about 09:00-13:00 (though times vary).\n',
'102': 'Cheesecake is a sweet dessert consisting of one or more layers. The main, and thickest layer, consists of a mixture of soft, fresh cheese (typically cream cheese or ricotta), eggs, and sugar. If there is a bottom layer, it often consists of a crust or base made from crushed cookies (or digestive biscuits), graham crackers, pastry, or sometimes sponge cake. It may be baked or unbaked (usually refrigerated). \n',
'103': 'Casual whittling is typically performed with a light, small-bladed knife, usually a pocket knife. Specialized whittling knives, with fixed single blades, are preferred for sculpting artistic work. They have thick handles which are easier to grip for long periods and have better leverage, allowing more precise control and pressure.\n',
'104': 'Unemployment, or joblessness, is a situation in which able-bodied people who are looking for a job cannot find a job.\n',
'105': 'A factory, manufacturing plant or a production plant is an industrial site, usually consisting of buildings and machinery, or more commonly a complex having several buildings, where workers manufacture goods or operate machines processing one product into another.\n',
'106': "Honda has been the world's largest motorcycle manufacturer since 1959, as well as the world's largest manufacturer of internal combustion engines measured by volume, producing more than 14 million internal combustion engines each year. Honda became the second-largest Japanese automobile manufacturer in 2001. Honda was the eighth largest automobile manufacturer in the world in 2015.\n",
'107': 'A phonograph record (also known as a gramophone record, especially in British English, or simply record) is an analog sound storage medium in the form of a flat disc with an inscribed, modulated spiral groove. The groove usually starts near the periphery and ends near the center of the disc. At first, the discs were commonly made from shellac; starting in the 1940s polyvinyl chloride became common. In recent decades, records have sometimes been called vinyl records, or simply vinyl or even vinyls.\n',
'108': 'A library is a curated collection of sources of information and similar resources, selected by experts and made accessible to a defined community for reference or borrowing. It provides physical or digital access to material, and may be a physical location or a virtual space, or both. A library\'s collection can include books, periodicals, newspapers, manuscripts, films, maps, prints, documents, microform, CDs, cassettes, videotapes, DVDs, Blu-ray Discs, e-books, audiobooks, databases, and other formats. Libraries range widely in size up to millions of items. In Latin and Greek, the idea of a bookcase is represented by "Bibliotheca" and "Bibliothēkē" (Greek: βιβλιοθήκη): derivatives of these mean "library" in many modern languages, e.g. French "bibliothèque".\n',
'109': "A pet or companion animal is an animal kept primarily for a person's company, entertainment, or as an act of compassion such as taking in and protecting a hungry stray cat, rather than as a working animal, livestock, or laboratory animal. Popular pets are often noted for their attractive appearances, intelligence, and relatable personalities, or may just be accepted as they are because they need a home.\n",
'110': 'Obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) is a mental disorder in which a person feels the need to perform certain routines repeatedly (called "compulsions"), or has certain thoughts repeatedly (called "obsessions"). The person is unable to control either the thoughts or activities for more than a short period of time. Common compulsions include hand washing, counting of things, and checking to see if a door is locked. Some may have difficulty throwing things out. These activities occur to such a degree that the person\'s daily life is negatively affected. This often takes up more than an hour a day. Most adults realize that the behaviors do not make sense. The condition is associated with tics, anxiety disorder, and an increased risk of suicide.\n',
'111': 'Divorce, also known as dissolution of marriage, is the process of terminating a marriage or marital union. Divorce usually entails the canceling or reorganizing of the legal duties and responsibilities of marriage, thus dissolving the bonds of matrimony between a married couple under the rule of law of the particular country or state. Divorce laws vary considerably around the world, but in most countries divorce requires the sanction of a court or other authority in a legal process, which may involve issues of distribution of property, child custody, alimony (spousal support), child visitation / access, parenting time, child support, and division of debt. In most countries, monogamy is required by law, so divorce allows each former partner to marry another person.\n',
'112': 'DC Comics, Inc. is an American comic book publisher. It is the publishing unit of DC Entertainment, a subsidiary of Warner Bros. since 1967. DC Comics is one of the largest and oldest American comic book companies, and produces material featuring numerous culturally iconic heroic characters including: Batman, Superman, Wonder Woman, The Flash, Green Lantern, Aquaman, Shazam, Martian Manhunter, Nightwing, Green Arrow, Hawkman, Cyborg and Supergirl. \n',
'113': "Coca-Cola, or Coke, is a carbonated soft drink manufactured by The Coca-Cola Company. Originally intended as a patent medicine, it was invented in the late 19th century by John Stith Pemberton and was bought out by businessman Asa Griggs Candler, whose marketing tactics led Coca-Cola to its dominance of the world soft-drink market throughout the 20th century. The drink's name refers to two of its original ingredients: coca leaves, and kola nuts (a source of caffeine). The current formula of Coca-Cola remains a trade secret, although a variety of reported recipes and experimental recreations have been published.\n",
'114': 'Blue is one of the three primary colours of pigments in painting and traditional colour theory, as well as in the RGB colour model. It lies between violet and green on the spectrum of visible light. The eye perceives blue when observing light with a dominant wavelength between approximately 450 and 495 nanometres. Most blues contain a slight mixture of other colours; azure contains some green, while ultramarine contains some violet. The clear daytime sky and the deep sea appear blue because of an optical effect known as Rayleigh scattering. An optical effect called Tyndall scattering explains blue eyes. Distant objects appear more blue because of another optical effect called aerial perspective.\n',
'115': 'Hiking is the preferred term, in Canada and the United States, for a long, vigorous walk, usually on trails (footpaths), in the countryside, while the word walking is used for shorter, particularly urban walks. On the other hand, in the United Kingdom, and the Republic of Ireland, the word "walking" is acceptable to describe "all forms" of walking, whether it is a walk in the park or backpacking in the Alps. The word hiking is also often used in the UK, along with rambling (a slightly old-fashioned term), hillwalking, and fell walking (a term mostly used for hillwalking in northern England). The term bushwalking is endemic to Australia, having been adopted by the Sydney Bush Walkers club in 1927. In New Zealand a long, vigorous walk or hike is called tramping. It is a popular activity with numerous worldwide, and studies suggest that all forms of walking have health benefits.\n',
'116': 'A fertilizer (American English) or fertiliser (British English; see spelling differences) is any material of natural or synthetic origin (other than liming materials) that is applied to soils or to plant tissues to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants. Many sources of fertilizer exist, both natural and industrially produced.\n',
'117': 'Peter Gene Hernandez (born October 8, 1985), known professionally as Bruno Mars, is an American singer, songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, record producer, and dancer. He is known for his stage performances, retro showmanship, and for performing in a wide range of musical styles, including R&B, funk, pop, soul, reggae, hip hop, and rock. Mars is accompanied by his band, The Hooligans, who play a variety of instruments, such as electric guitar, bass, piano, keyboards, drums, and horns, and also serve as backup singers and dancers.\n',
'118': 'A cheesesteak (also known as a Philadelphia cheesesteak, Philly cheesesteak, cheesesteak sandwich, cheese steak, or steak and cheese) is a sandwich made from thinly sliced pieces of beefsteak and melted cheese in a long hoagie roll. A popular regional fast food, it has its roots in the U.S. city of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.\n',
'119': 'The Chevrolet Volt is a plug-in hybrid car manufactured by General Motors, also marketed in rebadged variants as the Holden Volt in Australia and New Zealand, Buick Velite 5 in China, and with a different fascia as the Vauxhall Ampera in the United Kingdom and as the Opel Ampera in the remainder of Europe. Volt production ended in February 2019. \n',
'120': 'A hamburger (short: burger) is a sandwich consisting of one or more cooked patties of ground meat, usually beef, placed inside a sliced bread roll or bun. The patty may be pan fried, grilled, or flame broiled. Hamburgers are often served with cheese, lettuce, tomato, onion, pickles, bacon, or chiles; condiments such as ketchup, mayonnaise, mustard, relish, or "special sauce"; and are frequently placed on sesame seed buns. A hamburger topped with cheese is called a cheeseburger.\n',
'121': 'A tea cosy or tea warmer is a cover for a teapot, traditionally made of cloth. It insulates a teapot, keeping the contents warm. Their use predates the invention of vacuum flasks as a means of keeping hot liquids hot. Tea cosies may have padded inserts that can be removed and washed.\n',
'122': "The Southern Baptist Convention (SBC) is a Christian denomination based in the United States. It is the world's largest Baptist denomination, the largest Protestant denomination in the United States, and the second-largest Christian denomination in the United States, smaller only than the Catholic Church according to self reported membership statistics (see Christianity in the United States).\n",
'123': 'Pink is a pale red color that is named after a flower of the same name. It was first used as a color name in the late 17th century. According to surveys in Europe and the United States, pink is the color most often associated with charm, politeness, sensitivity, tenderness, sweetness, childhood, femininity and the romantic. A combination of pink and white is associated with chastity and innocence, whereas a combination of pink and black links to eroticism and seduction. \n',
'124': 'Iceland (; ) is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic, with a population of 360,390 and an area of , making it the most sparsely populated country in Europe. The capital and largest city is Reykjavík, with Reykjavík and the surrounding areas in the southwest of the country being home to over two-thirds of the population. Iceland is volcanically and geologically active. The interior consists of a plateau characterised by sand and lava fields, mountains, and glaciers, and many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands. Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a temperate climate, despite a high latitude just outside the Arctic Circle. Its high latitude and marine influence keep summers chilly, with most of the archipelago having a tundra climate.\n',
'125': 'A carnivore , meaning "meat eater" (Latin, "caro", genitive "carnis", meaning "meat" or "flesh" and "vorare" meaning "to devour"), is an organism that derives its energy and nutrient requirements from a diet consisting mainly or exclusively of animal tissue, whether through predation or scavenging. Animals that depend solely on animal flesh for their nutrient requirements are called obligate carnivores while those that also consume non-animal food are called facultative carnivores. Omnivores also consume both animal and non-animal food, and, apart from the more general definition, there is no clearly defined ratio of plant to animal material that would distinguish a facultative carnivore from an omnivore. A carnivore at the top of the food chain, not preyed upon by other animals, is termed an apex predator.\n',
'126': 'Madonna Louise Ciccone (, ; born August 16, 1958) is an American singer, songwriter, actress, and businesswoman. Referred to as the "Queen of Pop" since the 1980s, Madonna is known for pushing the boundaries of songwriting in mainstream popular music and for the imagery she uses onstage and in music videos. She has frequently reinvented her music and image while maintaining autonomy within the recording industry. Although having sparked controversy, her works have been praised by music critics. Madonna is often cited as an influence by other artists.\n',
'127': 'The first championships was held three years after the establishment of FIBA, in 1935. Switzerland was chosen as the host country, and ten countries joined. Only one qualifying match was played between Portugal and Spain. With a complicated formula, the final would see Latvia as champions. According to the rule at the time, the winner had to hold the following games. The following two tournaments would be won by Lithuania and would see the introduction of Egypt which would compete in EuroBasket until 1953 winning one championship at home in 1949 along the way.\n',
'128': 'Self-consciousness is a heightened sense of self-awareness. It is a preoccupation with oneself, as opposed to the philosophical state of self-awareness, which is the awareness that one exists as an individual being, though the two terms are commonly used interchangeably or synonymously. An unpleasant feeling of self-consciousness may occur when one realizes that one is being watched or observed, the feeling that "everyone is looking" at oneself. Some people are habitually more self-conscious than others. Unpleasant feelings of self-consciousness are sometimes associated with shyness or paranoia.\n',
'129': 'Hiking equipment is the equipment taken on outdoor walking trips. Hiking is usually divided into day-hikes and multiple-day hikes, called backpacking, trekking, and walking tours.\n',
'130': "In societies where the husband is the sole provider, his death can leave his family destitute. The tendency for women generally to outlive men can compound this, as can men in many societies marrying women younger than themselves. In some patriarchal societies, widows may maintain economic independence. A woman would carry on her spouse's business and be accorded certain rights, such as entering guilds. More recently, widows of political figures have been among the first women elected to high office in many countries, such as Corazón Aquino or Isabel Martínez de Perón.\n",
'131': 'A comic book or comicbook, also called comic magazine or simply comic, is a publication that consists of comics art in the form of sequential juxtaposed panels that represent individual scenes. Panels are often accompanied by descriptive prose and written narrative, usually, dialog contained in word balloons emblematic of the comics art form. Although some origins in 18th century Japan, comic books were first popularized in the United States and the United Kingdom during the 1930s. The first modern comic book, "Famous Funnies", was released in the U.S. in 1933 and was a reprinting of earlier newspaper humor comic strips, which had established many of the story-telling devices used in comics. The term "comic book" derives from American comic books once being a compilation of comic strips of a humorous tone; however, this practice was replaced by featuring stories of all genres, usually not humorous in tone.\n',
'132': 'Country music, also known as country and western (or simply country), and hillbilly music, is a genre of popular music that originated in the southern United States in the early 1920s. It takes its roots from genres such as American folk music (especially Appalachian folk and Western music) and blues.\n',
'133': 'Badminton is a racquet sport played using racquets to hit a shuttlecock across a net. Although it may be played with larger teams, the most common forms of the game are "singles" (with one player per side) and "doubles" (with two players per side). Badminton is often played as a casual outdoor activity in a yard or on a beach; formal games are played on a rectangular indoor court. Points are scored by striking the shuttlecock with the racquet and landing it within the opposing side\'s half of the court.\n',
'134': 'Surf culture includes the people, language, fashion, and lifestyle surrounding the sport of surfing. The history of surfing began with the ancient Polynesians. That initial culture directly influenced modern surfing, which began to flourish and evolve in the early 20th century, with its popularity spiking during the 1950s and 1960s (principally in Hawaii, Australia, and California). It has affected music, fashion, literature, film, art, and youth jargon in popular culture. The number of surfers throughout the world continues to increase as the culture spreads.\n',
'135': 'Mileena is a player and occasional boss character from the "Mortal Kombat" series of fighting games. A dual sai-wielding assassin, she acts as the evil twin and magenta palette swap of Princess Kitana in "Mortal Kombat II" in 1993. She has been promoted throughout the Mortal Kombat games as its semi-ironic sex symbol, especially since "" when she began a pattern of wearing more revealing outfits.\n',
'136': 'The American frontier comprises the geography, history, folklore, and cultural expression of life in the forward wave of American expansion that began with English colonial settlements in the early 17th century and ended with the admission of the last remaining western territories as states in 1959. This era of massive migration and settlement was particularly encouraged by President Thomas Jefferson following the Louisiana Purchase, giving rise to the expansionist philosophy known as "Manifest destiny".\n',
'137': "Algeria ( ; , ; ), officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria (, ), is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. The capital and most populous city is Algiers, located in the far north of the country on the Mediterranean coast. With an area of , Algeria is the tenth-largest country in the world, the world's largest Arab country, and the largest in Africa. Algeria is bordered to the northeast by Tunisia, to the east by Libya, to the west by Morocco, to the southwest by the Western Saharan territory, Mauritania, and Mali, to the southeast by Niger, and to the north by the Mediterranean Sea. The country is a semi-presidential republic consisting of 48 provinces and 1,541 communes (counties). It has the highest human development index of all non-island African countries.\n",
'138': 'Iguana (, ) is a genus of herbivorous lizards that are native to tropical areas of Mexico, Central America, South America, and the Caribbean. The genus was first described in 1768 by Austrian naturalist Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti in his book "Specimen Medicum, Exhibens Synopsin Reptilium Emendatam cum Experimentis circa Venena". Two species are included in the genus "Iguana": the green iguana, which is widespread throughout its range and a popular pet, and the Lesser Antillean iguana, which is native to the Lesser Antilles and endangered due to habitat destruction, introduced feral predators, hunting, and hybridization with introduced green iguanas.\n',
'139': "Pet adoption is the process of taking responsibility for a pet that a previous owner has abandoned or released to a shelter or rescue organization. Common sources for adoptable pets are animal shelters and rescue groups. Some organizations give adopters ownership of the pet, while others use a guardianship model wherein the organization retains some control over the animal's future use or care.\n",
'140': "Walmart Inc. (; formerly Wal-Mart Stores, Inc.) is an American multinational retail corporation that operates a chain of hypermarkets, discount department stores, and grocery stores, headquartered in Bentonville, Arkansas. The company was founded by Sam Walton in 1962 and incorporated on October 31, 1969. It also owns and operates Sam's Club retail warehouses. Walmart has 11,368 stores and clubs in 27countries, operating under 55 differentnames. The company operates under the name Walmart in the United States and Canada, as Walmart de México y Centroamérica in Mexico and Central America, as Asda in the United Kingdom, as the Seiyu Group in Japan, and as Best Price in India. It has wholly owned operations in Argentina, Chile, Canada, and South Africa. Since August 2018, Walmart only holds a minority stake in Walmart Brasil, with 20-percent of the company's shares, and private equity firm Advent International holding 80-percent ownership of the company.\n",
'141': 'South Park is an American adult animated sitcom created by Trey Parker and Matt Stone and developed by Brian Graden for the Comedy Central television network. The show revolves around four boys—Stan Marsh, Kyle Broflovski, Eric Cartman, and Kenny McCormick—and their exploits in and around the titular Colorado town. Much like "The Simpsons", "South Park" uses a very large ensemble cast of recurring characters. It became infamous for its profanity and dark, surreal humor that satirizes a wide range of topics towards a mature audience.\n',
'142': 'Grey\'s Anatomy is an American medical drama television series that premiered on March 27, 2005, on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) as a mid-season replacement. The fictional series focuses on the lives of surgical interns, residents, and attending physicians, as they develop into seasoned doctors while trying to maintain personal lives and relationships. The title is an allusion to "Gray\'s Anatomy", a classic human anatomy textbook first published in 1858 in London and written by Henry Gray. Shonda Rhimes developed the pilot and continues to write for the series; she is also one of the executive producers, along with Betsy Beers, Mark Gordon, Krista Vernoff, Rob Corn, Mark Wilding, and Allan Heinberg. Although the series is set in Seattle (at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital, later renamed), it is filmed primarily in Los Angeles, California.\n',
'143': 'The concept of prepared meals to be eaten elsewhere dates back to antiquity. Market and roadside stalls selling food were common in Ancient Greece and Rome. In Pompeii, archaeologists have found a number of "thermopolia", service counters opening onto the street which provided food to be taken away. There is a distinct lack of formal dining and kitchen area in Pompeian homes, which may suggest that eating, or at least cooking, at home was unusual. Over 200 "thermopolia" have been found in the ruins of Pompeii.\n',
'144': 'The beagle is a breed of small hound that is similar in appearance to the much larger foxhound. The beagle is a scent hound, developed primarily for hunting hare (beagling). With a great sense of smell and superior tracking instinct, the beagle is employed as detection dog for prohibited agricultural imports and foodstuffs in quarantine around the world. The beagle is intelligent but single-minded. It is a popular pet due to its size, good temper, and lack of inherited health problems.\n',
'145': "Harry Potter is a series of fantasy novels written by British author J. K. Rowling. The novels chronicle the lives of a young wizard, Harry Potter, and his friends Hermione Granger and Ron Weasley, all of whom are students at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. The main story arc concerns Harry's struggle against Lord Voldemort, a dark wizard who intends to become immortal, overthrow the wizard governing body known as the Ministry of Magic and subjugate all wizards and Muggles (non-magical people).\n",
'146': 'Iguana (, ) is a genus of herbivorous lizards that are native to tropical areas of Mexico, Central America, South America, and the Caribbean. The genus was first described in 1768 by Austrian naturalist Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti in his book "Specimen Medicum, Exhibens Synopsin Reptilium Emendatam cum Experimentis circa Venena". Two species are included in the genus "Iguana": the green iguana, which is widespread throughout its range and a popular pet, and the Lesser Antillean iguana, which is native to the Lesser Antilles and endangered due to habitat destruction, introduced feral predators, hunting, and hybridization with introduced green iguanas.\n',
'147': 'Yoga (; ; ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India. Yoga is one of the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophical traditions. There is a broad variety of yoga schools, practices, and goals in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. The term "yoga" in the Western world often denotes a modern form of Hatha yoga, yoga as exercise, consisting largely of the postures called asanas.\n',
'148': 'A pie is a baked dish which is usually made of a pastry dough casing that covers or completely contains a filling of various sweet or savoury ingredients.\n',
'149': 'London is the capital of and largest city in England and the United Kingdom, with the largest municipal population in the European Union. Standing on the River Thames in the south-east of England, at the head of its estuary leading to the North Sea, London has been a major settlement for two millennia. "Londinium" was founded by the Romans. The City of London, London\'s ancient core − an area of just and colloquially known as the Square Mile − retains boundaries that follow closely its medieval limits. The City of Westminster is also an Inner London borough holding city status. Greater London is governed by the Mayor of London and the London Assembly.\n',
'150': 'Compulsive hoarding, also known as hoarding disorder, is a behavioral pattern characterized by excessive acquisition of and an inability or unwillingness to discard large quantities of objects that cover the living areas of the home and cause significant distress or impairment. Compulsive hoarding behavior has been associated with health risks, impaired functioning, workplace impairment, economic burden, and adverse effects on friends and family members. When clinically significant enough to impair functioning, hoarding can prevent typical uses of space, enough so that it can limit activities such as cooking, cleaning, moving through the house, and sleeping. It can also put the individual and others at risk of fires, falling, poor sanitation, and other health concerns. Compulsive hoarders may be aware of their irrational behavior, but the emotional attachment to the hoarded objects far exceeds the motive to discard the items.\n',
'151': 'Skateboarding is an action sport which involves riding and performing tricks using a skateboard, as well as a recreational activity, an art form, an entertainment industry job, and a method of transportation. Skateboarding has been shaped and influenced by many skateboarders throughout the years. A 2009 report found that the skateboarding market is worth an estimated $4.8 billion in annual revenue with 11.08 million active skateboarders in the world. In 2016, it was announced that skateboarding will be represented at the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo.\n',
'152': 'A taco (, , ) is a traditional Mexican dish consisting of a corn or wheat tortilla folded or rolled around a filling. A taco can be made with a variety of fillings, including beef, pork, chicken, seafood, vegetables, and cheese, allowing great versatility and variety. Tacos are generally eaten without utensils, often garnished with salsa, chili pepper, avocado, guacamole, cilantro (coriander), tomatoes, onions, and lettuce.\n',
'153': ', officially , one of the 47 prefectures of Japan, has served as the Japanese capital since 1869. , the Greater Tokyo Area ranked as the most populous metropolitan area in the world. The urban area houses the seat of the Emperor of Japan, of the Japanese government and of the National Diet. Tokyo forms part of the Kantō region on the southeastern side of Japan\'s main island, Honshu, and includes the Izu Islands and Ogasawara Islands. Tokyo was formerly named Edo when "Shōgun" Tokugawa Ieyasu made the city his headquarters in 1603. It became the capital after Emperor Meiji moved his seat to the city from Kyoto in 1868; at that time Edo was renamed Tokyo. The Tokyo Metropolis formed in 1943 from the merger of the former and the . Tokyo is often referred to as a city but is officially known and governed as a "metropolitan prefecture", which differs from and combines elements of a city and a prefecture, a characteristic unique to Tokyo.\n',
'154': 'The , also marketed as the , is a five-door, front-engine, front-wheel drive B-segment supermini manufactured and marketed by Honda since 2001 and now in its third generation. Marketed worldwide and manufactured at ten plants in eight countries, sales reached almost 5 million by mid-2013.\n',
'155': 'The first championships was held three years after the establishment of FIBA, in 1935. Switzerland was chosen as the host country, and ten countries joined. Only one qualifying match was played between Portugal and Spain. With a complicated formula, the final would see Latvia as champions. According to the rule at the time, the winner had to hold the following games. The following two tournaments would be won by Lithuania and would see the introduction of Egypt which would compete in EuroBasket until 1953 winning one championship at home in 1949 along the way.\n',
'156': 'A motorcycle, often called a bike, motorbike, or cycle, is a two- or three-wheeled motor vehicle. Motorcycle design varies greatly to suit a range of different purposes: long distance travel, commuting, cruising, sport including racing, and off-road riding. Motorcycling is riding a motorcycle and related social activity such as joining a motorcycle club and attending motorcycle rallies.\n',
'157': 'A lifeguard is a rescuer who supervises the safety and rescue of swimmers, surfers, and other water sports participants such as in a swimming pool, water park, spa, beach or river. Lifeguards are strong swimmers and trained in CPR/AED first aid, certified in water rescue using a variety of aids and equipment depending on requirements of their particular venue. In some areas, lifeguards are part of the emergency services system to incidents and in some communities,lifeguards may function as the primary EMS provider.\n',
'158': 'In broadcast television, cord-cutting refers to the pattern of viewers, referred to as cord-cutters, cancelling their subscriptions to multichannel subscription television services available over cable or satellite, dropping pay television channels or reducing the number of hours of subscription TV viewed in response to competition from rival media available over the Internet such as Amazon Prime, Crunchyroll, Hulu, Netflix, Philo, Sling TV and YouTube Premium. This Internet content is either free or significantly cheaper than the same content provided via cable.\n',
'159': 'Hiking is the preferred term, in Canada and the United States, for a long, vigorous walk, usually on trails (footpaths), in the countryside, while the word walking is used for shorter, particularly urban walks. On the other hand, in the United Kingdom, and the Republic of Ireland, the word "walking" is acceptable to describe "all forms" of walking, whether it is a walk in the park or backpacking in the Alps. The word hiking is also often used in the UK, along with rambling (a slightly old-fashioned term), hillwalking, and fell walking (a term mostly used for hillwalking in northern England). The term bushwalking is endemic to Australia, having been adopted by the Sydney Bush Walkers club in 1927. In New Zealand a long, vigorous walk or hike is called tramping. It is a popular activity with numerous worldwide, and studies suggest that all forms of walking have health benefits.\n',
'160': 'Being overweight or fat is having more body fat than is optimally healthy. Being overweight is especially common where food supplies are plentiful and lifestyles are sedentary.\n',
'161': 'Blue is one of the three primary colours of pigments in painting and traditional colour theory, as well as in the RGB colour model. It lies between violet and green on the spectrum of visible light. The eye perceives blue when observing light with a dominant wavelength between approximately 450 and 495 nanometres. Most blues contain a slight mixture of other colours; azure contains some green, while ultramarine contains some violet. The clear daytime sky and the deep sea appear blue because of an optical effect known as Rayleigh scattering. An optical effect called Tyndall scattering explains blue eyes. Distant objects appear more blue because of another optical effect called aerial perspective.\n',
'162': 'The violin, sometimes known as a fiddle, is a wooden string instrument in the violin family. Most violins have a hollow wooden body. It is the smallest and highest-pitched instrument in the family in regular use. Smaller violin-type instruments exist, including the violino piccolo and the kit violin, but these are virtually unused. The violin typically has four strings, usually tuned in perfect fifths with notes G3, D4, A4, E5, and is most commonly played by drawing a bow across its strings, though it can also be played by plucking the strings with the fingers (pizzicato) and by striking the strings with the wooden side of the bow (col legno). \n',
'163': 'Weight training is a common type of strength training for developing the strength and size of skeletal muscles. It utilizes the force of gravity in the form of weighted bars, dumbbells or weight stacks in order to oppose the force generated by muscle through concentric or eccentric contraction. Weight training uses a variety of specialized to target specific muscle groups and types of movement.\n',
'164': 'Divorce, also known as dissolution of marriage, is the process of terminating a marriage or marital union. Divorce usually entails the canceling or reorganizing of the legal duties and responsibilities of marriage, thus dissolving the bonds of matrimony between a married couple under the rule of law of the particular country or state. Divorce laws vary considerably around the world, but in most countries divorce requires the sanction of a court or other authority in a legal process, which may involve issues of distribution of property, child custody, alimony (spousal support), child visitation / access, parenting time, child support, and division of debt. In most countries, monogamy is required by law, so divorce allows each former partner to marry another person.\n',
'165': "Glasses, also known as eyeglasses or spectacles, are devices consisting of glass or hard plastic lenses mounted in a frame that holds them in front of a person's eyes, typically using a bridge over the nose and arms which rest over the ears.\n",
'166': 'The sport of cross-country skiing encompasses a variety of formats for cross-country skiing races over courses of varying lengths according to rules sanctioned by the International Ski Federation and by various national organizations, such as the U.S. Ski and Snowboard Association (USSA) and Cross Country Ski Canada. International competitions include the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships, the FIS Cross-Country World Cup, and at the Winter Olympic Games. Such races occur over homologated, groomed courses designed to support classic (in-track) and freestyle events, where the skiers may employ skate skiing. It also encompasses cross-country ski marathon events, sanctioned by the Worldloppet Ski Federation, and cross-country ski orienteering events, sanctioned by the International Orienteering Federation. Related forms of competition are biathlon, where competitors race on cross-country skis and stop to shoot at targets with rifles, and paralympic cross-country skiing that allows athletes with disabilities to compete at cross-country skiing with adaptive equipment.\n',
'167': 'The marathon is a long-distance race with an official distance of 42.195 kilometres (approximately 26 miles 385 yards), usually run as a road race. The event was instituted in commemoration of the fabled run of the Greek soldier Pheidippides, a messenger from the Battle of Marathon to Athens, who reported the victory. The marathon can be completed by running or with a run/walk strategy. There are also wheelchair divisions.\n',
'168': 'Pizza (, ) is a savory dish of Italian origin, consisting of a usually round, flattened base of leavened wheat-based dough topped with tomatoes, cheese, and various other ingredients (anchovies, olives, meat, etc.) baked at a high temperature, traditionally in a wood-fired oven. In formal settings, like a restaurant, pizza is eaten with knife and fork, but in casual settings it is cut into wedges to be eaten while held in the hand. Small pizzas are sometimes called pizzettas.\n',
'169': 'The Internet (portmanteau of interconnected network) is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link devices worldwide. It is a "network of networks" that consists of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents and applications of the World Wide Web (WWW), electronic mail, telephony, and file sharing. \n',
'170': "Self-disclosure is a process of communication by which one person reveals information about themself to another. The information can be descriptive or evaluative, and can include thoughts, feelings, aspirations, goals, failures, successes, fears, and dreams, as well as one's likes, dislikes, and favorites.\n",
'171': 'Hiking is the preferred term, in Canada and the United States, for a long, vigorous walk, usually on trails (footpaths), in the countryside, while the word walking is used for shorter, particularly urban walks. On the other hand, in the United Kingdom, and the Republic of Ireland, the word "walking" is acceptable to describe "all forms" of walking, whether it is a walk in the park or backpacking in the Alps. The word hiking is also often used in the UK, along with rambling (a slightly old-fashioned term), hillwalking, and fell walking (a term mostly used for hillwalking in northern England). The term bushwalking is endemic to Australia, having been adopted by the Sydney Bush Walkers club in 1927. In New Zealand a long, vigorous walk or hike is called tramping. It is a popular activity with numerous worldwide, and studies suggest that all forms of walking have health benefits.\n',
'172': 'Lizards are a widespread group of squamate reptiles, with over 6,000 species, ranging across all continents except Antarctica, as well as most oceanic island chains. The group is paraphyletic as it excludes the snakes and Amphisbaenia; some lizards are more closely related to these two excluded groups than they are to other lizards. Lizards range in size from chameleons and geckos a few centimeters long to the 3 meter long Komodo dragon.\n',
'173': 'The best available current evidence suggests that consumption of alcohol (chemically known as ethanol) does not improve health. Previous assertions that low or moderate consumption of alcohol improved health have been deprecated by more careful and complete meta-analysis. Heavy consumption of ethanol (alcohol abuse) can cause severe detrimental effects. Health effects associated with alcohol intake in large amounts include an increased risk of alcoholism, malnutrition, chronic pancreatitis, alcoholic liver disease and cancer. In addition, damage to the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system can occur from chronic alcohol abuse. Even light and moderate alcohol consumption increases risk for certain types of cancer. \n',
'174': 'The butterfly (colloquially shortened to fly) is a swimming stroke swum on the chest, with both arms moving symmetrically, accompanied by the butterfly kick (also known as the "dolphin kick"). While other styles like the breaststroke, front crawl, or backstroke can be swum adequately by beginners, the butterfly is a more difficult stroke that requires good technique as well as strong muscles. It is the newest swimming style swum in competition, first swum in 1933 and originating out of the breaststroke.\n',
'175': "Austin is the capital of the U.S. state of Texas and the seat of Travis County, with portions extending into Hays and Williamson counties. It is the 11th-most populous city in the United States and the 4th-most populous city in Texas. It is also the fastest growing large city in the United States, the second most populous state capital after Phoenix, Arizona, and the southernmost state capital in the contiguous United States. As of the U.S. Census Bureau's July 1, 2018 estimate, Austin had a population of 964,254 up from 790,491 at the 2010 census. The city is the cultural and economic center of the metropolitan statistical area, which had an estimated population of 2,168,316 . Located in within the greater Texas Hill Country, it is home to numerous lakes, rivers, and waterways, including Lady Bird Lake and Lake Travis on the Colorado River, Barton Springs, McKinney Falls, and Lake Walter E. Long.\n",
'176': 'Although the seashore is most commonly associated with the word "beach", beaches are also found by lakes and alongside large rivers.\n',
'177': 'The great white shark ("Carcharodon carcharias"), also known as the great white, white shark or white pointer, is a species of large mackerel shark which can be found in the coastal surface waters of all the major oceans. The great white shark is notable for its size, with larger female individuals growing to in length and in weight at maturity. However, most are smaller; males measure , and females measure on average. According to a 2014 study, the lifespan of great white sharks is estimated to be as long as 70 years or more, well above previous estimates, making it one of the longest lived cartilaginous fish currently known. According to the same study, male great white sharks take 26 years to reach sexual maturity, while the females take 33 years to be ready to produce offspring. Great white sharks can swim at speeds of over , and can swim to depths of .\n',
'178': 'In conventional usage, boredom is an emotional and occasionally psychological state experienced when an individual is left without anything in particular to do, is not interested in his or her surroundings, or feels that a day or period is dull or tedious. It is also understood by scholars as a modern phenomenon which has a cultural dimension. "There is no universally accepted definition of boredom. But whatever it is, researchers argue, it is not simply another name for depression or apathy. It seems to be a specific mental state that people find unpleasant—a lack of stimulation that leaves them craving relief, with a host of behavioural, medical and social consequences." According to BBC News, boredom "...can be a dangerous and disruptive state of mind that damages your health"; yet research "...suggest[s] that without boredom we couldn\'t achieve our creative feats." \n',
'179': 'The guitar is a fretted musical instrument that usually has six strings. It is typically played with both hands by strumming or plucking the strings with either a guitar pick or the finger(s)/fingernails of one hand, while simultaneously fretting (pressing the strings against the frets) with the fingers of the other hand. The sound of the vibrating strings is projected either acoustically, by means of the hollow chamber of the guitar (for an acoustic guitar), or through an electrical amplifier and a speaker.\n',
'180': 'Blue is one of the three primary colours of pigments in painting and traditional colour theory, as well as in the RGB colour model. It lies between violet and green on the spectrum of visible light. The eye perceives blue when observing light with a dominant wavelength between approximately 450 and 495 nanometres. Most blues contain a slight mixture of other colours; azure contains some green, while ultramarine contains some violet. The clear daytime sky and the deep sea appear blue because of an optical effect known as Rayleigh scattering. An optical effect called Tyndall scattering explains blue eyes. Distant objects appear more blue because of another optical effect called aerial perspective.\n',
'181': 'The domestic dog ("Canis lupus familiaris" when considered a subspecies of the wolf or "Canis familiaris" when considered a distinct species) is a member of the genus "Canis" (canines), which forms part of the wolf-like canids, and is the most widely abundant terrestrial carnivore. The dog and the extant gray wolf are sister taxa as modern wolves are not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated, which implies that the direct ancestor of the dog is extinct. The dog was the first species to be domesticated and has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes.\n',
'182': 'Buddy Williams (5 September 1918 – 12 December 1986), born as Harry Taylor and also known as Harold Williams, was a pioneering Australian country music singer-songwriter, known as "The Yodelling Jackaroo".\n',
'183': 'White wine is a wine that is fermented without skin contact. The colour can be straw-yellow, yellow-green, or yellow-gold. It is produced by the alcoholic fermentation of the non-coloured pulp of grapes, which may have a skin of any colour. White wine has existed for at least 2500 years.\n',
'184': "To practice in Australia, one needs to graduate with a Bachelor of Laws (LLB), Juris Doctor (JD), or Diploma-in-Law issued by the Legal Profession Admission Board, followed by an internship for 12 months or an extra course in practical legal training (PLT) depending on the jurisdiction and university, and be admitted as a lawyer of one of a state's Supreme Court.\n",
'185': 'Football is a family of team sports that involve, to varying degrees, kicking a ball to score a goal. Unqualified, the word "football" normally means the form of football that is the most popular where the word is used. Sports commonly called "football" include association football (known as "soccer" in some countries); gridiron football (specifically American football or Canadian football); Australian rules football; rugby football (either rugby league or rugby union); and Gaelic football. These various forms of football are known as football codes.\n',
'186': 'Homework, or a homework assignment, is a set of tasks assigned to students by their teachers to be completed outside the class. Common homework assignments may include required reading, a writing or typing project, mathematical exercises to be completed, information to be reviewed before a test, or other skills to be practiced.\n',
'187': 'In folklore, a ghost (sometimes known as an apparition, haunt, phantom, poltergeist, shade, specter or spectre, spirit, spook, and wraith) is the soul or spirit of a dead person or animal that can appear to the living. In ghostlore, descriptions of ghosts vary widely from an invisible presence to translucent or barely visible wispy shapes, to realistic, lifelike forms. The deliberate attempt to contact the spirit of a deceased person is known as necromancy, or in spiritism as a "séance".\n',
'188': "Manhattan (), often referred to locally as the City, is the most densely populated of the five boroughs of New York City and its economic and administrative center, cultural identifier, and historical birthplace. The borough is coextensive with New York County, one of the original counties of the U.S. state of New York. The borough consists mostly of Manhattan Island, bounded by the Hudson, East, and Harlem rivers; several small adjacent islands; and Marble Hill, a small neighborhood now on the U.S. mainland, physically connected to the Bronx and separated from the rest of Manhattan by the Harlem River. Manhattan Island is divided into three informally bounded components, each aligned with the borough's long axis: Lower, Midtown, and Upper Manhattan.\n",
'189': 'Yellow is the color between orange and green on the spectrum of visible light. It is evoked by light with a dominant wavelength of roughly 570590 nm. It is a primary color in subtractive color systems, used in painting or color printing. In the RGB color model, used to create colors on television and computer screens, yellow is a secondary color made by combining red and green at equal intensity. Carotenoids give the characteristic yellow color to autumn leaves, corn, canaries, daffodils, and lemons, as well as egg yolks, buttercups, and bananas. They absorb light energy and protect plants from photodamage. Sunlight has a slight yellowish hue when sun is near a horizon, due to atmosphere scattering shorter wavelengths (green, blue, and violet).\n',
'190': "Up to 10% of invasive cancers are related to radiation exposure, specifically ionizing radiation. Additionally, the vast majority of non-invasive cancers are non-melanoma skin cancers caused by ultraviolet radiation. Ultraviolet's position on the electromagnetic spectrum is on the boundary between ionizing and non-ionizing radiation. Non-ionizing radio frequency radiation from mobile phones, electric power transmission, and other similar sources have been described as a possible carcinogen by the World Health Organization's International Agency for Research on Cancer, but the link remains unproven.\n",
'191': 'Justin Drew Bieber (; born March 1, 1994) is a Canadian singer, songwriter, actor and rapper. Discovered at 13 years old by talent manager Scooter Braun after watching his YouTube videos covering songs, he was signed to RBMG Records in 2008. Bieber then released his debut EP, "My World", in late 2009. It was certified Platinum in the United States. With the EP, Bieber became the first artist to have seven songs from a debut record chart on the US "Billboard" Hot 100. Bieber released his first studio album, "My World 2.0", in 2010. It debuted at number one in several countries, was certified triple Platinum in the US, and contained his single "Baby", which debuted at number five on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and sold 12 million units.\n',
'192': 'The City of New York, usually called either New York City (NYC) or simply New York (NY), is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2018 population of 8,398,748 distributed over a land area of about , New York is also the most densely populated major city in the United States. Located at the southern tip of the state of New York, the city is the center of the New York metropolitan area, the largest metropolitan area in the world by urban landmass and one of the world\'s most populous megacities, with an estimated 19,979,477 people in its 2018 Metropolitan Statistical Area and 22,679,948 residents in its Combined Statistical Area. A global power city, New York City has been described as the cultural, financial, and media capital of the world, and exerts a significant impact upon commerce, entertainment, research, technology, education, politics, tourism, art, fashion, and sports. The city\'s fast pace has inspired the term "New York minute". Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy.\n',
'193': 'Yellowstone National Park is an American national park located in Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho. It was established by the U.S.\xa0Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1872. Yellowstone was the first national park in the U.S. and is also widely held to be the first national park in the world. The park is known for its wildlife and its many geothermal features, especially Old Faithful geyser, one of its most popular features. It has many types of ecosystems, but the subalpine forest is the most abundant. It is part of the South Central Rockies forests ecoregion.\n',
'194': 'John Michael "Ozzy" Osbourne (born 3 December 1948) is an English singer, songwriter, actor and reality television star who rose to prominence during the 1970s as the lead vocalist of the heavy metal band Black Sabbath, during which he adopted the nickname "The Prince of Darkness". Osbourne was fired from the band in 1979 due to alcohol and drug problems, but went on to have a successful solo career, releasing eleven studio albums, the first seven of which were all awarded multi-platinum certifications in the United States. Osbourne has since reunited with Black Sabbath on several occasions. He rejoined the band in 1997 and helped record the group’s final studio album "13" (2013) before they embarked on a farewell tour which culminated in a final performance in their home city, Birmingham, England, in February 2017. His longevity and success have earned him the informal title of "Godfather of Heavy Metal".\n',
'195': 'Amazon Echo (shortened to Echo and known colloquially as "Alexa") is a brand of smart speakers developed by Amazon. Echo devices connect to the voice-controlled intelligent personal assistant service "Alexa", which responds to the names "Alexa", "Echo", or "Computer". Users may change this "wake word" to "Amazon", "Echo" or "Computer". The features of the device include: voice interaction, music playback, making to-do lists, setting alarms, streaming podcasts, and playing audiobooks, in addition to providing weather, traffic and other real-time information. It can also control several smart devices, acting as a home automation hub.\n',
'196': "A sleeve tattoo (or tattoo sleeve) is a large tattoo, or a collection of smaller tattoos, that has a unified theme, that covers most or all of a person's arm, usually from shoulder to wrist.\n",
'197': 'Bitcoin (₿) is a cryptocurrency. It is a decentralized digital currency without a central bank or single administrator that can be sent from user to user on the peer-to-peer bitcoin network without the need for intermediaries.\n',
'198': 'The marathon is a long-distance race with an official distance of 42.195 kilometres (approximately 26 miles 385 yards), usually run as a road race. The event was instituted in commemoration of the fabled run of the Greek soldier Pheidippides, a messenger from the Battle of Marathon to Athens, who reported the victory. The marathon can be completed by running or with a run/walk strategy. There are also wheelchair divisions.\n',
'199': 'Stamp collecting is generally accepted as one of the areas that make up the wider subject of philately, which is the study of stamps. A philatelist may, but does not have to, collect stamps. It is not uncommon for the term "philatelist" to be used to mean a stamp collector. Many casual stamp collectors accumulate stamps for sheer enjoyment and relaxation without worrying about the tiny details. The creation of a large or comprehensive collection, however, generally requires some philatelic knowledge and will usually contain areas of philatelic studies.\n',
'200': 'Avengers: Infinity War is a 2018 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics superhero team the Avengers, produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. It is the sequel to 2012\'s "The Avengers" and 2015\'s "", and the nineteenth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). It was directed by Anthony and Joe Russo, written by Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely, and features an ensemble cast including Robert Downey Jr., Chris Hemsworth, Mark Ruffalo, Chris Evans, Scarlett Johansson, Benedict Cumberbatch, Don Cheadle, Tom Holland, Chadwick Boseman, Paul Bettany, Elizabeth Olsen, Anthony Mackie, Sebastian Stan, Danai Gurira, Letitia Wright, Dave Bautista, Zoe Saldana, Josh Brolin, and Chris Pratt. In the film, the Avengers and the Guardians of the Galaxy attempt to prevent Thanos from amassing the all-powerful Infinity Stones in a quest to wipe out half of all life in the universe.\n',
'201': "Dictionaries traditionally define literacy as the ability to read and write. In the modern world, this is one way of interpreting literacy. One more broad interpretation sees literacy as knowledge and competence in a specific area. The concept of literacy has evolved in meaning. The modern term's meaning has been expanded to include the ability to use language, numbers, images, computers, and other basic means to understand, communicate, gain useful knowledge, solve mathematical problems and use the dominant symbol systems of a culture. The concept of literacy is expanding across OECD countries to include skills to access knowledge through technology and ability to assess complex contexts. A person who travels and resides in a foreign country but is unable to read or write in the language of the host country would be regarded by the locals as illiterate.\n",
'202': 'The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It is a nearly perfect sphere of hot plasma, with internal convective motion that generates a magnetic field via a dynamo process. It is by far the most important source of energy for life on Earth. Its diameter is about 1.39 million kilometers (864,000 miles), or 109 times that of Earth, and its mass is about 330,000 times that of Earth. It accounts for about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System.\n',
'203': 'While the title is not regulated, most coffee shops use the title to describe the preparer of coffee and operator of an espresso machine.\n',
'204': 'Presbyterianism is a part of the Reformed tradition within Protestantism, which traces its origins to Britain, particularly Scotland.\n',
'205': "A janitor (American English, Scottish English), custodian, porter, cleaner or caretaker is a person who cleans and maintains buildings such as hospitals, schools, and residential accommodation. Janitors' primary responsibility is as a cleaner. In some cases, they will also carry out maintenance and security duties. A similar position, but usually with more managerial duties and not including cleaning, is occupied by building superintendents in the United States (and occasionally in Canada) and School Site Managers in schools in the United Kingdom. Cleaning is one of the most commonly outsourced services.\n",
'206': 'Lipstick is a cosmetic product containing pigments, oils, waxes, and emollients that apply color, texture, and protection to the lips.\n',
'207': 'Valedictorian is an academic title of success used in the United States, Canada, Philippines, and Armenia (and elsewhere in limited number of schools) for the student who delivers the closing or farewell statement at a graduation ceremony (called a valediction). The chosen valedictorian is traditionally the student with the highest ranking (highest Grade Point Average, or GPA) among their graduating class. The term is an Anglicised derivation of the Latin "vale dicere" ("to say farewell"), historically rooted in the valedictorian\'s traditional role as the final speaker at the graduation ceremony before the students receive their diplomas. The valedictory address generally is considered a final farewell to classmates, before they disperse to pursue their individual paths after graduating.\n',
'208': 'A genius is a person who displays exceptional intellectual ability, creative productivity, universality in genres or originality, typically to a degree that is associated with the achievement of new advances in a domain of knowledge. Despite the presence of scholars in many subjects throughout history, many geniuses have shown high achievements in only a single kind of activity.\n',
'209': 'As the World Turns is a long-running soap opera television series that aired on CBS from April 2, 1956, to September 17, 2010. Its fictional world has a long and involved history.\n',
'210': 'Rock music is a broad genre of popular music that originated as "rock and roll" in the United States in the early 1950s, and developed into a range of different styles in the 1960s and later, particularly in the United States and the United Kingdom. It has its roots in 1940s and 1950s rock and roll, a style which drew heavily on the genres of blues, rhythm and blues, and from country music. Rock music also drew strongly on a number of other genres such as electric blues and folk, and incorporated influences from jazz, classical and other musical styles. Musically, rock has centered on the electric guitar, usually as part of a rock group with electric bass, drums, and one or more singers. Usually, rock is song-based music usually with a 4/4 time signature using a verse–chorus form, but the genre has become extremely diverse. Like pop music, lyrics often stress romantic love but also address a wide variety of other themes that are frequently social or political.\n',
'211': 'Dust is made of fine particles of solid matter. On Earth, it generally consists of particles in the atmosphere that come from various sources such as soil, dust lifted by wind (an aeolian process), volcanic eruptions, and pollution. Dust in homes, offices, and other human environments contains small amounts of plant pollen, human and animal hairs, textile fibers, paper fibers, minerals from outdoor soil, human skin cells, burnt meteorite particles, and many other materials which may be found in the local environment.\n',
'212': 'Singing is the act of producing musical sounds with the voice and augments regular speech by the use of sustained tonality, rhythm, and a variety of vocal techniques. A person who sings is called a singer or vocalist (in jazz and popular music). Singers perform music (arias, recitatives, songs, etc.) that can be sung with or without accompaniment by musical instruments. Singing is often done in an ensemble of musicians, such as a choir of singers or a band of instrumentalists. Singers may perform as soloists or accompanied by anything from a single instrument (as in art song or some jazz styles) up to a symphony orchestra or big band. Different singing styles include art music such as opera and Chinese opera, Indian music and religious music styles such as gospel, traditional music styles, world music, jazz, blues, gazal and popular music styles such as pop, rock, electronic dance music and filmi (film songs).\n',
'213': 'Grand Rapids is the second-largest city in Michigan and the largest city in West Michigan. It is on the Grand River about east of Lake Michigan. As of the 2010 census, the city population was 188,040. In 2010, the Grand Rapids metropolitan area had a population of 1,005,648, and the combined statistical area of Grand Rapids-Muskegon-Holland had a population of 1,321,557. Grand Rapids is the county seat of Kent County.\n',
'214': 'Rain is liquid water in the form of droplets that have condensed from atmospheric water vapor and then become heavy enough to fall under gravity. Rain is a major component of the water cycle and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the Earth. It provides suitable conditions for many types of ecosystems, as well as water for hydroelectric power plants and crop irrigation.\n',
'215': "A pet or companion animal is an animal kept primarily for a person's company, entertainment, or as an act of compassion such as taking in and protecting a hungry stray cat, rather than as a working animal, livestock, or laboratory animal. Popular pets are often noted for their attractive appearances, intelligence, and relatable personalities, or may just be accepted as they are because they need a home.\n",
'216': 'Fishing has existed as a means of obtaining food since the Mesolithic period. Fishing had become a major means of survival as well as a business venture.\n',
'217': 'Immortality is eternal life, being exempt from death, unending existence. Some modern species may possess biological immortality.\n',
'218': "Radiohead are an English rock band formed in Abingdon-on-Thames in 1985. The band consists of Thom Yorke (vocals, guitar, piano, keyboards), brothers Jonny Greenwood (lead guitar, keyboards, other instruments) and Colin Greenwood (bass), Ed O'Brien (guitar, backing vocals) and Philip Selway (drums, percussion). They have worked with producer Nigel Godrich and cover artist Stanley Donwood since 1994.\n",
'219': "Frizz is hair that does not align with the surrounding hairs, but stands up or curls independently, creating a fuzzy or irregular texture. The three main causes of frizz are genetics, hair damage, and humidity. Frizzy hair can be seen as a positive or a negative trait depending on the current fashion and one's personal preference. Many hair products, such as gels, pomades, and hair waxes, are designed to reduce frizz.\n",
'220': 'Theatrical dance, also called performance or concert dance, is intended primarily as a spectacle, usually a performance upon a stage by virtuoso dancers. It often tells a story, perhaps using mime, costume and scenery, or else it may simply interpret the musical accompaniment, which is often specially composed. Examples are western ballet and modern dance, Classical Indian dance and Chinese and Japanese song and dance dramas. Most classical forms are centred upon dance alone, but performance dance may also appear in opera and other forms of musical theatre.\n',
'221': 'Entomology () is the scientific study of insects, a branch of zoology. In the past the term "insect" was more vague, and historically the definition of entomology included the study of terrestrial animals in other arthropod groups or other phyla, such as arachnids, myriapods, earthworms, land snails, and slugs. This wider meaning may still be encountered in informal use.\n',
'222': 'Being overweight or fat is having more body fat than is optimally healthy. Being overweight is especially common where food supplies are plentiful and lifestyles are sedentary.\n',
'223': "A journalist is a person who collects, writes, or distributes news or other current information to the public. A journalist's work is called journalism. A journalist can work with general issues or specialize in certain issues. However, most journalists tend to specialize, and by cooperating with other journalists, produce journals that span many topics. For example, a sports journalist covers news within the world of sports, but this journalist may be a part of a newspaper that covers many different topics.\n",
'224': "McDonald's Corporation is an American fast food company, founded in 1940 as a restaurant operated by Richard and Maurice McDonald, in San Bernardino, California, United States. They rechristened their business as a hamburger stand, and later turned the company into a franchise, with the Golden Arches logo being introduced in 1953 at a location in Phoenix, Arizona. In 1955, Ray Kroc, a businessman, joined the company as a franchise agent and proceeded to purchase the chain from the McDonald brothers. McDonald's had its original headquarters in Oak Brook, Illinois, but moved its global headquarters to Chicago in early 2018.\n",
'225': 'Superkart is a form of motorsport road racing in which the class is a racing vehicle sized like a kart but with several characteristics more strongly associated with open-wheel racing cars.\n',
'226': 'The guitar is a fretted musical instrument that usually has six strings. It is typically played with both hands by strumming or plucking the strings with either a guitar pick or the finger(s)/fingernails of one hand, while simultaneously fretting (pressing the strings against the frets) with the fingers of the other hand. The sound of the vibrating strings is projected either acoustically, by means of the hollow chamber of the guitar (for an acoustic guitar), or through an electrical amplifier and a speaker.\n',
'227': 'Budapest (, ) is the capital and the most populous city of Hungary, and the tenth-largest city in the European Union by population within city limits. The city has an estimated population of 1,752,286 over a land area of about . Budapest is both a city and county, and forms the centre of the Budapest metropolitan area, which has an area of and a population of 3,303,786, comprising 33% of the population of Hungary.\n',
'228': 'Good Burger is a 1997 American comedy film directed by Brian Robbins and written by \n',
'229': "Tennis is a racket sport that can be played individually against a single opponent (singles) or between two teams of two players each (doubles). Each player uses a tennis racket that is strung with cord to strike a hollow rubber ball covered with felt over or around a net and into the opponent's court. The object of the game is to maneuver the ball in such a way that the opponent is not able to play a valid return. The player who is unable to return the ball will not gain a point, while the opposite player will.\n",
'230': 'Sports utility vehicles (SUVs) have been criticized for a variety of environmental and safety-related reasons as they became more popular. Many of the safety concerns have been addressed by the adoption of electronic stability control (ESC), rollover mitigation, and other design actions.\n',
'231': 'The City of New York, usually called either New York City (NYC) or simply New York (NY), is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2018 population of 8,398,748 distributed over a land area of about , New York is also the most densely populated major city in the United States. Located at the southern tip of the state of New York, the city is the center of the New York metropolitan area, the largest metropolitan area in the world by urban landmass and one of the world\'s most populous megacities, with an estimated 19,979,477 people in its 2018 Metropolitan Statistical Area and 22,679,948 residents in its Combined Statistical Area. A global power city, New York City has been described as the cultural, financial, and media capital of the world, and exerts a significant impact upon commerce, entertainment, research, technology, education, politics, tourism, art, fashion, and sports. The city\'s fast pace has inspired the term "New York minute". Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy.\n',
'232': "A dental hygienist or oral hygienist is a licensed dental professional, registered with a dental association or regulatory body within their country of practice. Prior to completing clinical and written board examinations, registered dental hygienists must have either an Associate's or Bachelor's degree in Dental Hygiene from an accredited college or university. Once registered, hygienists are primary healthcare professionals who work independently of or alongside dentists and other dental professionals to provide full oral health care. They have the training and education that focus on and specialize in the prevention and treatment of many oral diseases.\n",
'233': 'The domestic dog ("Canis lupus familiaris" when considered a subspecies of the wolf or "Canis familiaris" when considered a distinct species) is a member of the genus "Canis" (canines), which forms part of the wolf-like canids, and is the most widely abundant terrestrial carnivore. The dog and the extant gray wolf are sister taxa as modern wolves are not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated, which implies that the direct ancestor of the dog is extinct. The dog was the first species to be domesticated and has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes.\n',
'234': ', officially , one of the 47 prefectures of Japan, has served as the Japanese capital since 1869. , the Greater Tokyo Area ranked as the most populous metropolitan area in the world. The urban area houses the seat of the Emperor of Japan, of the Japanese government and of the National Diet. Tokyo forms part of the Kantō region on the southeastern side of Japan\'s main island, Honshu, and includes the Izu Islands and Ogasawara Islands. Tokyo was formerly named Edo when "Shōgun" Tokugawa Ieyasu made the city his headquarters in 1603. It became the capital after Emperor Meiji moved his seat to the city from Kyoto in 1868; at that time Edo was renamed Tokyo. The Tokyo Metropolis formed in 1943 from the merger of the former and the . Tokyo is often referred to as a city but is officially known and governed as a "metropolitan prefecture", which differs from and combines elements of a city and a prefecture, a characteristic unique to Tokyo.\n',
'235': 'The horse ("Equus ferus caballus") is one of two extant subspecies of "Equus ferus". It is an odd-toed ungulate mammal belonging to the taxonomic family Equidae. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55\xa0million years from a small multi-toed creature, "Eohippus", into the large, single-toed animal of today. Humans began domesticating horses around 4000 BC, and their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BC. Horses in the subspecies "caballus" are domesticated, although some domesticated populations live in the wild as feral horses. These feral populations are not true wild horses, as this term is used to describe horses that have never been domesticated, such as the endangered Przewalski\'s horse, a separate subspecies, and the only remaining true wild horse. There is an extensive, specialized vocabulary used to describe equine-related concepts, covering everything from anatomy to life stages, size, colors, markings, breeds, locomotion, and behavior.\n',
'236': 'Blue is one of the three primary colours of pigments in painting and traditional colour theory, as well as in the RGB colour model. It lies between violet and green on the spectrum of visible light. The eye perceives blue when observing light with a dominant wavelength between approximately 450 and 495 nanometres. Most blues contain a slight mixture of other colours; azure contains some green, while ultramarine contains some violet. The clear daytime sky and the deep sea appear blue because of an optical effect known as Rayleigh scattering. An optical effect called Tyndall scattering explains blue eyes. Distant objects appear more blue because of another optical effect called aerial perspective.\n',
'237': 'In geology, the crust is the outermost solid shell of a rocky planet, dwarf planet, or natural satellite. It is usually distinguished from the underlying mantle by its chemical makeup; however, in the case of icy satellites, it may be distinguished based on its phase (solid crust vs. liquid mantle).\n',
'238': 'A berry is a small, pulpy, and often edible fruit. Typically, berries are juicy, rounded, brightly colored, sweet or sour, and do not have a stone or pit, although many pips or seeds may be present. Common examples are strawberries, raspberries, blueberries, blackberries, red currants, white currants and blackcurrants. In Britain, soft fruit is a horticultural term for such fruits.\n',
'239': 'Hummus (, ; , \'chickpeas\'; full Arabic name: "ḥummuṣ bi-ṭaḥini" , \'chickpeas in tahini\') is a Levantine dip or spread made from cooked, mashed chickpeas or other beans, blended with tahini, olive oil, lemon juice, salt, and garlic. It is popular in the Middle East and Mediterranean, as well as in Middle Eastern cuisine around the globe. It can also be found in most grocery stores in North America and Europe.\n',
'240': 'Fishing is the activity of trying to catch fish. Fish are normally caught in the wild. Techniques for catching fish include hand gathering, spearing, netting, angling and trapping. “Fishing” may include catching aquatic animals other than fish, such as molluscs, cephalopods, crustaceans, and echinoderms. The term is not normally applied to catching farmed fish, or to aquatic mammals, such as whales where the term whaling is more appropriate. In addition to being caught to be eaten, fish are caught as recreational pastimes. Fishing tournaments are held, and caught fish are sometimes kept as preserved or living trophies. When bioblitzes occur, fish are typically caught, identified, and then released.\n',
'241': "Adoption is a process whereby a person assumes the parenting of another, usually a child, from that person's biological or legal parent or parents. Legal adoptions permanently transfers all rights and responsibilities, along with filiation, from the biological parent or parents. \n",
'242': 'The Ford Mustang is an American car manufactured by Ford. It was originally based on the platform of the second generation North American Ford Falcon, a compact car. The original 1962 Ford Mustang I two-seater concept car had evolved into the 1963 Mustang II four-seater concept car which Ford used to pretest how the public would take interest in the first production Mustang. The 1963 Mustang II concept car was designed with a variation of the production model\'s front and rear ends with a roof that was 2.7 inches shorter. Introduced early on April 17, 1964 (16 days after the Plymouth Barracuda), and thus dubbed as a "1964½" by Mustang fans, the 1965 Mustang was the automaker\'s most successful launch since the Model A. The Mustang has undergone several transformations to its current sixth generation.\n',
'243': 'The Selected Reserve (also called SELRES, SR, or mistakenly Selective Reserve) are the members of a U.S. military Ready Reserve unit that are enrolled in the Ready Reserve program and the reserve unit that they are attached to. Selected Reserve members and units are considered to be in an active status.\n',
'244': 'The piano is an acoustic, stringed musical instrument invented in Italy by Bartolomeo Cristofori around the year 1700 (the exact year is uncertain), in which the strings are struck by hammers. It is played using a keyboard, which is a row of keys (small levers) that the performer presses down or strikes with the fingers and thumbs of both hands to cause the hammers to strike the strings. \n',
'245': 'The Dobermann, (; ), Doberman or Doberman Pinscher in the United States and Canada, is a medium-large breed of domestic dog that was originally developed around 1890 by Karl Friedrich Louis Dobermann, a tax collector from Germany. The Dobermann has a long muzzle. It stands on its pads and is not usually heavy-footed. Ideally, they have an even and graceful gait. Traditionally, the ears are cropped and posted and the tail is docked. However, in some countries, it is illegal to do so. Dobermanns have markings on the chest, paws/legs, muzzle, above the eyes, and underneath the tail.\n',
'246': 'The ceremonial use of lights in the Christian Church probably has a double origin: in a very non-natural symbolism, and in the adaptation of certain pagan and Jewish rites and customs of which the symbolic meaning was Christianized.\n',
'247': 'Scuba diving is a mode of underwater diving where the diver uses a self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (scuba), which is completely independent of surface supply, to breathe underwater. Scuba divers carry their own source of breathing gas, usually compressed air, allowing them greater independence and freedom of movement than surface-supplied divers, and longer underwater endurance than breath-hold divers. Although the use of compressed air is common, a new mixture called enriched air (Nitrox) has been gaining popularity due to its benefit of reduced nitrogen intake during repetitive dives. Open circuit scuba systems discharge the breathing gas into the environment as it is exhaled, and consist of one or more diving cylinders containing breathing gas at high pressure which is supplied to the diver through a regulator. They may include additional cylinders for range extension, decompression gas or emergency breathing gas. Closed-circuit or semi-closed circuit rebreather scuba systems allow recycling of exhaled gases. The volume of gas used is reduced compared to that of open circuit, so a smaller cylinder or cylinders may be used for an equivalent dive duration. Rebreathers extend the time spent underwater compared to open circuit for the same gas consumption; they produce fewer bubbles and less noise than open circuit scuba which makes them attractive to covert military divers to avoid detection, scientific divers to avoid disturbing marine animals, and media divers to avoid bubble interference.\n',
'248': 'An auto mechanic (automotive technician in most of North America, light vehicle technician in British English, and motor mechanic in Australian English) is a mechanic with a variety of automobile makes or either in a specific area or in a specific make of automobile. In repairing cars, their main role is to diagnose the problem accurately and quickly. They often have to quote prices for their customers before commencing work or after partial disassembly for inspection. Their job may involve the repair of a specific part or the replacement of one or more parts as assemblies.\n',
'249': 'The word "moped" was coined by the Swedish journalist Harald Nielsen in 1952, as a portmanteau of the Swedish words "motor" and "pedaler". The claimed derivation from the term "motor-velocipede" is incorrect. According to Douglas Harper, the Swedish terms originated from "("trampcykel med") mo(tor och") ped(aler")", which means "pedal cycle with engine and pedals" (the earliest versions had auxiliary pedals). Like some of the earliest two wheeled motorcycles, all mopeds were once equipped with bicycle pedals.\n',
'250': 'Microsoft Corporation is an American multinational technology company with headquarters in Redmond, Washington. It develops, manufactures, licenses, supports and sells computer software, consumer electronics, personal computers, and related services. Its best known software products are the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, the Microsoft Office suite, and the Internet Explorer and Edge Web browsers. Its flagship hardware products are the Xbox video game consoles and the Microsoft Surface lineup of touchscreen personal computers. As of 2016, it is the world\'s largest software maker by revenue, and one of the world\'s most valuable companies. The word "Microsoft" is a portmanteau of "microcomputer" and "software". Microsoft is ranked No. 30 in the 2018 Fortune 500 rankings of the largest United States corporations by total revenue.\n',
'251': 'Crayfish are eaten all over the world. Like other edible crustaceans, only a small portion of the body of a crayfish is edible. In most prepared dishes, such as soups, bisques and étouffées, only the tail portion is served. At crawfish boils or other meals where the entire body of the crayfish is presented, other portions, such as the claw meat, may be eaten.\n',
'252': 'Hiking is the preferred term, in Canada and the United States, for a long, vigorous walk, usually on trails (footpaths), in the countryside, while the word walking is used for shorter, particularly urban walks. On the other hand, in the United Kingdom, and the Republic of Ireland, the word "walking" is acceptable to describe "all forms" of walking, whether it is a walk in the park or backpacking in the Alps. The word hiking is also often used in the UK, along with rambling (a slightly old-fashioned term), hillwalking, and fell walking (a term mostly used for hillwalking in northern England). The term bushwalking is endemic to Australia, having been adopted by the Sydney Bush Walkers club in 1927. In New Zealand a long, vigorous walk or hike is called tramping. It is a popular activity with numerous worldwide, and studies suggest that all forms of walking have health benefits.\n',
'253': 'Swimming relies on the nearly neutral buoyancy of the human body. On average, the body has a relative density of 0.98 compared to water, which causes the body to float. However, buoyancy varies on the basis of body composition, lung inflation, and the salinity of the water. Higher levels of body fat and saltier water both lower the relative density of the body and increase its buoyancy.\n',
'254': "Retirement is the withdrawal from one's position or occupation or from one's active working life. A person may also semi-retire by reducing work hours.\n",
'255': 'Hip-hop dance refers to street dance styles primarily performed to hip-hop music or that have evolved as part of hip-hop culture. It includes a wide range of styles primarily breaking which was created in the 1970s and made popular by dance crews in the United States. The television show "Soul Train" and the 1980s films "Breakin\'", "Beat Street", and "Wild Style" showcased these crews and dance styles in their early stages; therefore, giving hip-hop mainstream exposure. The dance industry responded with a commercial, studio-based version of hip-hop—sometimes called "new style"—and a hip-hop influenced style of jazz dance called "jazz-funk". Classically trained dancers developed these studio styles in order to create choreography from the hip-hop dances that were performed on the street. Because of this development, hip-hop dance is practiced in both dance studios and outdoor spaces.\n',
'256': 'Candle making was developed independently in many places throughout history. \n',
'257': 'Radiology is the medical specialty that uses medical imaging to diagnose and treat diseases within the human body.\n',
'258': "Infidelity (synonyms include: cheating, straying, adultery (when married), being unfaithful, or having an affair) is a violation of a couple's assumed or stated contract regarding emotional and/or sexual exclusivity. Other scholars define infidelity as a violation according to the subjective feeling that one's partner has violated a set of rules or relationship norms; this violation results in feelings of jealousy, sexual jealousy, and rivalry.\n",
'259': 'A unicycle is a vehicle that touches the ground with only one wheel. The most common variation has a frame with a saddle, and has a pedal-driven direct drive. A two speed hub is commercially available for faster unicycling. Unicycling is practiced professionally in circuses, by street performers, in festivals, and as a hobby. Unicycles have also been used to create new sports such as unicycle hockey. In recent years, unicycles have also been used in mountain unicycling, an activity similar to mountain biking or trials.\n',
'260': 'The origins of the taco are not precisely known, and etymologies for the culinary usage of the word are generally theoretical. According to the Real Academia Española, publisher of "Diccionario de la Lengua Española", the word "taco" describes a typical Mexican dish of a maize tortilla folded around food. This meaning of the Spanish word "taco" is a Mexican innovation, but in other dialects "taco" is used to mean "wedge; wad, plug; billiard cue; blowpipe; ramrod; short, stocky person; [or] short, thick piece of wood." In this non-culinary usage, the word "taco" has cognates in other European languages, including the French word "tache" and the English word "tack (nail)."\n',
'261': "Reese's Peanut Butter Cups are an American candy consisting of a milk, white, or dark chocolate cup filled with peanut cream, marketed by The Hershey Company. They were created by H. B. Reese, a former dairy farmer and shipping foreman for Milton S. Hershey. Reese left his job as a shipping foreman for The Hershey Company to start his own candy business.\n",
'262': 'The first recorded use of the term "birdwatcher" was in 1891; "bird" was introduced as a verb in 1918. The term "birding" was also used for the practice of "fowling" or hunting with firearms as in Shakespeare\'s "The Merry Wives of Windsor" (1602): "She laments sir... her husband goes this morning a-birding." The terms "birding" and "birdwatching" are today used by some interchangeably, although some participants prefer "birding", partly because it includes the auditory aspects of enjoying birds.\n',
'263': 'Cake is a form of sweet food that is usually baked. In their oldest forms, cakes were modifications of breads, but cakes now cover a wide range of preparations that can be simple or elaborate, and that share features with other desserts such as pastries, meringues, custards, and pies.\n',
'264': 'The domestic dog ("Canis lupus familiaris" when considered a subspecies of the wolf or "Canis familiaris" when considered a distinct species) is a member of the genus "Canis" (canines), which forms part of the wolf-like canids, and is the most widely abundant terrestrial carnivore. The dog and the extant gray wolf are sister taxa as modern wolves are not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated, which implies that the direct ancestor of the dog is extinct. The dog was the first species to be domesticated and has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes.\n',
'265': 'A pub, or public house, is an establishment licensed to sell alcoholic drinks, which traditionally include beer (such as ale) and cider. It is a social drinking establishment and a prominent part of British, Irish, Breton, New Zealand, Canadian, South African and Australian cultures. In many places, especially in villages, a pub is the focal point of the community. In his 17th-century diary Samuel Pepys described the pub as "the heart of England".\n',
'266': "An airplane or aeroplane (informally plane) is a powered, fixed-wing aircraft that is propelled forward by thrust from a jet engine, propeller or rocket engine. Airplanes come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and wing configurations. The broad spectrum of uses for airplanes includes recreation, transportation of goods and people, military, and research. Worldwide, commercial aviation transports more than four billion passengers annually on airliners and transports more than 200 billion tonne-kilometres of cargo annually, which is less than 1% of the world's cargo movement. Most airplanes are flown by a pilot on board the aircraft, but some are designed to be remotely or computer-controlled such as drones.\n",
'267': 'Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from roasted coffee beans, the seeds of berries from certain "Coffea" species. The genus "Coffea" is native to tropical Africa (specifically having its origin in Ethiopia and Sudan) and Madagascar, the Comoros, Mauritius, and Réunion in the Indian Ocean. Coffee plants are now cultivated in over 70 countries, primarily in the equatorial regions of the Americas, Southeast Asia, Indian subcontinent, and Africa. The two most commonly grown are "C. arabica" and "C. robusta". Once ripe, coffee berries are picked, processed, and dried. Dried coffee seeds (referred to as "beans") are roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor. Roasted beans are ground and then brewed with near-boiling water to produce the beverage known as coffee.\n',
'268': 'An ocean () is a body of water that composes much of a planet\'s hydrosphere. On Earth, an ocean is one of the major conventional divisions of the World Ocean. These are, in descending order by area, the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern (Antarctic), and Arctic Oceans. The word "ocean" is often used interchangeably with "sea" in American English. Strictly speaking, a "sea" is a body of water (generally a division of the world ocean) partly or fully enclosed by land, though "the sea" refers also to the oceans.\n',
'269': 'Some eggs are laid by female animals of many different species, including birds, reptiles, amphibians, mammals, and fish, and have been eaten by humans for thousands of years. Bird and reptile eggs consist of a protective eggshell, albumen (egg white), and vitellus (egg yolk), contained within various thin membranes. The most commonly consumed eggs are chicken eggs. Other poultry eggs including those of duck and quail also are eaten. Fish eggs are called roe and caviar.\n',
'270': 'An Apple martini (Appletini for short) is a cocktail containing vodka and one or more of apple juice, apple cider, apple liqueur, or apple brandy.\n',
'271': 'Ancient Greek phonology is the reconstructed phonology or pronunciation of Ancient Greek. This article mostly deals with the pronunciation of the standard Attic dialect of the fifth century BC, used by Plato and other Classical Greek writers, and touches on other dialects spoken at the same time or earlier. The pronunciation of Ancient Greek is not known from direct observation, but determined from other types of evidence. Some details regarding the pronunciation of Attic Greek and other Ancient Greek dialects are unknown, but it is generally agreed that Attic Greek had certain features not present in English or Modern Greek, such as a three-way distinction between voiced, voiceless, and aspirated stops (such as , as in English "bot, spot, pot"); a distinction between single and double consonants and short and long vowels in most positions in a word; and a word accent that involved pitch.\n',
'272': 'Stand-up comedy is a comic style in which a comedian performs in front of a live audience, usually speaking directly to them. The performer is commonly known as a comic, stand-up comic, comedian, comedienne, stand-up comedian, or simply a stand-up. In stand-up comedy, the comedian gives the illusion that they are dialoguing, but in actuality, they are monologuing a grouping of humorous stories, jokes and one-liners, typically called a shtick, routine, or set. Some stand-up comedians use props, music or magic tricks\n',
'273': 'A beach is a landform alongside a body of water which consists of loose particles. The particles composing a beach are typically made from rock, such as sand, gravel, shingle, pebbles. The particles can also be biological in origin, such as mollusc shells or coralline algae.\n',
'274': 'Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface (called the "matrix" or "support"). The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, and airbrushes, can be used. The final work is also called a painting.\n',
'275': "The Washington Wizards are an American professional basketball team based in Washington, D.C. The Wizards compete in the National Basketball Association (NBA) as a member of the league's Eastern Conference Southeast Division. The team plays its home games at the Capital One Arena, in the Chinatown neighborhood of Washington, D.C.\n",
'276': 'Gabrielle Bonheur "Coco" Chanel (19 August 1883 – 10 January 1971) was a French fashion designer, businesswoman, and Nazi collaborator. The founder and namesake of the Chanel brand, she was credited in the post-World War I era with liberating women from the constraints of the "corseted silhouette" and popularizing a sporty, casual chic as the feminine standard of style. A prolific fashion creator, Chanel extended her influence beyond couture clothing, realizing her design aesthetic in jewellery, handbags, and fragrance. Her signature scent, Chanel No. 5, has become an iconic product. She is the only fashion designer listed on "Time" magazine\'s . Chanel herself designed her famed interlocked-CC monogram, which has been in use since the 1920s.\n',
'277': 'In Greek mythology, Narcissus (; Ancient Greek: Νάρκισσος "Nárkissos") was a hunter from Thespiae in Boeotia who was known for his beauty. According to Tzetzes, he was a Laconian hunter who loved everything beautiful. Narcissus was proud, in that he disdained those who loved him, causing some to commit suicide to prove their unrelenting devotion to his striking beauty. Narcissus is the origin of the term "narcissism", a fixation with oneself and one\'s physical appearance or public perception.\n',
'278': 'Dr Pepper is a carbonated soft drink. It was created in the 1880s by pharmacist Charles Alderton in Waco, Texas and first served around 1885. Dr Pepper was first nationally marketed in the United States in 1904, and is now also sold in Europe, Asia, North and South America, and Australia, as well as New Zealand and South Africa as an imported good. Variants include Diet Dr Pepper and, beginning in the 2000s, a line of additional flavors.\n',
'279': 'Husky is a general name for a sled-type of dog used in northern regions, differentiated from other sled-dog types by their fast pulling style. They are an ever-changing cross-breed of the fastest dogs. The Alaskan Malamute, by contrast, was used for pulling heavier loads. Huskies are used in sled dog racing. In recent years, companies have been marketing tourist treks with dog sledges for adventure travelers in snow regions as well. Huskies are also today kept as pets, and groups work to find new pet homes for retired racing and adventure trekking dogs.\n',
'280': "Snakes are elongated, legless, carnivorous reptiles of the suborder Serpentes. Like all other squamates, snakes are ectothermic, amniote vertebrates covered in overlapping scales. Many species of snakes have skulls with several more joints than their lizard ancestors, enabling them to swallow prey much larger than their heads with their highly mobile jaws. To accommodate their narrow bodies, snakes' paired organs (such as kidneys) appear one in front of the other instead of side by side, and most have only one functional lung. Some species retain a pelvic girdle with a pair of vestigial claws on either side of the cloaca. Lizards have evolved elongate bodies without limbs or with greatly reduced limbs about twenty-five times independently via convergent evolution, leading to many lineages of legless lizards. Legless lizards resemble snakes, but several common groups of legless lizards have eyelids and external ears, which snakes lack, although this rule is not universal (see Amphisbaenia, Dibamidae, and Pygopodidae).\n",
'281': "The Tampa Bay Rays are an American professional baseball team based in St. Petersburg, Florida. The Rays compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member of the American League (AL) East division. Since its inception, the team's home venue has been Tropicana Field.\n",
'282': 'Running is a method of terrestrial locomotion allowing humans and other animals to move rapidly on foot. Running is a type of gait characterized by an aerial phase in which all feet are above the ground (though there are exceptions). This is in contrast to walking, where one foot is always in contact with the ground, the legs are kept mostly straight and the center of gravity vaults over the stance leg or legs in an inverted pendulum fashion. A characteristic feature of a running body from the viewpoint of spring-mass mechanics is that changes in kinetic and potential energy within a stride occur simultaneously, with energy storage accomplished by springy tendons and passive muscle elasticity. The term running can refer to any of a variety of speeds ranging from jogging to sprinting.\n',
'283': "Mopeds, electric bicycles, and even electric kick scooters are a simple form of a hybrid, powered by an internal combustion engine or electric motor and the rider's muscles. Early prototype motorcycles in the late 19th century used the same principle.\n",
'284': 'Cattle were brought to Japan from China at the same time as the cultivation of rice, in about the second century AD, in the Yayoi period. Until about the time of the Meiji Restoration in 1868, they were used only as draught animals, in agriculture, forestry, mining and for transport, and as a source of fertiliser. Milk consumption was unknown, and – for cultural and religious reasons – meat was not eaten.\n',
'285': 'Vermont () is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. It borders the U.S. states of Massachusetts to the south, New Hampshire to the east, New York to the west, and the Canadian province of Quebec to the north. Vermont is the second-smallest by population and the sixth-smallest by area of the 50 U.S. states. The state capital is Montpelier, the least populous state capital in the United States. The most populous city, Burlington, is the least populous city to be the most populous city in a state. As of 2015, Vermont was the leading producer of maple syrup in the United States. In crime statistics, it was ranked since 2016 as the safest state in the country.\n',
'286': 'Parenting or child rearing is the process of promoting and supporting the physical, emotional, social, and intellectual development of a child from infancy to adulthood. Parenting refers to the intricacies of raising a child and not exclusively for a biological relationship.\n',
'287': 'A beach is a landform alongside a body of water which consists of loose particles. The particles composing a beach are typically made from rock, such as sand, gravel, shingle, pebbles. The particles can also be biological in origin, such as mollusc shells or coralline algae.\n',
'288': 'A houseboat (different from boathouse, which is a shed for storing boats) is a boat that has been designed or modified to be used primarily as a home. Some houseboats are not motorized, because they are usually "moored", kept stationary at a fixed point and often tethered to land to provide utilities. However, many are capable of operation under their own power. "Float house" is a Canadian and American term for a house on a float (raft); a rough house may be called a "shanty boat". In Western countries, houseboats tend to be either owned privately or rented out to holiday-goers, and on some canals in Europe, people dwell in houseboats all year round. Examples of this include, but are not limited to, Amsterdam, London, and Paris.\n',
'289': 'Parenting or child rearing is the process of promoting and supporting the physical, emotional, social, and intellectual development of a child from infancy to adulthood. Parenting refers to the intricacies of raising a child and not exclusively for a biological relationship.\n',
'290': 'Mexican street food, called antojitos (literally "little cravings"), is prepared by street vendors and at small traditional markets in Mexico. Street foods include tacos, tamales, gorditas, quesadillas, empalmes, tostadas, chalupa, elote, tlayudas, cemita, pambazo, empanada, nachos, chilaquiles, fajita and tortas, as well as fresh fruit, vegetables, beverages and soups such as menudo, pozole and pancita. Most are available in the morning and the evening, as mid-afternoon is the time for the main formal meal of the day.\n',
'291': 'Reading is the complex cognitive process of decoding symbols to derive meaning. It is a form of language processing.\n',
'292': 'Kentucky ( ), officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state located in the east south-central region of the United States. Although styled as the "State of Kentucky" in the law creating it, "(because in Kentucky\'s first constitution, the name state was used)" Kentucky is one of four U.S. states constituted as a commonwealth (the others being Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts). Originally a part of Virginia, in 1792 Kentucky split from it and became the 15th state to join the Union. Kentucky is the 37th most extensive and the 26th most populous of the 50 United States.\n',
'293': 'The word "burrito" means "little donkey" in Spanish, being the diminutive form of "burro", or "donkey". The name "burrito", as applied to the dish, possibly derives from the tendency for burritos to contain a lot of different things similar to how a donkey would be able to carry a lot.\n',
'294': 'The German Shepherd (, ) is a breed of medium to big-sized working dog that originated in Germany. In the English language, the breed\'s officially recognized name is German Shepherd Dog (sometimes abbreviated as "GSD"). The breed was officially known as the Alsatian in Britain from after the First World War until 1977 when its name was changed back to German Shepherd. Despite its primitive, wolf-like appearance the German Shepherd is a relatively modern breed of dog, with their origin dating to 1899. As part of the Herding Group, German Shepherds are working dogs developed originally for herding sheep. Since that time however, because of their strength, intelligence, trainability, and obedience, German Shepherds around the world are often the preferred breed for many types of work, including disability assistance, search-and-rescue, police and military roles, and acting. The German Shepherd is the second-most registered breed by the American Kennel Club and seventh-most registered breed by The Kennel Club in the United Kingdom.\n',
'295': 'Yves Saint Laurent SAS (; YSL), also known as Saint Laurent, is a French luxury fashion house founded by Yves Saint Laurent and his partner, Pierre Bergé. The company revived its haute couture collection in 2015 under former Creative Director Hedi Slimane. In April 2016, Anthony Vaccarello was appointed as the Creative Director.\n',
'296': 'Parachuting is a method of transiting from a high point to Earth with the aid of gravity, involving the control of speed during the descent with the use of a parachute or parachutes. It may involve more or less free-falling (the skydiving segment) which is a period when the parachute has not yet been deployed and the body gradually accelerates to terminal velocity.\n',
'297': 'A no-kill or limited admit shelter is a shelter that saves healthy, treatable and rehabilitatable animals. As a benchmark, at least 90% of the animals entering the shelter are expected to be saved. The save rate must be based on all animals entering the shelter: "It does not matter if the animals are old, blind, deaf, missing limbs, or traumatized. All of these animals are worthy of our compassion, all of them can find homes, and all of them deserve to."\n',
'298': 'Kentucky ( ), officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state located in the east south-central region of the United States. Although styled as the "State of Kentucky" in the law creating it, "(because in Kentucky\'s first constitution, the name state was used)" Kentucky is one of four U.S. states constituted as a commonwealth (the others being Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts). Originally a part of Virginia, in 1792 Kentucky split from it and became the 15th state to join the Union. Kentucky is the 37th most extensive and the 26th most populous of the 50 United States.\n',
'299': 'Rapping (or rhyming, spitting, emceeing, MCing) is a musical form of vocal delivery that incorporates "rhyme, rhythmic speech, and street vernacular", which is performed or chanted in a variety of ways, usually over a backing beat or musical accompaniment. The components of rap include "content" (what is being said), "flow" (rhythm, rhyme), and "delivery" (cadence, tone). Rap differs from spoken-word poetry in that rap is usually performed in time to an instrumental track. Rap is often associated with, and is a primary ingredient of hip-hop music, but the origins of the phenomenon predate hip-hop culture. The earliest precursor to the modern rap is the West African griot tradition, in which "oral historians", or "praise-singers", would disseminate oral traditions and genealogies, or use their formidable rhetorical techniques for gossip or to "praise or critique individuals." Griot traditions connect to rap along a lineage of Black verbal reverence that goes back to ancient Egyptian practices, through James Brown interacting with the crowd and the band between songs, to Muhammad Ali\'s quick-witted verbal taunts and the palpitating poems of the Last Poets. Therefore, rap lyrics and music are part of the "Black rhetorical continuum", and aim to reuse elements of past traditions while expanding upon them through "creative use of language and rhetorical styles and strategies. The person credited with originating the style of "delivering rhymes over extensive music", that would become known as rap, was Anthony "DJ Hollywood" Holloway from Harlem, New York.\n',
'300': 'Allergies, also known as allergic diseases, are a number of conditions caused by hypersensitivity of the immune system to typically harmless substances in the environment. These diseases include hay fever, food allergies, atopic dermatitis, allergic asthma, and anaphylaxis. Symptoms may include red eyes, an itchy rash, sneezing, a runny nose, shortness of breath, or swelling. Food intolerances and food poisoning are separate conditions.\n',
'301': 'Parrots, also known as psittacines , are birds of the roughly 393 species in 92 genera that make up the order Psittaciformes, found in most tropical and subtropical regions. The order is subdivided into three superfamilies: the Psittacoidea ("true" parrots), the Cacatuoidea (cockatoos), and the Strigopoidea (New Zealand parrots). Parrots have a generally pantropical distribution with several species inhabiting temperate regions in the Southern Hemisphere, as well. The greatest diversity of parrots is in South America and Australasia.\n',
'302': 'Drawing is a form of visual art in which a person uses various drawing instruments to mark paper or another two-dimensional medium. Instruments include graphite pencils, pen and ink, various kinds of paints, inked brushes, colored pencils, crayons, charcoal, chalk, pastels, various kinds of erasers, markers, styluses, and various metals (such as silverpoint). Digital drawing is the act of using a computer to draw. Common methods of digital drawing include a stylus or finger on a touchscreen device, stylus- or finger-to-touchpad, or in some cases, a mouse. There are many digital art programs and devices.\n',
'303': 'Kale originated in the eastern Mediterranean and Asia Minor, where it was cultivated for food beginning by 2000 BC at the latest. Curly-leaved varieties of cabbage already existed along with flat-leaved varieties in Greece in the 4th century BC. These forms, which were referred to by the Romans as Sabellian kale, are considered to be the ancestors of modern kales.\n',
'304': 'Hinduism is an Indian religion and "dharma", or way of life, widely practised in the Indian subcontinent and parts of Southeast Asia. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as "Sanātana Dharma", "the eternal tradition", or the "eternal way", beyond human history. Scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This "Hindu synthesis" started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE, after the end of the Vedic period (1500 to 500 BCE), and flourished in the medieval period, with the decline of Buddhism in India. \n',
'305': 'Jazz is a music genre that originated in the African-American communities of New Orleans, United States. It originated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and developed from roots in blues and ragtime. Jazz is seen by many as "America\'s classical music". Since the 1920s Jazz Age, jazz has become recognized as a major form of musical expression. It then emerged in the form of independent traditional and popular musical styles, all linked by the common bonds of African-American and European-American musical parentage with a performance orientation. Jazz is characterized by swing and blue notes, call and response vocals, polyrhythms and improvisation. Jazz has roots in West African cultural and musical expression, and in African-American music traditions including blues and ragtime, as well as European military band music. Intellectuals around the world have hailed jazz as "one of America\'s original art forms".\n',
'306': "Linkin Park is an American rock band from Agoura Hills, California. The band's current lineup comprises vocalist/rhythm guitarist Mike Shinoda, lead guitarist Brad Delson, bassist Dave Farrell, DJ/keyboardist Joe Hahn, and drummer Rob Bourdon, all of whom are founding members. Vocalists Mark Wakefield and Chester Bennington and bassist Kyle Christner are former members of the band.\n",
'307': 'The carrot ("Daucus carota" subsp. "sativus") is a root vegetable, usually orange in colour, though purple, black, red, white, and yellow cultivars exist. Carrots are a domesticated form of the wild carrot, "Daucus carota", native to Europe and southwestern Asia. The plant probably originated in Persia and was originally cultivated for its leaves and seeds. The most commonly eaten part of the plant is the taproot, although the stems and leaves are eaten as well. The domestic carrot has been selectively bred for its greatly enlarged, more palatable, less woody-textured taproot.\n',
'308': 'Game of Thrones is an American fantasy drama television series created by David Benioff and D. B. Weiss for HBO. It is an adaptation of "A Song of Ice and Fire", George R. R. Martin\'s series of fantasy novels, the first of which is "A Game of Thrones". The show was both produced and filmed in Belfast and elsewhere in the United Kingdom. Filming locations also included Canada, Croatia, Iceland, Malta, Morocco, and Spain. The series premiered on HBO in the United States on April 17, 2011, and concluded on May 19, 2019, with 73 episodes broadcast over eight seasons. \n',
'309': 'A mystery film is a genre of film that revolves around the solution of a problem or a crime. It focuses on the efforts of the detective, private investigator or amateur sleuth to solve the mysterious circumstances of an issue by means of clues, investigation, and clever deduction.\n',
'310': 'Xbox is a video gaming brand created and owned by Microsoft. It represents a series of video game consoles developed by Microsoft, with three consoles released in the sixth, seventh, and eighth generations, respectively. The brand also represents applications (games), streaming services, an online service by the name of Xbox Live, and the development arm by the name of Xbox Game Studios. The brand was first introduced in the United States in November 2001, with the launch of the original Xbox console.\n',
'311': 'The bitcoin network is a peer-to-peer payment network that operates on a cryptographic protocol. Users send and receive bitcoins, the units of currency, by broadcasting digitally signed messages to the network using bitcoin cryptocurrency wallet software. Transactions are recorded into a distributed, replicated public database known as the blockchain, with consensus achieved by a proof-of-work system called "mining". Satoshi Nakamoto, the designer of bitcoin claimed that design and coding of bitcoin began in 2007. The project was released in 2009 as open source software.\n',
'312': 'A thimble is a small hard pitted cup worn for protection on the finger that pushes the needle in sewing. Usually, thimbles with a closed top are used by dressmakers but special thimbles with an opening at the end are used by tailors as this allows them to manipulate the cloth more easily. Finger guards differ from tailors\' thimbles in that they often have a top but are open on one side. Some finger guards are little more than a finger shield attached to a ring to maintain the guard in place. The Old English word "þȳmel", the ancestor of thimble, is derived from Old English "þūma", the ancestor of the English word ‘thumb’.\n',
'313': "Radiohead are an English rock band formed in Abingdon-on-Thames in 1985. The band consists of Thom Yorke (vocals, guitar, piano, keyboards), brothers Jonny Greenwood (lead guitar, keyboards, other instruments) and Colin Greenwood (bass), Ed O'Brien (guitar, backing vocals) and Philip Selway (drums, percussion). They have worked with producer Nigel Godrich and cover artist Stanley Donwood since 1994.\n",
'314': 'The Labrador Retriever, or just Labrador, is a large type of retriever-gun dog. The Labrador is one of the most popular breeds of dog in Canada, the United Kingdom and the United States.\n',
'315': "The process or technique of tattooing, creating a tattoo, involves the insertion of pigment into the skin's dermis. Traditionally, tattooing often involved rubbing pigment into cuts. Modern tattooing almost always requires the use of a tattoo machine and often procedures and accessories to reduce the risk to human health.\n",
'316': 'A beach is a landform alongside a body of water which consists of loose particles. The particles composing a beach are typically made from rock, such as sand, gravel, shingle, pebbles. The particles can also be biological in origin, such as mollusc shells or coralline algae.\n',
'317': 'Blue is one of the three primary colours of pigments in painting and traditional colour theory, as well as in the RGB colour model. It lies between violet and green on the spectrum of visible light. The eye perceives blue when observing light with a dominant wavelength between approximately 450 and 495 nanometres. Most blues contain a slight mixture of other colours; azure contains some green, while ultramarine contains some violet. The clear daytime sky and the deep sea appear blue because of an optical effect known as Rayleigh scattering. An optical effect called Tyndall scattering explains blue eyes. Distant objects appear more blue because of another optical effect called aerial perspective.\n',
'318': 'Veganism is the practice of abstaining from the use of animal products, particularly in diet, and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals. A follower of the diet or the philosophy is known as a vegan. Distinctions may be made between several categories of veganism. "Dietary vegans" (also known as strict vegetarians) refrain from consuming animal products, not only meat but also eggs, dairy products and other animal-derived substances. The term "ethical vegan" is often applied to those who not only follow a vegan diet but extend the philosophy into other areas of their lives, and oppose the use of animals for any purpose. Another term is "environmental veganism", which refers to the avoidance of animal products on the premise that the industrial farming of animals is environmentally damaging and unsustainable.\n',
'319': 'Near-sightedness, also known as short-sightedness and myopia, is an eye disorder where light focuses in front of, instead of on, the retina. This causes distant objects to be blurry while close objects appear normal. Other symptoms may include headaches and eye strain. Severe near-sightedness is associated with an increased risk of retinal detachment, cataracts, and glaucoma.\n',
'320': 'A lawyer or attorney is a person who practices law, as an advocate, attorney, attorney at law, barrister, barrister-at-law, bar-at-law, canonist, canon lawyer, civil law notary, counsel, counselor, counsellor, solicitor, legal executive, or public servant preparing, interpreting and applying law, but not as a paralegal or charter executive secretary. Working as a lawyer involves the practical application of abstract legal theories and knowledge to solve specific individualized problems, or to advance the interests of those who hire lawyers to perform legal services.\n',
'321': 'The domestic dog ("Canis lupus familiaris" when considered a subspecies of the wolf or "Canis familiaris" when considered a distinct species) is a member of the genus "Canis" (canines), which forms part of the wolf-like canids, and is the most widely abundant terrestrial carnivore. The dog and the extant gray wolf are sister taxa as modern wolves are not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated, which implies that the direct ancestor of the dog is extinct. The dog was the first species to be domesticated and has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes.\n',
'322': 'A hamburger (short: burger) is a sandwich consisting of one or more cooked patties of ground meat, usually beef, placed inside a sliced bread roll or bun. The patty may be pan fried, grilled, or flame broiled. Hamburgers are often served with cheese, lettuce, tomato, onion, pickles, bacon, or chiles; condiments such as ketchup, mayonnaise, mustard, relish, or "special sauce"; and are frequently placed on sesame seed buns. A hamburger topped with cheese is called a cheeseburger.\n',
'323': 'Shaving is the removal of hair, by using a razor or any other kind of bladed implement, to slice it down—to the level of the skin or otherwise. Shaving is most commonly practiced by men to remove their facial hair and by women to remove their leg and underarm hair. A man is called "clean-shaven" if he has had his beard entirely removed.\n',
'324': 'Cooking or cookery is the art, technology, science and craft of preparing food for consumption. Cooking techniques and ingredients vary widely across the world, from grilling food over an open fire to using electric stoves, to baking in various types of ovens, reflecting unique environmental, economic, and cultural traditions and trends. The ways or types of cooking also depend on the skill and type of training an individual cook has. Cooking is done both by people in their own dwellings and by professional cooks and chefs in restaurants and other food establishments. Cooking can also occur through chemical reactions without the presence of heat, such as in ceviche, a traditional South American dish where fish is cooked with the acids in lemon or lime juice.\n',
'325': 'The wreck of the RMS "Titanic" lies at a depth of about , about south-southeast off the coast of Newfoundland. It lies in two main pieces about a third of a mile (600 m) apart. The bow is still recognisable with many preserved interiors, despite deterioration and damage sustained hitting the sea floor. In contrast, the stern is completely ruined. A debris field around the wreck contains hundreds of thousands of items spilled from the ship as she sank. The bodies of the passengers and crew would have also been distributed across the sea bed, but have been consumed by other organisms.\n',
'326': 'All the "Betta" species are small fishes, but they vary considerably in size, ranging from under 2.5\xa0cm (1\xa0in) total length in "B. chanoides" to 14\xa0cm (5.5\xa0in) in the Akar betta ("B. akarensis").\n',
'327': 'The Yorkshire Terrier (also called the "Yorkie") originated in Yorkshire, a county in northern England (and the adjoining Lancashire). In the mid-19th century, workers from Scotland came to Yorkshire in search of work and brought with them several different varieties of small terriers. Breeding of the Yorkshire Terrier was "principally accomplished by the people—mostly operatives in cotton and woollen mills—in the counties of Yorkshire and Lancashire." Details are scarce. Mrs A. Foster is quoted as saying in 1886, "If we consider that the mill operatives who originated the breed...were nearly all ignorant men, unaccustomed to imparting information for public use, we may see some reason why reliable facts have not been easily attained."\n',
'328': 'Fishing tackle is the equipment used by anglers when fishing. Almost any equipment or gear used for fishing can be called fishing tackle. Some examples are hooks, lines, sinkers, floats, rods, reels, baits, lures, spears, nets, gaffs, traps, waders and tackle boxes.\n',
'329': 'Some of the main types of humor in stand-up comedy include observational comedy, blue comedy, dark comedy, clean comedy, and cringe comedy.\n',
'330': 'The word "anime" is the Japanese term for "animation", which means all forms of animated media. Outside Japan, "anime" refers specifically to animation from Japan or as a Japanese-disseminated animation style often characterized by colorful graphics, vibrant characters and fantastical themes. The culturally abstract approach to the word\'s meaning may open up the possibility of anime produced in countries other than Japan. For simplicity, many Westerners strictly view anime as a Japanese animation product. Some scholars suggest defining anime as specifically or quintessentially Japanese may be related to a new form of Orientalism.\n',
'331': 'Sushi is traditionally made with medium-grain white rice, though it can be prepared with brown rice or short-grain rice. It is very often prepared with seafood, such as squid, eel, yellowtail, salmon, tuna or imitation crab meat. Many types of sushi are vegetarian. It is often served with pickled ginger ("gari"), wasabi, and soy sauce. Daikon radish or pickled daikon ("takuan") are popular garnishes for the dish.\n',
'332': 'Surfing is a surface water sport in which the wave rider, referred to as a surfer, rides on the forward or face of a moving wave, which usually carries the surfer towards the shore. Waves suitable for surfing are primarily found in the ocean, but can also be found in lakes or rivers in the form of a standing wave or tidal bore. However, surfers can also utilize artificial waves such as those from boat wakes and the waves created in artificial wave pools.\n',
'333': "Steven Paul Jobs (; February 24, 1955 – October 5, 2011) was an American business magnate and investor. He was the chairman, chief executive officer (CEO), and co-founder of Apple Inc., the chairman and majority shareholder of Pixar, a member of The Walt Disney Company's board of directors following its acquisition of Pixar, and the founder, chairman, and CEO of NeXT. Jobs is widely recognized as a pioneer of the microcomputer revolution of the 1970s and 1980s, along with Apple co-founder Steve Wozniak. \n",
'334': 'The roots of apple butter lie in Limburg (Belgium and the Netherlands) and Rhineland (Germany), conceived during the Middle Ages, when the first monasteries (with large orchards) appeared. The production of the butter was a perfect way to conserve part of the fruit production of the monasteries in that region, at a time when almost every village had its own apple-butter producers. The production of apple butter was also a popular way of using apples in colonial America, well into the 19th century.\n',
'335': 'The distinction between songs and calls is based upon complexity, length, and context. Songs are longer and more complex and are associated with courtship and mating, while calls tend to serve such functions as alarms or keeping members of a flock in contact. Other authorities such as Howell and Webb (1995) make the distinction based on function, so that short vocalizations, such as those of pigeons, and even non-vocal sounds, such as the drumming of woodpeckers and the "winnowing" of snipes\' wings in display flight, are considered songs. Still others require song to have syllabic diversity and temporal regularity akin to the repetitive and transformative patterns that define music. It is generally agreed upon in birding and ornithology which sounds are songs and which are calls, and a good field guide will differentiate between the two.\n',
'336': 'The cat ("Felis catus") is a small carnivorous mammal. It is the only domesticated species in the family Felidae and often referred to as the domestic cat to distinguish it from wild members of the family. The cat is either a house cat or a farm cat, which are pets, or a feral cat, which ranges freely and avoids human contact.\n',
'337': 'The Last of the Mohicans is a 1992 American epic historical drama film set in 1757 during the French and Indian War. It was written and directed by Michael Mann and was based on James Fenimore Cooper\'s 1826 novel "The Last of the Mohicans: A Narrative of 1757" and George B. Seitz\'s 1936 film adaptation, owing more to the film than the novel. The film stars Daniel Day-Lewis, Madeleine Stowe, and Jodhi May, with Russell Means, Wes Studi, Eric Schweig, and Steven Waddington in supporting roles.\n',
'338': 'The term is derived from the primarily nocturnal habits of the owl. Most owls sleep during the day and hunt for food at night.\n',
'339': 'Notable orphans and foundlings include world leaders, celebrated writers, entertainment greats, figures in science and business, as well as innumerable fictional characters in literature and comics. While the exact definition of orphan varies, one legal definition is a child bereft through "death or disappearance of, abandonment or desertion by, or separation or loss from, both parents". According to the United Nations, the definition of an orphan is anyone that loses one parent, either through death or abandonment.\n',
'340': 'Iceland (; ) is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic, with a population of 360,390 and an area of , making it the most sparsely populated country in Europe. The capital and largest city is Reykjavík, with Reykjavík and the surrounding areas in the southwest of the country being home to over two-thirds of the population. Iceland is volcanically and geologically active. The interior consists of a plateau characterised by sand and lava fields, mountains, and glaciers, and many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands. Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a temperate climate, despite a high latitude just outside the Arctic Circle. Its high latitude and marine influence keep summers chilly, with most of the archipelago having a tundra climate.\n',
'341': "Tennis is a racket sport that can be played individually against a single opponent (singles) or between two teams of two players each (doubles). Each player uses a tennis racket that is strung with cord to strike a hollow rubber ball covered with felt over or around a net and into the opponent's court. The object of the game is to maneuver the ball in such a way that the opponent is not able to play a valid return. The player who is unable to return the ball will not gain a point, while the opposite player will.\n",
'342': "Ice hockey is a contact team sport played on ice, usually in a rink, in which two teams of skaters use their sticks to shoot a vulcanized rubber puck into their opponent's net to score points. The sport is known to be fast-paced and physical, with teams usually consisting of six players each: one goaltender, and five players who skate up and down the ice trying to take the puck and score a goal against the opposing team.\n",
'343': 'Cheese is a dairy product derived from milk that is produced in a wide range of flavors, textures, and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, or sheep. During production, the milk is usually acidified, and adding the enzyme rennet causes coagulation. The solids are separated and pressed into final form. Some cheeses have molds on the rind, the outer layer, or throughout. Most cheeses melt at cooking temperature.\n',
'344': 'In many countries, the local nomenclature for a veterinarian is a regulated and protected term, meaning that members of the public without the prerequisite qualifications and/or licensure are not able to use the title. In many cases, the activities that may be undertaken by a veterinarian (such as treatment of illness or surgery in animals) are restricted only to those professionals who are registered as a veterinarian. For instance, in the United Kingdom, as in other jurisdictions, animal treatment may only be performed by registered veterinary physicians (with a few designated exceptions, such as paraveterinary workers), and it is illegal for any person who is not registered to call themselves a veterinarian or prescribe any treatment.\n',
'345': 'A choir (; also known as a quire, chorale or chorus) is a musical ensemble of singers. Choral music, in turn, is the music written specifically for such an ensemble to perform. Choirs may perform music from the classical music repertoire, which spans from the medieval era to the present, or popular music repertoire. Most choirs are led by a conductor, who leads the performances with arm and face gestures.\n',
'346': 'Cake is a form of sweet food that is usually baked. In their oldest forms, cakes were modifications of breads, but cakes now cover a wide range of preparations that can be simple or elaborate, and that share features with other desserts such as pastries, meringues, custards, and pies.\n',
'347': 'The tiny-house movement (also known as the "small-house movement") is an architectural and social movement that advocates living simply in small homes. there is no set definition as to what constitutes a tiny house. However, a residential structure under 400 sq. ft is generally considered a tiny home. The tiny-house movement promotes financial prudence, economically safe, shared community experiences, and a shift in consumerism-driven mindsets.\n',
'348': 'Devil Without a Cause is the fourth studio album by Kid Rock. Released on August 18, 1998, the album saw Kid Rock continuing to develop his sound, moving away from the predominately hip hop sound of his previous albums to a largely rap metal, hard rock, nu metal, and rap rock sound, and marked the finalization of his stage persona as a redneck pimp. Additionally, the song "Cowboy" is seen as being instrumental in the development of the fusion genre country rap.\n',
'349': 'Cheese is a dairy product derived from milk that is produced in a wide range of flavors, textures, and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, or sheep. During production, the milk is usually acidified, and adding the enzyme rennet causes coagulation. The solids are separated and pressed into final form. Some cheeses have molds on the rind, the outer layer, or throughout. Most cheeses melt at cooking temperature.\n',
'350': 'In practice, legal jurisdictions exercise their right to determine who is recognized as being a lawyer. As a result, the meaning of the term "lawyer" may vary from place to place. Some jurisdictions have two types of lawyers, barrister and solicitors, whilst others fuse the two. A barrister is a lawyer who specializes in higher court appearances. A solicitor is a lawyer who is trained to prepare cases and give advice on legal subjects and can represent people in lower courts. Both barristers and solicitors have gone through law school, completed the requisite practical training. However, in jurisdictions where there is a split-profession, only barristers are admitted as members of their respective bar association.\n',
'351': 'BMW () is a German multinational company which produces automobiles and motorcycles. The company was founded in 1916 as a manufacturer of aircraft engines, which it produced from 1917 until 1918 and again from 1933 to 1945.\n',
'352': 'Apple cider (also called sweet cider or soft cider or simply cider) is the name used in the United States and parts of Canada for an unfiltered, unsweetened, non-alcoholic beverage made from apples. Though typically referred to simply as "cider" in those areas, it is not to be confused with the alcoholic beverage known as cider in other places, which is called "hard cider" in the US and Canada. \n',
'353': 'The Arts and Crafts movement was an international trend in the decorative and fine arts that began in Britain and flourished in Europe and North America between about 1880 and 1920, emerging in Japan in the 1920s as the Mingei movement. It stood for traditional craftsmanship using simple forms, and often used medieval, romantic, or folk styles of decoration. It advocated economic and social reform and was essentially anti-industrial. It had a strong influence on the arts in Europe until it was displaced by Modernism in the 1930s, and its influence continued among craft makers, designers, and town planners long afterwards.\n',
'354': "A motherboard (sometimes alternatively known as the mainboard, main circuit board, system board, baseboard, planar board or logic board, or colloquially, a mobo) is the main printed circuit board (PCB) found in general purpose computers and other expandable systems. It holds and allows communication between many of the crucial electronic components of a system, such as the central processing unit (CPU) and memory, and provides connectors for other peripherals. Unlike a backplane, a motherboard usually contains significant sub-systems such as the central processor, the chipset's input/output and memory controllers, interface connectors, and other components integrated for general purpose use and applications.\n",
'355': 'Blue is one of the three primary colours of pigments in painting and traditional colour theory, as well as in the RGB colour model. It lies between violet and green on the spectrum of visible light. The eye perceives blue when observing light with a dominant wavelength between approximately 450 and 495 nanometres. Most blues contain a slight mixture of other colours; azure contains some green, while ultramarine contains some violet. The clear daytime sky and the deep sea appear blue because of an optical effect known as Rayleigh scattering. An optical effect called Tyndall scattering explains blue eyes. Distant objects appear more blue because of another optical effect called aerial perspective.\n',
'356': 'A burrito (, ) is a dish in Mexican and Tex-Mex cuisine that consists of a flour tortilla with various other ingredients. It is wrapped into a closed-ended cylinder that can be picked up, in contrast to a taco, where the tortilla is simply folded around the fillings. The tortilla is sometimes lightly grilled or steamed to soften it, make it more pliable, and allow it to adhere to itself when wrapped. A wet burrito, however, is covered in sauce and is therefore generally eaten with silverware.\n',
'357': 'Usually, people who are night owls stay awake past midnight, and extreme night owls may stay awake until just before or even after dawn. Night owls tend to feel most energetic just before they go to sleep at night. \n',
'358': 'The question of whether it is right to eat animal flesh is among the most prominent topics in food ethics. People choose not to eat meat for various reasons such as concern for animal welfare, the environmental impact of meat production ("environmental vegetarianism"), and health considerations. Some argue that slaughtering animals solely because people enjoy the taste of meat is morally wrong or unjustifiable. Vegans often abstain from other animal products for similar reasons.\n',
'359': 'Spaghetti (; sing. "spaghetto") is a long, thin, solid, cylindrical pasta. "Spaghettoni" is a thicker form of spaghetti, while "capellini" is a very thin spaghetti. It is a staple food of traditional Italian cuisine. Like other pasta, spaghetti is made of milled wheat and water and sometimes enriched with vitamins and minerals. Authentic Italian spaghetti is made from durum wheat semolina, but elsewhere it may be made with other kinds of flour. Usually the pasta is white because refined flour is used, but whole wheat flour may be added.\n',
'360': "Headphones (or head-phones in the early days of telephony and radio) traditionally refer to a pair of small loudspeaker drivers worn on or around the head over a user's ears. They are electroacoustic transducers, which convert an electrical signal to a corresponding sound. Headphones let a single user listen to an audio source privately, in contrast to a loudspeaker, which emits sound into the open air for anyone nearby to hear. Headphones are also known as earspeakers, earphones or, colloquially, cans. Circumaural ('around the ear') and supra-aural ('over the ear') headphones use a band over the top of the head to hold the speakers in place. Another type, known as earbuds or earpieces consist of individual units that plug into the user's ear canal. A third type are bone conduction headphones, which typically wrap around the back of the head and rest in front of the ear canal, leaving the ear canal open. \n",
'361': 'A fisherman or fisher is someone who captures fish and other animals from a body of water, or gathers shellfish.\n',
'362': 'Radiology is the medical specialty that uses medical imaging to diagnose and treat diseases within the human body.\n',
'363': 'Skateboarding is an action sport which involves riding and performing tricks using a skateboard, as well as a recreational activity, an art form, an entertainment industry job, and a method of transportation. Skateboarding has been shaped and influenced by many skateboarders throughout the years. A 2009 report found that the skateboarding market is worth an estimated $4.8 billion in annual revenue with 11.08 million active skateboarders in the world. In 2016, it was announced that skateboarding will be represented at the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo.\n',
'364': 'Nursing home residents\' rights are the legal and moral rights of the residents of a nursing home. Legislation exists in various jurisdictions to protect such rights. An early example of a statute protecting such rights is Florida statute 400.022, enacted in 1980, and commonly known as the "Residents\' Rights Act.""\n',
'365': "Linkin Park is an American rock band from Agoura Hills, California. The band's current lineup comprises vocalist/rhythm guitarist Mike Shinoda, lead guitarist Brad Delson, bassist Dave Farrell, DJ/keyboardist Joe Hahn, and drummer Rob Bourdon, all of whom are founding members. Vocalists Mark Wakefield and Chester Bennington and bassist Kyle Christner are former members of the band.\n",
'366': "Spanish (; ) or Castilian (, ), is a Romance language that originated in the Iberian Peninsula and today has hundreds of millions of native speakers in Spain and the Americas. It is a global language and the world's second-most spoken native language, after Mandarin Chinese.\n",
'367': "A navy or maritime force is the branch of a nation's armed forces principally designated for naval and amphibious warfare; namely, lake-borne, riverine, littoral, or ocean-borne combat operations and related functions. It includes anything conducted by surface ships, amphibious ships, submarines, and seaborne aviation, as well as ancillary support, communications, training, and other fields. The strategic offensive role of a navy is projection of force into areas beyond a country's shores (for example, to protect sea-lanes, deter or confront pirates, ferry troops, or attack other navies, ports, or shore installations). The strategic defensive purpose of a navy is to frustrate seaborne projection-of-force by enemies. The strategic task of the navy also may incorporate nuclear deterrence by use of submarine-launched ballistic missiles. Naval operations can be broadly divided between riverine and littoral applications (brown-water navy), open-ocean applications (blue-water navy), and something in between (green-water navy), although these distinctions are more about strategic scope than tactical or operational division.\n",
'368': 'Lettuce ("Lactuca sativa") is an annual plant of the daisy family, Asteraceae. It is most often grown as a leaf vegetable, but sometimes for its stem and seeds. Lettuce is most often used for salads, although it is also seen in other kinds of food, such as soups, sandwiches and wraps; it can also be grilled. One variety, the " (), or asparagus lettuce (celtuce), is grown for its stems, which are eaten either raw or cooked. In addition to its main use as a leafy green, it has also gathered religious and medicinal significance over centuries of human consumption. Europe and North America originally dominated the market for lettuce, but by the late 20th century the consumption of lettuce had spread throughout the world. World production of lettuce and chicory for calendar year 2015 was 26.1 million tonnes, 56% of which came from China.\n',
'369': 'Sharks are a group of elasmobranch fish characterized by a cartilaginous skeleton, five to seven gill slits on the sides of the head, and pectoral fins that are not fused to the head. Modern sharks are classified within the clade Selachimorpha (or Selachii) and are the sister group to the rays. However, the term "shark" has also been used for extinct members of the subclass Elasmobranchii outside the Selachimorpha, such as "Cladoselache" and "Xenacanthus", as well as other Chondrichthyes such as the holocephalid eugenedontidans.\n',
'370': "The safety of underwater diving depends on four factors: the environment, the equipment, behaviour of the individual diver and performance of the dive team. The underwater environment can impose severe physical and psychological stress on a diver, and is mostly beyond the diver's control. Equipment is used to operate underwater for anything beyond very short periods, and the reliable function of some of the equipment is critical to even short term survival. Other equipment allows the diver to operate in relative comfort and efficiency. The performance of the individual diver depends on learned skills, many of which are not intuitive, and the performance of the team depends on communication and common goals.\n",
'371': "Caffeine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of the methylxanthine class. It is the world's most widely consumed psychoactive drug. Unlike many other psychoactive substances, it is legal and unregulated in nearly all parts of the world. There are several known mechanisms of action to explain the effects of caffeine. The most prominent is that it reversibly blocks the action of adenosine on its receptor and consequently prevents the onset of drowsiness induced by adenosine. Caffeine also stimulates certain portions of the autonomic nervous system.\n",
'372': 'Alcoholism, also known as alcohol use disorder (AUD), is a broad term for any drinking of alcohol that results in mental or physical health problems. The disorder was previously divided into two types: alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence. In a medical context, alcoholism is said to exist when two or more of the following conditions are present: a person drinks large amounts of alcohol over a long time period, has difficulty cutting down, acquiring and drinking alcohol takes up a great deal of time, alcohol is strongly desired, usage results in not fulfilling responsibilities, usage results in social problems, usage results in health problems, usage results in risky situations, withdrawal occurs when stopping, and alcohol tolerance has occurred with use. Risky situations include drinking and driving or having unsafe sex, among other things. Alcohol use can affect all parts of the body, but it particularly affects the brain, heart, liver, pancreas and immune system. This can result in mental illness, Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome, irregular heartbeat, an impaired immune response, liver cirrhosis and increased cancer risk, among other diseases. Drinking during pregnancy can cause damage to the baby resulting in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Women are generally more sensitive than men to the harmful physical and mental effects of alcohol.\n',
'373': 'Pizza (, ) is a savory dish of Italian origin, consisting of a usually round, flattened base of leavened wheat-based dough topped with tomatoes, cheese, and various other ingredients (anchovies, olives, meat, etc.) baked at a high temperature, traditionally in a wood-fired oven. In formal settings, like a restaurant, pizza is eaten with knife and fork, but in casual settings it is cut into wedges to be eaten while held in the hand. Small pizzas are sometimes called pizzettas.\n',
'374': "A bagel ( '; ), also historically spelled beigel, is a bread product originating in the Jewish communities of Poland.\n",
'375': 'Computer technicians work in a variety of settings, encompassing both the public and private sectors. Because of the relatively brief existence of the profession, institutions offer certificate and degree programs designed to prepare new technicians, but computer repairs are frequently performed by experienced and certified technicians who have little formal training in the field like private sectors \n',
'376': 'Historical fiction is a literary genre in which the plot takes place in a setting located in the past. Although the term is commonly used as a synonym for the historical novel, it can also be applied to other types of narrative, including theatre, opera, cinema and television, as well as video games and graphic novels.\n',
'377': 'Iceland (; ) is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic, with a population of 360,390 and an area of , making it the most sparsely populated country in Europe. The capital and largest city is Reykjavík, with Reykjavík and the surrounding areas in the southwest of the country being home to over two-thirds of the population. Iceland is volcanically and geologically active. The interior consists of a plateau characterised by sand and lava fields, mountains, and glaciers, and many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands. Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a temperate climate, despite a high latitude just outside the Arctic Circle. Its high latitude and marine influence keep summers chilly, with most of the archipelago having a tundra climate.\n',
'378': 'People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA ; stylized PeTA) is an American animal rights organization based in Norfolk, Virginia, and led by Ingrid Newkirk, its international president. A nonprofit corporation with nearly 400 employees, it claims that it has 6.5 million members and supporters, in addition to claiming that it is the "largest animal rights group in the world." Its slogan is "Animals are not ours to eat, wear, experiment on, use for entertainment, or abuse in any other way."\n',
'379': "Softball is a game similar to baseball played with a larger ball (11 to 12 in. circumference) on a field that has base lengths of 60 feet, a pitcher's mound that ranges from 35–43 feet away from home\n",
'380': 'A tattoo is a form of body modification where a design is made by inserting ink, dyes and pigments, either indelible or temporary, into the dermis layer of the skin to change the pigment. The art of making tattoos is tattooing. \n',
'381': "Florida () is the southernmost contiguous state in the United States. The state is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the northwest by Alabama, to the north by Georgia, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, and to the south by the Straits of Florida. Florida is the 22nd-most extensive (), the 3rd-most populous (21,312,211 inhabitants), and the 8th-most densely populated () of the U.S. states. Jacksonville is the most populous municipality in the state and the largest city by area in the contiguous United States. The Miami metropolitan area is Florida's most populous urban area. Tallahassee is the state's capital.\n",
'382': 'A rose is a woody perennial flowering plant of the genus Rosa, in the family Rosaceae, or the flower it bears. There are over three hundred species and thousands of cultivars. They form a group of plants that can be erect shrubs, climbing, or trailing, with stems that are often armed with sharp prickles. Flowers vary in size and shape and are usually large and showy, in colours ranging from white through yellows and reds. Most species are native to Asia, with smaller numbers native to Europe, North America, and northwestern Africa. Species, cultivars and hybrids are all widely grown for their beauty and often are fragrant. Roses have acquired cultural significance in many societies. Rose plants range in size from compact, miniature roses, to climbers that can reach seven meters in height. Different species hybridize easily, and this has been used in the development of the wide range of garden roses.\n',
'383': 'Engineering drawing and artistic types of drawing, and either may be called simply "drawing" when the context is implicit. Engineering drawing shares some traits with artistic drawing in that both create pictures. But whereas the purpose of artistic drawing is to convey emotion or artistic sensitivity in some way (subjective impressions), the purpose of engineering drawing is to convey information (objective facts). One of the corollaries that follow from this fact is that, whereas anyone can appreciate artistic drawing (even if each viewer has his own unique appreciation), engineering drawing requires some training to understand (like any language); but there is also a high degree of objective commonality in the interpretation (also like other languages). In fact, engineering drawing has evolved into a language that is more precise and unambiguous than natural languages; in this sense it is closer to a programming language in its communication ability. Engineering drawing uses an extensive set of conventions to convey information very precisely, with very little ambiguity.\n',
'384': 'A fisherman or fisher is someone who captures fish and other animals from a body of water, or gathers shellfish.\n',
'385': "The Las Vegas Valley is a major metropolitan area in the southern part of the U.S. state of Nevada. The state's largest urban agglomeration, it is part of the Las Vegas MSA. The Valley is largely defined by the Las Vegas Valley landform, a basin area surrounded by mountains to the north, south, east and west of the metropolitan area. The Valley is home to the three largest incorporated cities in Nevada: Las Vegas, Henderson and North Las Vegas. Eleven unincorporated towns governed by the Clark County government are part of the Las Vegas Township and constitute the largest community in the state of Nevada.\n",
'386': "The Golden Retriever is a large-sized gun dog that retrieve shot waterfowl, such as ducks and upland game birds, during hunting and shooting parties. They were named 'retriever' because of their ability to retrieve shot game undamaged due to their soft mouth. Golden retrievers have an instinctive love of water, and are easy to train to basic or advanced obedience standards. They are a long-coated breed, with a dense inner coat that provides them with adequate warmth in the outdoors, and an outer coat that lies flat against their bodies and repels water. Golden retrievers are well suited to residency in suburban or country environments. They shed copiously, particularly at the change of seasons, and require fairly regular grooming. The Golden Retriever was originally bred in Scotland in the mid-19th century.\n",
'387': 'Reddit (, stylized in its logo as reddit) is an American social news aggregation, web content rating, and discussion website. Registered members submit content to the site such as links, text posts, and images, which are then voted up or down by other members. Posts are organized by subject into user-created boards called "subreddits", which cover a variety of topics including news, science, movies, video games, music, books, fitness, food, and image-sharing. Submissions with more up-votes appear towards the top of their subreddit and, if they receive enough up-votes, ultimately on the site\'s front page. Despite strict rules prohibiting harassment, Reddit\'s administrators spend considerable resources on moderating the site.\n',
'388': "Honda has been the world's largest motorcycle manufacturer since 1959, as well as the world's largest manufacturer of internal combustion engines measured by volume, producing more than 14 million internal combustion engines each year. Honda became the second-largest Japanese automobile manufacturer in 2001. Honda was the eighth largest automobile manufacturer in the world in 2015.\n",
'389': 'A beach is a landform alongside a body of water which consists of loose particles. The particles composing a beach are typically made from rock, such as sand, gravel, shingle, pebbles. The particles can also be biological in origin, such as mollusc shells or coralline algae.\n',
'390': 'At the time the LP was introduced, nearly all phonograph records for home use were made of an abrasive (and therefore noisy) shellac compound, employed a much larger groove, and played at approximately 78 revolutions per minute (rpm), limiting the playing time of a 12-inch diameter record to less than five minutes per side. The new product was a 12- or 10-inch (30 or 25\xa0cm) fine-grooved disc made of PVC ("vinyl") and played with a smaller-tipped "microgroove" stylus at a speed of \xa0rpm. Each side of a 12-inch LP could play for about 22 minutes. Only the microgroove standard was new, as both vinyl and the \xa0rpm speed had been used for special purposes for many years, as well as in one unsuccessful earlier attempt to introduce a long-playing record for home use by RCA Victor.\n',
'391': 'Romanian philosophy is a name covering either a) the philosophy done in Romania or by Romanians, or b) an ethnic philosophy, which expresses at a high level the fundamental features of the Romanian spirituality, or which elevates to a philosophical level the Weltanschauung of the Romanian people, as deposited in language and folklore, traditions, architecture and other linguistic and cultural artifacts.\n',
'392': 'Grey\'s Anatomy is an American medical drama television series that premiered on March 27, 2005, on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) as a mid-season replacement. The fictional series focuses on the lives of surgical interns, residents, and attending physicians, as they develop into seasoned doctors while trying to maintain personal lives and relationships. The title is an allusion to "Gray\'s Anatomy", a classic human anatomy textbook first published in 1858 in London and written by Henry Gray. Shonda Rhimes developed the pilot and continues to write for the series; she is also one of the executive producers, along with Betsy Beers, Mark Gordon, Krista Vernoff, Rob Corn, Mark Wilding, and Allan Heinberg. Although the series is set in Seattle (at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital, later renamed), it is filmed primarily in Los Angeles, California.\n',
'393': 'American popular music has had a profound effect on music across the world. The country has seen the rise of popular styles that have had a significant influence on global culture, including ragtime, blues, jazz, swing, rock, bluegrass, country, R&B, doo wop, gospel, soul, funk, heavy metal, punk, disco, house, techno, salsa, grunge and hip hop. In addition, the American music industry is quite diverse, supporting a number of regional styles such as zydeco, klezmer and slack-key.\n',
'394': 'In general, a rural area or countryside is a geographic area that is located outside towns and cities. The Health Resources and Services Administration of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services defines the word "rural" as encompassing "...all population, housing, and territory not included within an urban area. Whatever is not urban is considered rural."\n',
'395': 'A spice is a seed, fruit, root, bark, or other plant substance primarily used for flavoring, coloring or preserving food. Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are the leaves, flowers, or stems of plants used for flavoring or as a garnish. Many spices have antimicrobial properties. This may explain why spices are more commonly used in warmer climates, which have more infectious diseases, and why the use of spices is prominent in meat, which is particularly susceptible to spoiling. Spices are sometimes used in medicine, religious rituals, cosmetics or perfume production.\n',
'396': 'Reddit (, stylized in its logo as reddit) is an American social news aggregation, web content rating, and discussion website. Registered members submit content to the site such as links, text posts, and images, which are then voted up or down by other members. Posts are organized by subject into user-created boards called "subreddits", which cover a variety of topics including news, science, movies, video games, music, books, fitness, food, and image-sharing. Submissions with more up-votes appear towards the top of their subreddit and, if they receive enough up-votes, ultimately on the site\'s front page. Despite strict rules prohibiting harassment, Reddit\'s administrators spend considerable resources on moderating the site.\n',
'397': 'Husky is a general name for a sled-type of dog used in northern regions, differentiated from other sled-dog types by their fast pulling style. They are an ever-changing cross-breed of the fastest dogs. The Alaskan Malamute, by contrast, was used for pulling heavier loads. Huskies are used in sled dog racing. In recent years, companies have been marketing tourist treks with dog sledges for adventure travelers in snow regions as well. Huskies are also today kept as pets, and groups work to find new pet homes for retired racing and adventure trekking dogs.\n',
'398': 'Dumpling is a broad classification for a dish that consists of pieces of dough (made from a variety of starch sources) wrapped around a filling or of dough with no filling. The dough can be based on bread, flour, or potatoes, and may be filled with meat, fish, cheese, vegetables, fruits, or sweets. Dumplings may be prepared using a variety of methods, including baking, boiling, frying, simmering, or steaming, and are found in many world cuisines.\n',
'399': 'Parrots, also known as psittacines , are birds of the roughly 393 species in 92 genera that make up the order Psittaciformes, found in most tropical and subtropical regions. The order is subdivided into three superfamilies: the Psittacoidea ("true" parrots), the Cacatuoidea (cockatoos), and the Strigopoidea (New Zealand parrots). Parrots have a generally pantropical distribution with several species inhabiting temperate regions in the Southern Hemisphere, as well. The greatest diversity of parrots is in South America and Australasia.\n',
'400': 'Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat (red meat, poultry, seafood, and the flesh of any other animal), and may also include abstention from by-products of animals processed for food.\n',
'401': 'The is a line of cars manufactured by Honda. Originally a subcompact, the Civic has gone through several generational changes, becoming both larger and more upscale, moving into the compact car segment. EPA guidelines for vehicle size class stipulate a car having combined passenger and cargo room of is considered a mid-size car, and as such the tenth generation Civic sedan is technically a small-end mid-size car, although it still competes in the compact class. The Civic coupe is still considered a compact car. The Civic currently falls between the Honda Fit and Accord.\n',
'402': "McDonald's Corporation is an American fast food company, founded in 1940 as a restaurant operated by Richard and Maurice McDonald, in San Bernardino, California, United States. They rechristened their business as a hamburger stand, and later turned the company into a franchise, with the Golden Arches logo being introduced in 1953 at a location in Phoenix, Arizona. In 1955, Ray Kroc, a businessman, joined the company as a franchise agent and proceeded to purchase the chain from the McDonald brothers. McDonald's had its original headquarters in Oak Brook, Illinois, but moved its global headquarters to Chicago in early 2018.\n",
'403': 'The first skateboards started with wooden boxes, or boards, with roller skate wheels attached to the bottom. Crate scooters preceded skateboards, having a wooden crate attached to the nose (front of the board), which formed rudimentary handlebars. The boxes turned into planks, similar to the skateboard decks of today. \n',
'404': 'Long hair is a hairstyle where the head hair is allowed to grow to a considerable length. Exactly what constitutes long hair can change from culture to culture, or even within cultures. For example, a woman with chin-length hair in some cultures may be said to have short hair, while a man with the same length of hair in some of the same cultures would be said to have long hair.\n',
'405': 'Death metal is an extreme subgenre of heavy metal music. It typically employs heavily distorted and low-tuned guitars, played with techniques such as palm muting and tremolo picking, deep growling vocals, aggressive, powerful drumming featuring double kick and blast beat techniques, minor keys or atonality, abrupt tempo, key, and time signature changes, and chromatic chord progressions. The lyrical themes of death metal may invoke slasher film-stylized violence, religion (sometimes Satanism), occultism, Lovecraftian horror, nature, mysticism, mythology, philosophy, science fiction, and politics, and they may describe extreme acts, including mutilation, dissection, torture, rape, cannibalism, and necrophilia.\n',
'406': 'A police officer, also known as an officer, policeman, policewoman, cop/copper, garda, police agent, or a police employee is a warranted law employee of a police force. In most countries, "police officer" is a generic term not specifying a particular rank. In some, the use of the rank "officer" is legally reserved for military personnel.\n',
'407': 'A beach is a landform alongside a body of water which consists of loose particles. The particles composing a beach are typically made from rock, such as sand, gravel, shingle, pebbles. The particles can also be biological in origin, such as mollusc shells or coralline algae.\n',
'408': 'A factory, manufacturing plant or a production plant is an industrial site, usually consisting of buildings and machinery, or more commonly a complex having several buildings, where workers manufacture goods or operate machines processing one product into another.\n',
'409': 'Pizza (, ) is a savory dish of Italian origin, consisting of a usually round, flattened base of leavened wheat-based dough topped with tomatoes, cheese, and various other ingredients (anchovies, olives, meat, etc.) baked at a high temperature, traditionally in a wood-fired oven. In formal settings, like a restaurant, pizza is eaten with knife and fork, but in casual settings it is cut into wedges to be eaten while held in the hand. Small pizzas are sometimes called pizzettas.\n',
'410': 'Iced tea (or ice tea;) is a form of cold tea. Though usually served in a glass with ice, it can refer to any tea that has been chilled or cooled. It may be sweetened with sugar, syrup and/or apple slices. Iced tea is also a popular packaged drink. It can be mixed with flavored syrup, with multiple common flavors including lemon, raspberry, lime, passion fruit, peach, orange, strawberry, and cherry. While most iced teas get their flavor from tea leaves ("Camellia sinensis"), herbal teas are sometimes served cold and referred to as iced tea. Iced tea is sometimes made by a particularly long steeping of tea leaves at lower temperature (one hour in the sun versus 5 minutes at 180–212\xa0°F/80–100\xa0°C). This is known as sun tea.\n',
'411': 'The Little Mermaid is a 1989 American animated musical romantic fantasy film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and Walt Disney Pictures. The 28th Disney animated feature film and first film in "The Little Mermaid" franchise, the film is loosely based on the Danish fairy tale of the same name by Hans Christian Andersen. The film tells the story of a mermaid princess named Ariel who dreams of becoming human, after falling in love with a human prince named Eric. Written and directed by Ron Clements and John Musker, with music by Alan Menken and Howard Ashman (who also served as co-producer alongside John Musker), and art direction by Michael Peraza Jr. and Donald A. Towns, the film features the voices of Jodi Benson, Christopher Daniel Barnes, Pat Carroll, Samuel E. Wright, Jason Marin, Kenneth Mars, Buddy Hackett, and René Auberjonois.\n',
'412': "Coca-Cola, or Coke, is a carbonated soft drink manufactured by The Coca-Cola Company. Originally intended as a patent medicine, it was invented in the late 19th century by John Stith Pemberton and was bought out by businessman Asa Griggs Candler, whose marketing tactics led Coca-Cola to its dominance of the world soft-drink market throughout the 20th century. The drink's name refers to two of its original ingredients: coca leaves, and kola nuts (a source of caffeine). The current formula of Coca-Cola remains a trade secret, although a variety of reported recipes and experimental recreations have been published.\n",
'413': "A helmet is a form of protective gear worn to protect the head. More specifically, a helmet complements the skull in protecting the human brain. Ceremonial or symbolic helmets (e.g. UK policeman's helmet) without protective function are sometimes worn. Soldiers wear helmets, often made from lightweight plastic materials.\n",
'414': 'The horse ("Equus ferus caballus") is one of two extant subspecies of "Equus ferus". It is an odd-toed ungulate mammal belonging to the taxonomic family Equidae. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55\xa0million years from a small multi-toed creature, "Eohippus", into the large, single-toed animal of today. Humans began domesticating horses around 4000 BC, and their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BC. Horses in the subspecies "caballus" are domesticated, although some domesticated populations live in the wild as feral horses. These feral populations are not true wild horses, as this term is used to describe horses that have never been domesticated, such as the endangered Przewalski\'s horse, a separate subspecies, and the only remaining true wild horse. There is an extensive, specialized vocabulary used to describe equine-related concepts, covering everything from anatomy to life stages, size, colors, markings, breeds, locomotion, and behavior.\n',
'415': 'Types of specialised hospitals include rehabilitation hospitals, children\'s hospitals, seniors\' (geriatric) hospitals, long-term acute care facilities and hospitals for dealing with specific medical needs such as psychiatric problems (see psychiatric hospital), certain disease categories such as cardiac, oncology, or orthopedic problems, and so forth. In Germany specialised hospitals are called "Fachkrankenhaus"; an example is Fachkrankenhaus Coswig (thoracic surgery).\n',
'416': 'Starbucks Corporation is an American coffee company and coffeehouse chain. Starbucks was founded in Seattle, Washington in 1971. As of early 2019, the company operates over 30,000 locations worldwide.\n',
'417': 'The Chicago metropolitan area, or Chicagoland, is the metropolitan area that includes the city of Chicago, Illinois, and its suburbs. With an estimated CSA population of 9.9 million people and an MSA population of 9.5 million people, it is the third largest metropolitan area in the United States.\n',
'418': 'Swimming is the self-propulsion of a person through water, usually for recreation, sport, exercise, or survival. Locomotion is achieved through coordinated movement of the limbs, the body, or both. Humans can hold their breath underwater and undertake rudimentary locomotive swimming within weeks of birth, as a survival response.\n',
'419': "A grocery store or grocer's shop is a retail shop that primarily sells food. A grocer is a bulk seller of food.\n",
'420': 'A widow is a woman whose spouse has died, while a widower is a man whose spouse has died. The state of having lost one\'s spouse to death is termed "widowhood". These terms are not applied to a divorcé(e) following the death of an ex-spouse.\n',
'421': 'The piano is an acoustic, stringed musical instrument invented in Italy by Bartolomeo Cristofori around the year 1700 (the exact year is uncertain), in which the strings are struck by hammers. It is played using a keyboard, which is a row of keys (small levers) that the performer presses down or strikes with the fingers and thumbs of both hands to cause the hammers to strike the strings. \n',
'422': 'Britney Jean Spears (born December 2, 1981) is an American singer, songwriter, dancer, and actress. Born in McComb, Mississippi and raised in Kentwood, Louisiana, she appeared in stage productions and television series, before signing with Jive Records in 1997. Spears\'s first two studio albums, "...Baby One More Time" (1999) and "Oops!... I Did It Again" (2000), were global successes and made her the best-selling teenage artist of all-time. Referred to as the "Princess of Pop", Spears is regarded as a pop icon and is credited with influencing the revival of teen pop during the late 1990s and early 2000s.\n',
'423': 'A chocolate brownie (commonly referred to as simply brownie) is a square, baked, chocolate dessert. Brownies come in a variety of forms and may be either fudgy or cakey, depending on their density. They may include nuts, frosting, cream cheese, chocolate chips, or other ingredients. A variation made with vanilla rather than chocolate in the batter is called a blonde brownie or blondie. The brownie was developed in the United States at the end of the 19th century and popularized in the U.S. and Canada during the first half of the 20th century.\n',
'424': "Honda has been the world's largest motorcycle manufacturer since 1959, as well as the world's largest manufacturer of internal combustion engines measured by volume, producing more than 14 million internal combustion engines each year. Honda became the second-largest Japanese automobile manufacturer in 2001. Honda was the eighth largest automobile manufacturer in the world in 2015.\n",
'425': 'Satanism is a group of ideological and philosophical beliefs based on Satan. Contemporary religious practice of Satanism began with the founding of the Church of Satan in 1966, although a few historical precedents exist. Prior to the public practice, Satanism existed primarily as an accusation by various Christian groups toward perceived ideological opponents, rather than a self-identity. Satanism, and the concept of Satan, has also been used by artists and entertainers for symbolic expression.\n',
'426': 'Marketing is defined by the American Marketing Association as "the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large". The term developed from the original meaning which referred literally to going to market with goods for sale. From a sales process engineering perspective, marketing is "a set of processes that are interconnected and interdependent with other functions" of a business aimed at achieving customer interest and satisfaction"."\n',
'427': 'Anxiety disorders are a group of mental disorders characterized by significant feelings of anxiety and fear. Anxiety is a worry about future events, and fear is a reaction to current events. These feelings may cause physical symptoms, such as a fast heart rate and shakiness. There are several anxiety disorders, including generalized anxiety disorder, specific phobia, social anxiety disorder, separation anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, panic disorder, and selective mutism. The disorder differs by what results in the symptoms. People often have more than one anxiety disorder.\n',
'428': 'Waiting staff are those who work at a restaurant or a bar, and sometimes in private homes, attending customers—supplying them with food and drink as requested. A server or waiting staff takes on a very important role in a restaurant which is to always be attentive and accommodating to the customers. Each waiter follows rules and guidelines that are developed by the manager. Wait staff can abide by these rules by completing many different tasks throughout their shifts, such as food-running, polishing dishes and silverware, helping bus tables, and restocking working stations with needed supplies.\n',
'429': 'Grey\'s Anatomy is an American medical drama television series that premiered on March 27, 2005, on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) as a mid-season replacement. The fictional series focuses on the lives of surgical interns, residents, and attending physicians, as they develop into seasoned doctors while trying to maintain personal lives and relationships. The title is an allusion to "Gray\'s Anatomy", a classic human anatomy textbook first published in 1858 in London and written by Henry Gray. Shonda Rhimes developed the pilot and continues to write for the series; she is also one of the executive producers, along with Betsy Beers, Mark Gordon, Krista Vernoff, Rob Corn, Mark Wilding, and Allan Heinberg. Although the series is set in Seattle (at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital, later renamed), it is filmed primarily in Los Angeles, California.\n',
'430': 'A beach is a landform alongside a body of water which consists of loose particles. The particles composing a beach are typically made from rock, such as sand, gravel, shingle, pebbles. The particles can also be biological in origin, such as mollusc shells or coralline algae.\n',
'431': 'The history of tea is long and complex, spreading across multiple cultures over the span of thousands of years. Tea likely originated in the Yunnan region during the Shang dynasty as a medicinal drink. An early credible record of tea drinking dates to the 3rd century AD, in a medical text written by Hua Tuo. Tea was first introduced to Portuguese priests and merchants in Lebanon during the 16th century. Drinking tea became popular in Britain during the 17th century. The British introduced tea production, as well as tea consumption, to India, in order to compete with the Chinese monopoly on tea.\n',
'432': 'Skateboarding is an action sport which involves riding and performing tricks using a skateboard, as well as a recreational activity, an art form, an entertainment industry job, and a method of transportation. Skateboarding has been shaped and influenced by many skateboarders throughout the years. A 2009 report found that the skateboarding market is worth an estimated $4.8 billion in annual revenue with 11.08 million active skateboarders in the world. In 2016, it was announced that skateboarding will be represented at the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo.\n',
'433': 'Ford Motor Company is an American multinational automaker that has its main headquarters in Dearborn, Michigan, a suburb of Detroit. It was founded by Henry Ford and incorporated on June 16, 1903. The company sells automobiles and commercial vehicles under the Ford brand and most luxury cars under the Lincoln brand. Ford also owns Brazilian SUV manufacturer Troller, an 8% stake in Aston Martin of the United Kingdom and a 32% stake in Jiangling Motors. It also has joint-ventures in China (Changan Ford), Taiwan (Ford Lio Ho), Thailand (AutoAlliance Thailand), Turkey (Ford Otosan), and Russia (Ford Sollers). The company is listed on the New York Stock Exchange and is controlled by the Ford family; they have minority ownership but the majority of the voting power.\n',
'434': 'Track and field is a sport which includes athletic contests established on the skills of running, jumping, and throwing. The name is derived from where the sport takes place, a running track and a grass field for the throwing and some of the jumping events. Track and field is categorized under the umbrella sport of athletics, which also includes road running, cross country running, and race walking.\n',
'435': 'A toga party is a Greco-Roman-themed costume party where attendees wear a toga (normally made from a bed sheet) with sandals. The costumes, party games, and other entertainment often adhere to the Roman or Greek theme. Toga parties are associated with keg parties and excessive drinking, and attendees typically tend to be college or university students.\n',
'436': "Avatar (marketed as James Cameron's Avatar) is a 2009 American epic science fiction film directed, written, produced, and co-edited by James Cameron and stars Sam Worthington, Zoe Saldana, Stephen Lang, Michelle Rodriguez, and Sigourney Weaver. The film is set in the mid-22nd century when humans are colonizing Pandora, a lush habitable moon of a gas giant in the Alpha Centauri star system, in order to mine the mineral unobtanium, a room-temperature superconductor. The expansion of the mining colony threatens the continued existence of a local tribe of Na'vi\xa0– a humanoid species indigenous to Pandora. The film's title refers to a genetically engineered Na'vi body operated from the brain of a remotely located human that is used to interact with the natives of Pandora.\n",
'437': 'A chocolate brownie (commonly referred to as simply brownie) is a square, baked, chocolate dessert. Brownies come in a variety of forms and may be either fudgy or cakey, depending on their density. They may include nuts, frosting, cream cheese, chocolate chips, or other ingredients. A variation made with vanilla rather than chocolate in the batter is called a blonde brownie or blondie. The brownie was developed in the United States at the end of the 19th century and popularized in the U.S. and Canada during the first half of the 20th century.\n',
'438': 'Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System after Mercury. In English, Mars carries a name of the Roman god of war, and is often referred to as the "Red Planet" because the iron oxide prevalent on its surface gives it a reddish appearance that is distinctive among the astronomical bodies visible to the naked eye. Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin atmosphere, having surface features reminiscent both of the impact craters of the Moon and the valleys, deserts, and polar ice caps of Earth.\n',
'439': "Nike, Inc. () is an American multinational corporation that is engaged in the design, development, manufacturing, and worldwide marketing and sales of footwear, apparel, equipment, accessories, and services. The company is headquartered near Beaverton, Oregon, in the Portland metropolitan area. It is the world's largest supplier of athletic shoes and apparel and a major manufacturer of sports equipment, with revenue in excess of US$24.1\xa0billion in its fiscal year 2012 (ending May 31, 2012). As of 2012, it employed more than 44,000 people worldwide. In 2014 the brand alone was valued at $19 billion, making it the most valuable brand among sports businesses. As of 2017, the Nike brand is valued at $29.6 billion. Nike ranked No. 89 in the 2018 Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by total revenue.\n",
'440': 'Red hair (or ginger hair) occurs naturally in one to two percent of the human population, appearing with greater frequency (two to six percent) among people of Northern or Northwestern European ancestry and lesser frequency in other populations. It is most common in individuals homozygous for a recessive allele on chromosome 16 that produces an altered version of the MC1R protein.\n',
'441': 'The violin, sometimes known as a fiddle, is a wooden string instrument in the violin family. Most violins have a hollow wooden body. It is the smallest and highest-pitched instrument in the family in regular use. Smaller violin-type instruments exist, including the violino piccolo and the kit violin, but these are virtually unused. The violin typically has four strings, usually tuned in perfect fifths with notes G3, D4, A4, E5, and is most commonly played by drawing a bow across its strings, though it can also be played by plucking the strings with the fingers (pizzicato) and by striking the strings with the wooden side of the bow (col legno). \n',
'442': "Michael Fred Phelps II (born June 30, 1985) is an American retired competitive swimmer and the most successful and most decorated Olympian of all time, with a total of 28 medals. Phelps also holds the all-time records for Olympic gold medals (23), Olympic gold medals in individual events (13), and Olympic medals in individual events (16). When he won eight gold medals at the 2008 Beijing Games, Phelps broke fellow American swimmer Mark Spitz's 1972 record of seven first-place finishes at any single Olympic Games. At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Phelps had already tied the record of eight medals of any color at a single Games by winning six gold and two bronze medals. At the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, Phelps won four gold and two silver medals, and at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, he won five gold medals and one silver. This made him the most successful athlete of the Games for the fourth Olympics in a row.\n",
'443': 'Ross was born in Daytona Beach, Florida, to Jack and Ollie Ross (a Cherokee carpenter and a waitress, respectively), and raised in Orlando, Florida. As a child, Ross entertained himself by caring for injured animals, purportedly including an armadillo, snake, and alligator. One of these animals, a squirrel named Peapod (full nickname "Peapod The Pocket Squirrel"), was featured most prominently in a few episodes of his show. Another squirrel, one with epilepsy Bob called "Squirrely Wirrelly Brown" (which was given 6 months to live by a veterinarian but Bob talked about her 4 to 5 years after getting her) was also on the show less frequently (she was usually kept at home in Ross\' basement in a big cage next to where she\'d watch him paint). He had a half-brother, Jim, whom he mentioned in passing on his show. Ross dropped out of high school in the 9th grade to work as a carpenter with his father, Jack Ross, when he lost part of his left index finger. This, however, did not affect the way he held his palette while painting.\n',
'444': 'Ovo vegetarianism is a type of vegetarianism which allows for the consumption of eggs but not dairy products, in contrast with lacto vegetarianism. Those who practice ovo vegetarianism are called ovo-vegetarians or "eggetarians". "Ovo" comes from the Latin word for egg.\n',
'445': 'Saturday Night Live (also known as SNL) is an American late-night live television variety show created by Lorne Michaels and developed by Dick Ebersol. The show premiered on NBC on October 11, 1975, under the original title NBC\'s Saturday Night. The show\'s comedy sketches, which often parody contemporary culture and politics, are performed by a large and varying cast of repertory and newer cast members. Each episode is hosted by a celebrity guest, who usually delivers the opening monologue and performs in sketches with the cast as with featured performances by a musical guest. An episode normally begins with a cold open sketch that ends with someone breaking character and proclaiming, "Live from New York, it\'s Saturday Night!", properly beginning the show.\n',
'446': 'In a modern sense, comedy (from the , "kōmōidía") refers to any discourse or work generally intended to be humorous or amusing by inducing laughter, especially in theatre, television, film, stand-up comedy, or any other medium of entertainment. The origins of the term are found in Ancient Greece. In the Athenian democracy, the public opinion of voters was influenced by the political satire performed by the comic poets at the theaters. The theatrical genre of Greek comedy can be described as a dramatic performance which pits two groups or societies against each other in an amusing agon or conflict. Northrop Frye depicted these two opposing sides as a "Society of Youth" and a "Society of the Old." A revised view characterizes the essential agon of comedy as a struggle between a relatively powerless youth and the societal conventions that pose obstacles to his hopes. In this struggle, the youth is understood to be constrained by his lack of social authority, and is left with little choice but to take recourse in ruses which engender very dramatic irony which provokes laughter.\n',
'447': 'A hamburger (short: burger) is a sandwich consisting of one or more cooked patties of ground meat, usually beef, placed inside a sliced bread roll or bun. The patty may be pan fried, grilled, or flame broiled. Hamburgers are often served with cheese, lettuce, tomato, onion, pickles, bacon, or chiles; condiments such as ketchup, mayonnaise, mustard, relish, or "special sauce"; and are frequently placed on sesame seed buns. A hamburger topped with cheese is called a cheeseburger.\n',
'448': 'Pit bull is the common name for a type of dog descended from bulldogs and terriers. The pit bull-type is particularly ambiguous, as it encompasses a range of pedigree breeds, informal types and appearances that cannot be reliably identified. Formal breeds often considered to be of the pit bull-type include the American Pit Bull Terrier, American Staffordshire Terrier, American Bully, and Staffordshire Bull Terrier. The American Bulldog is also sometimes included. Mixed-breed dogs which physically resemble these breeds often get labelled as "pit bulls" by shelters. Many of these breeds were originally developed as fighting dogs from crossbreeding bull-baiting dogs (used to hold the faces and heads of larger animals such as bulls) and terriers. After the use of dogs in blood sports was banned, such dogs were used as catch dogs in the United States for semi-wild cattle and hogs, to hunt and drive livestock, and as family companions. Despite dog fighting now being illegal in the United States, it still exists as an underground activity, and pit bulls are a common type used.\n',
'449': "The Royal Ballet is an internationally renowned classical ballet company, based at the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden, London, England. The largest of the four major ballet companies in Great Britain, the Royal Ballet was founded in 1931 by Dame Ninette de Valois, it became the resident ballet company of the Royal Opera House in 1946 and was granted a royal charter in 1956, becoming recognised as Britain's flagship ballet company.\n",
'450': "A farmers' market is a physical retail marketplace intended to sell foods directly by farmers to consumers. Farmers' markets may be indoors or outdoors and typically consist of booths, tables or stands where farmers sell their homegrown produce, live animals and plants, and sometimes prepared foods and beverages. Farmers' markets exist in many countries worldwide and reflect the local culture and economy. The size of the market may be just a few stalls or it may be as large as several city blocks. Due to their nature, they tend to be less rigidly regulated than retail produce shops.\n",
'451': 'A picnic is a meal taken outdoors ("al fresco") as part of an excursion – ideally in scenic surroundings, such as a park, lakeside, or other place affording an interesting view, or else in conjunction with a public event such as preceding an open-air theatre performance, and usually in summer.\n',
'452': 'Retail therapy is shopping with the primary purpose of improving the buyer\'s mood or disposition. Often seen in people during periods of depression or stress, it is normally a short-lived habit. Items purchased during periods of retail therapy are sometimes referred to as "comfort buys" (compare comfort food).\n',
'453': 'Parrots, also known as psittacines , are birds of the roughly 393 species in 92 genera that make up the order Psittaciformes, found in most tropical and subtropical regions. The order is subdivided into three superfamilies: the Psittacoidea ("true" parrots), the Cacatuoidea (cockatoos), and the Strigopoidea (New Zealand parrots). Parrots have a generally pantropical distribution with several species inhabiting temperate regions in the Southern Hemisphere, as well. The greatest diversity of parrots is in South America and Australasia.\n',
'454': 'A bank teller (often abbreviated to simply teller) is an employee of a bank who deals directly with customers. In some places, this employee is known as a cashier or customer representative. Most teller jobs require experience with handling cash and a high school diploma. Most banks provide on-the-job training.\n',
'455': "A pet or companion animal is an animal kept primarily for a person's company, entertainment, or as an act of compassion such as taking in and protecting a hungry stray cat, rather than as a working animal, livestock, or laboratory animal. Popular pets are often noted for their attractive appearances, intelligence, and relatable personalities, or may just be accepted as they are because they need a home.\n",
'456': 'Skateboarding is an action sport which involves riding and performing tricks using a skateboard, as well as a recreational activity, an art form, an entertainment industry job, and a method of transportation. Skateboarding has been shaped and influenced by many skateboarders throughout the years. A 2009 report found that the skateboarding market is worth an estimated $4.8 billion in annual revenue with 11.08 million active skateboarders in the world. In 2016, it was announced that skateboarding will be represented at the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo.\n',
'457': 'A star is an astronomical object consisting of a luminous spheroid of plasma held together by its own gravity. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun. Many other stars are visible to the naked eye from Earth during the night, appearing as a multitude of fixed luminous points in the sky due to their immense distance from Earth. Historically, the most prominent stars were grouped into constellations and asterisms, the brightest of which gained proper names. Astronomers have assembled star catalogues that identify the known stars and provide standardized stellar designations. However, most of the estimated 300\xa0sextillion () stars in the observable universe are invisible to the naked eye from Earth, including all stars outside our galaxy, the Milky Way.\n',
'458': 'Francis Albert Sinatra (; December 12, 1915 – May 14, 1998) was an American singer, actor and producer who was one of the most popular and influential musical artists of the 20th century. He is one of the best-selling music artists of all time, having sold more than 150million records worldwide.\n',
'459': 'SpongeBob SquarePants is an American animated television series created by marine science educator and animator Stephen Hillenburg for Nickelodeon. The series chronicles the adventures and endeavors of the title character and his various friends in the fictional underwater city of Bikini Bottom. The fifth-longest-running American animated series, its popularity has made it a media franchise, as well as the highest rated series to ever air on Nickelodeon, and the most distributed property of Viacom Media Networks. As of late 2017, the media franchise has generated $13 billion in merchandising revenue for Nickelodeon.\n',
'460': "YouTube is an American video-sharing website headquartered in San Bruno, California. Three former PayPal employees—Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim—created the service in February 2005. Google bought the site in November 2006 for US$1.65\xa0billion; YouTube now operates as one of Google's subsidiaries.\n",
'461': 'The beagle is a breed of small hound that is similar in appearance to the much larger foxhound. The beagle is a scent hound, developed primarily for hunting hare (beagling). With a great sense of smell and superior tracking instinct, the beagle is employed as detection dog for prohibited agricultural imports and foodstuffs in quarantine around the world. The beagle is intelligent but single-minded. It is a popular pet due to its size, good temper, and lack of inherited health problems.\n',
'462': "The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is a British public service broadcaster. Its headquarters are at Broadcasting House in Westminster, London, and it is the world's oldest national broadcasting organisation and the largest broadcaster in the world by number of employees. It employs over 20,950 staff in total, 16,672 of whom are in public sector broadcasting. The total number of staff is 35,402 when part-time, flexible, and fixed-contract staff are included.\n",
'463': 'Running is a method of terrestrial locomotion allowing humans and other animals to move rapidly on foot. Running is a type of gait characterized by an aerial phase in which all feet are above the ground (though there are exceptions). This is in contrast to walking, where one foot is always in contact with the ground, the legs are kept mostly straight and the center of gravity vaults over the stance leg or legs in an inverted pendulum fashion. A characteristic feature of a running body from the viewpoint of spring-mass mechanics is that changes in kinetic and potential energy within a stride occur simultaneously, with energy storage accomplished by springy tendons and passive muscle elasticity. The term running can refer to any of a variety of speeds ranging from jogging to sprinting.\n',
'464': 'A star is an astronomical object consisting of a luminous spheroid of plasma held together by its own gravity. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun. Many other stars are visible to the naked eye from Earth during the night, appearing as a multitude of fixed luminous points in the sky due to their immense distance from Earth. Historically, the most prominent stars were grouped into constellations and asterisms, the brightest of which gained proper names. Astronomers have assembled star catalogues that identify the known stars and provide standardized stellar designations. However, most of the estimated 300\xa0sextillion () stars in the observable universe are invisible to the naked eye from Earth, including all stars outside our galaxy, the Milky Way.\n',
'465': 'Well-being is a much-studied topic in psychology, especially positive psychology. Related concepts are eudaimonia, happiness, flourishing, quality of life, contentment, and meaningful life.\n',
'466': 'A job interview is an interview consisting of a conversation between a job applicant and a representative of an employer which is conducted to assess whether the applicant should be hired. Interviews are one of the most popularly used devices for employee selection. Interviews vary in the extent to which the questions are structured, from a totally unstructured and free-wheeling conversation, to a structured interview in which an applicant is asked a predetermined list of questions in a specified order; structured interviews are usually more accurate predictors of which applicants will make suitable employees, according to research studies.\n',
'467': 'A no-kill or limited admit shelter is a shelter that saves healthy, treatable and rehabilitatable animals. As a benchmark, at least 90% of the animals entering the shelter are expected to be saved. The save rate must be based on all animals entering the shelter: "It does not matter if the animals are old, blind, deaf, missing limbs, or traumatized. All of these animals are worthy of our compassion, all of them can find homes, and all of them deserve to."\n',
'468': 'The Story So Far is an American pop punk band from Walnut Creek, California, formed in 2007. They are currently signed to Pure Noise Records and have released 4 studio albums.\n',
'469': 'A joke is a display of humour in which words are used within a specific and well-defined narrative structure to make people laugh and is not meant to be taken seriously. It takes the form of a story, usually with dialogue, and ends in a punch line. It is in the punch line that the audience becomes aware that the story contains a second, conflicting meaning. This can be done using a pun or other word play such as irony, a logical incompatibility, nonsense, or other means. Linguist Robert Hetzron offers the definition:\n',
'470': 'Spaghetti (; sing. "spaghetto") is a long, thin, solid, cylindrical pasta. "Spaghettoni" is a thicker form of spaghetti, while "capellini" is a very thin spaghetti. It is a staple food of traditional Italian cuisine. Like other pasta, spaghetti is made of milled wheat and water and sometimes enriched with vitamins and minerals. Authentic Italian spaghetti is made from durum wheat semolina, but elsewhere it may be made with other kinds of flour. Usually the pasta is white because refined flour is used, but whole wheat flour may be added.\n',
'471': 'A taco (, , ) is a traditional Mexican dish consisting of a corn or wheat tortilla folded or rolled around a filling. A taco can be made with a variety of fillings, including beef, pork, chicken, seafood, vegetables, and cheese, allowing great versatility and variety. Tacos are generally eaten without utensils, often garnished with salsa, chili pepper, avocado, guacamole, cilantro (coriander), tomatoes, onions, and lettuce.\n',
'472': 'India (official name: the Republic of India; Hindi: ) is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west; China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north; and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives; its Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia.\n',
'473': 'Kentucky ( ), officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state located in the east south-central region of the United States. Although styled as the "State of Kentucky" in the law creating it, "(because in Kentucky\'s first constitution, the name state was used)" Kentucky is one of four U.S. states constituted as a commonwealth (the others being Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts). Originally a part of Virginia, in 1792 Kentucky split from it and became the 15th state to join the Union. Kentucky is the 37th most extensive and the 26th most populous of the 50 United States.\n',
'474': "A navy or maritime force is the branch of a nation's armed forces principally designated for naval and amphibious warfare; namely, lake-borne, riverine, littoral, or ocean-borne combat operations and related functions. It includes anything conducted by surface ships, amphibious ships, submarines, and seaborne aviation, as well as ancillary support, communications, training, and other fields. The strategic offensive role of a navy is projection of force into areas beyond a country's shores (for example, to protect sea-lanes, deter or confront pirates, ferry troops, or attack other navies, ports, or shore installations). The strategic defensive purpose of a navy is to frustrate seaborne projection-of-force by enemies. The strategic task of the navy also may incorporate nuclear deterrence by use of submarine-launched ballistic missiles. Naval operations can be broadly divided between riverine and littoral applications (brown-water navy), open-ocean applications (blue-water navy), and something in between (green-water navy), although these distinctions are more about strategic scope than tactical or operational division.\n",
'475': 'A country is a region that is identified as a distinct entity in political geography. \n',
'476': 'United States space policy is drafted by the Executive branch at the direction of the President of the United States, and submitted for approval and establishment of funding to the legislative process of the United States Congress.\n',
'477': 'Many scholars and policymakers have noted that the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) have remained predominantly male with historically low participation among women since their origins during the Age of Enlightenment.\n',
'478': 'Container-deposit legislation (also known as a deposit-refund system, bottle bill, or deposit-return system) is any law that requires the collection of a monetary deposit on beverage containers (refillable or non-refillable) at the point of sale. When the container is returned to an authorized redemption center, or retailer in some jurisdictions, the deposit is partly or fully refunded to the redeemer (presumed to be the original purchaser). It is a deposit-refund system.\n',
'479': 'Preachers are common throughout most cultures. They can take the form of a Christian minister on a Sunday morning, or an Islamic Imam. A Muslim preacher in general is referred to as a "dā‘ī", while one giving sermons on a Friday afternoon is called a "khatib". \n',
'480': 'The Big Mac consists of two 1.6\xa0oz (45.4\xa0g) beef patties, "special sauce" (a variant of Thousand Island dressing), iceberg lettuce, American cheese, pickles, and onions, served in a three-part sesame seed bun. On October 1, 2018, McDonalds announced that it would remove all artificial preservatives, flavors, and coloring from the Big Mac.\n',
'481': 'The violin, sometimes known as a fiddle, is a wooden string instrument in the violin family. Most violins have a hollow wooden body. It is the smallest and highest-pitched instrument in the family in regular use. Smaller violin-type instruments exist, including the violino piccolo and the kit violin, but these are virtually unused. The violin typically has four strings, usually tuned in perfect fifths with notes G3, D4, A4, E5, and is most commonly played by drawing a bow across its strings, though it can also be played by plucking the strings with the fingers (pizzicato) and by striking the strings with the wooden side of the bow (col legno). \n',
'482': "Bookbinding is the process of physically assembling a book of codex format from an ordered stack of paper sheets that are folded together into sections or sometimes left as a stack of individual sheets. The stack is then bound together along one edge by either sewing with thread through the folds or by a layer of flexible adhesive. Alternative methods of binding that are cheaper but less permanent include loose-leaf rings, individual screw posts or binding posts, twin loop spine coils, plastic spiral coils, and plastic spine combs. For protection, the bound stack is either wrapped in a flexible cover or attached to stiff boards. Finally, an attractive cover is adhered to the boards, including identifying information and decoration. Book artists or specialists in book decoration can also greatly enhance a book's content by creating book-like objects with artistic merit of exceptional quality.\n",
'483': 'Stand-up comedy is a comic style in which a comedian performs in front of a live audience, usually speaking directly to them. The performer is commonly known as a comic, stand-up comic, comedian, comedienne, stand-up comedian, or simply a stand-up. In stand-up comedy, the comedian gives the illusion that they are dialoguing, but in actuality, they are monologuing a grouping of humorous stories, jokes and one-liners, typically called a shtick, routine, or set. Some stand-up comedians use props, music or magic tricks\n',
'484': 'The earliest extant description of what is now often called a cupcake was in 1796, when a recipe for "a light cake to bake in small cups" was written in "American Cookery" by Amelia Simmons. The earliest extant documentation of the term "cupcake" itself was in "Seventy-five Receipts for Pastry, Cakes, and Sweetmeats" in 1828 in Eliza Leslie\'s "Receipts" cookbook.\n',
'485': 'Armadillos (from Spanish "little armoured one") are New World placental mammals in the order Cingulata. The Chlamyphoridae and Dasypodidae are the only surviving families in the order, which is part of the superorder Xenarthra, along with the anteaters and sloths. Nine extinct genera and 21 extant species of armadillo have been described, some of which are distinguished by the number of bands on their armour. All species are native to the Americas, where they inhabit a variety of different environments. \n',
'486': 'The word "armadillo" means "little armoured one" in Spanish. The Aztecs called them "āyōtōchtli" , Nahuatl for "turtle-rabbit": "āyōtl" (turtle) and "tōchtli" (rabbit). The Portuguese word for "armadillo" is "tatu" which derives from the Tupi language. Similar names are also found in other, especially European, languages.\n',
'487': 'Bacon is a type of salt-cured pork. Bacon is prepared from several different cuts of meat, typically from the pork belly or from back cuts, which have less fat than the belly. It is eaten on its own, as a side dish (particularly in breakfasts), or used as a minor ingredient to flavour dishes (e.g., the club sandwich). Bacon is also used for barding and larding roasts, especially game, including venison and pheasant. The word is derived from the Old High German "bacho", meaning "buttock", "ham" or "side of bacon", and is cognate with the Old French "bacon".\n',
'488': 'Skin care is at the interface of cosmetics, and dermatology, a traditional medical discipline; there is some overlap with each of these topics.\n',
'489': 'The jaguar ("Panthera onca") is a large felid species and the only extant member of the genus "Panthera" native to the Americas. The jaguar\'s present range extends from Southwestern United States and Mexico in North America, across much of Central America, and south to Paraguay and northern Argentina in South America. Though there are single cats now living within the Western United States, the species has largely been extirpated from the United States since the early 20th century. It is listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List; and its numbers are declining. Threats include loss and fragmentation of habitat.\n',
'490': "American Eagle Outfitters, Inc., now known as simply American Eagle, is an American lifestyle clothing and accessories retailer, headquartered in the Southside Works Neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It was founded in 1977 by brothers Jerry and Mark Silverman as a subsidiary of Retail Ventures, Inc., a company which also owned and operated Silverman's Menswear. The Silvermans sold their ownership interests in 1991 to Jacob Price of Knoxville, Tennessee. American Eagle Outfitters is also the parent company of Aerie.\n",
'491': 'Music is an art form and cultural activity whose medium is sound organized in time. General definitions of music include common elements such as pitch (which governs melody and harmony), rhythm (and its associated concepts tempo, meter, and articulation), dynamics (loudness and softness), and the sonic qualities of timbre and texture (which are sometimes termed the "color" of a musical sound). Different styles or types of music may emphasize, de-emphasize or omit some of these elements. Music is performed with a vast range of instruments and vocal techniques ranging from singing to rapping; there are solely instrumental pieces, solely vocal pieces (such as songs without instrumental accompaniment) and pieces that combine singing and instruments. The word derives from Greek μουσική ("mousike"; "art of the Muses").\n',
'492': 'Lunch, the abbreviation for luncheon, is a meal eaten at half past 12. During the 20th century, the meaning gradually narrowed to a small or mid-sized meal eaten midday. Lunch is commonly the second meal of the day, after breakfast. The meal varies in size depending on the culture, and significant variations exist in different areas of the world.\n',
'493': 'The beagle is a breed of small hound that is similar in appearance to the much larger foxhound. The beagle is a scent hound, developed primarily for hunting hare (beagling). With a great sense of smell and superior tracking instinct, the beagle is employed as detection dog for prohibited agricultural imports and foodstuffs in quarantine around the world. The beagle is intelligent but single-minded. It is a popular pet due to its size, good temper, and lack of inherited health problems.\n',
'494': 'Upholstery is the work of providing furniture, especially seats, with padding, springs, webbing, and fabric or leather covers. The word "upholstery" comes from the Middle English word "upholder", which referred to an artisan who held up their goods. The term is equally applicable to domestic, automobile, airplane and boat furniture, and can be applied to mattresses, particularly the upper layers, though these often differ significantly in design. A person who works with upholstery is called an "upholsterer". An apprentice upholsterer is sometimes called an "outsider" or "trimmer". Traditional upholstery uses materials like coil springs (post-1850), animal hair (horse, hog and cow), coir, straw and hay, hessians, linen scrims, wadding, etc., and is done by hand, building each layer up. In contrast, today\'s upholsterers employ synthetic materials like dacron and vinyl, serpentine springs, and so on.\n',
'495': 'The word "anime" is the Japanese term for "animation", which means all forms of animated media. Outside Japan, "anime" refers specifically to animation from Japan or as a Japanese-disseminated animation style often characterized by colorful graphics, vibrant characters and fantastical themes. The culturally abstract approach to the word\'s meaning may open up the possibility of anime produced in countries other than Japan. For simplicity, many Westerners strictly view anime as a Japanese animation product. Some scholars suggest defining anime as specifically or quintessentially Japanese may be related to a new form of Orientalism.\n',
'496': 'Red hair (or ginger hair) occurs naturally in one to two percent of the human population, appearing with greater frequency (two to six percent) among people of Northern or Northwestern European ancestry and lesser frequency in other populations. It is most common in individuals homozygous for a recessive allele on chromosome 16 that produces an altered version of the MC1R protein.\n',
'497': "Electronic dance music (EDM), also known as dance music, club music, or simply dance, is a broad range of percussive electronic music genres made largely for nightclubs, raves and festivals. It is generally produced for playback by disc jockeys who create seamless selections of tracks, called a mix by segueing from one recording to another. EDM producers also perform their music live in a concert or festival setting in what is sometimes called a live PA. In Europe, EDM is more commonly called 'dance music', or simply 'dance'.\n",
'498': "Autism is a developmental disorder characterized by difficulties with social interaction and communication, and by restricted and repetitive behavior. Parents usually notice signs during the first three years of their child's life. These signs often develop gradually, though some children with autism reach their developmental milestones at a normal pace before worsening.\n",
'499': 'The history of pizza begins in antiquity, when various ancient cultures produced basic flatbreads with several toppings.\n',
'500': 'Veganism is the practice of abstaining from the use of animal products, particularly in diet, and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals. A follower of the diet or the philosophy is known as a vegan. Distinctions may be made between several categories of veganism. "Dietary vegans" (also known as strict vegetarians) refrain from consuming animal products, not only meat but also eggs, dairy products and other animal-derived substances. The term "ethical vegan" is often applied to those who not only follow a vegan diet but extend the philosophy into other areas of their lives, and oppose the use of animals for any purpose. Another term is "environmental veganism", which refers to the avoidance of animal products on the premise that the industrial farming of animals is environmentally damaging and unsustainable.\n',
'501': 'Grilling is a form of cooking that involves dry heat applied to the surface of food, commonly from above, below or from the side. Grilling usually involves a significant amount of direct, radiant heat, and tends to be used for cooking meat and vegetables quickly. Food to be grilled is cooked on a grill (an open wire grid such as a gridiron with a heat source above or below), using a cast iron/frying pan, or a grill pan (similar to a frying pan, but with raised ridges to mimic the wires of an open grill).\n',
'502': 'Athletics is a term encompassing the human competitive sports and games requiring physical skill, and the systems of training that prepare athletes for competition performance. Athletic sports or contests are competitions which are primarily based on human physical competition, demanding the qualities of stamina, fitness, and skill. Athletic sports form the bulk of popular sporting activities, with other major forms including motorsports, , extreme sports and animal sports.\n',
'503': "Dating is a stage of romantic relationships in humans whereby two people meet socially with the aim of each assessing the other's suitability as a prospective partner in an intimate relationship. It is a form of courtship, consisting of social activities done by the couple, either alone or with others. The protocols and practices of dating, and the terms used to describe it, vary considerably from country to country and over time. While the term has several meanings, the most frequent usage refers to two people exploring whether they are romantically or sexually compatible by participating in dates with the other. With the use of modern technology, people can date via telephone or computer or meet in person.\n",
'504': "The Chevrolet Corvette, colloquially known as the Vette or Chevy Corvette, is a historically front engine, rear drive, two-door, two-passenger sports car manufactured and marketed by Chevrolet across more than 60 years of production and seven design generations—with GM confirming in early 2019 an eighth generation Corvette in a rear-mid-engine configuration. With its generations noted sequentially from C1-C8, the Corvette serves as Chevrolet's halo vehicle and is widely noted for its performance and distinctive plastic—either fiberglass or composite—bodywork.\n",
'505': 'The domestic dog ("Canis lupus familiaris" when considered a subspecies of the wolf or "Canis familiaris" when considered a distinct species) is a member of the genus "Canis" (canines), which forms part of the wolf-like canids, and is the most widely abundant terrestrial carnivore. The dog and the extant gray wolf are sister taxa as modern wolves are not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated, which implies that the direct ancestor of the dog is extinct. The dog was the first species to be domesticated and has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes.\n',
'506': 'Reading is the complex cognitive process of decoding symbols to derive meaning. It is a form of language processing.\n',
'507': 'Alabama () is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama is the 30th largest by area and the 24th-most populous of the U.S. states. With a total of of inland waterways, Alabama has among the most of any state.\n',
'508': 'Starbucks Corporation is an American coffee company and coffeehouse chain. Starbucks was founded in Seattle, Washington in 1971. As of early 2019, the company operates over 30,000 locations worldwide.\n',
'509': 'International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) is an American multinational information technology company headquartered in Armonk, New York, with operations in over 170 countries. The company began in 1911, founded in Endicott, New York, as the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (CTR) and was renamed "International Business Machines" in 1924.\n',
'510': 'Recycling is the process of converting waste materials into new materials and objects. It is an alternative to "conventional" waste disposal that can save material and help lower greenhouse gas emissions. Recycling can prevent the waste of potentially useful materials and reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, thereby reducing: energy usage, air pollution (from incineration), and water pollution (from landfilling).\n',
'511': 'Sweden ( ), formal name: the Kingdom of Sweden (Swedish: ), is a Scandinavian Nordic country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and north and Finland to the east, and is connected to Denmark in the southwest by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund Strait. At , Sweden is the largest country in Northern Europe, the third-largest country in the European Union and the fifth largest country in Europe by area. The capital city is Stockholm. Sweden has a total population of 10.3\xa0million of which 2.5 million have a foreign background. It has a low population density of and the highest urban concentration is in the central and southern half of the country.\n',
'512': "Adoption is a process whereby a person assumes the parenting of another, usually a child, from that person's biological or legal parent or parents. Legal adoptions permanently transfers all rights and responsibilities, along with filiation, from the biological parent or parents. \n",
'513': 'Frédéric François Chopin (, , , , ; 1 March 181017 October 1849) was a Polish composer and virtuoso pianist of the Romantic era who wrote primarily for solo piano. He has maintained worldwide renown as a leading musician of his era, one whose "poetic genius was based on a professional technique that was without equal in his generation."\n',
'514': 'Bacon is a type of salt-cured pork. Bacon is prepared from several different cuts of meat, typically from the pork belly or from back cuts, which have less fat than the belly. It is eaten on its own, as a side dish (particularly in breakfasts), or used as a minor ingredient to flavour dishes (e.g., the club sandwich). Bacon is also used for barding and larding roasts, especially game, including venison and pheasant. The word is derived from the Old High German "bacho", meaning "buttock", "ham" or "side of bacon", and is cognate with the Old French "bacon".\n',
'515': 'A food desert is an area that has limited access to affordable and nutritious food, in contrast with an area with higher access to supermarkets or vegetable shops with fresh foods, which is called a food oasis. The designation considers the type and quality of food available to the population, in addition to the accessibility of the food through the size and proximity of the food stores.\n',
'516': 'Ween is an American alternative rock band formed in New Hope, Pennsylvania, in 1984 by childhood friends Aaron Freeman and Mickey Melchiondo, better known by their respective stage names, Gene and Dean Ween. After meeting in a middle-school typing class, the two began playing music and immediately chose the name Ween as well as their Ramones-inspired pseudonyms. Ween performed as a duo backed by a Digital Audio Tape for the band\'s first ten years of existence before expanding to a four- (and later five-) piece act. The band\'s highest charting single is "Push th\' Little Daisies", which was a hit in the United States, New Zealand and Australia.\n',
'517': 'A leprechaun () is a type of fairy of the Aos Sí in Irish folklore. They are usually depicted as little bearded men, wearing a coat and hat, who partake in mischief. They are solitary creatures who spend their time making and mending shoes and have a hidden pot of gold at the end of the rainbow. If captured by a human, they often grant three wishes in exchange for their freedom. Like other Irish fairies, leprechauns may be derived from the Tuatha Dé Danann. Leprechaun-like creatures rarely appear in Irish mythology and only became prominent in later folklore.\n',
'518': 'The earliest extant description of what is now often called a cupcake was in 1796, when a recipe for "a light cake to bake in small cups" was written in "American Cookery" by Amelia Simmons. The earliest extant documentation of the term "cupcake" itself was in "Seventy-five Receipts for Pastry, Cakes, and Sweetmeats" in 1828 in Eliza Leslie\'s "Receipts" cookbook.\n',
'519': 'Spider-Man is a fictional superhero created by writer-editor Stan Lee and writer-artist Steve Ditko. He first appeared in the anthology comic book "Amazing Fantasy" #15 (August 1962) in the Silver Age of Comic Books. He appears in American comic books published by Marvel Comics, as well as in a number of movies, television shows, and video game adaptations set in the Marvel Universe. In the stories, Spider-Man is the alias of Peter Parker, an orphan raised by his Aunt May and Uncle Ben in New York City after his parents Richard and Mary Parker were killed in a plane crash. Lee and Ditko had the character deal with the struggles of adolescence and financial issues, and accompanied him with many supporting characters, such as J. Jonah Jameson, Harry Osborn, Max Modell, romantic interests Gwen Stacy and Mary Jane Watson, and foes such as Doctor Octopus, Green Goblin and Venom. His origin story has him acquiring spider-related abilities after a bite from a radioactive spider; these include clinging to surfaces, shooting spider-webs from wrist-mounted devices, and detecting danger with his "spider-sense".\n',
'520': 'Mountain Dew (stylized as Mtn Dew) is a carbonated soft drink brand produced and owned by PepsiCo. The original formula was invented in 1940 by Tennessee beverage bottlers Barney and Ally Hartman. A revised formula was created by Bill Bridgforth in 1958. The rights to this formula were obtained by the Tip Corporation of Marion, Virginia. William H. "Bill" Jones of the Tip Corporation further refined the formula, launching that version of Mountain Dew in 1961. In August 1964, the Mountain Dew brand and production rights were acquired from Tip by the Pepsi-Cola company, and the distribution expanded across the United States and Canada.\n',
'521': 'Surfing is a surface water sport in which the wave rider, referred to as a surfer, rides on the forward or face of a moving wave, which usually carries the surfer towards the shore. Waves suitable for surfing are primarily found in the ocean, but can also be found in lakes or rivers in the form of a standing wave or tidal bore. However, surfers can also utilize artificial waves such as those from boat wakes and the waves created in artificial wave pools.\n',
'522': 'Reading is the complex cognitive process of decoding symbols to derive meaning. It is a form of language processing.\n',
'523': "Retirement is the withdrawal from one's position or occupation or from one's active working life. A person may also semi-retire by reducing work hours.\n",
'524': "The music of the United States reflects the country's pluri-ethnic population through a diverse array of styles. It is a mixture of music influenced by West African, Irish, Scottish and mainland European cultures among others. The country's most internationally renowned genres are jazz, blues, country, bluegrass, rock, rhythm and blues, soul, ragtime, hip hop, barbershop, pop, experimental, techno, house, dance, Disco, Boogaloo, Reggaeton, and salsa. American music is heard around the world. Since the beginning of the 20th century, some forms of American popular music have gained a near global audience.\n",
'525': 'System of a Down is an heavy metal band from Glendale, California, formed in 1994. The band currently consists of Serj Tankian (lead vocals, keyboards), Daron Malakian (vocals, guitar), Shavo Odadjian (bass, backing vocals), and John Dolmayan (drums).\n',
'526': 'React was created by Jordan Walke, a software engineer at Facebook, who released an early prototype of React called "FaxJS". He was influenced by XHP, an HTML component framework for PHP. It was first deployed on Facebook\'s News Feed in 2011 and later on Instagram in 2012. It was open-sourced at JSConf US in May 2013.\n',
'527': 'Wilderness or wildland is a natural environment on Earth that has not been significantly modified by human activity. It may also be defined as: "The most intact, undisturbed wild natural areas left on our planet—those last truly wild places that humans do not control and have not developed with roads, pipelines or other industrial infrastructure." The term has traditionally referred to terrestrial environments, though growing attention is being placed on marine wilderness. Recent maps of wilderness suggest it covers roughly one quarter of Earth\'s terrestrial surface, but is being rapidly degraded by human activity. Even less wilderness remains in the ocean, with only 13.2% free from intense human activity. \n',
'528': 'Miami is a major center of commerce and finance and boasts a strong international business community. According to the 2018 ranking of world cities undertaken by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network (GaWC) based on the level of presence of global corporate service organizations, Miami is considered an Alpha level world city. Miami has a Gross Metropolitan Product of $257 billion, ranking 11th in the United States and 20th worldwide in GMP.\n',
'529': "The Military Rule Medal was instituted by the State President of the Republic of Transkei to commemorate the bloodless military coup d'état which overthrew the Transkei government on 30 November 1987.\n",
'530': "Seattle ( ) is a seaport city on the West Coast of the United States. It is the seat of King County, Washington. With an estimated 744,955 residents , Seattle is the largest city in both the state of Washington and the Pacific Northwest region of North America. According to U.S. Census data released in 2018, the Seattle metropolitan area's population stands at 3.94 million, and ranks as the 15th largest in the United States. In July 2013, it was the fastest-growing major city in the United States and remained in the top 5 in May 2015 with an annual growth rate of 2.1%. In July 2016, Seattle was again the fastest-growing major U.S. city, with a 3.1% annual growth rate. Seattle is the northernmost large city in the United States.\n",
'531': 'Stephen Edwin King (born September 21, 1947) is an American author of horror, supernatural fiction, suspense, science fiction, and fantasy novels. His books have sold more than 350 million copies, many of which have been adapted into feature films, miniseries, television series, and comic books. King has published 58 novels (including seven under the pen name Richard Bachman) and six non-fiction books. He has written approximately 200 short stories, most of which have been published in book collections.\n',
'532': 'Yellow is the color between orange and green on the spectrum of visible light. It is evoked by light with a dominant wavelength of roughly 570590 nm. It is a primary color in subtractive color systems, used in painting or color printing. In the RGB color model, used to create colors on television and computer screens, yellow is a secondary color made by combining red and green at equal intensity. Carotenoids give the characteristic yellow color to autumn leaves, corn, canaries, daffodils, and lemons, as well as egg yolks, buttercups, and bananas. They absorb light energy and protect plants from photodamage. Sunlight has a slight yellowish hue when sun is near a horizon, due to atmosphere scattering shorter wavelengths (green, blue, and violet).\n',
'533': 'Human cannibalism is the act or practice of humans eating the flesh or internal organs of other human beings. A person who practices cannibalism is called a cannibal. The expression "cannibalism" has been extended into zoology to mean one individual of a species consuming all or part of another individual of the same species as food, including sexual cannibalism. Some scholars have argued, however, that no firm evidence exists that cannibalism has ever been a socially acceptable practice anywhere in the world, at any time in history.\n',
'534': 'A lapdog or lap dog is a dog that is both small enough to be held in the arms or lie comfortably on a person\'s lap and temperamentally predisposed to do so. "Lapdogs" are not a specific breed, but is a generic term for a type of dog of small size and friendly disposition.\n',
'535': 'The first recorded use of the word "hockey" is in the 1773 book "Juvenile Sports and Pastimes, to Which Are Prefixed, Memoirs of the Author: Including a New Mode of Infant Education" by Richard Johnson (Pseud. Master Michel Angelo), whose chapter XI was titled "New Improvements on the Game of Hockey". The belief that hockey was mentioned in a 1363 proclamation by King Edward III of England is based on modern translations of the proclamation, which was originally in Latin and explicitly forbade the games "Pilam Manualem, Pedivam, & Bacularem: & ad Canibucam & Gallorum Pugnam". The English historian and biographer John Strype did not use the word "hockey" when he translated the proclamation in 1720, instead translating "Canibucam" as "Cambuck"; this may have referred to either an early form of hockey or a game more similar to golf or croquet.\n',
'536': 'The United States Army Air Forces (USAAF or AAF), informally known as the Air Force, was the aerial warfare service component of the United States Army during and immediately after World War II (1939/41–1945), successor to the previous United States Army Air Corps and the direct predecessor of the United States Air Force of today, one of the five uniformed military services. The AAF was a component of the United States Army, which on 2 March 1942 was divided functionally by executive order into three autonomous forces: the Army Ground Forces, the Services of Supply (which in 1943 became the Army Service Forces), and the Army Air Forces. Each of these forces had a commanding general who reported directly to the Army Chief of Staff.\n',
'537': 'Casual whittling is typically performed with a light, small-bladed knife, usually a pocket knife. Specialized whittling knives, with fixed single blades, are preferred for sculpting artistic work. They have thick handles which are easier to grip for long periods and have better leverage, allowing more precise control and pressure.\n',
'538': 'A comic book or comicbook, also called comic magazine or simply comic, is a publication that consists of comics art in the form of sequential juxtaposed panels that represent individual scenes. Panels are often accompanied by descriptive prose and written narrative, usually, dialog contained in word balloons emblematic of the comics art form. Although some origins in 18th century Japan, comic books were first popularized in the United States and the United Kingdom during the 1930s. The first modern comic book, "Famous Funnies", was released in the U.S. in 1933 and was a reprinting of earlier newspaper humor comic strips, which had established many of the story-telling devices used in comics. The term "comic book" derives from American comic books once being a compilation of comic strips of a humorous tone; however, this practice was replaced by featuring stories of all genres, usually not humorous in tone.\n',
'539': 'Ice cream (derived from earlier iced cream or cream ice) is a sweetened frozen food typically eaten as a snack or dessert. It may be made from dairy milk or cream, or soy, cashew, coconut or almond milk, and is flavored with a sweetener, either sugar or an alternative, and any spice, such as cocoa or vanilla. Colourings are usually added, in addition to stabilizers. The mixture is stirred to incorporate air spaces and cooled below the freezing point of water to prevent detectable ice crystals from forming. The result is a smooth, semi-solid foam that is solid at very low temperatures (below ). It becomes more malleable as its temperature increases.\n',
'540': "Florida () is the southernmost contiguous state in the United States. The state is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the northwest by Alabama, to the north by Georgia, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, and to the south by the Straits of Florida. Florida is the 22nd-most extensive (), the 3rd-most populous (21,312,211 inhabitants), and the 8th-most densely populated () of the U.S. states. Jacksonville is the most populous municipality in the state and the largest city by area in the contiguous United States. The Miami metropolitan area is Florida's most populous urban area. Tallahassee is the state's capital.\n",
'541': 'Beer has been brewed domestically throughout its 7,000-year history, beginning in the Neolithic period in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), Egypt and China. It seems to have first developed as thick beers; during this time meads, fruit wines and rice wines were also developed.\n',
'542': 'Pizza (, ) is a savory dish of Italian origin, consisting of a usually round, flattened base of leavened wheat-based dough topped with tomatoes, cheese, and various other ingredients (anchovies, olives, meat, etc.) baked at a high temperature, traditionally in a wood-fired oven. In formal settings, like a restaurant, pizza is eaten with knife and fork, but in casual settings it is cut into wedges to be eaten while held in the hand. Small pizzas are sometimes called pizzettas.\n',
'543': 'Cooking or cookery is the art, technology, science and craft of preparing food for consumption. Cooking techniques and ingredients vary widely across the world, from grilling food over an open fire to using electric stoves, to baking in various types of ovens, reflecting unique environmental, economic, and cultural traditions and trends. The ways or types of cooking also depend on the skill and type of training an individual cook has. Cooking is done both by people in their own dwellings and by professional cooks and chefs in restaurants and other food establishments. Cooking can also occur through chemical reactions without the presence of heat, such as in ceviche, a traditional South American dish where fish is cooked with the acids in lemon or lime juice.\n',
'544': 'The Colorado River is one of the principal rivers (along with the Rio Grande) in the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico. The river drains an expansive, arid watershed that encompasses parts of seven U.S. and two Mexican states. Starting in the central Rocky Mountains of Colorado, the river flows generally southwest across the Colorado Plateau and through the Grand Canyon before reaching Lake Mead on the Arizona–Nevada border, where it turns south toward the international border. After entering Mexico, the Colorado approaches the mostly dry Colorado River Delta at the tip of the Gulf of California between Baja California and Sonora.\n',
'545': "A charity shop, thrift shop or opportunity shop (colloquially referred to as an op shop) is a retail establishment run by a charitable organization to raise money. Charity shops are a type of social enterprise. They sell mainly used goods such as clothing, books, music albums, DVDs, and furniture donated by members of the public, and are often staffed by volunteers. Because the items for sale were obtained for free, and business costs are low, the items can be sold at competitive prices. After costs are paid, all remaining income from the sales is used in accord with the organization's stated charitable purpose. Costs include purchase and/or depreciation of fixtures (clothing racks, bookshelves, counters, etc.), operating costs (maintenance, municipal service fees, electricity, heat, telephone, limited advertising) and the building lease or mortgage.\n",
'546': "A bagel ( '; ), also historically spelled beigel, is a bread product originating in the Jewish communities of Poland.\n",
'547': "Tennis is a racket sport that can be played individually against a single opponent (singles) or between two teams of two players each (doubles). Each player uses a tennis racket that is strung with cord to strike a hollow rubber ball covered with felt over or around a net and into the opponent's court. The object of the game is to maneuver the ball in such a way that the opponent is not able to play a valid return. The player who is unable to return the ball will not gain a point, while the opposite player will.\n",
'548': 'Fly fishing is an angling method that uses a light-weight lure -- called an artificial fly -- to catch fish. The fly is cast using a fly rod, reel, and specialized weighted line. The light weight requires casting techniques significantly different from other forms of casting. The flies may resemble natural invertebrates, baitfish, or other food organisms.\n',
'549': 'Wealth is the abundance of valuable financial assets or physical possessions which can be converted into a form that can be used for transactions. This includes the core meaning as held in the originating old English word "weal", which is from an Indo-European word stem. The modern concept of wealth is of significance in all areas of economics, and clearly so for growth economics and development economics, yet the meaning of wealth is context-dependent. An individual possessing a substantial net worth is known as "wealthy". Net worth is defined as the current value of one\'s assets less liabilities (excluding the principal in trust accounts).\n',
'550': 'Purple is a color intermediate between blue and red. It is similar to violet, but unlike violet, which is a spectral color with its own wavelength on the visible spectrum of light, purple is a secondary color made by combining red and blue. The complementary color of purple in the RYB color model is yellow.\n',
'551': "Halloween or Hallowe'en (a contraction of Hallows' Even or Hallows' Evening), also known as Allhalloween, All Hallows' Eve, or All Saints' Eve, is a celebration observed in several countries on 31 October, the eve of the Western Christian feast of All Hallows' Day. It begins the three-day observance of Allhallowtide, the time in the liturgical year dedicated to remembering the dead, including saints (hallows), martyrs, and all the faithful departed.\n",
'552': 'Ford Motor Company is an American multinational automaker that has its main headquarters in Dearborn, Michigan, a suburb of Detroit. It was founded by Henry Ford and incorporated on June 16, 1903. The company sells automobiles and commercial vehicles under the Ford brand and most luxury cars under the Lincoln brand. Ford also owns Brazilian SUV manufacturer Troller, an 8% stake in Aston Martin of the United Kingdom and a 32% stake in Jiangling Motors. It also has joint-ventures in China (Changan Ford), Taiwan (Ford Lio Ho), Thailand (AutoAlliance Thailand), Turkey (Ford Otosan), and Russia (Ford Sollers). The company is listed on the New York Stock Exchange and is controlled by the Ford family; they have minority ownership but the majority of the voting power.\n',
'553': 'The Giro d\'Italia (; ; also known as the Giro) is an annual multiple-stage bicycle race primarily held in Italy, while also occasionally passing through nearby countries. The first race was organized in 1909 to increase sales of the newspaper "La Gazzetta dello Sport"; however it is currently run by RCS Sport. The race has been held annually since its first edition in 1909, except when it was stopped for the two world wars. As the Giro gained prominence and popularity the race was lengthened, and the peloton expanded from primarily Italian participation to riders from all over the world. The Giro is a UCI World Tour event, which means that the teams that compete in the race are mostly UCI WorldTeams, with the exception of the teams that the organizers can invite.\n',
'554': 'Multiple citizenship, dual citizenship, multiple nationality or dual nationality, is a person\'s citizenship status, in which a person is concurrently regarded as a citizen of more than one state under the laws of those states. Conceptually, "citizenship" is focused on the internal political life of the state and "nationality" is a matter of international dealings. There is no international convention which determines the nationality or citizenship status of a person. This is defined exclusively by national laws, which can vary and conflict with each other. Multiple citizenship arises because different countries use different, and not necessarily mutually exclusive, criteria for citizenship. Colloquial speech refers to people "holding" multiple citizenship but, technically, each nation makes a claim that a particular person is considered its national.\n',
'555': 'An auto mechanic (automotive technician in most of North America, light vehicle technician in British English, and motor mechanic in Australian English) is a mechanic with a variety of automobile makes or either in a specific area or in a specific make of automobile. In repairing cars, their main role is to diagnose the problem accurately and quickly. They often have to quote prices for their customers before commencing work or after partial disassembly for inspection. Their job may involve the repair of a specific part or the replacement of one or more parts as assemblies.\n',
'556': 'Hindus () are persons who regard themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for people living in the "Hind" (Indian subcontinent). \n',
'557': 'Starbucks Corporation is an American coffee company and coffeehouse chain. Starbucks was founded in Seattle, Washington in 1971. As of early 2019, the company operates over 30,000 locations worldwide.\n',
'558': 'South Park is an American adult animated sitcom created by Trey Parker and Matt Stone and developed by Brian Graden for the Comedy Central television network. The show revolves around four boys—Stan Marsh, Kyle Broflovski, Eric Cartman, and Kenny McCormick—and their exploits in and around the titular Colorado town. Much like "The Simpsons", "South Park" uses a very large ensemble cast of recurring characters. It became infamous for its profanity and dark, surreal humor that satirizes a wide range of topics towards a mature audience.\n',
'559': 'The domestic dog ("Canis lupus familiaris" when considered a subspecies of the wolf or "Canis familiaris" when considered a distinct species) is a member of the genus "Canis" (canines), which forms part of the wolf-like canids, and is the most widely abundant terrestrial carnivore. The dog and the extant gray wolf are sister taxa as modern wolves are not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated, which implies that the direct ancestor of the dog is extinct. The dog was the first species to be domesticated and has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes.\n',
'560': 'Ageism, also spelled agism, is stereotyping and discrimination against individuals or groups on the basis of their age. This may be casual or systematic. The term was coined in 1969 by Robert Neil Butler to describe discrimination against seniors, and patterned on sexism and racism. Butler defined "ageism" as a combination of three connected elements. Among them were prejudicial attitudes towards older people, old age, and the aging process; discriminatory practices against older people; and institutional practices and policies that perpetuate stereotypes about elderly people.\n',
'561': 'The domestic dog ("Canis lupus familiaris" when considered a subspecies of the wolf or "Canis familiaris" when considered a distinct species) is a member of the genus "Canis" (canines), which forms part of the wolf-like canids, and is the most widely abundant terrestrial carnivore. The dog and the extant gray wolf are sister taxa as modern wolves are not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated, which implies that the direct ancestor of the dog is extinct. The dog was the first species to be domesticated and has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes.\n',
'562': "Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, is a sovereign state in Western Asia constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula. With a land area of approximately , Saudi Arabia is geographically the largest sovereign state in the Middle East, the second-largest in the Arab world (after Algeria), the fifth-largest in Asia, and the 12th-largest in the world. Saudi Arabia is bordered by Jordan and Iraq to the north, Kuwait to the northeast, Qatar, Bahrain, and the United Arab Emirates to the east, Oman to the southeast and Yemen to the south; it is separated from Israel and Egypt by the Gulf of Aqaba. It is the only nation with both a Red Sea coast and a Persian Gulf coast, and most of its terrain consists of arid desert, lowland and mountains. As of October 2018, the Saudi economy was the largest in the Middle East and the 18th largest in the world. Saudi Arabia also has one of the world's youngest populations; 50 percent of its 33.4 million people are under 25 years old.\n",
'563': 'Pizza (, ) is a savory dish of Italian origin, consisting of a usually round, flattened base of leavened wheat-based dough topped with tomatoes, cheese, and various other ingredients (anchovies, olives, meat, etc.) baked at a high temperature, traditionally in a wood-fired oven. In formal settings, like a restaurant, pizza is eaten with knife and fork, but in casual settings it is cut into wedges to be eaten while held in the hand. Small pizzas are sometimes called pizzettas.\n',
'564': 'A steak () is a meat generally sliced across the muscle fibers, potentially including a bone. Exceptions, in which the meat is sliced parallel to the fibers, include the skirt steak cut from the plate, the flank steak cut from the abdominal muscles, and the silverfinger steak cut from the loin and includes three rib bones. In a larger sense, fish steaks, ground meat steaks, pork steak, and many more varieties of steak are known.\n',
'565': 'Iceland (; ) is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic, with a population of 360,390 and an area of , making it the most sparsely populated country in Europe. The capital and largest city is Reykjavík, with Reykjavík and the surrounding areas in the southwest of the country being home to over two-thirds of the population. Iceland is volcanically and geologically active. The interior consists of a plateau characterised by sand and lava fields, mountains, and glaciers, and many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands. Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a temperate climate, despite a high latitude just outside the Arctic Circle. Its high latitude and marine influence keep summers chilly, with most of the archipelago having a tundra climate.\n',
'566': "Florida () is the southernmost contiguous state in the United States. The state is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the northwest by Alabama, to the north by Georgia, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, and to the south by the Straits of Florida. Florida is the 22nd-most extensive (), the 3rd-most populous (21,312,211 inhabitants), and the 8th-most densely populated () of the U.S. states. Jacksonville is the most populous municipality in the state and the largest city by area in the contiguous United States. The Miami metropolitan area is Florida's most populous urban area. Tallahassee is the state's capital.\n",
'567': 'The beagle is a breed of small hound that is similar in appearance to the much larger foxhound. The beagle is a scent hound, developed primarily for hunting hare (beagling). With a great sense of smell and superior tracking instinct, the beagle is employed as detection dog for prohibited agricultural imports and foodstuffs in quarantine around the world. The beagle is intelligent but single-minded. It is a popular pet due to its size, good temper, and lack of inherited health problems.\n',
'568': 'Swimming is the self-propulsion of a person through water, usually for recreation, sport, exercise, or survival. Locomotion is achieved through coordinated movement of the limbs, the body, or both. Humans can hold their breath underwater and undertake rudimentary locomotive swimming within weeks of birth, as a survival response.\n',
'569': 'The word "husky" originated from the word referring to aboriginal Arctic people, in general, Eskimo, "...known as \'huskies\', a contraction of \'Huskimos\', the pronunciation given to the word \'Eskimos\' by the English sailors of trading vessels." The use of "husky" is recorded from 1852 for dogs kept by Inuit people.\n',
'570': 'USS "Triton" (SSRN/SSN-586) was a United States Navy radar picket nuclear submarine. In early 1960, it became the first vessel to execute a submerged circumnavigation of the Earth in Operation Sandblast. "Triton" accomplished this objective during her shakedown cruise while under the command of Captain Edward L. "Ned" Beach, Jr. She was the only member of her class and had the distinction of being the only Western submarine powered by two nuclear reactors.\n',
'571': 'The Mercedes-Benz S-Class, formerly known as Sonderklasse (German for "special class", abbreviated as "S-Klasse"), is a series of full-sized luxury flagship vehicles produced by the German automaker Mercedes-Benz, a division of German company Daimler AG. The S-Class designation for top-of-the-line Mercedes-Benz models was officially introduced in 1972 with the W116, and has remained in use ever since.\n',
'572': 'Barbie is a fashion doll manufactured by the American toy company Mattel, Inc. and launched in March 1959. American businesswoman Ruth Handler is credited with the creation of the doll using a German doll called Bild Lilli as her inspiration.\n',
'573': 'Ender\'s Game is a 1985 military science fiction novel by American author Orson Scott Card. Set at an unspecified date in Earth\'s future, the novel presents an imperiled humankind after two conflicts with the "Formics", an insectoid alien species they dub the "buggers". In preparation for an anticipated third invasion, children, including the novel\'s protagonist, Andrew "Ender" Wiggin, are trained from a very young age by putting them through increasingly difficult games, including some in zero gravity, where Ender\'s tactical genius is revealed.\n',
'574': 'Meatloaf is a dish of ground meat that has been mixed with other ingredients and formed into the shape of a loaf, then baked or smoked. The final shape is either hand-formed on a flat pan or created by cooking it in a loaf pan. It is usually made with ground beef, although ground lamb, pork, veal, venison, poultry and seafood are also used.\n',
'575': 'Ferdinand Porsche founded the company called "Dr. Ing. h. c. F. Porsche GmbH" in 1931, with main offices at Kronenstraße 24 in the centre of Stuttgart. Initially, the company offered motor vehicle development work and consulting, but did not build any cars under its own name. One of the first assignments the new company received was from the German government to design a car for the people, that is a "Volkswagen". This resulted in the Volkswagen Beetle, one of the most successful car designs of all time. The Porsche 64 was developed in 1939 using many components from the Beetle.\n',
'576': 'The earliest extant description of what is now often called a cupcake was in 1796, when a recipe for "a light cake to bake in small cups" was written in "American Cookery" by Amelia Simmons. The earliest extant documentation of the term "cupcake" itself was in "Seventy-five Receipts for Pastry, Cakes, and Sweetmeats" in 1828 in Eliza Leslie\'s "Receipts" cookbook.\n',
'577': 'A tattoo is a form of body modification where a design is made by inserting ink, dyes and pigments, either indelible or temporary, into the dermis layer of the skin to change the pigment. The art of making tattoos is tattooing. \n',
'578': "The Golden Retriever is a large-sized gun dog that retrieve shot waterfowl, such as ducks and upland game birds, during hunting and shooting parties. They were named 'retriever' because of their ability to retrieve shot game undamaged due to their soft mouth. Golden retrievers have an instinctive love of water, and are easy to train to basic or advanced obedience standards. They are a long-coated breed, with a dense inner coat that provides them with adequate warmth in the outdoors, and an outer coat that lies flat against their bodies and repels water. Golden retrievers are well suited to residency in suburban or country environments. They shed copiously, particularly at the change of seasons, and require fairly regular grooming. The Golden Retriever was originally bred in Scotland in the mid-19th century.\n",
'579': "Adoption is a process whereby a person assumes the parenting of another, usually a child, from that person's biological or legal parent or parents. Legal adoptions permanently transfers all rights and responsibilities, along with filiation, from the biological parent or parents. \n",
'580': 'A brewery or brewing company is a business that makes and sells beer. The place at which beer is commercially made is either called a brewery or a beerhouse, where distinct sets of brewing equipment are called plant. The commercial brewing of beer has taken place since at least 2500 BC; in ancient Mesopotamia, brewers derived social sanction and divine protection from the goddess Ninkasi. Brewing was initially a cottage industry, with production taking place at home; by the ninth century monasteries and farms would produce beer on a larger scale, selling the excess; and by the eleventh and twelfth centuries larger, dedicated breweries with eight to ten workers were being built.\n',
'581': 'The Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons agency of the United States Department of State says that modern slavery\', \'trafficking in persons\', and \'human trafficking\' have been used as umbrella terms for the act of recruiting, harboring, transporting, providing or obtaining a person for compelled labor or commercial sex acts through the use of force, fraud, or coercion". Besides these, a number of different terms are used in the US federal Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 and the United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children, including "involuntary servitude", "slavery" or "practices similar to slavery", "debt bondage", and "forced labor".\n',
'582': 'Pasta () is a type of food typically made from an unleavened dough of durum wheat flour (semolina) mixed with water or eggs, and formed into sheets or various shapes, then cooked by boiling or baking. Rice flour, or legumes such as beans or lentils, are sometimes used in place of wheat flour to yield a different taste and texture, or as a gluten-free alternative. Pasta is a staple food of Italian cuisine.\n',
'583': "Underwater diving, as a human activity, is the practice of descending below the water's surface to interact with the environment.\n",
'584': 'Sushi originates in a Southeast Asian dish, known today as "narezushi" ( – "salted fish"), stored in fermented rice for possibly months at a time. The lacto-fermentation of the rice prevented the fish from spoiling; the rice would be discarded before consumption of the fish. This early type of sushi became an important source of protein for its Japanese consumers. The term "sushi" comes from an antiquated grammatical form no longer used in other contexts, and literally means "sour-tasting"; the overall dish has a sour and umami or savoury taste. Narezushi still exists as a regional specialty, notably as "funa-zushi" from Shiga Prefecture.\n',
'585': 'A circus is a company of performers who put on diverse entertainment shows that may include clowns, acrobats, trained animals, trapeze acts, musicians, dancers, hoopers, tightrope walkers, jugglers, magicians, unicyclists, as well as other object manipulation and stunt-oriented artists. The term "circus" also describes the performance which has followed various formats through its 250-year modern history. Although not the inventor of the medium, Philip Astley is credited as the father of the modern circus. In 1768 Astley, a skilled equestrian, began performing exhibitions of trick horse riding in an open field called Ha\'Penny Hatch on the south side of the Thames River. In 1770 he hired acrobats, tightrope walkers, jugglers and a clown to fill in the pauses between the equestrian demonstrations and thus chanced on the format which was later named a "circus". Performances developed significantly over the next fifty years, with large-scale theatrical battle reenactments becoming a significant feature. The traditional format, in which a ringmaster introduces a variety of choreographed acts set to music, developed in the latter part of the 19th century and remained the dominant format until the 1970s.\n',
'586': 'The domestic dog ("Canis lupus familiaris" when considered a subspecies of the wolf or "Canis familiaris" when considered a distinct species) is a member of the genus "Canis" (canines), which forms part of the wolf-like canids, and is the most widely abundant terrestrial carnivore. The dog and the extant gray wolf are sister taxa as modern wolves are not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated, which implies that the direct ancestor of the dog is extinct. The dog was the first species to be domesticated and has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes.\n',
'587': 'Krav Maga (; , "lit." "contact combat") is a military self-defence and fighting system developed for the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) and Israeli security forces derived from a combination of techniques sourced from boxing, wrestling, aikido, judo and karate, along with realistic fight training. \n',
'588': 'Divorce, also known as dissolution of marriage, is the process of terminating a marriage or marital union. Divorce usually entails the canceling or reorganizing of the legal duties and responsibilities of marriage, thus dissolving the bonds of matrimony between a married couple under the rule of law of the particular country or state. Divorce laws vary considerably around the world, but in most countries divorce requires the sanction of a court or other authority in a legal process, which may involve issues of distribution of property, child custody, alimony (spousal support), child visitation / access, parenting time, child support, and division of debt. In most countries, monogamy is required by law, so divorce allows each former partner to marry another person.\n',
'589': 'In the United States there is no government-run organization that provides oversight or regulation of the various shelters on a national basis. However, many individual states do regulate shelters within their jurisdiction. One of the earliest comprehensive measures was the "Georgia Animal Protection Act" of 1986. The law was enacted in response to the inhumane treatment of companion animals by a pet store chain in Atlanta. The Act provided for the licensing and regulation of pet shops, stables, kennels, and animal shelters, and established, for the first time, minimum standards of care. The Georgia Department of Agriculture was tasked with licensing animal shelters and enforcing the new law through the Department\'s newly created Animal Protection Division. An additional provision, added in 1990, was the "Humane Euthanasia Act", which was the first state law to mandate intravenous injection of sodium pentothal in place of gas chambers and other less humane methods. The law was further expanded and strengthened with the Animal Protection Act of 2000.\n',
'590': 'The carrot ("Daucus carota" subsp. "sativus") is a root vegetable, usually orange in colour, though purple, black, red, white, and yellow cultivars exist. Carrots are a domesticated form of the wild carrot, "Daucus carota", native to Europe and southwestern Asia. The plant probably originated in Persia and was originally cultivated for its leaves and seeds. The most commonly eaten part of the plant is the taproot, although the stems and leaves are eaten as well. The domestic carrot has been selectively bred for its greatly enlarged, more palatable, less woody-textured taproot.\n',
'591': 'Health insurance is an insurance that covers the whole or a part of the risk of a person incurring medical expenses, spreading the risk over a large number of persons. By estimating the overall risk of health care and health system expenses over the risk pool, an insurer can develop a routine finance structure, such as a monthly premium or payroll tax, to provide the money to pay for the health care benefits specified in the insurance agreement. The benefit is administered by a central organization such as a government agency, private business, or not-for-profit entity.\n',
'592': 'Yellow is the color between orange and green on the spectrum of visible light. It is evoked by light with a dominant wavelength of roughly 570590 nm. It is a primary color in subtractive color systems, used in painting or color printing. In the RGB color model, used to create colors on television and computer screens, yellow is a secondary color made by combining red and green at equal intensity. Carotenoids give the characteristic yellow color to autumn leaves, corn, canaries, daffodils, and lemons, as well as egg yolks, buttercups, and bananas. They absorb light energy and protect plants from photodamage. Sunlight has a slight yellowish hue when sun is near a horizon, due to atmosphere scattering shorter wavelengths (green, blue, and violet).\n',
'593': 'The Boy Scouts of America (also known as BSA or, colloquially, Boy Scouts) is the largest scouting organization and one of the largest youth organizations in the United States, with about 2.3\xa0million youth participants and about one\xa0million adult volunteers. The BSA was founded in 1910, and since then, about 110\xa0million Americans participated in BSA programs at some time in their lives. BSA is part of the international Scout Movement and became a founding member organization of the World Organization of the Scout Movement in 1922.\n',
'594': 'Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid and -ascorbic acid, is a vitamin found in various foods and sold as a dietary supplement. It is used to prevent and treat scurvy. Vitamin C is an essential nutrient involved in the repair of tissue and the enzymatic production of certain neurotransmitters. It is required for the functioning of several enzymes and is important for immune system function. It also functions as an antioxidant. \n',
'595': 'Scuba diving is a mode of underwater diving where the diver uses a self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (scuba), which is completely independent of surface supply, to breathe underwater. Scuba divers carry their own source of breathing gas, usually compressed air, allowing them greater independence and freedom of movement than surface-supplied divers, and longer underwater endurance than breath-hold divers. Although the use of compressed air is common, a new mixture called enriched air (Nitrox) has been gaining popularity due to its benefit of reduced nitrogen intake during repetitive dives. Open circuit scuba systems discharge the breathing gas into the environment as it is exhaled, and consist of one or more diving cylinders containing breathing gas at high pressure which is supplied to the diver through a regulator. They may include additional cylinders for range extension, decompression gas or emergency breathing gas. Closed-circuit or semi-closed circuit rebreather scuba systems allow recycling of exhaled gases. The volume of gas used is reduced compared to that of open circuit, so a smaller cylinder or cylinders may be used for an equivalent dive duration. Rebreathers extend the time spent underwater compared to open circuit for the same gas consumption; they produce fewer bubbles and less noise than open circuit scuba which makes them attractive to covert military divers to avoid detection, scientific divers to avoid disturbing marine animals, and media divers to avoid bubble interference.\n',
'596': 'The Sistine Chapel (; ; ) is a chapel in the Apostolic Palace, the official residence of the pope, in Vatican City. Originally known as the "Cappella Magna" (\'Great Chapel\'), the chapel takes its name from Pope Sixtus IV, who restored it between 1477 and 1480. Since that time, the chapel has served as a place of both religious and functionary papal activity. Today, it is the site of the papal conclave, the process by which a new pope is selected. The fame of the Sistine Chapel lies mainly in the frescos that decorate the interior, most particularly the Sistine Chapel ceiling and "The Last Judgment" by Michelangelo.\n',
'597': 'The average duration of courtship varies considerably throughout the world. Furthermore, there is vast individual variation between couples. Courtship may be completely omitted, as in cases of some arranged marriages where the couple do not meet before the wedding.\n',
'598': 'Surfing is a surface water sport in which the wave rider, referred to as a surfer, rides on the forward or face of a moving wave, which usually carries the surfer towards the shore. Waves suitable for surfing are primarily found in the ocean, but can also be found in lakes or rivers in the form of a standing wave or tidal bore. However, surfers can also utilize artificial waves such as those from boat wakes and the waves created in artificial wave pools.\n',
'599': 'Dog breeds are dogs that have relatively uniform physical characteristics developed by humans, with breeding animals selected for phenotypic traits such as size, coat color, structure, and behavior. The Fédération Cynologique Internationale recognizes 337 pure dog breeds.\n',
'600': 'Pizza (, ) is a savory dish of Italian origin, consisting of a usually round, flattened base of leavened wheat-based dough topped with tomatoes, cheese, and various other ingredients (anchovies, olives, meat, etc.) baked at a high temperature, traditionally in a wood-fired oven. In formal settings, like a restaurant, pizza is eaten with knife and fork, but in casual settings it is cut into wedges to be eaten while held in the hand. Small pizzas are sometimes called pizzettas.\n',
'601': 'Veganism is the practice of abstaining from the use of animal products, particularly in diet, and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals. A follower of the diet or the philosophy is known as a vegan. Distinctions may be made between several categories of veganism. "Dietary vegans" (also known as strict vegetarians) refrain from consuming animal products, not only meat but also eggs, dairy products and other animal-derived substances. The term "ethical vegan" is often applied to those who not only follow a vegan diet but extend the philosophy into other areas of their lives, and oppose the use of animals for any purpose. Another term is "environmental veganism", which refers to the avoidance of animal products on the premise that the industrial farming of animals is environmentally damaging and unsustainable.\n',
'602': 'Michael Nelson Trout (born August 7, 1991) is an American professional baseball center fielder for the Los Angeles Angels of Major League Baseball (MLB). Trout is a eight-time MLB All-Star, received the American League (AL) Most Valuable Player (MVP) award in 2014 and 2016 (finishing second in the 2012, 2013, 2015, and 2018 votes), and is a six-time winner of the Silver Slugger Award. He is nicknamed "The Millville Meteor."\n',
'603': 'Education in the United States is provided in public, private, and home schools.\n',
'604': 'On arrival at the winery there is usually a mixture of individual berries, whole bunches (particularly with hand-picked grapes), stems, and leaves. The presence of stems during fermentation can lead to a bitter taste in the wine, and the purpose of destemming is to separate grapes from the stems and leaves. Mechanical de-stemmers usually consist of a rotating cage perforated with grape-sized holes. Within this cage is a concentric axle with arms radiating towards the inner surface of the cage. Grapes pass through the holes in the cage, while stems and leaves are expelled through the open end of the cage.\n',
'605': "YouTube is an American video-sharing website headquartered in San Bruno, California. Three former PayPal employees—Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim—created the service in February 2005. Google bought the site in November 2006 for US$1.65\xa0billion; YouTube now operates as one of Google's subsidiaries.\n",
'606': "Seawater, or salt water, is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the world's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5% (35\xa0g/L, 599 mM). This means that every kilogram (roughly one litre by volume) of seawater has approximately of dissolved salts (predominantly sodium () and chloride () ions). Average density at the surface is 1.025\xa0kg/L. Seawater is denser than both fresh water and pure water (density 1.0\xa0kg/L at ) because the dissolved salts increase the mass by a larger proportion than the volume. The freezing point of seawater decreases as salt concentration increases. At typical salinity, it freezes at about . The coldest seawater ever recorded (in a liquid state) was in 2010, in a stream under an Antarctic glacier, and measured . Seawater pH is typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4. However, there is no universally accepted reference pH-scale for seawater and the difference between measurements based on different reference scales may be up to 0.14 units.\n",
'607': 'The modern newspaper is a European invention. The oldest direct ancestors of the modern newspaper were the handwritten news sheets that circulated widely in Venice as early as 1566. These weekly news sheets were filled with information on wars and politics in Italy and Europe. The first printed newspapers were published weekly in Germany from 1609. Typically they were heavily censored by the government and reported only foreign news, and current prices. After the English government relaxed censorship in 1695, newspapers flourished in London and a few other cities including Boston and Philadelphia. By the 1830s high speed presses could print thousands of papers cheaply, allowing for low daily costs.\n',
'608': 'Veterinary medicine is the branch of medicine that deals with the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of disease, disorder and injury in animals. The scope of veterinary medicine is wide, covering all animal species, both domesticated and wild, with a wide range of conditions which can affect different species.\n',
'609': 'Yoga (; ; ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India. Yoga is one of the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophical traditions. There is a broad variety of yoga schools, practices, and goals in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. The term "yoga" in the Western world often denotes a modern form of Hatha yoga, yoga as exercise, consisting largely of the postures called asanas.\n',
'610': 'Beer may have been known in Neolithic Europe and was mainly brewed on a domestic scale.\n',
'611': "Pet adoption is the process of taking responsibility for a pet that a previous owner has abandoned or released to a shelter or rescue organization. Common sources for adoptable pets are animal shelters and rescue groups. Some organizations give adopters ownership of the pet, while others use a guardianship model wherein the organization retains some control over the animal's future use or care.\n",
'612': 'Microsoft Corporation is an American multinational technology company with headquarters in Redmond, Washington. It develops, manufactures, licenses, supports and sells computer software, consumer electronics, personal computers, and related services. Its best known software products are the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, the Microsoft Office suite, and the Internet Explorer and Edge Web browsers. Its flagship hardware products are the Xbox video game consoles and the Microsoft Surface lineup of touchscreen personal computers. As of 2016, it is the world\'s largest software maker by revenue, and one of the world\'s most valuable companies. The word "Microsoft" is a portmanteau of "microcomputer" and "software". Microsoft is ranked No. 30 in the 2018 Fortune 500 rankings of the largest United States corporations by total revenue.\n',
'613': 'The domestic dog ("Canis lupus familiaris" when considered a subspecies of the wolf or "Canis familiaris" when considered a distinct species) is a member of the genus "Canis" (canines), which forms part of the wolf-like canids, and is the most widely abundant terrestrial carnivore. The dog and the extant gray wolf are sister taxa as modern wolves are not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated, which implies that the direct ancestor of the dog is extinct. The dog was the first species to be domesticated and has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes.\n',
'614': 'A factory, manufacturing plant or a production plant is an industrial site, usually consisting of buildings and machinery, or more commonly a complex having several buildings, where workers manufacture goods or operate machines processing one product into another.\n',
'615': "Honda has been the world's largest motorcycle manufacturer since 1959, as well as the world's largest manufacturer of internal combustion engines measured by volume, producing more than 14 million internal combustion engines each year. Honda became the second-largest Japanese automobile manufacturer in 2001. Honda was the eighth largest automobile manufacturer in the world in 2015.\n",
'616': 'Leaf vegetables, also called leafy greens, salad greens, pot herbs, vegetable greens, or simply greens, are plant leaves eaten as a vegetable, sometimes accompanied by tender petioles and shoots. Although they come from a very wide variety of plants, most share a great deal with other leaf vegetables in nutrition and cooking methods.\n',
'617': "Reenacting the American Civil War began even before the real fighting had ended. Civil War veterans recreated battles as a way to remember their fallen comrades and to teach others what the war was all about. The Great Reunion of 1913, celebrating the 50th anniversary of the Battle of Gettysburg, was attended by more than 50,000 Union and Confederate veterans, and included reenactments of elements of the battle, including Pickett's Charge. \n",
'618': 'Grand Rapids is the second-largest city in Michigan and the largest city in West Michigan. It is on the Grand River about east of Lake Michigan. As of the 2010 census, the city population was 188,040. In 2010, the Grand Rapids metropolitan area had a population of 1,005,648, and the combined statistical area of Grand Rapids-Muskegon-Holland had a population of 1,321,557. Grand Rapids is the county seat of Kent County.\n',
'619': "John Winston Ono Lennon (9 October 19408 December 1980) was an English singer, songwriter and peace activist who co-founded the Beatles, the most commercially successful band in the history of popular music. He and fellow member Paul McCartney formed a much-celebrated songwriting partnership. Along with George Harrison and Ringo Starr, the group achieved worldwide fame during the 1960s. In 1969, Lennon started the Plastic Ono Band with his second wife, Yoko Ono, and he continued to pursue a solo career following the Beatles' break-up in April 1970.\n",
'620': 'Beer is one of the oldest and most widely consumed alcoholic drinks in the world, and the third most popular drink overall after water and tea. Beer is brewed from cereal grains—most commonly from malted barley, though wheat, maize (corn), and rice are also used. During the brewing process, fermentation of the starch sugars in the wort produces ethanol and carbonation in the resulting beer. Most modern beer is brewed with hops, which add bitterness and other flavours and act as a natural preservative and stabilizing agent. Other flavouring agents such as gruit, herbs, or fruits may be included or used instead of hops. In commercial brewing, the natural carbonation effect is often removed during processing and replaced with forced carbonation.\n',
'621': 'Facial hair in the military has been at various times common, prohibited, or an integral part of the uniform.\n',
'622': 'The City of New York, usually called either New York City (NYC) or simply New York (NY), is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2018 population of 8,398,748 distributed over a land area of about , New York is also the most densely populated major city in the United States. Located at the southern tip of the state of New York, the city is the center of the New York metropolitan area, the largest metropolitan area in the world by urban landmass and one of the world\'s most populous megacities, with an estimated 19,979,477 people in its 2018 Metropolitan Statistical Area and 22,679,948 residents in its Combined Statistical Area. A global power city, New York City has been described as the cultural, financial, and media capital of the world, and exerts a significant impact upon commerce, entertainment, research, technology, education, politics, tourism, art, fashion, and sports. The city\'s fast pace has inspired the term "New York minute". Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy.\n',
'623': 'The domestic dog ("Canis lupus familiaris" when considered a subspecies of the wolf or "Canis familiaris" when considered a distinct species) is a member of the genus "Canis" (canines), which forms part of the wolf-like canids, and is the most widely abundant terrestrial carnivore. The dog and the extant gray wolf are sister taxa as modern wolves are not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated, which implies that the direct ancestor of the dog is extinct. The dog was the first species to be domesticated and has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes.\n',
'624': 'Parenting or child rearing is the process of promoting and supporting the physical, emotional, social, and intellectual development of a child from infancy to adulthood. Parenting refers to the intricacies of raising a child and not exclusively for a biological relationship.\n',
'625': 'Skateboarding is an action sport which involves riding and performing tricks using a skateboard, as well as a recreational activity, an art form, an entertainment industry job, and a method of transportation. Skateboarding has been shaped and influenced by many skateboarders throughout the years. A 2009 report found that the skateboarding market is worth an estimated $4.8 billion in annual revenue with 11.08 million active skateboarders in the world. In 2016, it was announced that skateboarding will be represented at the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo.\n',
'626': 'Motor oil, engine oil, or engine lubricant is any of various substances comprising base oils enhanced with additives, particularly antiwear additive plus detergents, dispersants and, for multi-grade oils viscosity index improvers. Motor oil is used for lubrication of internal combustion engines. The main function of motor oil is to reduce friction and wear on moving parts and to clean the engine from sludge (one of the functions of dispersants) and varnish (detergents). It also neutralizes acids that originate from fuel and from oxidation of the lubricant (detergents), improves sealing of piston rings, and cools the engine by carrying heat away from moving parts.\n',
'627': 'A chocolate chip cookie is a drop cookie that originated in the United States and features chocolate chips or chocolate morsels as its distinguishing ingredient. Circa 1938, Ruth Graves Wakefield added chopped up bits from a Nestlé semi-sweet chocolate bar into a cookie.\n',
'628': 'Adam Noah Levine (born March 18, 1979) is an American singer, songwriter, and actor. He is the lead singer for the pop rock band Maroon 5. Born and raised in Los Angeles, California, Levine began his musical career in 1994, when he co-founded the band Kara\'s Flowers, of which he was the lead vocalist and guitarist. The band split up after their only album, "The Fourth World" (released in 1997), which did not gain popularity. In 2001, the group was reformed – with guitarist James Valentine joining the line-up – and began a new musical chapter, changing their name to Maroon 5. In 2002, the band released their first album, "Songs About Jane", which went multi-platinum in the US. Since then, they have released five more albums: "It Won\'t Be Soon Before Long" (2007), "Hands All Over" (2010), "Overexposed" (2012), "V" (2014), and "Red Pill Blues" (2017). As part of Maroon 5, Levine has received three Grammy Awards, three American Music Awards, an MTV Video Music Award, and a World Music Award.\n',
'629': 'Vermont () is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. It borders the U.S. states of Massachusetts to the south, New Hampshire to the east, New York to the west, and the Canadian province of Quebec to the north. Vermont is the second-smallest by population and the sixth-smallest by area of the 50 U.S. states. The state capital is Montpelier, the least populous state capital in the United States. The most populous city, Burlington, is the least populous city to be the most populous city in a state. As of 2015, Vermont was the leading producer of maple syrup in the United States. In crime statistics, it was ranked since 2016 as the safest state in the country.\n',
'630': 'Sewing is the craft of fastening or attaching objects using stitches made with a needle and thread. Sewing is one of the oldest of the textile arts, arising in the Paleolithic era. Before the invention of spinning yarn or weaving fabric, archaeologists believe Stone Age people across Europe and Asia sewed fur and skin clothing using bone, antler or ivory needles and "thread" made of various animal body parts including sinew, catgut, and veins.\n',
'631': 'Yellow is the color between orange and green on the spectrum of visible light. It is evoked by light with a dominant wavelength of roughly 570590 nm. It is a primary color in subtractive color systems, used in painting or color printing. In the RGB color model, used to create colors on television and computer screens, yellow is a secondary color made by combining red and green at equal intensity. Carotenoids give the characteristic yellow color to autumn leaves, corn, canaries, daffodils, and lemons, as well as egg yolks, buttercups, and bananas. They absorb light energy and protect plants from photodamage. Sunlight has a slight yellowish hue when sun is near a horizon, due to atmosphere scattering shorter wavelengths (green, blue, and violet).\n',
'632': "Acid rock is a loosely defined type of rock music that evolved out of the mid-1960s garage punk movement and helped launch the psychedelic subculture. The style is generally defined by heavy, distorted guitars, lyrics with drug references, and long improvised jams. Its distinctions from other genres can be tenuous, as much of the style overlaps with '60s punk, proto-metal, and early heavy, blues-based hard rock.\n",
'633': 'Iceland (; ) is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic, with a population of 360,390 and an area of , making it the most sparsely populated country in Europe. The capital and largest city is Reykjavík, with Reykjavík and the surrounding areas in the southwest of the country being home to over two-thirds of the population. Iceland is volcanically and geologically active. The interior consists of a plateau characterised by sand and lava fields, mountains, and glaciers, and many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands. Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a temperate climate, despite a high latitude just outside the Arctic Circle. Its high latitude and marine influence keep summers chilly, with most of the archipelago having a tundra climate.\n',
'634': 'The word "nurse" originally came from the Latin word "nutrire", meaning to suckle, referring to a wet-nurse; only in the late 16th century did it attain its modern meaning of a person who cares for the infirm.\n',
'635': "Walmart Inc. (; formerly Wal-Mart Stores, Inc.) is an American multinational retail corporation that operates a chain of hypermarkets, discount department stores, and grocery stores, headquartered in Bentonville, Arkansas. The company was founded by Sam Walton in 1962 and incorporated on October 31, 1969. It also owns and operates Sam's Club retail warehouses. Walmart has 11,368 stores and clubs in 27countries, operating under 55 differentnames. The company operates under the name Walmart in the United States and Canada, as Walmart de México y Centroamérica in Mexico and Central America, as Asda in the United Kingdom, as the Seiyu Group in Japan, and as Best Price in India. It has wholly owned operations in Argentina, Chile, Canada, and South Africa. Since August 2018, Walmart only holds a minority stake in Walmart Brasil, with 20-percent of the company's shares, and private equity firm Advent International holding 80-percent ownership of the company.\n",
'636': 'Colorado (, other variants) is a state of the Western United States encompassing most of the southern Rocky Mountains as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the western edge of the Great Plains. It is the 8th most extensive and 21st most populous U.S. state. The estimated population of Colorado was 5,695,564 on July 1, 2018, an increase of 13.25% since the 2010 United States Census.\n',
'637': "Psycho is a 1960 American psychological horror film directed and produced by Alfred Hitchcock, and written by Joseph Stefano. It stars Anthony Perkins, Janet Leigh, John Gavin, Vera Miles, and Martin Balsam, and was based on the 1959 novel of the same name by Robert Bloch. The film centers on an encounter between a secretary, Marion Crane (Leigh), who ends up at a secluded motel after stealing money from her employer, and the motel's owner-manager, Norman Bates (Perkins), and its aftermath.\n",
'638': 'Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat (red meat, poultry, seafood, and the flesh of any other animal), and may also include abstention from by-products of animals processed for food.\n',
'639': 'Chevrolet ( ), colloquially referred to as Chevy and formally the Chevrolet Division of General Motors Company, is an American automobile division of the American manufacturer General Motors (GM). Louis Chevrolet and ousted General Motors founder William C. Durant started the company on November 3, 1911 as the Chevrolet Motor Car Company. Durant used the Chevrolet Motor Car Company to acquire a controlling stake in General Motors with a reverse merger occurring on May 2, 1918 and propelled himself back to the GM presidency. After Durant\'s second ousting in 1919, Alfred Sloan, with his maxim "a car for every purse and purpose", would pick the Chevrolet brand to become the volume leader in the General Motors family, selling mainstream vehicles to compete with Henry Ford\'s Model T in 1919 and overtaking Ford as the best-selling car in the United States by 1929.\n',
'640': 'A beard is the unshaven hair that grows on the chin, upper lip, cheeks and neck of humans and some non-human animals. In humans, usually only pubescent or adult males are able to grow beards. Some women with hirsutism, a hormonal condition of excessive hairiness, may develop a beard.\n',
'641': 'Fish and shellfish concentrate mercury in their bodies, often in the form of methylmercury, a highly toxic organomercury compound. Fish products have been shown to contain varying amounts of heavy metals, particularly mercury and fat-soluble pollutants from water pollution. Species of fish that are long-lived and high on the food chain, such as marlin, tuna, shark, swordfish, king mackerel and tilefish (Gulf of Mexico) contain higher concentrations of mercury than others.\n',
'642': "Headphones (or head-phones in the early days of telephony and radio) traditionally refer to a pair of small loudspeaker drivers worn on or around the head over a user's ears. They are electroacoustic transducers, which convert an electrical signal to a corresponding sound. Headphones let a single user listen to an audio source privately, in contrast to a loudspeaker, which emits sound into the open air for anyone nearby to hear. Headphones are also known as earspeakers, earphones or, colloquially, cans. Circumaural ('around the ear') and supra-aural ('over the ear') headphones use a band over the top of the head to hold the speakers in place. Another type, known as earbuds or earpieces consist of individual units that plug into the user's ear canal. A third type are bone conduction headphones, which typically wrap around the back of the head and rest in front of the ear canal, leaving the ear canal open. \n",
'643': 'American open-wheel car racing, also known as Indy car racing, is a category of professional-level automobile racing in the United States and North America. As of 2019, the top-level American open-wheel racing championship is sanctioned by IndyCar.\n',
'644': 'Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System after Mercury. In English, Mars carries a name of the Roman god of war, and is often referred to as the "Red Planet" because the iron oxide prevalent on its surface gives it a reddish appearance that is distinctive among the astronomical bodies visible to the naked eye. Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin atmosphere, having surface features reminiscent both of the impact craters of the Moon and the valleys, deserts, and polar ice caps of Earth.\n',
'645': 'Pork is the culinary name for the flesh of a domestic pig ("Sus scrofa domesticus"). It is the most commonly consumed meat worldwide, with evidence of pig husbandry dating back to 5000 BC.\n',
'646': 'The piano is an acoustic, stringed musical instrument invented in Italy by Bartolomeo Cristofori around the year 1700 (the exact year is uncertain), in which the strings are struck by hammers. It is played using a keyboard, which is a row of keys (small levers) that the performer presses down or strikes with the fingers and thumbs of both hands to cause the hammers to strike the strings. \n',
'647': 'Back pain is pain felt in the back. The back is divided into neck pain (cervical), middle back pain (thoracic), lower back pain (lumbar) or coccydynia (tailbone or sacral pain) based on the segment affected. The lumbar area is the most common area affected. Episodes of back pain may be acute, sub-acute, or chronic depending on the duration. The pain may be characterized as a dull ache, shooting or piercing pain, or a burning sensation. Discomfort can radiate into the arms and hands as well as the legs or feet, and may include numbness, or weakness in the legs and arms.\n',
'648': 'The Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali are a collection of 196 Indian sutras (aphorisms) on the theory and practice of yoga. The "Yoga Sutras" were compiled prior to 400 CE by Patanjali who synthesized and organized knowledge about yoga from older traditions. The "Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali" was the most translated ancient Indian text in the medieval era, having been translated into about forty Indian languages and two non-Indian languages: Old Javanese and Arabic. The text fell into relative obscurity for nearly 700 years from the 12th to 19th century, and made a comeback in late 19th century due to the efforts of Swami Vivekananda, the Theosophical Society and others. It gained prominence again as a comeback classic in the 20th century.\n',
'649': 'Color photography is photography that uses media capable of reproducing colors. By contrast, black-and-white (monochrome) photography records only a single channel of luminance (brightness) and uses media capable only of showing shades of gray.\n',
'650': 'No-fault divorce is a divorce in which the dissolution of a marriage does not require a showing of wrongdoing by either party. Laws providing for no-fault divorce allow a family court to grant a divorce in response to a petition by either party of the marriage without requiring the petitioner to provide evidence that the defendant has committed a breach of the marital contract.\n',
'651': 'The Chicago Metropolitan Statistical Area was originally designated by the United States Census Bureau in 1950. It comprised the Illinois counties of Cook, DuPage, Kane, Lake and Will, along with Lake County in Indiana. As surrounding counties saw an increase in their population densities and the number of their residents employed within Cook County, they met Census criteria to be added to the MSA. The Chicago MSA, now defined as the Chicago-Naperville-Elgin, IL-IN-WI Metropolitan Statistical Area, is the third largest MSA by population in the United States. The 2015 census estimate for the MSA was 9,532,569, a decline from 9,543,893 in the 2014 census estimate. This loss of population has been attributed to taxes, political issues, weather, and other factors.\n',
'652': "Snowboarding is a recreational activity and Winter Olympic and Paralympic sport that involves descending a snow-covered slope while standing on a snowboard attached to a rider's feet.\n",
'653': 'Cake is a form of sweet food that is usually baked. In their oldest forms, cakes were modifications of breads, but cakes now cover a wide range of preparations that can be simple or elaborate, and that share features with other desserts such as pastries, meringues, custards, and pies.\n',
'654': 'Veganism is the practice of abstaining from the use of animal products, particularly in diet, and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals. A follower of the diet or the philosophy is known as a vegan. Distinctions may be made between several categories of veganism. "Dietary vegans" (also known as strict vegetarians) refrain from consuming animal products, not only meat but also eggs, dairy products and other animal-derived substances. The term "ethical vegan" is often applied to those who not only follow a vegan diet but extend the philosophy into other areas of their lives, and oppose the use of animals for any purpose. Another term is "environmental veganism", which refers to the avoidance of animal products on the premise that the industrial farming of animals is environmentally damaging and unsustainable.\n',
'655': 'A trumpet is a brass instrument commonly used in classical and jazz ensembles. The trumpet group contains the instruments (such as the piccolo trumpet) with the highest register in the brass family. Trumpet-like instruments have historically been used as signaling devices in battle or hunting, with examples dating back to at least 1500\xa0BC; they began to be used as musical instruments only in the late 14th or early 15th century. Trumpets are used in art music styles, for instance in orchestras, concert bands, and jazz ensembles, as well as in popular music. They are played by blowing air through nearly-closed lips (called the player\'s embouchure), producing a "buzzing" sound that starts a standing wave vibration in the air column inside the instrument. Since the late 15th century they have primarily been constructed of brass tubing, usually bent twice into a rounded rectangular shape.\n',
'656': 'A slacker is someone who habitually avoids work or lacks work ethic.\n',
'657': 'Costume is the distinctive style of dress of an individual or group that reflects their class, gender, profession, ethnicity, nationality, activity or epoch.\n',
'658': 'Kauai, Americanized as Kauai ( , ), is geologically the oldest of the main Hawaiian Islands. With an area of 562.3 square miles (1,456.4\xa0km), it is the fourth-largest of these islands and the 21st largest island in the United States. Known also as the "Garden Isle", Kauai lies 105 miles (169\xa0km) across the Kauai Channel, northwest of Oahu. This island is the site of Waimea Canyon State Park.\n',
'659': 'The domestic dog ("Canis lupus familiaris" when considered a subspecies of the wolf or "Canis familiaris" when considered a distinct species) is a member of the genus "Canis" (canines), which forms part of the wolf-like canids, and is the most widely abundant terrestrial carnivore. The dog and the extant gray wolf are sister taxa as modern wolves are not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated, which implies that the direct ancestor of the dog is extinct. The dog was the first species to be domesticated and has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes.\n',
'660': 'Blackjack is the American variant of a globally popular banking game known as Twenty-One, whose relatives include Pontoon and Vingt-et-Un. It is a comparing card game between one or more players and a dealer, where each player in turn competes against the dealer. Players do not compete against each other. It is played with one or more decks of 52 cards, and is the most widely played casino banking game in the world. The objective of the game is to beat the dealer in one of the following ways:\n',
'661': 'Yoga (; ; ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India. Yoga is one of the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophical traditions. There is a broad variety of yoga schools, practices, and goals in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. The term "yoga" in the Western world often denotes a modern form of Hatha yoga, yoga as exercise, consisting largely of the postures called asanas.\n',
'662': "Anne of Green Gables is a 1908 novel by Canadian author Lucy Maud Montgomery (published as L.M. Montgomery). Written for all ages, it has been considered a classic children's novel since the mid-twentieth century. Set in the late 19th century, the novel recounts the adventures of Anne Shirley, an 11-year-old orphan girl, who is mistakenly sent to two middle-aged siblings, Matthew and Marilla Cuthbert, who had originally intended to adopt a boy to help them on their farm in the fictional town of Avonlea on Prince Edward Island. The novel recounts how Anne makes her way through life with the Cuthberts, in school, and within the town.\n",
'663': 'Hiking is the preferred term, in Canada and the United States, for a long, vigorous walk, usually on trails (footpaths), in the countryside, while the word walking is used for shorter, particularly urban walks. On the other hand, in the United Kingdom, and the Republic of Ireland, the word "walking" is acceptable to describe "all forms" of walking, whether it is a walk in the park or backpacking in the Alps. The word hiking is also often used in the UK, along with rambling (a slightly old-fashioned term), hillwalking, and fell walking (a term mostly used for hillwalking in northern England). The term bushwalking is endemic to Australia, having been adopted by the Sydney Bush Walkers club in 1927. In New Zealand a long, vigorous walk or hike is called tramping. It is a popular activity with numerous worldwide, and studies suggest that all forms of walking have health benefits.\n',
'664': 'Insurance is a means of protection from financial loss. It is a form of risk management, primarily used to hedge against the risk of a contingent or uncertain loss.\n',
'665': 'J-pop (, "jeipoppu"; often stylized as J-POP; an abbreviation for Japanese pop), natively also known simply as , is a musical genre that entered the musical mainstream of Japan in the 1990s. Modern J-pop has its roots in traditional Japanese music, but significantly in 1960s pop and rock music, such as The Beatles and The Beach Boys, which led to Japanese rock bands such as Happy End fusing rock with Japanese music in the early 1970s. J-pop was further defined by new wave groups in the late 1970s, particularly electronic synth-pop band Yellow Magic Orchestra and pop rock band Southern All Stars.\n',
'666': "Tennis is a racket sport that can be played individually against a single opponent (singles) or between two teams of two players each (doubles). Each player uses a tennis racket that is strung with cord to strike a hollow rubber ball covered with felt over or around a net and into the opponent's court. The object of the game is to maneuver the ball in such a way that the opponent is not able to play a valid return. The player who is unable to return the ball will not gain a point, while the opposite player will.\n",
'667': "Autism is a developmental disorder characterized by difficulties with social interaction and communication, and by restricted and repetitive behavior. Parents usually notice signs during the first three years of their child's life. These signs often develop gradually, though some children with autism reach their developmental milestones at a normal pace before worsening.\n",
'668': 'Hamilton: An American Musical is a sung-and-rapped through musical about the life of American Founding Father Alexander Hamilton, with music, lyrics and book by Lin-Manuel Miranda, inspired by the 2004 biography "Alexander Hamilton" by historian Ron Chernow. Incorporating hip hop, R&B, pop, soul, traditional-style show tunes, and color-conscious casting of non-white actors as the Founding Fathers and other historical figures, the musical achieved both critical acclaim and box office success.\n',
'669': 'The Intel 80386, also known as i386 or just 386, is a 32-bit microprocessor introduced in 1985. The first versions had 275,000 transistors and were the CPU of many workstations and high-end personal computers of the time. As the original implementation of the 32-bit extension of the 80286 architecture, the 80386 instruction set, programming model, and binary encodings are still the common denominator for all 32-bit x86 processors, which is termed the "i386-architecture", "x86", or "IA-32", depending on context.\n',
'670': "Michael Fred Phelps II (born June 30, 1985) is an American retired competitive swimmer and the most successful and most decorated Olympian of all time, with a total of 28 medals. Phelps also holds the all-time records for Olympic gold medals (23), Olympic gold medals in individual events (13), and Olympic medals in individual events (16). When he won eight gold medals at the 2008 Beijing Games, Phelps broke fellow American swimmer Mark Spitz's 1972 record of seven first-place finishes at any single Olympic Games. At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Phelps had already tied the record of eight medals of any color at a single Games by winning six gold and two bronze medals. At the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, Phelps won four gold and two silver medals, and at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, he won five gold medals and one silver. This made him the most successful athlete of the Games for the fourth Olympics in a row.\n",
'671': 'Anesthesia or anaesthesia (from Greek "without sensation") is a state of controlled, temporary loss of sensation or awareness that is induced for medical purposes. It may include analgesia (relief from or prevention of pain), paralysis (muscle relaxation), amnesia (loss of memory), or unconsciousness. A patient under the effects of anesthetic drugs is referred to as being anesthetized. \n',
'672': 'A desert is a barren area of landscape where little precipitation occurs and, consequently, living conditions are hostile for plant and animal life. The lack of vegetation exposes the unprotected surface of the ground to the processes of denudation. About one-third of the land surface of the world is arid or semi-arid. This includes much of the polar regions where little precipitation occurs and which are sometimes called polar deserts or "cold deserts". Deserts can be classified by the amount of precipitation that falls, by the temperature that prevails, by the causes of desertification or by their geographical location.\n',
'673': 'Charles Fredrick Weisenthal, a German-born engineer working in England was awarded the first British patent for a mechanical device to aid the art of sewing, in 1755. His invention consisted of a double pointed needle with an eye at one end.\n',
'674': 'The domestic dog ("Canis lupus familiaris" when considered a subspecies of the wolf or "Canis familiaris" when considered a distinct species) is a member of the genus "Canis" (canines), which forms part of the wolf-like canids, and is the most widely abundant terrestrial carnivore. The dog and the extant gray wolf are sister taxa as modern wolves are not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated, which implies that the direct ancestor of the dog is extinct. The dog was the first species to be domesticated and has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes.\n',
'675': 'Crochet (; ) is a process of creating fabric by interlocking loops of yarn, thread, or strands of other materials using a crochet hook. The name is derived from the French term "crochet", meaning \'small hook\'. These are made of materials such as metal, wood, or plastic and are manufactured commercially and produced in artisan workshops. The salient difference between crochet and knitting, beyond the implements used for their production, is that each stitch in crochet is completed before the next one is begun, while knitting keeps a large number of stitches open at a time. (Variant forms such as Tunisian crochet and broomstick lace keep multiple crochet stitches open at a time.)\n',
'676': 'Armadillos (from Spanish "little armoured one") are New World placental mammals in the order Cingulata. The Chlamyphoridae and Dasypodidae are the only surviving families in the order, which is part of the superorder Xenarthra, along with the anteaters and sloths. Nine extinct genera and 21 extant species of armadillo have been described, some of which are distinguished by the number of bands on their armour. All species are native to the Americas, where they inhabit a variety of different environments. \n',
'677': 'Special education (also known as special-needs education, aided education, exceptional education, special ed. or SPED) is the practice of educating students in a way that addresses their individual differences and needs. Ideally, this process involves the individually planned and systematically monitored arrangement of teaching procedures, adapted equipment and materials, and accessible settings. These interventions are designed to help individuals with special needs achieve a higher level of personal self-sufficiency and success in school and in their community which may not be available if the student were only given access to a typical classroom education.\n',
'678': 'The domestication of animals is the mutual relationship between animals and the humans who have influence on their care and reproduction. Charles Darwin recognized a small number of traits that made domesticated species different from their wild ancestors. He was also the first to recognize the difference between conscious selective breeding in which humans directly select for desirable traits, and unconscious selection where traits evolve as a by-product of natural selection or from selection on other traits. There is a genetic difference between domestic and wild populations. There is also such a difference between the domestication traits that researchers believe to have been essential at the early stages of domestication, and the improvement traits that have appeared since the split between wild and domestic populations. Domestication traits are generally fixed within all domesticates, and were selected during the initial episode of domestication of that animal or plant, whereas improvement traits are present only in a proportion of domesticates, though they may be fixed in individual breeds or regional populations.\n',
'679': "Walmart Inc. (; formerly Wal-Mart Stores, Inc.) is an American multinational retail corporation that operates a chain of hypermarkets, discount department stores, and grocery stores, headquartered in Bentonville, Arkansas. The company was founded by Sam Walton in 1962 and incorporated on October 31, 1969. It also owns and operates Sam's Club retail warehouses. Walmart has 11,368 stores and clubs in 27countries, operating under 55 differentnames. The company operates under the name Walmart in the United States and Canada, as Walmart de México y Centroamérica in Mexico and Central America, as Asda in the United Kingdom, as the Seiyu Group in Japan, and as Best Price in India. It has wholly owned operations in Argentina, Chile, Canada, and South Africa. Since August 2018, Walmart only holds a minority stake in Walmart Brasil, with 20-percent of the company's shares, and private equity firm Advent International holding 80-percent ownership of the company.\n",
'680': 'Horses are trained and ridden for practical working purposes, such as in police work or for controlling herd animals on a ranch. They are also used in competitive sports including dressage, endurance riding, eventing, reining, show jumping, tent pegging, vaulting, polo, horse racing, driving, and rodeo (see additional equestrian sports listed later in this article for more examples). Some popular forms of competition are grouped together at horse shows where horses perform in a wide variety of disciplines. Horses (and other equids such as mules) are used for non-competitive recreational riding such as fox hunting, trail riding, or hacking. There is public access to horse trails in almost every part of the world; many parks, ranches, and public stables offer both guided and independent riding. Horses are also used for therapeutic purposes both in specialized para-equestrian competition as well as non-competitive riding to improve human health and emotional development.\n',
'681': "Tennis is a racket sport that can be played individually against a single opponent (singles) or between two teams of two players each (doubles). Each player uses a tennis racket that is strung with cord to strike a hollow rubber ball covered with felt over or around a net and into the opponent's court. The object of the game is to maneuver the ball in such a way that the opponent is not able to play a valid return. The player who is unable to return the ball will not gain a point, while the opposite player will.\n",
'682': 'The solar eclipse of August 21, 2017, dubbed the "Great American Eclipse" by the media, was a total solar eclipse visible within a band that spanned the entire contiguous United States, passing from the Pacific to the Atlantic coasts. As a partial solar eclipse, it was visible on land from Nunavut in northern Canada to as far south as northern South America. In northwestern Europe and Africa, it was partially visible in the late evening. In Asia, it was visible only at the eastern extremity, the Chukchi Peninsula.\n',
'683': 'A background actor or extra is a performer in a film, television show, stage, musical, opera or ballet production, who appears in a nonspeaking or nonsinging (silent) capacity, usually in the background (for example, in an audience or busy street scene). War films and epic films often employ background actors in large numbers: some films have featured hundreds or even thousands of paid background actors as cast members (hence the term "cast of thousands"). Likewise, grand opera can involve many background actors appearing in spectacular productions.\n',
'684': "Lee Alexander McQueen, CBE (17 March 1969 – 11 February 2010) was a British fashion designer and couturier. He worked as chief designer at Givenchy from 1996 to 2001, and founded his own fort Alexander McQueen label in 1992. His achievements in fashion earned him four British Designer of the Year awards (1996, 1997, 2001 and 2003), as well as the CFDA's International Designer of the Year award in 2003. McQueen died by suicide in 2010, at the age of 40, at his home in Mayfair, London.\n",
'685': 'Blond or fair hair is a hair color characterized by low levels of the dark pigment eumelanin. The resultant visible hue depends on various factors, but always has some yellowish color. The color can be from the very pale blond (caused by a patchy, scarce distribution of pigment) to reddish "strawberry" blond or golden-brownish ("sandy") blond colors (the latter with more eumelanin). Because hair color tends to darken with age, natural blond hair is generally rare in adulthood. Naturally-occurring blond hair is primarily found in populations of northern European descent and is believed to have evolved to enable more efficient synthesis of vitamin D, due to northern Europe\'s lower levels of sunlight. Blond hair has also developed in other populations, although it is usually not as common, and can be found among natives of the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and Fiji, among the Berbers of North Africa, and among some Asians.\n',
'686': 'Radiology is the medical specialty that uses medical imaging to diagnose and treat diseases within the human body.\n',
'687': 'The wolf ("Canis lupus"), also known as the gray/grey wolf, timber wolf, or tundra wolf, is a canine native to the wilderness and remote areas of Eurasia and North America. It is the largest extant member of its family, with males averaging and females . It is distinguished from other "Canis" species by its larger size and less pointed features, particularly on the ears and muzzle. Its winter fur is long and bushy and predominantly a mottled gray in color, although nearly pure white, red and brown to black also occur. "Mammal Species of the World" (3rd ed., 2005), a standard reference work in zoology, recognises 38 subspecies of "C. lupus".\n',
'688': 'Jerusalem (; ; ) is a city in the Middle East, located on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is one of the oldest cities in the world, and is considered holy to the three major Abrahamic religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Both Israel and the Palestinian Authority claim Jerusalem as their capital, as Israel maintains its primary governmental institutions there and the State of Palestine ultimately foresees it as its seat of power; however, neither claim is widely recognized internationally.\n',
'689': "Child neglect is a form of child abuse, and is a deficit in meeting a child's basic needs, including the failure to provide adequate health care, supervision, clothing, nutrition, housing as well as their physical, emotional, social, educational and safety needs. Society generally believes there are necessary behaviors a caregiver must provide in order for a child to develop physically, socially, and emotionally. Causes of neglect may result from several parenting problems including mental disorders, substance abuse, domestic violence, unemployment, unplanned pregnancy, and poverty.\n",
'690': "Walmart Inc. (; formerly Wal-Mart Stores, Inc.) is an American multinational retail corporation that operates a chain of hypermarkets, discount department stores, and grocery stores, headquartered in Bentonville, Arkansas. The company was founded by Sam Walton in 1962 and incorporated on October 31, 1969. It also owns and operates Sam's Club retail warehouses. Walmart has 11,368 stores and clubs in 27countries, operating under 55 differentnames. The company operates under the name Walmart in the United States and Canada, as Walmart de México y Centroamérica in Mexico and Central America, as Asda in the United Kingdom, as the Seiyu Group in Japan, and as Best Price in India. It has wholly owned operations in Argentina, Chile, Canada, and South Africa. Since August 2018, Walmart only holds a minority stake in Walmart Brasil, with 20-percent of the company's shares, and private equity firm Advent International holding 80-percent ownership of the company.\n",
'691': 'The Caribbean island of Jamaica was inhabited by the Arawak tribes prior to the arrival of Columbus in 1494. Early inhabitants of Jamaica named the land "Xaymaca", meaning "Land of wood and water". The Spanish enslaved the Arawaks, who were so ravaged by their conflict with the Europeans and by foreign diseases that nearly the entire native population was extinct by 1600. The Spanish also transported hundreds of West African slaves to the island.\n',
'692': "Snakes are elongated, legless, carnivorous reptiles of the suborder Serpentes. Like all other squamates, snakes are ectothermic, amniote vertebrates covered in overlapping scales. Many species of snakes have skulls with several more joints than their lizard ancestors, enabling them to swallow prey much larger than their heads with their highly mobile jaws. To accommodate their narrow bodies, snakes' paired organs (such as kidneys) appear one in front of the other instead of side by side, and most have only one functional lung. Some species retain a pelvic girdle with a pair of vestigial claws on either side of the cloaca. Lizards have evolved elongate bodies without limbs or with greatly reduced limbs about twenty-five times independently via convergent evolution, leading to many lineages of legless lizards. Legless lizards resemble snakes, but several common groups of legless lizards have eyelids and external ears, which snakes lack, although this rule is not universal (see Amphisbaenia, Dibamidae, and Pygopodidae).\n",
'693': "Lexus originated from a corporate project to develop a new premium sedan, code-named F1, which began in 1983 and culminated in the launch of the Lexus LS in 1989. Subsequently, the division added sedan, coupé, convertible and SUV models. Lexus did not exist as a brand in its home market until 2005, and all vehicles marketed internationally as Lexus from 1989 to 2005 were released in Japan under the Toyota marque and an equivalent model name. In 2005, a hybrid version of the RX crossover debuted and additional hybrid models later joined the division's lineup. Lexus launched its own F marque performance division in 2007 with the debut of the IS F sport sedan, followed by the LFA supercar in 2009.\n",
'694': 'Beer is one of the oldest and most widely consumed alcoholic drinks in the world, and the third most popular drink overall after water and tea. Beer is brewed from cereal grains—most commonly from malted barley, though wheat, maize (corn), and rice are also used. During the brewing process, fermentation of the starch sugars in the wort produces ethanol and carbonation in the resulting beer. Most modern beer is brewed with hops, which add bitterness and other flavours and act as a natural preservative and stabilizing agent. Other flavouring agents such as gruit, herbs, or fruits may be included or used instead of hops. In commercial brewing, the natural carbonation effect is often removed during processing and replaced with forced carbonation.\n',
'695': "Basketball is a team sport in which two teams, most commonly of five players each, opposing one another on a rectangular court, compete with the primary objective of shooting a basketball (approximately in diameter) through the defender's hoop (a basket in diameter mounted high to a backboard at each end of the court) while preventing the opposing team from shooting through their own hoop. A field goal is worth two points, unless made from behind the three-point line, when it is worth three. After a foul, timed play stops and the player fouled or designated to shoot a technical foul is given one or more one-point free throws. The team with the most points at the end of the game wins, but if regulation play expires with the score tied, an additional period of play (overtime) is mandated.\n",
'696': 'Colorado (, other variants) is a state of the Western United States encompassing most of the southern Rocky Mountains as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the western edge of the Great Plains. It is the 8th most extensive and 21st most populous U.S. state. The estimated population of Colorado was 5,695,564 on July 1, 2018, an increase of 13.25% since the 2010 United States Census.\n',
'697': "Radiohead are an English rock band formed in Abingdon-on-Thames in 1985. The band consists of Thom Yorke (vocals, guitar, piano, keyboards), brothers Jonny Greenwood (lead guitar, keyboards, other instruments) and Colin Greenwood (bass), Ed O'Brien (guitar, backing vocals) and Philip Selway (drums, percussion). They have worked with producer Nigel Godrich and cover artist Stanley Donwood since 1994.\n",
'698': "Dating is a stage of romantic relationships in humans whereby two people meet socially with the aim of each assessing the other's suitability as a prospective partner in an intimate relationship. It is a form of courtship, consisting of social activities done by the couple, either alone or with others. The protocols and practices of dating, and the terms used to describe it, vary considerably from country to country and over time. While the term has several meanings, the most frequent usage refers to two people exploring whether they are romantically or sexually compatible by participating in dates with the other. With the use of modern technology, people can date via telephone or computer or meet in person.\n",
'699': 'Dance is a performing art form consisting of purposefully selected sequences of human movement. This movement has aesthetic and symbolic value, and is acknowledged as dance by performers and observers within a particular culture. Dance can be categorized and described by its choreography, by its repertoire of movements, or by its historical period or place of origin.\n',
'700': 'An artist is a person engaged in an activity related to creating art, practicing the arts, or demonstrating an art. The common usage in both everyday speech and academic discourse is a practitioner in the visual arts only. The term is often used in the entertainment business, especially in a business context, for musicians and other performers (less often for actors). "Artiste" (the French for artist) is a variant used in English only in this context; this use is becoming rare. Use of the term to describe writers, for example, is valid, but less common, and mostly restricted to contexts like criticism.\n',
'701': 'Butterflies are insects in the macrolepidopteran clade Rhopalocera from the order Lepidoptera, which also includes moths. Adult butterflies have large, often brightly coloured wings, and conspicuous, fluttering flight. The group comprises the large superfamily Papilionoidea, which contains at least one former group, the skippers (formerly the superfamily "Hesperioidea"), and the most recent analyses suggest it also contains the moth-butterflies (formerly the superfamily "Hedyloidea"). Butterfly fossils date to the Paleocene, which was about 56 million years ago.\n',
'702': "Virginia (), officially the Commonwealth of Virginia, is a state in the Southeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States located between the Atlantic Coast and the Appalachian Mountains. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, which provide habitat for much of its flora and fauna. The capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond; Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealth's estimated population is over 8.5 million.\n",
'703': 'The first skateboards started with wooden boxes, or boards, with roller skate wheels attached to the bottom. Crate scooters preceded skateboards, having a wooden crate attached to the nose (front of the board), which formed rudimentary handlebars. The boxes turned into planks, similar to the skateboard decks of today. \n',
'704': 'A number of related games under the Yahtzee brand have been produced. They all commonly use dice as the primary tool for game play, but all differ generally. As Yahtzee itself has been sold since 1954, the variants released over the years are more recent in comparison, with the oldest one, Triple Yahtzee, developed in 1972, eighteen years after the introduction of the parent game.\n',
'705': 'Star Trek is an American media franchise based on the science fiction television series created by Gene Roddenberry. The first television series, simply called "Star Trek" and now referred to as """", debuted in 1966 and aired for three seasons on NBC. It followed the interstellar adventures of Captain James T. Kirk (William Shatner) and his crew aboard the starship USS "Enterprise", a space exploration vessel built by the United Federation of Planets in the 23rd century. The "Star Trek" canon includes "The Original Series", an animated series, five spin-off television series, the film franchise, and further adaptations in several media.\n',
'706': 'Mark Duffus (born Mark Anthony Duffus), also known as Sure Shot, is a British rapper from the West Midlands in England where he formed the group Blak Prophetz in the early 1980s.\n',
'707': "Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands. It is the largest country in Oceania and the world's sixth-largest country by total area. The neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, and East Timor to the north; the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east; and New Zealand to the south-east. The population of / 1000000 round 0 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard. Australia's capital is Canberra, and its largest city is Sydney. The country's other major metropolitan areas are Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, and Adelaide.\n",
'708': "Austin is the capital of the U.S. state of Texas and the seat of Travis County, with portions extending into Hays and Williamson counties. It is the 11th-most populous city in the United States and the 4th-most populous city in Texas. It is also the fastest growing large city in the United States, the second most populous state capital after Phoenix, Arizona, and the southernmost state capital in the contiguous United States. As of the U.S. Census Bureau's July 1, 2018 estimate, Austin had a population of 964,254 up from 790,491 at the 2010 census. The city is the cultural and economic center of the metropolitan statistical area, which had an estimated population of 2,168,316 . Located in within the greater Texas Hill Country, it is home to numerous lakes, rivers, and waterways, including Lady Bird Lake and Lake Travis on the Colorado River, Barton Springs, McKinney Falls, and Lake Walter E. Long.\n",
'709': 'The White House is the official residence and workplace of the president of the United States. It is located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D.C. and has been the residence of every U.S. president since John Adams in 1800. The term "White House" is often used as a metonym for the president and his advisers.\n',
'710': 'Horse training refers to a variety of practices that teach horses to perform certain behaviors when commanded to do so by humans. Horses are trained to be manageable by humans for everyday care as well as for equestrian activities from horse racing to therapeutic horseback riding for people with disabilities.\n',
'711': '"Let\'s Yoga" features 25 main yoga exercises for the user to perform, and functions as an interactive yoga workout guide for the player. The game was released concurrently with "Let\'s Pilates", a game also developed by Vanpool. It has received a 76.67% from GameRankings.\n',
'712': 'Horse racing is an equestrian performance sport, typically involving two or more horses ridden by jockeys (or sometimes driven without riders) over a set distance for competition. It is one of the most ancient of all sports, as its basic premise – to identify which of two or more horses is the fastest over a set course or distance – has been unchanged since at least classical antiquity.\n',
'713': 'Sweatpants are a casual variety of soft trousers intended for comfort or athletic purposes, although they are now worn in many different situations. In the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa they are known as tracksuit bottoms or joggers. In Australia, they are also commonly known as trackpants, trackies or tracky daks.\n',
'714': 'A bank teller (often abbreviated to simply teller) is an employee of a bank who deals directly with customers. In some places, this employee is known as a cashier or customer representative. Most teller jobs require experience with handling cash and a high school diploma. Most banks provide on-the-job training.\n',
'715': 'Japan (; "Nippon" or "Nihon" ; formally "" or "Nihon-koku", ) is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asian continent and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and the Philippine Sea in the south.\n',
'716': "The Golden Retriever is a large-sized gun dog that retrieve shot waterfowl, such as ducks and upland game birds, during hunting and shooting parties. They were named 'retriever' because of their ability to retrieve shot game undamaged due to their soft mouth. Golden retrievers have an instinctive love of water, and are easy to train to basic or advanced obedience standards. They are a long-coated breed, with a dense inner coat that provides them with adequate warmth in the outdoors, and an outer coat that lies flat against their bodies and repels water. Golden retrievers are well suited to residency in suburban or country environments. They shed copiously, particularly at the change of seasons, and require fairly regular grooming. The Golden Retriever was originally bred in Scotland in the mid-19th century.\n",
'717': 'Usually, people who are night owls stay awake past midnight, and extreme night owls may stay awake until just before or even after dawn. Night owls tend to feel most energetic just before they go to sleep at night. \n',
'718': "Concealed carry or carrying a concealed weapon (CCW), is the practice of carrying a weapon (such as a handgun) in public in a concealed manner, either on one's person or in close proximity. Not all weapons that fall under CCW laws are lethal. For example, in Florida, carrying pepper spray in more than a specified volume (2 oz.) of chemical requires a CCW permit, whereas everyone may legally carry a smaller, “self-defense chemical spray” device hidden on their person without a CCW permit. there have been 17.25 million concealed weapon permits issued in the United States.\n",
'719': 'Metallica is an American heavy metal band. The band was formed in 1981 in Los Angeles, California, by drummer Lars Ulrich and vocalist/guitarist James Hetfield, and has been based in San Francisco, California for most of its career. The group\'s fast tempos, instrumentals and aggressive musicianship made them one of the founding "big four" bands of thrash metal, alongside Megadeth, Anthrax and Slayer. Metallica\'s current lineup comprises founding members Hetfield and Ulrich, longtime lead guitarist Kirk Hammett and bassist Robert Trujillo. Guitarist Dave Mustaine (who went on to form Megadeth) and bassists Ron McGovney, Cliff Burton and Jason Newsted are former members of the band.\n',
'720': 'Rotisserie, also known as spit-roasting, is a style of roasting where meat is skewered on a spit – a long solid rod used to hold food while it is being cooked over a fire in a fireplace or over a campfire, or roasted in an oven. This method is generally used for cooking large joints of meat or entire animals, such as pigs or turkeys. The rotation cooks the meat evenly in its own juices and allows easy access for continuous self-basting.\n',
'721': 'Apple TV is a digital media player and microconsole developed and sold by Apple Inc. It is a small network appliance and entertainment device that can receive digital data such as music, video, or the screen display from an Mac or iOS device from specific sources and stream it to a television set or other video display.\n',
'722': 'Drawing is a form of visual art in which a person uses various drawing instruments to mark paper or another two-dimensional medium. Instruments include graphite pencils, pen and ink, various kinds of paints, inked brushes, colored pencils, crayons, charcoal, chalk, pastels, various kinds of erasers, markers, styluses, and various metals (such as silverpoint). Digital drawing is the act of using a computer to draw. Common methods of digital drawing include a stylus or finger on a touchscreen device, stylus- or finger-to-touchpad, or in some cases, a mouse. There are many digital art programs and devices.\n',
'723': "Paris () is the capital and most populous city of France, with an area of and an official estimated population of 2,140,526 residents as of 1 January 2019. Since the 17th century, Paris has been one of Europe's major centres of finance, diplomacy, commerce, fashion, science, as well as the arts. The City of Paris is the centre and seat of government of the Île-de-France, or Paris Region, which has an estimated official 2019 population of 12,213,364, or about 18 percent of the population of France. The Paris Region had a GDP of €709 billion ($808 billion) in 2017. According to the Economist Intelligence Unit Worldwide Cost of Living Survey in 2018, Paris was the second most expensive city in the world, after Singapore, and ahead of Zürich, Hong Kong, Oslo and Geneva. Another source ranked Paris as most expensive, on a par with Singapore and Hong Kong, in 2018. The city is a major railway, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports: Paris-Charles de Gaulle (the second busiest airport in Europe) and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the city's subway system, the Paris Métro, serves 5.23 million passengers daily, and is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro. Gare du Nord is the 24th busiest railway station in the world, but the first located outside Japan, with 262 million passengers in 2015.\n",
'724': 'Blue is one of the three primary colours of pigments in painting and traditional colour theory, as well as in the RGB colour model. It lies between violet and green on the spectrum of visible light. The eye perceives blue when observing light with a dominant wavelength between approximately 450 and 495 nanometres. Most blues contain a slight mixture of other colours; azure contains some green, while ultramarine contains some violet. The clear daytime sky and the deep sea appear blue because of an optical effect known as Rayleigh scattering. An optical effect called Tyndall scattering explains blue eyes. Distant objects appear more blue because of another optical effect called aerial perspective.\n',
'725': "Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic (), also known as Hellas (Greek: Ελλάς), is a country located in Southern and Southeast Europe, with a population of approximately /1e6 round 0 million as of . Athens is the nation's capital and largest city, followed by Thessaloniki.\n",
'726': 'Taylor Alison Swift (born December 13, 1989) is an American singer-songwriter. She is known for narrative songs about her personal life, which have received widespread media coverage. Born and raised in Pennsylvania, Swift moved to Nashville, Tennessee, at the age of 14 to pursue a career in country music. She signed with label Big Machine Records and became the youngest artist ever signed by the Sony/ATV Music publishing house. Her 2006 self-titled debut album was the longest-charting album of the 2000s in the US, where it peaked at number five. The album\'s third single, "Our Song", made her the youngest person to single-handedly write and perform a number-one song on the Hot Country Songs chart. Swift\'s second album, "Fearless", was released in 2008. Buoyed by the success of pop crossover singles "Love Story" and "You Belong with Me", "Fearless" became the best-selling album of 2009 in the US. The album won four Grammy Awards, with Swift becoming the youngest Album of the Year winner.\n',
'727': 'Broccoli is an edible green plant in the cabbage family ("Brassicas") whose large flowering head and stalk is eaten as a vegetable. The word "broccoli" comes from the Italian plural of "", which means "the flowering crest of a cabbage", and is the diminutive form of "brocco", meaning "small nail" or "sprout".\n',
'728': 'A food truck is a large vehicle equipped to cook and sell food. Some, including ice cream trucks, sell frozen or prepackaged food; others have on-board kitchens and prepare food from scratch. Sandwiches, hamburgers, french fries, and other regional fast food fare is common. In recent years, associated with the pop-up restaurant phenomenon, food trucks offering gourmet cuisine and a variety of specialties and ethnic menus, have become particularly popular. Food trucks, along with portable food booths and food carts, are on the front line of the street food industry that serves an estimated 2.5 billion people every day.\n',
'729': 'Swimming is the self-propulsion of a person through water, usually for recreation, sport, exercise, or survival. Locomotion is achieved through coordinated movement of the limbs, the body, or both. Humans can hold their breath underwater and undertake rudimentary locomotive swimming within weeks of birth, as a survival response.\n',
'730': 'Hindus () are persons who regard themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for people living in the "Hind" (Indian subcontinent). \n',
'731': 'Small businesses are privately owned corporations, partnerships, or sole proprietorships that have fewer employees and/or less annual revenue than a regular-sized business or corporation. Businesses are defined as "small" in terms of being able to apply for government support and qualify for preferential tax policy varies depending on the country and industry. Small businesses range from fifteen employees under the Australian "Fair Work Act 2009", fifty employees according to the definition used by the European Union, and fewer than five hundred employees to qualify for many U.S. Small Business Administration programs. While small businesses can also be classified according to other methods, such as annual revenues, shipments, sales, assets, or by annual gross or net revenue or net profits, the number of employees is one of the most widely used measures.\n',
'732': 'A Renaissance fair, Renaissance faire or Renaissance festival is an outdoor weekend gathering, usually held in the United States, open to the public and typically commercial in nature, which purportedly recreates a historical setting for the amusement of its guests. Some are permanent theme parks, while others are short-term events in a fairground, winery, or other large public or private spaces. Renaissance fairs generally include an abundance of costumed entertainers or fair-goers, musical and theatrical acts, art and handicrafts for sale, and festival food. Some offer campgrounds for those who wish to stay more than one day. Many Renaissance fairs are set during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I of England. Some are set earlier, during the reign of Henry VIII, or in other countries, such as France, and some are set outside the era of the Renaissance; these may include earlier medieval periods (including Vikings), or later periods, such as 17th- or 18th-century pirates. Some engage in deliberate "time travel" by encouraging participants to wear costumes representing several eras in a broad time period. Renaissance fairs encourage visitors to enter into the spirit of things with costumes and audience participation. Many welcome fantasy elements such as wizards and elves.\n',
'733': 'A comic book or comicbook, also called comic magazine or simply comic, is a publication that consists of comics art in the form of sequential juxtaposed panels that represent individual scenes. Panels are often accompanied by descriptive prose and written narrative, usually, dialog contained in word balloons emblematic of the comics art form. Although some origins in 18th century Japan, comic books were first popularized in the United States and the United Kingdom during the 1930s. The first modern comic book, "Famous Funnies", was released in the U.S. in 1933 and was a reprinting of earlier newspaper humor comic strips, which had established many of the story-telling devices used in comics. The term "comic book" derives from American comic books once being a compilation of comic strips of a humorous tone; however, this practice was replaced by featuring stories of all genres, usually not humorous in tone.\n',
'734': 'Wall Street is an eight-block-long street running roughly northwest to southeast from Broadway to South Street, at the East River, in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan in New York City. Over time, the term has become a metonym for the financial markets of the United States as a whole, the American financial services industry (even if financial firms are not physically located there), or New York–based financial interests.\n',
'735': 'A factory, manufacturing plant or a production plant is an industrial site, usually consisting of buildings and machinery, or more commonly a complex having several buildings, where workers manufacture goods or operate machines processing one product into another.\n',
'736': 'Georgia is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. Georgia is the 24th largest and 8th-most populous of the 50 United States. Georgia is bordered to the north by Tennessee and North Carolina, to the northeast by South Carolina, to the southeast by the Atlantic Ocean, to the south by Florida, and to the west by Alabama. The state\'s nicknames include the "Peach State" and the "Empire State of the South." Atlanta, a "beta(+)" global city, is both the state\'s capital and largest city. The Atlanta metropolitan area, with an estimated population of 5,949,951 in 2018, is the 9th most populous metropolitan area in the United States and contains about 60% of the entire state population.\n',
'737': 'Animal Farm is a TV film directed by John Stephenson and released in 1999. It is an adaptation of the 1945 George Orwell novel of the same name and tells the story of anthropomorphic animals successfully revolting against their own human owner, only to slide into a more brutal tyranny among themselves. The film received mixed reviews when it was broadcast, with much criticism directed at its ending.\n',
'738': 'The origin of the word "travel" is most likely lost to history. The term "travel" may originate from the Old French word "travail", which means \'work\'. According to the Merriam Webster dictionary, the first known use of the word "travel" was in the 14th century. It also states that the word comes from Middle English "travailen", "travelen" (which means to torment, labor, strive, journey) and earlier from Old French "travailler" (which means to work strenuously, toil). In English we still occasionally use the words "travail", which means struggle. According to Simon Winchester in his book "The Best Travelers\' Tales (2004)", the words "travel" and "travail" both share an even more ancient root: a Roman instrument of torture called the "tripalium" (in Latin it means "three stakes", as in to impale). This link may reflect the extreme difficulty of travel in ancient times. Today, travel may or may not be much easier depending upon the destination you choose (e.g. Mt. Everest, the Amazon rainforest), how you plan to get there (tour bus, cruise ship, or oxcart), and whether you decide to "rough it" (see extreme tourism and adventure travel). "There\'s a big difference between simply being a tourist and being a true world traveler", notes travel writer Michael Kasum. This is, however, a contested distinction as academic work on the cultures and sociology of travel has noted.\n',
'739': 'Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat (red meat, poultry, seafood, and the flesh of any other animal), and may also include abstention from by-products of animals processed for food.\n',
'740': 'Barbie is a fashion doll manufactured by the American toy company Mattel, Inc. and launched in March 1959. American businesswoman Ruth Handler is credited with the creation of the doll using a German doll called Bild Lilli as her inspiration.\n',
'741': 'Mach was born in Methil, Fife.\n',
'742': 'The first skateboards started with wooden boxes, or boards, with roller skate wheels attached to the bottom. Crate scooters preceded skateboards, having a wooden crate attached to the nose (front of the board), which formed rudimentary handlebars. The boxes turned into planks, similar to the skateboard decks of today. \n',
'743': 'Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid and -ascorbic acid, is a vitamin found in various foods and sold as a dietary supplement. It is used to prevent and treat scurvy. Vitamin C is an essential nutrient involved in the repair of tissue and the enzymatic production of certain neurotransmitters. It is required for the functioning of several enzymes and is important for immune system function. It also functions as an antioxidant. \n',
'744': "Retirement is the withdrawal from one's position or occupation or from one's active working life. A person may also semi-retire by reducing work hours.\n",
'745': 'Pasta and cheese casseroles have been recorded as early as the 14th century in the Italian cookbook, "Liber de Coquina", one of the oldest medieval cookbooks, which featured a dish of parmesan and pasta. A cheese and pasta casserole known as "makerouns" was recorded in the famous medieval English cookbook, the "Forme of Cury", which was also written in the 14th century. It was made with fresh, hand-cut pasta which was sandwiched between a mixture of melted butter and cheese. The recipe given (in Middle English) was:\n',
'746': 'Football is a family of team sports that involve, to varying degrees, kicking a ball to score a goal. Unqualified, the word "football" normally means the form of football that is the most popular where the word is used. Sports commonly called "football" include association football (known as "soccer" in some countries); gridiron football (specifically American football or Canadian football); Australian rules football; rugby football (either rugby league or rugby union); and Gaelic football. These various forms of football are known as football codes.\n',
'747': 'Blue is one of the three primary colours of pigments in painting and traditional colour theory, as well as in the RGB colour model. It lies between violet and green on the spectrum of visible light. The eye perceives blue when observing light with a dominant wavelength between approximately 450 and 495 nanometres. Most blues contain a slight mixture of other colours; azure contains some green, while ultramarine contains some violet. The clear daytime sky and the deep sea appear blue because of an optical effect known as Rayleigh scattering. An optical effect called Tyndall scattering explains blue eyes. Distant objects appear more blue because of another optical effect called aerial perspective.\n',
'748': 'The word "choreography" literally means "dance-writing" from the Greek words "χορεία" (circular dance, see choreia) and "γραφή" (writing). It first appeared in the American English dictionary in the 1950s, and "choreographer" was first used as a credit for George Balanchine in the Broadway show "On Your Toes" in 1936. Before this, stage credits and movie credits used phrases such as "ensembles staged by", "dances staged by", or simply "dances by" to denote the choreographer.\n',
'749': 'Crochet (; ) is a process of creating fabric by interlocking loops of yarn, thread, or strands of other materials using a crochet hook. The name is derived from the French term "crochet", meaning \'small hook\'. These are made of materials such as metal, wood, or plastic and are manufactured commercially and produced in artisan workshops. The salient difference between crochet and knitting, beyond the implements used for their production, is that each stitch in crochet is completed before the next one is begun, while knitting keeps a large number of stitches open at a time. (Variant forms such as Tunisian crochet and broomstick lace keep multiple crochet stitches open at a time.)\n',
'750': 'Surfing is a surface water sport in which the wave rider, referred to as a surfer, rides on the forward or face of a moving wave, which usually carries the surfer towards the shore. Waves suitable for surfing are primarily found in the ocean, but can also be found in lakes or rivers in the form of a standing wave or tidal bore. However, surfers can also utilize artificial waves such as those from boat wakes and the waves created in artificial wave pools.\n',
'751': 'Recycling is the process of converting waste materials into new materials and objects. It is an alternative to "conventional" waste disposal that can save material and help lower greenhouse gas emissions. Recycling can prevent the waste of potentially useful materials and reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, thereby reducing: energy usage, air pollution (from incineration), and water pollution (from landfilling).\n',
'752': 'Stefani Joanne Angelina Germanotta (born March 28, 1986), known professionally as Lady Gaga, is an American singer, songwriter and actress. She is known for her unconventionality, provocative work and visual experimentation. Gaga began performing as a teenager, singing at open mic nights and acting in school plays. She studied at Collaborative Arts Project 21, through New York University\'s Tisch School of the Arts, before dropping out to pursue a music career. When Def Jam Recordings canceled her contract, she worked as a songwriter for Sony/ATV Music Publishing, where Akon helped her sign a joint deal with Interscope Records and his own label KonLive Distribution in 2007. She rose to prominence the following year with her debut album, the electropop record "The Fame", and its chart-topping singles "Just Dance" and "Poker Face". A follow-up EP, "The Fame Monster" (2009), featuring the singles "Bad Romance", "Telephone" and "Alejandro", was also successful.\n',
'753': 'Cheese is a dairy product derived from milk that is produced in a wide range of flavors, textures, and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, or sheep. During production, the milk is usually acidified, and adding the enzyme rennet causes coagulation. The solids are separated and pressed into final form. Some cheeses have molds on the rind, the outer layer, or throughout. Most cheeses melt at cooking temperature.\n',
'754': "The University of Chicago (UChicago, U of C, or Chicago) is a private research university in Chicago, Illinois. Founded in 1890, the school is located on a 217-acre campus in Chicago's Hyde Park neighborhood, near Lake Michigan. The University of Chicago holds top-ten positions in various national and international rankings.\n",
'755': "Heavy metal (or simply metal) is a genre of rock music that developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s, largely in the United Kingdom. With roots in blues rock, psychedelic rock, and acid rock, the bands that created heavy metal developed a thick, massive sound, characterized by highly amplified distortion, extended guitar solos, emphatic beats, and overall loudness. The genre's lyrics and performance styles are sometimes associated with aggression and machismo.\n",
'756': 'Reading is the complex cognitive process of decoding symbols to derive meaning. It is a form of language processing.\n',
'757': '"Radioactive" is a song by American rock band Imagine Dragons for their major-label debut EP "Continued Silence" and later on their debut studio album, "Night Visions" (2012), as the opening track. It was first sent to modern rock radio on October 29, 2012, and then released to contemporary radio on April 9, 2013. Musically, "Radioactive" is an electronic rock and alternative rock song with elements of dubstep that contains cryptic lyrics of apocalyptic and revolutionist themes.\n',
'758': 'Muse are an English rock band from Teignmouth, Devon, formed in 1994. The band consists of Matt Bellamy (lead vocals, guitar, keyboards), Chris Wolstenholme (bass guitar, backing vocals), and Dominic Howard (drums).\n',
'759': '"Al Gore" (voiced by Trey Parker in the "ManBearPig" episode and Matt Stone in "The Red Badge of Gayness" episode) is the former Vice President of the United States and also tries to alert the children of South Park of a mystical creature named "ManBearPig". He constantly says "I\'m super cereal!" and "excelsior!" during certain situations; he also appears to be ignorant and insecure.\n',
'760': 'Sir Henry Morgan (Welsh: "Harri Morgan", 1635 – 25 August 1688) was a Welsh privateer, plantation owner, and, later, Lieutenant Governor of Jamaica. From his base in Port Royal, Jamaica, he raided settlements and shipping on the Spanish Main, becoming wealthy as he did so. With the prize money from the raids he purchased three large sugar plantations on the island.\n',
'761': 'The Scottish people (Scots: "Scots Fowk"; Scottish Gaelic: "Albannaich") or Scots, are a nation and ethnic group native to Scotland. Historically, they emerged from an amalgamation of two Celtic-speaking peoples, the Picts and Gaels, who founded the Kingdom of Scotland (or "Alba") in the 9th century. Later, the neighbouring Celtic-speaking Cumbrians, as well as Germanic-speaking Anglo-Saxons and Norse, were incorporated into the Scottish nation.\n',
'762': "Reenacting the American Civil War began even before the real fighting had ended. Civil War veterans recreated battles as a way to remember their fallen comrades and to teach others what the war was all about. The Great Reunion of 1913, celebrating the 50th anniversary of the Battle of Gettysburg, was attended by more than 50,000 Union and Confederate veterans, and included reenactments of elements of the battle, including Pickett's Charge. \n",
'763': 'Hiking is the preferred term, in Canada and the United States, for a long, vigorous walk, usually on trails (footpaths), in the countryside, while the word walking is used for shorter, particularly urban walks. On the other hand, in the United Kingdom, and the Republic of Ireland, the word "walking" is acceptable to describe "all forms" of walking, whether it is a walk in the park or backpacking in the Alps. The word hiking is also often used in the UK, along with rambling (a slightly old-fashioned term), hillwalking, and fell walking (a term mostly used for hillwalking in northern England). The term bushwalking is endemic to Australia, having been adopted by the Sydney Bush Walkers club in 1927. In New Zealand a long, vigorous walk or hike is called tramping. It is a popular activity with numerous worldwide, and studies suggest that all forms of walking have health benefits.\n',
'764': 'A sewing machine is a machine used to sew fabric and other materials together with thread. Sewing machines were invented during the first Industrial Revolution to decrease the amount of manual sewing work performed in clothing companies. Since the invention of the first working sewing machine, generally considered to have been the work of Englishman Thomas Saint in 1790, the sewing machine has greatly improved the efficiency and productivity of the clothing industry.\n',
'765': 'Surf culture includes the people, language, fashion, and lifestyle surrounding the sport of surfing. The history of surfing began with the ancient Polynesians. That initial culture directly influenced modern surfing, which began to flourish and evolve in the early 20th century, with its popularity spiking during the 1950s and 1960s (principally in Hawaii, Australia, and California). It has affected music, fashion, literature, film, art, and youth jargon in popular culture. The number of surfers throughout the world continues to increase as the culture spreads.\n',
'766': 'Wisconsin () is a U.S. state located in the north-central United States, in the Midwest and Great Lakes regions. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michigan to the northeast, and Lake Superior to the north. Wisconsin is the 23rd largest state by total area and the 20th most populous. The state capital is Madison, and its largest city is Milwaukee, which is located on the western shore of Lake Michigan. The state is divided into 72 counties.\n',
'767': "Walmart Inc. (; formerly Wal-Mart Stores, Inc.) is an American multinational retail corporation that operates a chain of hypermarkets, discount department stores, and grocery stores, headquartered in Bentonville, Arkansas. The company was founded by Sam Walton in 1962 and incorporated on October 31, 1969. It also owns and operates Sam's Club retail warehouses. Walmart has 11,368 stores and clubs in 27countries, operating under 55 differentnames. The company operates under the name Walmart in the United States and Canada, as Walmart de México y Centroamérica in Mexico and Central America, as Asda in the United Kingdom, as the Seiyu Group in Japan, and as Best Price in India. It has wholly owned operations in Argentina, Chile, Canada, and South Africa. Since August 2018, Walmart only holds a minority stake in Walmart Brasil, with 20-percent of the company's shares, and private equity firm Advent International holding 80-percent ownership of the company.\n",
'768': 'Obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) is a mental disorder in which a person feels the need to perform certain routines repeatedly (called "compulsions"), or has certain thoughts repeatedly (called "obsessions"). The person is unable to control either the thoughts or activities for more than a short period of time. Common compulsions include hand washing, counting of things, and checking to see if a door is locked. Some may have difficulty throwing things out. These activities occur to such a degree that the person\'s daily life is negatively affected. This often takes up more than an hour a day. Most adults realize that the behaviors do not make sense. The condition is associated with tics, anxiety disorder, and an increased risk of suicide.\n',
'769': 'The Toyota Prius (; Japanese:トヨタ プリウス "Toyota Puriusu") is a full hybrid electric automobile developed by Toyota and manufactured by the company since 1997. Initially offered as a 4-door sedan, it has been produced only as a 5-door liftback since 2003.\n',
'770': 'Kayaking is the use of a kayak for moving across water. It is distinguished from canoeing by the sitting position of the paddler and the number of blades on the paddle. A kayak is a low-to-the-water, canoe-like boat in which the paddler sits facing forward, legs in front, using a double-bladed paddle to pull front-to-back on one side and then the other in rotation. Most kayaks have closed decks, although sit-on-top and inflatable kayaks are growing in popularity as well.\n',
'771': 'Titanic is a 1997 American epic romance and disaster film directed, written, co-produced, and co-edited by James Cameron. A fictionalized account of the sinking of the RMS "Titanic", it stars Leonardo DiCaprio and Kate Winslet as members of different social classes who fall in love aboard the ship during its ill-fated maiden voyage.\n',
'772': 'Jeopardy! is an American television game show created by Merv Griffin. The show features a quiz competition in which contestants are presented with general knowledge clues in the form of answers, and must phrase their responses in the form of questions. The original daytime version debuted on NBC on March 30, 1964, and aired until January 3, 1975. A weekly nighttime syndicated edition aired from September 1974 to September 1975, and a revival, "The All-New Jeopardy!", ran on NBC from October 1978 to March 1979. The current version, a daily syndicated show produced by Sony Pictures Television, premiered on September 10, 1984.\n',
'773': 'Judd Apatow (; born December 6, 1967) is an American filmmaker and comedian. He is the founder of Apatow Productions, through which he produced and developed the television series "Freaks and Geeks", "Undeclared", "Funny or Die Presents", "Girls, Love", and "Crashing" and directed the films "The 40-Year-Old Virgin" (2005), "Knocked Up" (2007), "Funny People" (2009), "This Is 40" (2012), "Trainwreck" (2015), "May It Last: A Portrait Of The Avett Brothers" (2017), and "The Zen Diaries of Garry Shandling" (2018).\n',
'774': 'Gambling is the wagering of money or something of value (referred to as "the stakes") on an event with an uncertain outcome, with the primary intent of winning money or material goods. Gambling thus requires three elements to be present: consideration (an amount wagered), risk (chance), and a prize. The outcome of the wager is often immediate, such as a single roll of dice, a spin of a roulette wheel, or a horse crossing the finish line, but longer time frames are also common, allowing wagers on the outcome of a future sports contest or even an entire sports season.\n',
'775': 'Parenting or child rearing is the process of promoting and supporting the physical, emotional, social, and intellectual development of a child from infancy to adulthood. Parenting refers to the intricacies of raising a child and not exclusively for a biological relationship.\n',
'776': 'The domestic dog ("Canis lupus familiaris" when considered a subspecies of the wolf or "Canis familiaris" when considered a distinct species) is a member of the genus "Canis" (canines), which forms part of the wolf-like canids, and is the most widely abundant terrestrial carnivore. The dog and the extant gray wolf are sister taxa as modern wolves are not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated, which implies that the direct ancestor of the dog is extinct. The dog was the first species to be domesticated and has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes.\n',
'777': 'A genius is a person who displays exceptional intellectual ability, creative productivity, universality in genres or originality, typically to a degree that is associated with the achievement of new advances in a domain of knowledge. Despite the presence of scholars in many subjects throughout history, many geniuses have shown high achievements in only a single kind of activity.\n',
'778': 'Blue is one of the three primary colours of pigments in painting and traditional colour theory, as well as in the RGB colour model. It lies between violet and green on the spectrum of visible light. The eye perceives blue when observing light with a dominant wavelength between approximately 450 and 495 nanometres. Most blues contain a slight mixture of other colours; azure contains some green, while ultramarine contains some violet. The clear daytime sky and the deep sea appear blue because of an optical effect known as Rayleigh scattering. An optical effect called Tyndall scattering explains blue eyes. Distant objects appear more blue because of another optical effect called aerial perspective.\n',
'779': 'Bentley Motors Limited () is a British manufacturer and marketer of luxury cars and SUVs—and a subsidiary of the Volkswagen Group since 1998.\n',
'780': 'Karan worked for 15 years at Anne Klein, including 10 as its head designer. In 1984 Karan and her late husband Stephan Weiss were offered the opportunity to start their own business by the owner of Anne Klein, Takihyo LLC.\n',
'781': 'Surfing is a surface water sport in which the wave rider, referred to as a surfer, rides on the forward or face of a moving wave, which usually carries the surfer towards the shore. Waves suitable for surfing are primarily found in the ocean, but can also be found in lakes or rivers in the form of a standing wave or tidal bore. However, surfers can also utilize artificial waves such as those from boat wakes and the waves created in artificial wave pools.\n',
'782': 'Mohamed Sanu Sr. (born August 22, 1989) is an American football wide receiver for the Atlanta Falcons of the National Football League (NFL). He was drafted by the Cincinnati Bengals in the third round of the 2012 NFL Draft and played college football at Rutgers.\n',
'783': 'Gardening is the practice of growing and cultivating plants as part of horticulture. In gardens, ornamental plants are often grown for their flowers, foliage, or overall appearance; useful plants, such as root vegetables, leaf vegetables, fruits, and herbs, are grown for consumption, for use as dyes, or for medicinal or cosmetic use. Gardening is considered by many people to be a relaxing activity.\n',
'784': 'Throughout its history chiropractic has been the subject of internal and external controversy and criticism. According to magnetic healer Daniel D. Palmer, the founder of chiropractic, "vertebral subluxation" was the sole cause of all diseases and manipulation was the cure for all diseases of the human race. A 2003 profession-wide survey found "most chiropractors (whether \'straights\' or \'mixers\') still hold views of Innate Intelligence and of the cause and cure of disease (not just back pain) consistent with those of the Palmers". A critical evaluation stated "Chiropractic is rooted in mystical concepts. This led to an internal conflict within the chiropractic profession, which continues today." Chiropractors, including D. D. Palmer, were jailed for practicing medicine without a license. D. D. Palmer considered establishing chiropractic as a religion to resolve this problem. For most of its existence, chiropractic has battled with mainstream medicine, sustained by antiscientific and pseudoscientific ideas such as subluxation.\n',
'785': 'A hamburger (short: burger) is a sandwich consisting of one or more cooked patties of ground meat, usually beef, placed inside a sliced bread roll or bun. The patty may be pan fried, grilled, or flame broiled. Hamburgers are often served with cheese, lettuce, tomato, onion, pickles, bacon, or chiles; condiments such as ketchup, mayonnaise, mustard, relish, or "special sauce"; and are frequently placed on sesame seed buns. A hamburger topped with cheese is called a cheeseburger.\n',
'786': 'Bacon is a type of salt-cured pork. Bacon is prepared from several different cuts of meat, typically from the pork belly or from back cuts, which have less fat than the belly. It is eaten on its own, as a side dish (particularly in breakfasts), or used as a minor ingredient to flavour dishes (e.g., the club sandwich). Bacon is also used for barding and larding roasts, especially game, including venison and pheasant. The word is derived from the Old High German "bacho", meaning "buttock", "ham" or "side of bacon", and is cognate with the Old French "bacon".\n',
'787': "A charity shop, thrift shop or opportunity shop (colloquially referred to as an op shop) is a retail establishment run by a charitable organization to raise money. Charity shops are a type of social enterprise. They sell mainly used goods such as clothing, books, music albums, DVDs, and furniture donated by members of the public, and are often staffed by volunteers. Because the items for sale were obtained for free, and business costs are low, the items can be sold at competitive prices. After costs are paid, all remaining income from the sales is used in accord with the organization's stated charitable purpose. Costs include purchase and/or depreciation of fixtures (clothing racks, bookshelves, counters, etc.), operating costs (maintenance, municipal service fees, electricity, heat, telephone, limited advertising) and the building lease or mortgage.\n",
'788': 'An artist is a person engaged in an activity related to creating art, practicing the arts, or demonstrating an art. The common usage in both everyday speech and academic discourse is a practitioner in the visual arts only. The term is often used in the entertainment business, especially in a business context, for musicians and other performers (less often for actors). "Artiste" (the French for artist) is a variant used in English only in this context; this use is becoming rare. Use of the term to describe writers, for example, is valid, but less common, and mostly restricted to contexts like criticism.\n',
'789': 'Friends is an American television sitcom, created by David Crane and Marta Kauffman, which aired on NBC from September 22, 1994, to May 6, 2004, lasting ten seasons. With an ensemble cast starring Jennifer Aniston, Courteney Cox, Lisa Kudrow, Matt LeBlanc, Matthew Perry and David Schwimmer, the show revolves around six friends in their 20s and 30s who live in Manhattan, New York City. The series was produced by Bright/Kauffman/Crane Productions, in association with Warner Bros. Television. The original executive producers were Kevin S. Bright, Kauffman, and Crane.\n',
'790': 'The New York Times (sometimes abbreviated as the "NYT and NYTimes") is an American newspaper based in New York City with worldwide influence and readership. Founded in 1851, the paper has won 127 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper. The "Times" is ranked 18th in the world by circulation and 3rd in the U.S..\n',
'791': 'Hair coloring, or hair dyeing, is the practice of changing the hair color. The main reasons for this are cosmetic: to cover gray or white hair, to change to a color regarded as more fashionable or desirable, or to restore the original hair color after it has been discolored by hairdressing processes or sun bleaching.\n',
'792': 'The beagle is a breed of small hound that is similar in appearance to the much larger foxhound. The beagle is a scent hound, developed primarily for hunting hare (beagling). With a great sense of smell and superior tracking instinct, the beagle is employed as detection dog for prohibited agricultural imports and foodstuffs in quarantine around the world. The beagle is intelligent but single-minded. It is a popular pet due to its size, good temper, and lack of inherited health problems.\n',
'793': 'Historical fiction is a literary genre in which the plot takes place in a setting located in the past. Although the term is commonly used as a synonym for the historical novel, it can also be applied to other types of narrative, including theatre, opera, cinema and television, as well as video games and graphic novels.\n',
'794': 'Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat (red meat, poultry, seafood, and the flesh of any other animal), and may also include abstention from by-products of animals processed for food.\n',
'795': 'A summer camp, or sleepaway camp, is a supervised program for children or teenagers conducted during the summer months in some countries. Children and adolescents who attend summer camp are known as "campers". Summer school is usually a required academic curriculum for a student to make up work not accomplished during the academic year, whereas summer camps can include academic work, but is not a requirement for graduation.\n',
'796': 'Yoga (; ; ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India. Yoga is one of the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophical traditions. There is a broad variety of yoga schools, practices, and goals in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. The term "yoga" in the Western world often denotes a modern form of Hatha yoga, yoga as exercise, consisting largely of the postures called asanas.\n',
'797': 'Inks Lake State Park is a state park located in Burnet County, Texas, United States, next to Inks Lake on the Colorado River. The landscape of the park is hilly, with many cedar, live oak, prickly pear cacti, and yuccas. The ground is rocky, mainly consisting of gneiss rock.\n',
'798': "Rubik's Cube is a 3-D combination puzzle invented in 1974 by Hungarian sculptor and professor of architecture Ernő Rubik. Originally called the Magic Cube, the puzzle was licensed by Rubik to be sold by Ideal Toy Corp. in 1980 via businessman Tibor Laczi and Seven Towns founder Tom Kremer, and won the German Game of the Year special award for Best Puzzle that year. , 350 million cubes had been sold worldwide making it the world's top-selling puzzle game. It is widely considered to be the world's best-selling toy.\n",
'799': 'Bentley Motors Limited () is a British manufacturer and marketer of luxury cars and SUVs—and a subsidiary of the Volkswagen Group since 1998.\n',
'800': 'Surfing is a surface water sport in which the wave rider, referred to as a surfer, rides on the forward or face of a moving wave, which usually carries the surfer towards the shore. Waves suitable for surfing are primarily found in the ocean, but can also be found in lakes or rivers in the form of a standing wave or tidal bore. However, surfers can also utilize artificial waves such as those from boat wakes and the waves created in artificial wave pools.\n',
'801': 'Barrett Records released a split of The Story So Far and Morgan Foster in May 2011. Pure Noise released the band\'s debut album "Under Soil and Dirt" in June. On March 26, 2013, they released their second studio album, "What You Don\'t See", which debuted at number 46 on the "Billboard" 200 chart in the U.S. They have also released a split with Stick to Your Guns on June 18. This split contains one new original song, Clairvoyant, and a cover of Pinback\'s song "Loro". The band was featured on the cover of Alternative Press\' March 2013 issue "100 Bands You Need to Know." The band played the entire Warped Tour 2014 on the main stage.\n',
'802': 'Zebras ( , ) are several species of African equids (horse family) united by their distinctive black-and-white striped coats. Their stripes come in different patterns, unique to each individual. They are generally social animals that live in small harems to large herds. Unlike their closest relatives, horses and donkeys, zebras have never been truly domesticated.\n',
'803': 'Blond or fair hair is a hair color characterized by low levels of the dark pigment eumelanin. The resultant visible hue depends on various factors, but always has some yellowish color. The color can be from the very pale blond (caused by a patchy, scarce distribution of pigment) to reddish "strawberry" blond or golden-brownish ("sandy") blond colors (the latter with more eumelanin). Because hair color tends to darken with age, natural blond hair is generally rare in adulthood. Naturally-occurring blond hair is primarily found in populations of northern European descent and is believed to have evolved to enable more efficient synthesis of vitamin D, due to northern Europe\'s lower levels of sunlight. Blond hair has also developed in other populations, although it is usually not as common, and can be found among natives of the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and Fiji, among the Berbers of North Africa, and among some Asians.\n',
'804': 'A bone fracture (sometimes abbreviated FRX or Fx, F, or #) is a medical condition in which there is a partial or complete break in the continuity of the bone. In more severe cases, the bone may be broken into several pieces. A bone fracture may be the result of high force impact or stress, or a minimal trauma injury as a result of certain medical conditions that weaken the bones, such as osteoporosis, osteopenia, bone cancer, or osteogenesis imperfecta, where the fracture is then properly termed a pathologic fracture.\n',
'805': 'The domestic dog ("Canis lupus familiaris" when considered a subspecies of the wolf or "Canis familiaris" when considered a distinct species) is a member of the genus "Canis" (canines), which forms part of the wolf-like canids, and is the most widely abundant terrestrial carnivore. The dog and the extant gray wolf are sister taxa as modern wolves are not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated, which implies that the direct ancestor of the dog is extinct. The dog was the first species to be domesticated and has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes.\n',
'806': 'The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It is a nearly perfect sphere of hot plasma, with internal convective motion that generates a magnetic field via a dynamo process. It is by far the most important source of energy for life on Earth. Its diameter is about 1.39 million kilometers (864,000 miles), or 109 times that of Earth, and its mass is about 330,000 times that of Earth. It accounts for about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System.\n',
'807': 'Zebras ( , ) are several species of African equids (horse family) united by their distinctive black-and-white striped coats. Their stripes come in different patterns, unique to each individual. They are generally social animals that live in small harems to large herds. Unlike their closest relatives, horses and donkeys, zebras have never been truly domesticated.\n',
'808': "Multilingualism is the use of more than one language, either by an individual speaker or by a group of speakers. It is believed that multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the world's population. More than half of all Europeans claim to speak at least one language other than their mother tongue; but many read and write in one language. Always useful to traders, multilingualism is advantageous for people wanting to participate in globalization and cultural openness. Owing to the ease of access to information facilitated by the Internet, individuals' exposure to multiple languages is becoming increasingly possible. People who speak several languages are also called polyglots.\n",
'809': "Glasses, also known as eyeglasses or spectacles, are devices consisting of glass or hard plastic lenses mounted in a frame that holds them in front of a person's eyes, typically using a bridge over the nose and arms which rest over the ears.\n",
'810': 'Willis Alan Ramsey (born March 5, 1951) is an American singer/songwriter, a cult legend among fans of Americana and Texas country. He was born in Birmingham, Alabama, and raised in Dallas, Texas. Ramsey graduated from Highland Park High School in 1969, and was a prominent baritone in the school\'s Lads and Lassies Choir. In his senior year, he played a leading role in the musical "Carousel". He released the critically acclaimed album, "Willis Alan Ramsey", in 1972 on the Shelter label. The album included "Muskrat Candlelight" which was covered (under the title "Muskrat Love") by America in 1973 and by Captain & Tennille in 1976.\n',
'811': 'A beach is a landform alongside a body of water which consists of loose particles. The particles composing a beach are typically made from rock, such as sand, gravel, shingle, pebbles. The particles can also be biological in origin, such as mollusc shells or coralline algae.\n',
'812': 'A beach is a landform alongside a body of water which consists of loose particles. The particles composing a beach are typically made from rock, such as sand, gravel, shingle, pebbles. The particles can also be biological in origin, such as mollusc shells or coralline algae.\n',
'813': 'Football is a family of team sports that involve, to varying degrees, kicking a ball to score a goal. Unqualified, the word "football" normally means the form of football that is the most popular where the word is used. Sports commonly called "football" include association football (known as "soccer" in some countries); gridiron football (specifically American football or Canadian football); Australian rules football; rugby football (either rugby league or rugby union); and Gaelic football. These various forms of football are known as football codes.\n',
'814': 'Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat (red meat, poultry, seafood, and the flesh of any other animal), and may also include abstention from by-products of animals processed for food.\n',
'815': "The Batsuit (or Bat-Suit) is the costume of the fictional superhero Batman, who appears in American comic books published by DC Comics. The suit has been depicted in various ways, and the stories themselves have described Batman as modifying the details of his costume from time to time. However, it usually consists of a grey body suit, the chest emblazoned with a stylized black bat, and blue-black accessories: a wide scalloped cape, gloves with a series of fin-like projections, boots, and a close-fitting cowl (covering the upper half of his face) with ear-like projections to suggest a bat's head; and a utility belt containing a variety of gadgets.\n",
'816': 'Immigration to the United States is the international movement of non-U.S. nationals in order to reside permanently in the country. Immigration has been a major source of population growth and cultural change throughout much of the U.S. history. Because the United States is a settler colonial society, all Americans, with the exception of the small percent of Native Americans, can trace their ancestry to immigrants from other nations around the world.\n',
'817': 'French cuisine consists of the cooking traditions and practices from France.\n',
'818': 'A leprechaun () is a type of fairy of the Aos Sí in Irish folklore. They are usually depicted as little bearded men, wearing a coat and hat, who partake in mischief. They are solitary creatures who spend their time making and mending shoes and have a hidden pot of gold at the end of the rainbow. If captured by a human, they often grant three wishes in exchange for their freedom. Like other Irish fairies, leprechauns may be derived from the Tuatha Dé Danann. Leprechaun-like creatures rarely appear in Irish mythology and only became prominent in later folklore.\n',
'819': 'Internet access is the ability of individuals and organizations to connect to the Internet using computer terminals, computers, and other devices; and to access services such as email and the World Wide Web. Internet access is sold by Internet service providers (ISPs) delivering connectivity at a wide range of data transfer rates via various networking technologies. Many organizations, including a growing number of municipal entities, also provide cost-free wireless access.\n',
'820': 'Drawing is a form of visual art in which a person uses various drawing instruments to mark paper or another two-dimensional medium. Instruments include graphite pencils, pen and ink, various kinds of paints, inked brushes, colored pencils, crayons, charcoal, chalk, pastels, various kinds of erasers, markers, styluses, and various metals (such as silverpoint). Digital drawing is the act of using a computer to draw. Common methods of digital drawing include a stylus or finger on a touchscreen device, stylus- or finger-to-touchpad, or in some cases, a mouse. There are many digital art programs and devices.\n',
'821': 'Baseball is a bat-and-ball game played between two opposing teams who take turns batting and fielding. The game proceeds when a player on the fielding team, called the pitcher, throws a ball which a player on the batting team tries to hit with a bat. The objectives of the offensive team (batting team) are to hit the ball into the field of play, and to run the bases—having its runners advance counter-clockwise around four bases to score what are called "runs". The objective of the defensive team (fielding team) is to prevent batters from becoming runners, and to prevent runners\' advance around the bases. A run is scored when a runner legally advances around the bases in order and touches home plate (the place where the player started as a batter). The team that scores the most runs by the end of the game is the winner.\n',
'822': 'Chocolate is a usually sweet, brown food preparation of roasted and ground cacao seeds that is made in the form of a liquid, paste, or in a block, or used as a flavoring ingredient in other foods. The earliest evidence of use traces to the Olmecs (Mexico), with evidence of chocolate beverages dating to 1900 BC. The majority of Mesoamerican people made chocolate beverages, including the Maya and Aztecs. The word "chocolate" is derived from the Classical Nahuatl word "chocolātl".\n',
'823': 'A skatepark, or skate park, is a purpose-built recreational environment made for skateboarding, BMX, scooter, wheelchair, and aggressive inline skating. A skatepark may contain half-pipes, quarter pipes, spine transfers, handrails, funboxes, vert ramps, pyramids, banked ramps, full pipes, pools, bowls, snake runs, stairsets, and any number of other objects.\n',
'824': 'Dublin (, or ; ) is the capital and largest city of Ireland. Situated on a bay on the east coast, at the mouth of the River Liffey, it lies within the province of Leinster. It is bordered on the south by the Dublin Mountains, a part of the Wicklow Mountains range. It has an urban area population of 1,173,179, while the population of the Dublin Region (formerly County Dublin), , was 1,347,359, and the population of the Greater Dublin Area was 1,904,806.\n',
'825': 'The dish usually consists of white or brown rice accompanied by cooked brown, red or black, dry beans (typically "Phaseolus vulgaris" or "Vigna unguiculata") and seasoned in various ways. This dish is also commonly served with sides of stewed chicken, pork, beef, potato salad, boiled potatoes, and many other sides from many different cultures. In many areas, rice and beans are often served side by side rather than combined together. Either way, they may be considered a meal, frequently with a topping of meat or chicken. Meat or other ingredients are sometimes placed atop rice and beans or, less frequently, mixed into it.\n',
'826': "Linkin Park is an American rock band from Agoura Hills, California. The band's current lineup comprises vocalist/rhythm guitarist Mike Shinoda, lead guitarist Brad Delson, bassist Dave Farrell, DJ/keyboardist Joe Hahn, and drummer Rob Bourdon, all of whom are founding members. Vocalists Mark Wakefield and Chester Bennington and bassist Kyle Christner are former members of the band.\n",
'827': "Walmart Inc. (; formerly Wal-Mart Stores, Inc.) is an American multinational retail corporation that operates a chain of hypermarkets, discount department stores, and grocery stores, headquartered in Bentonville, Arkansas. The company was founded by Sam Walton in 1962 and incorporated on October 31, 1969. It also owns and operates Sam's Club retail warehouses. Walmart has 11,368 stores and clubs in 27countries, operating under 55 differentnames. The company operates under the name Walmart in the United States and Canada, as Walmart de México y Centroamérica in Mexico and Central America, as Asda in the United Kingdom, as the Seiyu Group in Japan, and as Best Price in India. It has wholly owned operations in Argentina, Chile, Canada, and South Africa. Since August 2018, Walmart only holds a minority stake in Walmart Brasil, with 20-percent of the company's shares, and private equity firm Advent International holding 80-percent ownership of the company.\n",
'828': 'A plantation is the large-scale estate meant for farming that specializes in cash crops. The crops that are grown include cotton, \n',
'829': "He was born as Robert James Ritchie on January 17, 1971 in Romeo, Michigan, to father William Ritchie, owner of multiple car dealerships, and mother Susan Ritchie. Ritchie's father owned a six-acre estate where Ritchie grew up, regularly helping his family pick apples and caring for their horses.\n",
'830': 'Baseball and cricket are the best-known members of a family of related bat-and-ball games.\n',
'831': 'Swimming is the self-propulsion of a person through water, usually for recreation, sport, exercise, or survival. Locomotion is achieved through coordinated movement of the limbs, the body, or both. Humans can hold their breath underwater and undertake rudimentary locomotive swimming within weeks of birth, as a survival response.\n',
'832': 'The domestic dog ("Canis lupus familiaris" when considered a subspecies of the wolf or "Canis familiaris" when considered a distinct species) is a member of the genus "Canis" (canines), which forms part of the wolf-like canids, and is the most widely abundant terrestrial carnivore. The dog and the extant gray wolf are sister taxa as modern wolves are not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated, which implies that the direct ancestor of the dog is extinct. The dog was the first species to be domesticated and has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes.\n',
'833': 'Immortality is eternal life, being exempt from death, unending existence. Some modern species may possess biological immortality.\n',
'834': 'Barbie is a fashion doll manufactured by the American toy company Mattel, Inc. and launched in March 1959. American businesswoman Ruth Handler is credited with the creation of the doll using a German doll called Bild Lilli as her inspiration.\n',
'835': 'Grand Rapids is the second-largest city in Michigan and the largest city in West Michigan. It is on the Grand River about east of Lake Michigan. As of the 2010 census, the city population was 188,040. In 2010, the Grand Rapids metropolitan area had a population of 1,005,648, and the combined statistical area of Grand Rapids-Muskegon-Holland had a population of 1,321,557. Grand Rapids is the county seat of Kent County.\n',
'836': 'Veganism is the practice of abstaining from the use of animal products, particularly in diet, and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals. A follower of the diet or the philosophy is known as a vegan. Distinctions may be made between several categories of veganism. "Dietary vegans" (also known as strict vegetarians) refrain from consuming animal products, not only meat but also eggs, dairy products and other animal-derived substances. The term "ethical vegan" is often applied to those who not only follow a vegan diet but extend the philosophy into other areas of their lives, and oppose the use of animals for any purpose. Another term is "environmental veganism", which refers to the avoidance of animal products on the premise that the industrial farming of animals is environmentally damaging and unsustainable.\n',
'837': 'Kentucky ( ), officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state located in the east south-central region of the United States. Although styled as the "State of Kentucky" in the law creating it, "(because in Kentucky\'s first constitution, the name state was used)" Kentucky is one of four U.S. states constituted as a commonwealth (the others being Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts). Originally a part of Virginia, in 1792 Kentucky split from it and became the 15th state to join the Union. Kentucky is the 37th most extensive and the 26th most populous of the 50 United States.\n',
'838': "Adoption is a process whereby a person assumes the parenting of another, usually a child, from that person's biological or legal parent or parents. Legal adoptions permanently transfers all rights and responsibilities, along with filiation, from the biological parent or parents. \n",
'839': 'Yellow is the color between orange and green on the spectrum of visible light. It is evoked by light with a dominant wavelength of roughly 570590 nm. It is a primary color in subtractive color systems, used in painting or color printing. In the RGB color model, used to create colors on television and computer screens, yellow is a secondary color made by combining red and green at equal intensity. Carotenoids give the characteristic yellow color to autumn leaves, corn, canaries, daffodils, and lemons, as well as egg yolks, buttercups, and bananas. They absorb light energy and protect plants from photodamage. Sunlight has a slight yellowish hue when sun is near a horizon, due to atmosphere scattering shorter wavelengths (green, blue, and violet).\n',
'840': "Fiction writing is the composition of non-factual prose texts. Fictional writing often is produced as a story meant to entertain or convey an author's point of view. The result of this may be a short story, novel, novella, screenplay, or drama, which are all types (though not the only types) of fictional writing styles. Different types of authors practice fictional writing, including novelists, playwrights, short story writers, radio dramatists and screenwriters.\n",
'841': "Isaiah Rashad McClain (born May 16, 1991) is an American rapper, singer, songwriter and record producer from Chattanooga, Tennessee. Rashad began taking rapping seriously in the tenth grade, where he and his friends would record on laptops. He spent the next few years recording at local recording studios. His first big break would be touring with rappers Juicy J, Joey Badass and Smoke DZA among others, on the 2012 Smoker's Club Tour. He is also a founding member of the Chattanooga hip hop collective The House along with fellow Chattanooga rapper TUT and a member of the Chicago hip hop collective The Village along with artist Kembe X, Alex Wiley and more.\n",
'842': 'The Appalachian National Scenic Trail, generally known as the Appalachian Trail or simply the A.T., is a marked hiking trail in the Eastern United States extending between Springer Mountain in Georgia and Mount Katahdin in Maine. The trail is about long, though the exact length changes over time as parts are modified or rerouted. The Appalachian Trail Conservancy describes the Appalachian Trail as the longest hiking-only trail in the world. More than 2 million people are said to take a hike on part of the trail at least once each year.\n',
'843': 'Whisky or whiskey is a type of distilled alcoholic beverage made from fermented grain mash. Various grains (which may be malted) are used for different varieties, including barley, corn, rye, and wheat. Whisky is typically aged in wooden casks, generally made of charred white oak.\n',
'844': 'The tiger ("Panthera tigris") is the largest species among the Felidae and classified in the genus "Panthera". It is most recognisable for its dark vertical stripes on reddish-orange fur with a lighter underside. It is an apex predator, primarily preying on ungulates such as deer and wild boar. It is territorial and generally a solitary but social predator, requiring large contiguous areas of habitat, which support its requirements for prey and rearing of its offspring. Tiger cubs stay with their mother for about two years, before they become independent and leave their mother\'s home range to establish their own.\n',
'845': 'In many countries, the local nomenclature for a veterinarian is a regulated and protected term, meaning that members of the public without the prerequisite qualifications and/or licensure are not able to use the title. In many cases, the activities that may be undertaken by a veterinarian (such as treatment of illness or surgery in animals) are restricted only to those professionals who are registered as a veterinarian. For instance, in the United Kingdom, as in other jurisdictions, animal treatment may only be performed by registered veterinary physicians (with a few designated exceptions, such as paraveterinary workers), and it is illegal for any person who is not registered to call themselves a veterinarian or prescribe any treatment.\n',
'846': 'React (also known as React.js or ReactJS) is a JavaScript library for building user interfaces. It is maintained by Facebook and a community of individual developers and companies.\n',
'847': "Basketball is a team sport in which two teams, most commonly of five players each, opposing one another on a rectangular court, compete with the primary objective of shooting a basketball (approximately in diameter) through the defender's hoop (a basket in diameter mounted high to a backboard at each end of the court) while preventing the opposing team from shooting through their own hoop. A field goal is worth two points, unless made from behind the three-point line, when it is worth three. After a foul, timed play stops and the player fouled or designated to shoot a technical foul is given one or more one-point free throws. The team with the most points at the end of the game wins, but if regulation play expires with the score tied, an additional period of play (overtime) is mandated.\n",
'848': 'Ukiyo-e is a genre of Japanese art which flourished from the 17th through 19th centuries. Its artists produced woodblock prints and paintings of such subjects as female beauties; kabuki actors and sumo wrestlers; scenes from history and folk tales; travel scenes and landscapes; flora and fauna; and erotica. The term "ukiyo-e" () translates as "picture[s] of the floating world".\n',
'849': 'The terminology stems from the Latin "" meaning "milk" (as in \'lactation\'), "" meaning "egg", and the English term "vegetarian", so as giving the definition of a vegetarian diet containing milk and eggs.\n',
'850': "Ice hockey is a contact team sport played on ice, usually in a rink, in which two teams of skaters use their sticks to shoot a vulcanized rubber puck into their opponent's net to score points. The sport is known to be fast-paced and physical, with teams usually consisting of six players each: one goaltender, and five players who skate up and down the ice trying to take the puck and score a goal against the opposing team.\n",
'851': 'A pentathlon is a contest featuring five events. The name is derived from Greek: combining the words "pente" (five) and -"athlon" (competition) (). The first pentathlon was documented in Ancient Greece and was part of the Ancient Olympic Games. Five events were contested over one day for the Ancient Olympic pentathlon, starting with the long jump, javelin throwing, and discus throwing, followed by the "stadion" (a short foot race) and wrestling. Pentathletes were considered to be among the most skilled athletes, and their training was often part of military service—each of the five events in the pentathlon was thought to be useful in war or battle.\n',
'852': 'This is a list of films produced by and released under the Walt Disney Pictures banner (known as that since 1983, with "Never Cry Wolf" as its first release) and films released before that under the former name of the parent company, Walt Disney Productions (1929–1983). Most films listed here were distributed theatrically in the United States by the company\'s distribution division, Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures (formerly known as Buena Vista Distribution Company (1953–1987) and Buena Vista Pictures Distribution (1987–2007)). The Disney features produced before "Peter Pan" (1953) were originally distributed by RKO Radio Pictures, and are now distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. Some films produced by Walt Disney Pictures are also set to be released under the parent company\'s streaming service, Disney+.\n',
'853': 'Reading is the complex cognitive process of decoding symbols to derive meaning. It is a form of language processing.\n',
'854': 'Flat knitting uses two straight needles to make generally two-dimensional (flat) pieces. Flat knitting is usually used to knit flat pieces like scarves, blankets, afghans, and the backs, fronts and arms of sweaters (pullovers).\n',
'855': 'Obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) is a mental disorder in which a person feels the need to perform certain routines repeatedly (called "compulsions"), or has certain thoughts repeatedly (called "obsessions"). The person is unable to control either the thoughts or activities for more than a short period of time. Common compulsions include hand washing, counting of things, and checking to see if a door is locked. Some may have difficulty throwing things out. These activities occur to such a degree that the person\'s daily life is negatively affected. This often takes up more than an hour a day. Most adults realize that the behaviors do not make sense. The condition is associated with tics, anxiety disorder, and an increased risk of suicide.\n',
'856': 'A nightclub, music club or club, is an entertainment venue and bar that usually operates late into the night. A nightclub is generally distinguished from regular bars, pubs or taverns by the inclusion of a stage for live music, one or more dance floor areas and a DJ booth, where a DJ plays recorded music. The upmarket nature of nightclubs can be seen in the inclusion of VIP areas in some nightclubs, for celebrities and their guests. Nightclubs are much more likely than pubs or sports bars to use bouncers to screen prospective clubgoers for entry. Some nightclub bouncers do not admit people with informal clothing or gang apparel as part of a dress code. The busiest nights for a nightclub are Friday and Saturday night. Most clubs or club nights cater to certain music genres, such as house music or hip hop. Many clubs have recurring club nights on different days of the week. Most club nights focus on a particular genre or sound for branding effects.\n',
'857': 'The sport of cross-country skiing encompasses a variety of formats for cross-country skiing races over courses of varying lengths according to rules sanctioned by the International Ski Federation and by various national organizations, such as the U.S. Ski and Snowboard Association (USSA) and Cross Country Ski Canada. International competitions include the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships, the FIS Cross-Country World Cup, and at the Winter Olympic Games. Such races occur over homologated, groomed courses designed to support classic (in-track) and freestyle events, where the skiers may employ skate skiing. It also encompasses cross-country ski marathon events, sanctioned by the Worldloppet Ski Federation, and cross-country ski orienteering events, sanctioned by the International Orienteering Federation. Related forms of competition are biathlon, where competitors race on cross-country skis and stop to shoot at targets with rifles, and paralympic cross-country skiing that allows athletes with disabilities to compete at cross-country skiing with adaptive equipment.\n',
'858': 'Divorce, also known as dissolution of marriage, is the process of terminating a marriage or marital union. Divorce usually entails the canceling or reorganizing of the legal duties and responsibilities of marriage, thus dissolving the bonds of matrimony between a married couple under the rule of law of the particular country or state. Divorce laws vary considerably around the world, but in most countries divorce requires the sanction of a court or other authority in a legal process, which may involve issues of distribution of property, child custody, alimony (spousal support), child visitation / access, parenting time, child support, and division of debt. In most countries, monogamy is required by law, so divorce allows each former partner to marry another person.\n',
'859': "A scooter (also referred to as a motor scooter to avoid confusion with kick scooter, but not to be confused with a motorized scooter) is a type of motorcycle with a step-through frame and a platform for the rider's feet. Elements of scooter design were present in some of the earliest motorcycles, and scooters have been made since 1914 or earlier. Scooter development continued in Europe and the United States between the World Wars.\n",
'860': 'The Ozark Trail is a hiking, backpacking, and, in many places, biking and equestrian trail under construction in the Missouri Ozarks in the United States. It is intended to reach from St. Louis to Arkansas. Over of the trail have been completed as of 2008, and the estimated length when finished will be at least . When joined to the Ozark Highlands Trail in Arkansas, the full hiking distance from end to end will be at least , not including a large loop through the St. Francois Mountains in Missouri.\n',
'861': 'The domestic dog ("Canis lupus familiaris" when considered a subspecies of the wolf or "Canis familiaris" when considered a distinct species) is a member of the genus "Canis" (canines), which forms part of the wolf-like canids, and is the most widely abundant terrestrial carnivore. The dog and the extant gray wolf are sister taxa as modern wolves are not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated, which implies that the direct ancestor of the dog is extinct. The dog was the first species to be domesticated and has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes.\n',
'862': 'From 1961–1966, the American TV network NBC carried a karaoke-like series, "Sing Along with Mitch", featuring host Mitch Miller and a chorus, which superimposed the lyrics to their songs near the bottom of the TV screen for home audience participation. The primary difference between Karaoke and sing-along songs is the absence of the lead vocalist.\n',
'863': 'Pizza (, ) is a savory dish of Italian origin, consisting of a usually round, flattened base of leavened wheat-based dough topped with tomatoes, cheese, and various other ingredients (anchovies, olives, meat, etc.) baked at a high temperature, traditionally in a wood-fired oven. In formal settings, like a restaurant, pizza is eaten with knife and fork, but in casual settings it is cut into wedges to be eaten while held in the hand. Small pizzas are sometimes called pizzettas.\n',
'864': 'Dolphin is a common name of aquatic mammals within the infraorder Cetacea. The term dolphin usually refers to the extant families Delphinidae (the oceanic dolphins), Platanistidae (the Indian river dolphins), Iniidae (the New World river dolphins), and Pontoporiidae (the brackish dolphins), and the extinct Lipotidae (baiji or Chinese river dolphin). There are 40 extant species named as dolphins.\n',
'865': 'With 58.3 million tourists a year (2017), Italy is the fifth most visited country in international tourism arrivals. People mainly visit Italy for its rich culture, cuisine, history, fashion and art, its beautiful coastline and beaches, its mountains, and priceless ancient monuments. Italy also contains more World Heritage Sites than any other country in the world.\n',
'866': 'Snapple is a brand of tea and juice drinks which is owned by Keurig Dr Pepper and based in Plano, Texas. The company (and brand), which was originally known as Unadulterated Food Products, was founded in 1972. The brand achieved some fame due to various pop-culture references including television shows.\n',
'867': 'The Simpsons is an American animated sitcom created by Matt Groening for the Fox Broadcasting Company. The series is a satirical depiction of working-class life, epitomized by the Simpson family, which consists of Homer, Marge, Bart, Lisa, and Maggie. The show is set in the fictional town of Springfield and parodies American culture and society, television, and the human condition.\n',
'868': 'Blonde stereotypes are stereotypes of blond-haired people, especially women. Sub-types include the "blonde bombshell" and the "dumb blonde". Blondes are differently stereotyped from brunettes as more desirable and less intelligent. There are many blonde jokes made on these premises. Although chiefly aimed at women, jokes of this style have also been aimed at similar stereotypes associated with men, such as the "dumb jock" and the "surfer dude".\n',
'869': 'Visual acuity (VA) commonly refers to the clarity of vision. Visual acuity is dependent on optical and neural factors, i.e., (i) the sharpness of the retinal focus within the eye, (ii) the health and functioning of the retina, and (iii) the sensitivity of the interpretative faculty of the brain.\n',
'870': 'Swimming is the self-propulsion of a person through water, usually for recreation, sport, exercise, or survival. Locomotion is achieved through coordinated movement of the limbs, the body, or both. Humans can hold their breath underwater and undertake rudimentary locomotive swimming within weeks of birth, as a survival response.\n',
'871': 'A concert is a live music performance in front of an audience. The performance may be by a single musician, sometimes then called a recital, or by a musical ensemble, such as an orchestra, choir, or band. Concerts are held in a wide variety and size of settings, from private houses and small nightclubs, dedicated concert halls, arenas and parks to large multipurpose buildings, and even sports stadiums. Indoor concerts held in the largest venues are sometimes called "arena concerts" or "amphitheatre concerts". Informal names for a concert include "show" and "gig".\n',
'872': 'International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) is an American multinational information technology company headquartered in Armonk, New York, with operations in over 170 countries. The company began in 1911, founded in Endicott, New York, as the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (CTR) and was renamed "International Business Machines" in 1924.\n',
'873': 'Hiking is the preferred term, in Canada and the United States, for a long, vigorous walk, usually on trails (footpaths), in the countryside, while the word walking is used for shorter, particularly urban walks. On the other hand, in the United Kingdom, and the Republic of Ireland, the word "walking" is acceptable to describe "all forms" of walking, whether it is a walk in the park or backpacking in the Alps. The word hiking is also often used in the UK, along with rambling (a slightly old-fashioned term), hillwalking, and fell walking (a term mostly used for hillwalking in northern England). The term bushwalking is endemic to Australia, having been adopted by the Sydney Bush Walkers club in 1927. In New Zealand a long, vigorous walk or hike is called tramping. It is a popular activity with numerous worldwide, and studies suggest that all forms of walking have health benefits.\n',
'874': 'The French Bulldog is a breed of domestic dog. In the 1800s, they were the result of a cross between Toy Bulldogs imported from England and local ratters in Paris, France.\n',
'875': 'Beer has been brewed domestically throughout its 7,000-year history, beginning in the Neolithic period in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), Egypt and China. It seems to have first developed as thick beers; during this time meads, fruit wines and rice wines were also developed.\n',
'876': "Softball is a game similar to baseball played with a larger ball (11 to 12 in. circumference) on a field that has base lengths of 60 feet, a pitcher's mound that ranges from 35–43 feet away from home\n",
'877': 'In medicine, rural health or rural medicine is the interdisciplinary study of health and health care delivery in rural environments. The concept of rural health incorporates many fields, including geography, midwifery, nursing, sociology, economics, and telehealth or telemedicine.\n',
'878': 'The European interwar economy (the period between the First and Second World War, also known as the interbellum) began when the countries in Western Europe were struggling to recover from the devastation caused by the First World War, while also dealing with economic depression and the rise of fascism. Economic prosperity in the United States during the first half of the period was brought to an end with the onset of the Great Depression in 1929. \n',
'879': 'Purple is a color intermediate between blue and red. It is similar to violet, but unlike violet, which is a spectral color with its own wavelength on the visible spectrum of light, purple is a secondary color made by combining red and blue. The complementary color of purple in the RYB color model is yellow.\n',
'880': 'Rome today is one of the most important tourist destinations of the world, due to the incalculable immensity of its archaeological and art treasures, as well as for the charm of its unique traditions, the beauty of its panoramic views, and the majesty of its magnificent "villas" (parks). Among the most significant resources: plenty of museums – (Capitoline Museums, the Vatican Museums, Galleria Borghese, and a great many others)—aqueducts, fountains, churches, palaces, historical buildings, the monuments and ruins of the Roman Forum, and the Catacombs. Rome is the 3rd most visited city in the EU, after London and Paris, and receives an average of 7–10\xa0million tourists a year, which sometimes doubles on holy years. The Colosseum (4\xa0million tourists) and the Vatican Museums (4.2\xa0million tourists) are the 39th and 37th (respectively) most visited places in the world, according to a recent study. In 2005 the city registered 19.5\xa0million of global visitors, up of 22.1% from 2001. In 2006, Rome was visited by 6.03\xa0million international tourists, reaching 8th place in the ranking of the world\'s 150 most visited cities. The city has also been nominated 2007\'s fourth most desirable city to visit in the world, according to lifestyle magazine Travel + Leisure, after Florence, Buenos Aires and Bangkok. Rome is the city with the most monuments in the world. Like other Italian cities, Rome charges a tourism tax which contributes towards the maintenance of public transportation and infrastructure. It ranges from €3 to €7 per person, per night, based on the hotel or other type of accommodation used (children under 10 years old are exempt, and the tax doesn\'t apply after 10 days).\n',
'881': 'Grey\'s Anatomy is an American medical drama television series that premiered on March 27, 2005, on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) as a mid-season replacement. The fictional series focuses on the lives of surgical interns, residents, and attending physicians, as they develop into seasoned doctors while trying to maintain personal lives and relationships. The title is an allusion to "Gray\'s Anatomy", a classic human anatomy textbook first published in 1858 in London and written by Henry Gray. Shonda Rhimes developed the pilot and continues to write for the series; she is also one of the executive producers, along with Betsy Beers, Mark Gordon, Krista Vernoff, Rob Corn, Mark Wilding, and Allan Heinberg. Although the series is set in Seattle (at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital, later renamed), it is filmed primarily in Los Angeles, California.\n',
'882': 'The history of cosmetics spans at least 7,000 years and is present in almost every society on earth. Cosmetic body art is argued to have been the earliest form of a ritual in human culture. The evidence for this comes in the form of utilised red mineral pigments (red ochre) including crayons associated with the emergence of "Homo sapiens" in Africa.\n',
'883': 'Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, and directed research. Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, however learners may also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered educational. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy.\n',
'884': 'Blue is one of the three primary colours of pigments in painting and traditional colour theory, as well as in the RGB colour model. It lies between violet and green on the spectrum of visible light. The eye perceives blue when observing light with a dominant wavelength between approximately 450 and 495 nanometres. Most blues contain a slight mixture of other colours; azure contains some green, while ultramarine contains some violet. The clear daytime sky and the deep sea appear blue because of an optical effect known as Rayleigh scattering. An optical effect called Tyndall scattering explains blue eyes. Distant objects appear more blue because of another optical effect called aerial perspective.\n',
'885': 'The onion ("Allium cepa" L., from Latin "cepa" "onion"), also known as the bulb onion or common onion, is a vegetable that is the most widely cultivated species of the genus "Allium". Its close relatives include the garlic, shallot, leek, chive, and Chinese onion.\n',
'886': "Tennis is a racket sport that can be played individually against a single opponent (singles) or between two teams of two players each (doubles). Each player uses a tennis racket that is strung with cord to strike a hollow rubber ball covered with felt over or around a net and into the opponent's court. The object of the game is to maneuver the ball in such a way that the opponent is not able to play a valid return. The player who is unable to return the ball will not gain a point, while the opposite player will.\n",
'887': 'A teacher (also called a school teacher or, in some contexts, an educator) is a person who helps students to acquire knowledge, competence or virtue.\n',
'888': 'Skin care is the range of practices that support skin integrity, enhance its appearance and relieve skin conditions. They can include nutrition, avoidance of excessive sun exposure and appropriate use of emollients. Practices that enhance appearance include the use of cosmetics, botulinum, exfoliation, fillers, laser resurfacing, microdermabrasion, peels, retinol therapy. Skin care is a routine daily procedure in many settings, such as skin that is either too dry or too moist, and prevention of dermatitis and prevention of skin injuries.\n',
'889': 'In general, a rural area or countryside is a geographic area that is located outside towns and cities. The Health Resources and Services Administration of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services defines the word "rural" as encompassing "...all population, housing, and territory not included within an urban area. Whatever is not urban is considered rural."\n',
'890': '"The Injury" is the twelfth episode of the second season of the American comedy television series "The Office", and the show\'s eighteenth episode overall. The episode was written by Mindy Kaling, who also acts in the show as Kelly Kapoor, and directed by Bryan Gordon. "The Injury" first aired in the United States on January 12, 2006 on NBC. The episode guest starred Marcus York as Billy Merchant.\n',
'891': "Retirement is the withdrawal from one's position or occupation or from one's active working life. A person may also semi-retire by reducing work hours.\n",
'892': "Association football, more commonly known as football or soccer, is a team sport played with a spherical ball between two teams of eleven players. It is played by 250 million players in over 200 countries and dependencies, making it the world's most popular sport. The game is played on a rectangular field called a pitch with a goal at each end. The object of the game is to score by moving the ball beyond the goal line into the opposing goal.\n",
'893': "Honda has been the world's largest motorcycle manufacturer since 1959, as well as the world's largest manufacturer of internal combustion engines measured by volume, producing more than 14 million internal combustion engines each year. Honda became the second-largest Japanese automobile manufacturer in 2001. Honda was the eighth largest automobile manufacturer in the world in 2015.\n",
'894': 'The Bible (from Koine Greek τὰ βιβλία, "tà biblía", "the books") is a collection of sacred texts or scriptures. Varying parts of the Bible are considered to be a product of divine inspiration and a record of the relationship between God and humans by Christians, Jews, Samaritans, and Rastafarians.\n',
'895': 'Cheese is a dairy product derived from milk that is produced in a wide range of flavors, textures, and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, or sheep. During production, the milk is usually acidified, and adding the enzyme rennet causes coagulation. The solids are separated and pressed into final form. Some cheeses have molds on the rind, the outer layer, or throughout. Most cheeses melt at cooking temperature.\n',
'896': 'The violin, sometimes known as a fiddle, is a wooden string instrument in the violin family. Most violins have a hollow wooden body. It is the smallest and highest-pitched instrument in the family in regular use. Smaller violin-type instruments exist, including the violino piccolo and the kit violin, but these are virtually unused. The violin typically has four strings, usually tuned in perfect fifths with notes G3, D4, A4, E5, and is most commonly played by drawing a bow across its strings, though it can also be played by plucking the strings with the fingers (pizzicato) and by striking the strings with the wooden side of the bow (col legno). \n',
'897': 'Valedictorian is an academic title of success used in the United States, Canada, Philippines, and Armenia (and elsewhere in limited number of schools) for the student who delivers the closing or farewell statement at a graduation ceremony (called a valediction). The chosen valedictorian is traditionally the student with the highest ranking (highest Grade Point Average, or GPA) among their graduating class. The term is an Anglicised derivation of the Latin "vale dicere" ("to say farewell"), historically rooted in the valedictorian\'s traditional role as the final speaker at the graduation ceremony before the students receive their diplomas. The valedictory address generally is considered a final farewell to classmates, before they disperse to pursue their individual paths after graduating.\n',
'898': 'Miami is a major center of commerce and finance and boasts a strong international business community. According to the 2018 ranking of world cities undertaken by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network (GaWC) based on the level of presence of global corporate service organizations, Miami is considered an Alpha level world city. Miami has a Gross Metropolitan Product of $257 billion, ranking 11th in the United States and 20th worldwide in GMP.\n',
'899': 'A hamburger (short: burger) is a sandwich consisting of one or more cooked patties of ground meat, usually beef, placed inside a sliced bread roll or bun. The patty may be pan fried, grilled, or flame broiled. Hamburgers are often served with cheese, lettuce, tomato, onion, pickles, bacon, or chiles; condiments such as ketchup, mayonnaise, mustard, relish, or "special sauce"; and are frequently placed on sesame seed buns. A hamburger topped with cheese is called a cheeseburger.\n',
'900': 'Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat (red meat, poultry, seafood, and the flesh of any other animal), and may also include abstention from by-products of animals processed for food.\n',
'901': 'Alaska (; ; ; Alutiiq: "Alas\'kaaq;" Tlingit: "Anáaski;" ) is a U.S. state in the northwest extremity of the United States West Coast, just across the Bering Strait from Asia. The Canadian province of British Columbia and territory of Yukon border the state to the east and southeast. Its most extreme western part is Attu Island, and it has a maritime border with Russia (Chukotka Autonomous Okrug) to the west across the Bering Strait. To the north are the Chukchi and Beaufort seas—southern parts of the Arctic Ocean. The Pacific Ocean lies to the south and southwest. It is the largest U.S. state by area and the seventh largest subnational division in the world. In addition, it is the 3rd least populous and the most sparsely populated of the 50 United States; nevertheless, it is by far the most populous territory located mostly north of the 60th parallel in North America: its population—estimated at 738,432 by the United States Census Bureau in 2015— is more than quadruple the combined populations of Northern Canada and Greenland. Approximately half of Alaska\'s residents live within the Anchorage metropolitan area. Alaska\'s economy is dominated by the fishing, natural gas, and oil industries, resources which it has in abundance. United States armed forces bases and tourism are also a significant part of the economy.\n',
'902': 'Purple is a color intermediate between blue and red. It is similar to violet, but unlike violet, which is a spectral color with its own wavelength on the visible spectrum of light, purple is a secondary color made by combining red and blue. The complementary color of purple in the RYB color model is yellow.\n',
'903': 'Pit bull is the common name for a type of dog descended from bulldogs and terriers. The pit bull-type is particularly ambiguous, as it encompasses a range of pedigree breeds, informal types and appearances that cannot be reliably identified. Formal breeds often considered to be of the pit bull-type include the American Pit Bull Terrier, American Staffordshire Terrier, American Bully, and Staffordshire Bull Terrier. The American Bulldog is also sometimes included. Mixed-breed dogs which physically resemble these breeds often get labelled as "pit bulls" by shelters. Many of these breeds were originally developed as fighting dogs from crossbreeding bull-baiting dogs (used to hold the faces and heads of larger animals such as bulls) and terriers. After the use of dogs in blood sports was banned, such dogs were used as catch dogs in the United States for semi-wild cattle and hogs, to hunt and drive livestock, and as family companions. Despite dog fighting now being illegal in the United States, it still exists as an underground activity, and pit bulls are a common type used.\n',
'904': 'Yellow is found between green and orange on the spectrum of visible light. It is the color the human eye sees when it looks at light with a dominant wavelength between 570 and 590 nanometers.\n',
'905': 'A houseboat (different from boathouse, which is a shed for storing boats) is a boat that has been designed or modified to be used primarily as a home. Some houseboats are not motorized, because they are usually "moored", kept stationary at a fixed point and often tethered to land to provide utilities. However, many are capable of operation under their own power. "Float house" is a Canadian and American term for a house on a float (raft); a rough house may be called a "shanty boat". In Western countries, houseboats tend to be either owned privately or rented out to holiday-goers, and on some canals in Europe, people dwell in houseboats all year round. Examples of this include, but are not limited to, Amsterdam, London, and Paris.\n',
'906': 'The Black Rock Desert is a semi-arid region "(in the Great Basin shrub steppe eco-region)", of lava beds and playa, or alkali flats, situated in the Black Rock Desert–High Rock Canyon Emigrant Trails National Conservation Area, a silt playa north of Reno, Nevada that encompasses more than of land and contains more than of historic trails. It is in the northern Nevada section of the Great Basin with a lakebed that is a dry remnant of Pleistocene Lake Lahontan.\n',
'907': "The Royal Ballet School is one of the world's greatest centres of classical ballet training. Founded by the Anglo-Irish ballerina and choreographer Ninette de Valois, the school's aim is to train and educate outstanding classical ballet dancers for the Royal Ballet (based at the Royal Opera House in London) and Birmingham Royal Ballet.\n",
'908': 'Cheetos (formerly styled as Chee-tos until 1998) is a brand of cheese-flavored puffed cornmeal snacks made by Frito-Lay, a subsidiary of PepsiCo. Fritos creator Charles Elmer Doolin invented Cheetos in 1948, and began national distribution in the U.S. The initial success of Cheetos was a contributing factor to the merger between The Frito Company and H.W. Lay & Company in 1961 to form Frito-Lay. In 1965 Frito-Lay became a subsidiary of The Pepsi-Cola Company, forming PepsiCo, the current owner of the Cheetos brand.\n',
'909': "Canada ( ) is a country in the northern part of North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering , making it the world's second-largest country by total area. Its southern border with the United States, stretching some , is the world's longest bi-national land border. Canada's capital is Ottawa, and its three largest metropolitan areas are Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.\n",
'910': 'Birdwatching, or birding, is a form of wildlife observation in which the observation of birds is a recreational activity or citizen science. It can be done with the naked eye, through a visual enhancement device like binoculars and telescopes, by listening for bird sounds, or by watching public webcams.\n',
'911': "Lee Alexander McQueen, CBE (17 March 1969 – 11 February 2010) was a British fashion designer and couturier. He worked as chief designer at Givenchy from 1996 to 2001, and founded his own fort Alexander McQueen label in 1992. His achievements in fashion earned him four British Designer of the Year awards (1996, 1997, 2001 and 2003), as well as the CFDA's International Designer of the Year award in 2003. McQueen died by suicide in 2010, at the age of 40, at his home in Mayfair, London.\n",
'912': 'Jeopardy! is an American television game show created by Merv Griffin. The show features a quiz competition in which contestants are presented with general knowledge clues in the form of answers, and must phrase their responses in the form of questions. The original daytime version debuted on NBC on March 30, 1964, and aired until January 3, 1975. A weekly nighttime syndicated edition aired from September 1974 to September 1975, and a revival, "The All-New Jeopardy!", ran on NBC from October 1978 to March 1979. The current version, a daily syndicated show produced by Sony Pictures Television, premiered on September 10, 1984.\n',
'913': 'A casino is a facility which houses and accommodates certain types of gambling activities. The industry that deals in casinos is called the gaming industry. Casinos are most commonly built near or combined with hotels, restaurants, retail shopping, cruise ships or other tourist attractions. There is much debate over whether the social and economic consequences of casino gambling outweigh the initial revenue that may be generated. Some casinos are also known for hosting live entertainment events, such as stand-up comedy, concerts, and sporting events.\n',
'914': 'Pizza delivery is a service in which a pizzeria or pizza chain delivers a pizza to a customer. An order is typically made either by telephone or over the internet to the pizza chain, in which the customer can request pizza type, size and other products alongside the pizza, commonly including soft drinks. Pizzas may be delivered in pizza boxes or delivery bags, and deliveries are made with either an automobile, motorized scooter, or bicycle. Customers can, depending on the pizza chain, choose to pay online, or in person, with cash, credit card, debit card or cryptocurrency. A delivery fee is often charged with what the customer has bought.\n',
'915': 'Yellow is found between green and orange on the spectrum of visible light. It is the color the human eye sees when it looks at light with a dominant wavelength between 570 and 590 nanometers.\n',
'916': 'In China as well as France, the first people to perform dentistry were barbers. They have been categorized into 2 distinct groups: guild of barbers and lay barbers. The first group, the Guild of Barbers, was created to distinguish more educated and qualified dental surgeons from lay barbers. Guild barbers were trained to do complex surgeries. The second group, the lay barbers, were qualified to perform regular hygienic services such as shaving and tooth extraction as well as basic surgery. However, in 1400 France made decrees prohibiting lay barbers from practicing all types of surgery. In Germany as well as France from 1530 to 1575 publications completely devoted to dentistry were being published. Ambrose Pare, often known as the Father of Surgery, published his own work about the proper maintenance and treatment of teeth. Ambrose Pare was a French barber surgeon who performed dental care for multiple French monarchs. He is often credited with having raised the status of barber surgeons.\n',
'917': 'Regret has been defined by psychologists in the late 1990s as a "negative emotion predicated on an upward, self-focused, counterfactual inference". Another definition is "an aversive emotional state elicited by a discrepancy in the outcome values of chosen vs. unchosen actions".\n',
'918': 'The onion ("Allium cepa" L., from Latin "cepa" "onion"), also known as the bulb onion or common onion, is a vegetable that is the most widely cultivated species of the genus "Allium". Its close relatives include the garlic, shallot, leek, chive, and Chinese onion.\n',
'919': 'The Xbox One is an eighth-generation home video game console that was developed by Microsoft. Announced in May 2013, it is the successor to Xbox 360 and the third console in the Xbox brand. It was first released in North America, parts of Europe, Australia, and South America in November 2013, and in Japan, China, and other European countries in September 2014. It is the first Xbox game console to be released in China, specifically in the Shanghai Free-Trade Zone. Microsoft marketed the device as an "all-in-one entertainment system", hence the name \'Xbox One\'. The Xbox One mainly competes against Sony\'s PlayStation 4 and Nintendo\'s Wii U and Switch.\n',
'920': 'Growing to in length and weighing , the Timneh is a medium-sized parrot. Its plumage is mainly a mottled grey, with a white face mask and pale yellow eyes. Compared with the only other recognised "Psittacus" species, the grey parrot ("P. erithacus"), the Timneh is smaller and darker, with a dull, dark maroon (rather than crimson) tail and a horn-coloured patch on the upper mandible. Like the grey parrot, the Timneh parrot is intelligent and a skilled mimic. The Timneh parrot may be less nervous and more outgoing around human beings, and can learn to talk at a younger age than the grey parrot.\n',
'921': 'Carp are a large group of fish originally found in Central Europe and Asia. Various carp species were originally domesticated in East Asia, where they were used as food fish. Carp are coldwater fish, and their ability to survive and adapt to many climates and water conditions allowed the domesticated species to be propagated to many new locations, including Japan. Natural color mutations of these carp would have occurred across all populations. Carp were first bred for color mutations in China more than a thousand years ago, where selective breeding of the Prussian carp ("Carassius gibelio") led to the development of the goldfish.\n',
'922': 'Community theatre refers to theatrical performance made in relation to particular communities—its usage includes theatre made by, with, and for a community. It may refer to theatre that is made entirely by a community with no outside help, or to a collaboration between community members and professional theatre artists, or to performance made entirely by professionals that is addressed to a particular community. Community theatres range in size from small groups led by single individuals that perform in borrowed spaces to large permanent companies with well-equipped facilities of their own. Many community theatres are successful, non-profit businesses with a large active membership and, often, a full-time professional staff. Community theatre is often devised and may draw on popular theatrical forms, such as carnival, circus, and parades, as well as performance modes from commercial theatre.\n',
'923': 'American literature is literature written or produced in the United States of America and its preceding colonies (for specific discussions of poetry and theater, see Poetry of the United States and Theater in the United States). Before the founding of the United States, the British colonies on the eastern coast of the present-day United States were heavily influenced by English literature. The American literary tradition thus began as part of the broader tradition of English literature. \n',
'924': 'Mark William Calaway (born March 24, 1965), better known by the ring name The Undertaker, is an American professional wrestler currently signed to WWE.\n',
'925': "The Walt Disney World Resort, also called Walt Disney World and Disney World, is an entertainment complex in Bay Lake and Lake Buena Vista, Florida, in the United States, near the cities Orlando and Kissimmee. Opened on October 1, 1971, the resort is owned and operated by Disney Parks, Experiences and Products, a division of The Walt Disney Company. It was first operated by Walt Disney World Company. The property, which covers nearly , only half of which has been used, comprises four theme parks (consisting of Magic Kingdom, Animal Kingdom, Epcot, and Disney's Hollywood Studios), two water parks, 27 themed resort hotels, nine non-Disney hotels, several golf courses, a camping resort, and other entertainment venues, including the outdoor shopping center Disney Springs.\n",
'926': 'The violin, sometimes known as a fiddle, is a wooden string instrument in the violin family. Most violins have a hollow wooden body. It is the smallest and highest-pitched instrument in the family in regular use. Smaller violin-type instruments exist, including the violino piccolo and the kit violin, but these are virtually unused. The violin typically has four strings, usually tuned in perfect fifths with notes G3, D4, A4, E5, and is most commonly played by drawing a bow across its strings, though it can also be played by plucking the strings with the fingers (pizzicato) and by striking the strings with the wooden side of the bow (col legno). \n',
'927': 'Grounds for divorce are regulations specifying the circumstances under which a person will be granted a divorce. Each state in the United States has its own set of grounds. A person must state the reason they want a divorce at a divorce trial and be able to prove that this reason is well-founded.\n',
'928': 'The United States Armed Forces are the military forces of the United States of America. It consists of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, and Coast Guard. The president of the United States is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces and forms military policy with the Department of Defense (DoD) and Department of Homeland Security (DHS), both federal executive departments, acting as the principal organs by which military policy is carried out. All five armed services are among the seven uniformed services of the United States.\n',
'929': 'The origins of the taco are not precisely known, and etymologies for the culinary usage of the word are generally theoretical. According to the Real Academia Española, publisher of "Diccionario de la Lengua Española", the word "taco" describes a typical Mexican dish of a maize tortilla folded around food. This meaning of the Spanish word "taco" is a Mexican innovation, but in other dialects "taco" is used to mean "wedge; wad, plug; billiard cue; blowpipe; ramrod; short, stocky person; [or] short, thick piece of wood." In this non-culinary usage, the word "taco" has cognates in other European languages, including the French word "tache" and the English word "tack (nail)."\n',
'930': "Ice hockey is a contact team sport played on ice, usually in a rink, in which two teams of skaters use their sticks to shoot a vulcanized rubber puck into their opponent's net to score points. The sport is known to be fast-paced and physical, with teams usually consisting of six players each: one goaltender, and five players who skate up and down the ice trying to take the puck and score a goal against the opposing team.\n",
'931': 'Game of Thrones is an American fantasy drama television series created by David Benioff and D. B. Weiss for HBO. It is an adaptation of "A Song of Ice and Fire", George R. R. Martin\'s series of fantasy novels, the first of which is "A Game of Thrones". The show was both produced and filmed in Belfast and elsewhere in the United Kingdom. Filming locations also included Canada, Croatia, Iceland, Malta, Morocco, and Spain. The series premiered on HBO in the United States on April 17, 2011, and concluded on May 19, 2019, with 73 episodes broadcast over eight seasons. \n',
'932': 'Chicago-style pizza is pizza prepared according to several different styles developed in Chicago. The most famous is deep-dish pizza. The pan in which it is baked gives the pizza its characteristically high edge which provides ample space for large amounts of cheese and a chunky tomato sauce. Chicago-style pizza may be prepared in deep-dish style and as a stuffed pizza.\n',
'933': 'The Ford Mustang is an American car manufactured by Ford. It was originally based on the platform of the second generation North American Ford Falcon, a compact car. The original 1962 Ford Mustang I two-seater concept car had evolved into the 1963 Mustang II four-seater concept car which Ford used to pretest how the public would take interest in the first production Mustang. The 1963 Mustang II concept car was designed with a variation of the production model\'s front and rear ends with a roof that was 2.7 inches shorter. Introduced early on April 17, 1964 (16 days after the Plymouth Barracuda), and thus dubbed as a "1964½" by Mustang fans, the 1965 Mustang was the automaker\'s most successful launch since the Model A. The Mustang has undergone several transformations to its current sixth generation.\n',
'934': 'From 1961–1966, the American TV network NBC carried a karaoke-like series, "Sing Along with Mitch", featuring host Mitch Miller and a chorus, which superimposed the lyrics to their songs near the bottom of the TV screen for home audience participation. The primary difference between Karaoke and sing-along songs is the absence of the lead vocalist.\n',
'935': "Rick and Morty is an American adult animated science fiction sitcom created by Justin Roiland and Dan Harmon for Cartoon Network's late-night programming block Adult Swim. The series follows the misadventures of cynical mad scientist Rick Sanchez and his good-hearted but fretful grandson Morty Smith, who split their time between domestic life and interdimensional adventures.\n",
'936': 'Cooking or cookery is the art, technology, science and craft of preparing food for consumption. Cooking techniques and ingredients vary widely across the world, from grilling food over an open fire to using electric stoves, to baking in various types of ovens, reflecting unique environmental, economic, and cultural traditions and trends. The ways or types of cooking also depend on the skill and type of training an individual cook has. Cooking is done both by people in their own dwellings and by professional cooks and chefs in restaurants and other food establishments. Cooking can also occur through chemical reactions without the presence of heat, such as in ceviche, a traditional South American dish where fish is cooked with the acids in lemon or lime juice.\n',
'937': 'A hybrid vehicle uses two or more distinct types of power, such as internal combustion engine to drive an electric generator that powers an electric motor, e.g. in diesel-electric trains using diesel engines to drive an electric generator that powers an electric motor, and submarines that use diesels when surfaced and batteries when submerged. Other means to store energy include pressurized fluid in hydraulic hybrids.\n',
'938': 'An only child is a person with no siblings, either biological or adopted. \n',
'939': 'The marathon is a long-distance race with an official distance of 42.195 kilometres (approximately 26 miles 385 yards), usually run as a road race. The event was instituted in commemoration of the fabled run of the Greek soldier Pheidippides, a messenger from the Battle of Marathon to Athens, who reported the victory. The marathon can be completed by running or with a run/walk strategy. There are also wheelchair divisions.\n',
'940': 'True crime is a non-fiction literary and film genre in which the author examines an actual crime and details the actions of real people.\n',
'941': "Empathy is the capacity to understand or feel what another person is experiencing from within their frame of reference, that is, the capacity to place oneself in another's position. Definitions of empathy encompass a broad range of emotional states. Types of empathy include cognitive empathy, emotional empathy, and empathy.\n",
'942': 'The is a line of cars manufactured by Honda. Originally a subcompact, the Civic has gone through several generational changes, becoming both larger and more upscale, moving into the compact car segment. EPA guidelines for vehicle size class stipulate a car having combined passenger and cargo room of is considered a mid-size car, and as such the tenth generation Civic sedan is technically a small-end mid-size car, although it still competes in the compact class. The Civic coupe is still considered a compact car. The Civic currently falls between the Honda Fit and Accord.\n',
'943': 'Some of the main types of humor in stand-up comedy include observational comedy, blue comedy, dark comedy, clean comedy, and cringe comedy.\n',
'944': 'Poodles are a group of formal dog breeds, the Standard Poodle, Miniature Poodle and Toy Poodle. The origin of the breed is still discussed, with a prominent dispute over whether the poodle descends from Germany as a type of water dog, or from the French Barbet.\n',
'945': 'Hiking is the preferred term, in Canada and the United States, for a long, vigorous walk, usually on trails (footpaths), in the countryside, while the word walking is used for shorter, particularly urban walks. On the other hand, in the United Kingdom, and the Republic of Ireland, the word "walking" is acceptable to describe "all forms" of walking, whether it is a walk in the park or backpacking in the Alps. The word hiking is also often used in the UK, along with rambling (a slightly old-fashioned term), hillwalking, and fell walking (a term mostly used for hillwalking in northern England). The term bushwalking is endemic to Australia, having been adopted by the Sydney Bush Walkers club in 1927. In New Zealand a long, vigorous walk or hike is called tramping. It is a popular activity with numerous worldwide, and studies suggest that all forms of walking have health benefits.\n',
'946': "Heavy metal (or simply metal) is a genre of rock music that developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s, largely in the United Kingdom. With roots in blues rock, psychedelic rock, and acid rock, the bands that created heavy metal developed a thick, massive sound, characterized by highly amplified distortion, extended guitar solos, emphatic beats, and overall loudness. The genre's lyrics and performance styles are sometimes associated with aggression and machismo.\n",
'947': 'Obesity in the United States is a major health issue, resulting in numerous diseases, specifically increased risk of certain types of cancer, coronary artery disease, type 2 diabetes, stroke, as well as significant increase in early mortality and economic costs. While many industrialized countries have experienced similar increases, obesity rates in the United States are the highest in the world.\n',
'948': 'The Little Mermaid is a 1989 American animated musical romantic fantasy film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and Walt Disney Pictures. The 28th Disney animated feature film and first film in "The Little Mermaid" franchise, the film is loosely based on the Danish fairy tale of the same name by Hans Christian Andersen. The film tells the story of a mermaid princess named Ariel who dreams of becoming human, after falling in love with a human prince named Eric. Written and directed by Ron Clements and John Musker, with music by Alan Menken and Howard Ashman (who also served as co-producer alongside John Musker), and art direction by Michael Peraza Jr. and Donald A. Towns, the film features the voices of Jodi Benson, Christopher Daniel Barnes, Pat Carroll, Samuel E. Wright, Jason Marin, Kenneth Mars, Buddy Hackett, and René Auberjonois.\n',
'949': 'Casting criteria for background actors depend on the production. It is not entirely true that background cast members require little or no acting experience, as any type of unrealistic portrayal must include some form of imagination and acting. Punctuality, reliability and the ability to take direction also figure prominently for these cast members. Background actors are often selected on short notice, after all other preparations for the shoot have been finalized.\n',
'950': 'King Henry II instituted the custom of having judges ride the circuit each year to hear cases, rather than requiring every citizen to bring their cases to London (see Assize of Clarendon). Thus, the term "circuit court" is derived from the practice of having judges ride around the countryside each year on pre-set paths − circuits − to hear cases. Especially on the United States frontier, a judge might travel on horseback along with a group of lawyers. Abraham Lincoln was one such attorney who would ride the circuit in Illinois. In more settled areas, a stagecoach would be used. Eventually, the legal caseload in a county would become great enough to warrant the establishment of a local judiciary. Most of these local judicial circuits (that is, in terms of the actual routes traveled by judges) have been thus replaced by judges regularly stationed at local courthouses, but in many areas, the legacy term remains in usage.\n',
'951': 'The is the highest performance version of the Honda Civic manufactured by Honda Motor Company of Japan. It features a lightened and stiffened body, special engine and six speed manual only transmission, and upgraded brakes and chassis. Red is used in the Honda badge background to give it a special sporting distinction and to separate it from other models.\n',
'952': 'Many languages do not distinguish between what in English are described as "blue" and "green" and instead use a cover term spanning both. To describe this English lexical gap, linguists use the portmanteau word "grue", from "green" and "blue", which the philosopher Nelson Goodman coined—with a different meaning—in his 1955 "Fact, Fiction, and Forecast" to illustrate his "new riddle of induction".\n',
'953': 'The grass snake ("Natrix natrix"), sometimes called the ringed snake or water snake, is a Eurasian non-venomous snake. It is often found near water and feeds almost exclusively on amphibians. The barred grass snake, "Natrix helvetica", was split off as a separate species in 2017.\n',
'954': "A tailgate party is a social event held on and around the open tailgate of a vehicle. Tailgating, which primarily takes place in the United States, often involves consuming alcoholic beverages and grilling food. Tailgate parties occur in the parking lots at stadiums and arenas, before and occasionally after games and concerts. People attending such a party are said to be 'tailgating'. Many people participate even if their vehicles do not have tailgates. Tailgate parties also involve people bringing their own alcoholic beverages, barbecues, food etc. which is sampled and shared among fans attending the tailgate. Tailgates are intended to be non-commercial events, so selling items to the fans is frowned upon.\n",
'955': 'The beagle is a breed of small hound that is similar in appearance to the much larger foxhound. The beagle is a scent hound, developed primarily for hunting hare (beagling). With a great sense of smell and superior tracking instinct, the beagle is employed as detection dog for prohibited agricultural imports and foodstuffs in quarantine around the world. The beagle is intelligent but single-minded. It is a popular pet due to its size, good temper, and lack of inherited health problems.\n',
'956': 'Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is an application layer protocol that facilitates communication in the form of text. The chat process works on a client/server networking model. IRC clients are computer programs that users can install on their system or web based applications running either locally in the browser or on a 3rd party server. These clients communicate with chat servers to transfer messages to other clients. IRC is mainly designed for group communication in discussion forums, called channels, but also allows one-on-one communication via private messages as well as chat and data transfer, including file sharing.\n',
'957': 'Corrosion is a natural process that converts a refined metal to a more chemically-stable form, such as its oxide, hydroxide, or sulfide. It is the gradual destruction of materials (usually metals) by chemical and/or electrochemical reaction with their environment. Corrosion engineering is the field dedicated to controlling and stopping corrosion.\n',
'958': 'Game of Thrones is an American fantasy drama television series created by David Benioff and D. B. Weiss for HBO. It is an adaptation of "A Song of Ice and Fire", George R. R. Martin\'s series of fantasy novels, the first of which is "A Game of Thrones". The show was both produced and filmed in Belfast and elsewhere in the United Kingdom. Filming locations also included Canada, Croatia, Iceland, Malta, Morocco, and Spain. The series premiered on HBO in the United States on April 17, 2011, and concluded on May 19, 2019, with 73 episodes broadcast over eight seasons. \n',
'959': "When the predecessor of international fast food restaurant chain Burger King (BK) first opened in 1953, its menu predominantly consisted of hamburgers, French fries, soft drinks, milkshakes, and desserts. After being acquired by its Miami, Florida franchisees and renamed in 1954, BK began expanding its menu by adding the Whopper. The company did not add another permanent hamburger to its menu until the introduction of the Big King sandwich in 1996 in response to McDonald's Big Mac sandwich. The company began experimenting with premium hamburgers, made from higher quality ingredients, in 1978 with the introduction of its Specialty Sandwich product line. The products were some of the first designed by a fast food restaurant chain that were intended to capture the adult market, members of which would be willing to spend more on a higher-quality product. However, it wasn't until 2002 when the company began to work on a premium burger in earnest. On the value side, Burger King first started offering sliders to its menu in the mid-1980s and offered them off and on for the next twenty years.\n",
'960': 'Husky is a general name for a sled-type of dog used in northern regions, differentiated from other sled-dog types by their fast pulling style. They are an ever-changing cross-breed of the fastest dogs. The Alaskan Malamute, by contrast, was used for pulling heavier loads. Huskies are used in sled dog racing. In recent years, companies have been marketing tourist treks with dog sledges for adventure travelers in snow regions as well. Huskies are also today kept as pets, and groups work to find new pet homes for retired racing and adventure trekking dogs.\n',
'961': 'The Granny Smith is a tip-bearing apple cultivar, which originated in Australia in 1868. It is named after Maria Ann Smith, who propagated the cultivar from a chance seedling. The tree is thought to be a hybrid of "Malus sylvestris", the European wild apple, with the North American apple "Malus pumila" as the polleniser.\n',
'962': 'A chocolate brownie (commonly referred to as simply brownie) is a square, baked, chocolate dessert. Brownies come in a variety of forms and may be either fudgy or cakey, depending on their density. They may include nuts, frosting, cream cheese, chocolate chips, or other ingredients. A variation made with vanilla rather than chocolate in the batter is called a blonde brownie or blondie. The brownie was developed in the United States at the end of the 19th century and popularized in the U.S. and Canada during the first half of the 20th century.\n',
'963': 'Hawaii ( ; ) is the 50th and most recent state to have joined the United States, having received statehood on August 21, 1959. Hawaii is the only U.S. state geographically located in Oceania, although it is governed as a part of North America, and the only one composed entirely of islands. It is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean.\n',
'964': 'Fastpitch softball, also known as fastpitch or fastball, is a form of softball played commonly by women and men, though coed fast-pitch leagues also exist. The International Softball Federation (ISF) is the international governing body of softball. The ISF recognizes three pitching styles: fast pitch, "modified" fast pitch, and slow pitch. Fast pitch is considered the most competitive form of softball. It is the form of softball that was played at the Olympic Games in 1996, 2000, 2004, and 2008. The fast pitch style is also used in college softball and international competition.\n',
'965': 'Volunteering is generally considered an altruistic activity where an individual or group provides services for no financial or social gain "to benefit another person, group or organization". Volunteering is also renowned for skill development and is often intended to promote goodness or to improve human quality of life. Volunteering may have positive benefits for the volunteer as well as for the person or community served. It is also intended to make contacts for possible employment. Many volunteers are specifically trained in the areas they work, such as medicine, education, or emergency rescue. Others serve on an as-needed basis, such as in response to a natural disaster.\n',
'966': 'An apple is a sweet, edible fruit produced by an apple tree (Malus domestica). Apple trees are cultivated worldwide and are the most widely grown species in the genus "Malus". The tree originated in Central Asia, where its wild ancestor, "Malus sieversii", is still found today. Apples have been grown for thousands of years in Asia and Europe and were brought to North America by European colonists. Apples have religious and mythological significance in many cultures, including Norse, Greek and European Christian traditions.\n',
'967': 'A casino is a facility which houses and accommodates certain types of gambling activities. The industry that deals in casinos is called the gaming industry. Casinos are most commonly built near or combined with hotels, restaurants, retail shopping, cruise ships or other tourist attractions. There is much debate over whether the social and economic consequences of casino gambling outweigh the initial revenue that may be generated. Some casinos are also known for hosting live entertainment events, such as stand-up comedy, concerts, and sporting events.\n',
'968': 'Grey\'s Anatomy is an American medical drama television series that premiered on March 27, 2005, on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) as a mid-season replacement. The fictional series focuses on the lives of surgical interns, residents, and attending physicians, as they develop into seasoned doctors while trying to maintain personal lives and relationships. The title is an allusion to "Gray\'s Anatomy", a classic human anatomy textbook first published in 1858 in London and written by Henry Gray. Shonda Rhimes developed the pilot and continues to write for the series; she is also one of the executive producers, along with Betsy Beers, Mark Gordon, Krista Vernoff, Rob Corn, Mark Wilding, and Allan Heinberg. Although the series is set in Seattle (at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital, later renamed), it is filmed primarily in Los Angeles, California.\n',
'969': 'Parrots, also known as psittacines , are birds of the roughly 393 species in 92 genera that make up the order Psittaciformes, found in most tropical and subtropical regions. The order is subdivided into three superfamilies: the Psittacoidea ("true" parrots), the Cacatuoidea (cockatoos), and the Strigopoidea (New Zealand parrots). Parrots have a generally pantropical distribution with several species inhabiting temperate regions in the Southern Hemisphere, as well. The greatest diversity of parrots is in South America and Australasia.\n',
'970': 'A housewife (also known as a homekeeper) is a woman whose work is running or managing her family\'s home—caring for her children; buying, cooking, and storing food for the family; buying goods that the family needs for everyday life; housekeeping, cleaning and maintaining the home; and making, buying and/or mending clothes for the family—and who is not employed outside the home (a "career woman"). A housewife who has children may be called a stay-at-home mother or mom and a househusband may be called a "male homemaker" or stay-at-home father.\n',
'971': 'Singing is the act of producing musical sounds with the voice and augments regular speech by the use of sustained tonality, rhythm, and a variety of vocal techniques. A person who sings is called a singer or vocalist (in jazz and popular music). Singers perform music (arias, recitatives, songs, etc.) that can be sung with or without accompaniment by musical instruments. Singing is often done in an ensemble of musicians, such as a choir of singers or a band of instrumentalists. Singers may perform as soloists or accompanied by anything from a single instrument (as in art song or some jazz styles) up to a symphony orchestra or big band. Different singing styles include art music such as opera and Chinese opera, Indian music and religious music styles such as gospel, traditional music styles, world music, jazz, blues, gazal and popular music styles such as pop, rock, electronic dance music and filmi (film songs).\n',
'972': 'Veterinary medicine in the United States is the performance of veterinary medicine in the United States, normally performed by licensed professionals, and subject to provisions of statute law which vary by state. Veterinary medicine is normally led by veterinary physicians, normally termed veterinarians or vets.\n',
'973': 'Woodstock was a music festival held between August 15–18, 1969, which attracted an audience of more than 400,000. Billed as "An Aquarian Exposition: 3 Days of Peace & Music", it was held at Max Yasgur\'s 600-acre dairy farm near White Lake in Bethel, New York, southwest of Woodstock. It was also referred to alternatively, on occasion, as the "Bethel Rock Festival" given its location in the Town of Bethel, New York, or the "Aquarian Music Festival". \n',
'974': 'Reddit (, stylized in its logo as reddit) is an American social news aggregation, web content rating, and discussion website. Registered members submit content to the site such as links, text posts, and images, which are then voted up or down by other members. Posts are organized by subject into user-created boards called "subreddits", which cover a variety of topics including news, science, movies, video games, music, books, fitness, food, and image-sharing. Submissions with more up-votes appear towards the top of their subreddit and, if they receive enough up-votes, ultimately on the site\'s front page. Despite strict rules prohibiting harassment, Reddit\'s administrators spend considerable resources on moderating the site.\n',
'975': "Montpelier () is the capital city of the U.S. state of Vermont and the seat of Washington County. As the site of Vermont's state government, it is the least populous state capital in the United States. The population was 7,855 at the 2010 Census. However, the daytime population grows to about 21,000, due to the large number of jobs within city limits. The Vermont College of Fine Arts and New England Culinary Institute are located in the municipality. It was named after Montpellier, a city in the south of France.\n",
'976': 'In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants (also known as angiosperms) formed from the ovary after flowering.\n',
'977': 'The first known Christmas hymns may be traced to 4th-century Rome. Latin hymns such as "Veni redemptor gentium", written by Ambrose, Archbishop of Milan, were austere statements of the theological doctrine of the Incarnation in opposition to Arianism. "Corde natus ex Parentis" ("Of the Father\'s heart begotten") by the Spanish poet Prudentius (d. 413) is still sung in some churches today.\n',
'978': 'In philosophy, economics, and political science, the common good (also commonwealth, common weal or general welfare) refers to either what is shared and beneficial for all or most members of a given community, or alternatively, what is achieved by citizenship, collective action, and active participation in the realm of politics and public service. The concept of the common good differs significantly among philosophical doctrines. Early conceptions of the common good were set out by Ancient Greek philosophers, including Aristotle and Plato. One understanding of the common good rooted in Aristotle\'s philosophy remains in common usage today, referring to what one contemporary scholar calls the "good proper to, and attainable only by, the community, yet individually shared by its members." The concept of common good developed through the work of political theorists, moral philosophers, and public economists, including Thomas Aquinas, Niccolò Machiavelli, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, James Madison, Adam Smith, Karl Marx, John Stuart Mill, John Maynard Keynes, John Rawls, and many other thinkers. In contemporary economic theory, "a" common good is any good which is rivalrous yet non-excludable, while "the" common good, by contrast, arises in the subfield of welfare economics and refers to the outcome of a social welfare function. Such a social welfare function, in turn, would be rooted in a moral theory of the good (such as utilitarianism). Social choice theory aims to understand processes by which the common good may or may not be realized in societies through the study of collective decision rules. And public choice theory applies microeconomic methodology to the study of political science in order to explain how private interests affect political activities and outcomes.\n',
'979': 'Kentucky ( ), officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state located in the east south-central region of the United States. Although styled as the "State of Kentucky" in the law creating it, "(because in Kentucky\'s first constitution, the name state was used)" Kentucky is one of four U.S. states constituted as a commonwealth (the others being Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts). Originally a part of Virginia, in 1792 Kentucky split from it and became the 15th state to join the Union. Kentucky is the 37th most extensive and the 26th most populous of the 50 United States.\n',
'980': "Pepsi is a carbonated soft drink manufactured by PepsiCo. Originally created and developed in 1893 by Caleb Bradham and introduced as Brad's Drink, it was renamed as Pepsi-Cola on August 28, 1898, and then as Pepsi in 1961.\n",
'981': "A vampire is a being from folklore that subsists by feeding on the vital force (generally in the form of blood) of the living. In European folklore, vampires were undead beings that often visited loved ones and caused mischief or deaths in the neighborhoods they inhabited while they were alive. They wore shrouds and were often described as bloated and of ruddy or dark countenance, markedly different from today's gaunt, pale vampire which dates from the early 19th century.\n",
'982': 'Swimming is the self-propulsion of a person through water, usually for recreation, sport, exercise, or survival. Locomotion is achieved through coordinated movement of the limbs, the body, or both. Humans can hold their breath underwater and undertake rudimentary locomotive swimming within weeks of birth, as a survival response.\n',
'983': 'World Wrestling Entertainment, Inc., d/b/a WWE, is an American integrated media and entertainment company that is primarily known for professional wrestling. WWE has also branched out into other fields, including movies, real estate, and various other business ventures.\n',
'984': 'Baseball is a bat-and-ball game played between two opposing teams who take turns batting and fielding. The game proceeds when a player on the fielding team, called the pitcher, throws a ball which a player on the batting team tries to hit with a bat. The objectives of the offensive team (batting team) are to hit the ball into the field of play, and to run the bases—having its runners advance counter-clockwise around four bases to score what are called "runs". The objective of the defensive team (fielding team) is to prevent batters from becoming runners, and to prevent runners\' advance around the bases. A run is scored when a runner legally advances around the bases in order and touches home plate (the place where the player started as a batter). The team that scores the most runs by the end of the game is the winner.\n',
'985': 'Swimming is the self-propulsion of a person through water, usually for recreation, sport, exercise, or survival. Locomotion is achieved through coordinated movement of the limbs, the body, or both. Humans can hold their breath underwater and undertake rudimentary locomotive swimming within weeks of birth, as a survival response.\n',
'986': 'The Silver Surfer is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character also appears in a number of movies, television, and video game adaptations. The character was created by Jack Kirby and first appeared in the comic book "Fantastic Four" #48, published in 1966.\n',
'987': 'Space Exploration Technologies Corp., doing business as SpaceX, is a private US aerospace manufacturer and space transportation services company headquartered in Hawthorne, California. It was founded in 2002 by Elon Musk with the goal of reducing space transportation costs to enable the colonization of Mars. SpaceX has developed the Falcon launch vehicle family and the Dragon spacecraft family.\n',
'988': 'Jamaica () is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea. Spanning in area, it is the third-largest island of the Greater Antilles and the Caribbean (after Cuba and Hispaniola). Jamaica lies about south of Cuba, and west of Hispaniola (the island containing the countries of Haiti and the Dominican Republic); the British Overseas Territory of the Cayman Islands lies some to the north-west.\n',
'989': 'A hamburger (short: burger) is a sandwich consisting of one or more cooked patties of ground meat, usually beef, placed inside a sliced bread roll or bun. The patty may be pan fried, grilled, or flame broiled. Hamburgers are often served with cheese, lettuce, tomato, onion, pickles, bacon, or chiles; condiments such as ketchup, mayonnaise, mustard, relish, or "special sauce"; and are frequently placed on sesame seed buns. A hamburger topped with cheese is called a cheeseburger.\n',
'990': "Softball is a game similar to baseball played with a larger ball (11 to 12 in. circumference) on a field that has base lengths of 60 feet, a pitcher's mound that ranges from 35–43 feet away from home\n",
'991': 'Toyota is headquartered in Toyota City, Aichi. The main headquarters of Toyota is located in a four-story building in Toyota. As of 2006, the head office has the "Toyopet" Toyota logo and the words "Toyota Motor". The Toyota Technical Center, a 14-story building, and the Honsha plant, Toyota\'s second plant engaging in mass production and formerly named the Koromo plant, are adjacent to one another in a location near the headquarters. Vinod Jacob from "The Hindu" described the main headquarters building as "modest". In 2013, company head Akio Toyoda reported that it had difficulties retaining foreign employees at the headquarters due to the lack of amenities in the city.\n',
'992': 'Red wine is a type of wine made from dark-colored (black) grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from intense violet, typical of young wines, through to brick red for mature wines and brown for older red wines. The juice from most purple grapes is greenish-white, the red color coming from anthocyan pigments (also called anthocyanins) present in the skin of the grape; exceptions are the relatively uncommon teinturier varieties, which produce a red-colored juice. Much of the red-wine production process therefore involves extraction of color and flavor components from the grape skin.\n',
'993': 'Divorce, also known as dissolution of marriage, is the process of terminating a marriage or marital union. Divorce usually entails the canceling or reorganizing of the legal duties and responsibilities of marriage, thus dissolving the bonds of matrimony between a married couple under the rule of law of the particular country or state. Divorce laws vary considerably around the world, but in most countries divorce requires the sanction of a court or other authority in a legal process, which may involve issues of distribution of property, child custody, alimony (spousal support), child visitation / access, parenting time, child support, and division of debt. In most countries, monogamy is required by law, so divorce allows each former partner to marry another person.\n',
'994': "Algeria ( ; , ; ), officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria (, ), is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. The capital and most populous city is Algiers, located in the far north of the country on the Mediterranean coast. With an area of , Algeria is the tenth-largest country in the world, the world's largest Arab country, and the largest in Africa. Algeria is bordered to the northeast by Tunisia, to the east by Libya, to the west by Morocco, to the southwest by the Western Saharan territory, Mauritania, and Mali, to the southeast by Niger, and to the north by the Mediterranean Sea. The country is a semi-presidential republic consisting of 48 provinces and 1,541 communes (counties). It has the highest human development index of all non-island African countries.\n",
'995': 'Polygamy (from Late Greek , "polygamía", "state of marriage to many spouses") is the practice of marrying multiple spouses. When a man is married to more than one wife at a time, sociologists call this polygyny. When a woman is married to more than one husband at a time, it is called polyandry. If a marriage includes multiple husbands and wives, it can be called a group marriage.\n',
'996': "Autism is a developmental disorder characterized by difficulties with social interaction and communication, and by restricted and repetitive behavior. Parents usually notice signs during the first three years of their child's life. These signs often develop gradually, though some children with autism reach their developmental milestones at a normal pace before worsening.\n",
'997': 'Dirty Harry is a 1971 American action thriller film produced and directed by Don Siegel, the first in the "Dirty Harry" series. Clint Eastwood plays the title role, in his first outing as San Francisco Police Department (SFPD) Inspector "Dirty" Harry Callahan. The film drew upon the real life case of the Zodiac Killer as the Callahan character seeks out a similar vicious psychopath.\n',
'998': 'Hindus () are persons who regard themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for people living in the "Hind" (Indian subcontinent). \n',
'999': 'Hitchhiking (also known as thumbing or hitching) is a means of transportation that is gained by asking individuals, usually strangers, for a ride in their automobile or other vehicle. A ride is usually, but not always, free.\n',
...}
wow_data.keys()
dict_keys(['id', 'input', 'meta', 'output', 'answer', 'passages_text'])
len(wow_data['id'])
57384
wow_idx = '1'
wow_data['id'][wow_idx]
'5592954e-99d6-11ea-8a20-773209e30a7b_0'
wow_data['input'][wow_idx]
'I would love to be a surgeon when I grow up.'
wow_data['meta'][wow_idx]
{'left_context': '',
'mention': '',
'right_context': '',
'partial_evidence': [],
'obj_surface': [],
'sub_surface': [],
'subj_aliases': [],
'template_questions': []}
wow_data['output'][wow_idx]
[{'answer': 'Me too. Performing surgical operations on people sounds fun!',
'meta': {'score': -1},
'provenance': [{'bleu_score': 0.9121679068,
'start_character': 3,
'start_paragraph_id': 1,
'end_character': 78,
'end_paragraph_id': 1,
'meta': {'fever_page_id': '',
'fever_sentence_id': -1,
'annotation_id': '-1',
'yes_no_answer': '',
'evidence_span': []},
'section': 'Section::::Abstract.',
'title': 'Surgeon',
'wikipedia_id': '9104734'}]}]
wow_data['answer'][wow_idx]
'Me too. Performing surgical operations on people sounds fun!'
wow_data['passages_text'][wow_idx]
'In modern medicine, a surgeon is a physician who performs surgical operations. There are also surgeons in podiatry, dentistry maxillofacial surgeon and the veterinary fields.\n'
c = Counter()
wow_len = len(wow_data['id']) - 1
wow_msmarco = [{} for i in range(wow_len)]
wow_len
57383
wow_data['id']['0']
'6bc20426-99d6-11ea-8a20-773209e30a7b_0'
c = Counter()
for i in range(wow_len):
wow_msmarco[i]['query_id'] = wow_data['id'][str(i)]
wow_msmarco[i]['query'] = wow_data['input'][str(i)]
wow_msmarco[i]['answers'] = wow_data['answer'][str(i)]
wow_msmarco[i]['query_type'] = (wow_data['output'][str(i)])[0]['provenance'][0]['title']
wow_msmarco[i]['category'] = wow_msmarco[i]['query_type']
wow_msmarco[i]['wellFormedAnswers'] = []
wow_msmarco[i]['passages'] = [{
'passage_text' : wow_data['passages_text'][str(i)],
'is_selected' : 1
}]
c.update([wow_msmarco[i]['query_type']])
print("List of available Wikipedia categories")
c
List of available Wikipedia categories
Counter({'Chicago Blackhawks': 3,
'Surgeon': 3,
'Equestrianism': 56,
'Vitamin C': 62,
'Hiking': 267,
'Pop music': 37,
'Cat': 78,
'Fishing tackle': 23,
'Vietnam War': 1,
'4chan': 1,
'Kid Rock': 31,
'Garlic oil': 1,
'SpongeBob SquarePants': 50,
'Veganism': 306,
'Blue Ridge Mountains': 3,
'The Humane Society of the United States': 28,
'Nordic countries': 2,
'Community theatre': 94,
'Surfing': 205,
'Nursing': 27,
'Fiction writing': 18,
'Ice hockey': 103,
'Ravioli': 22,
'United States Postal Service': 1,
'Walmart': 98,
'Hippopotamus': 24,
'Telenovela': 50,
'Meatloaf': 63,
'Dog': 439,
'New York City': 251,
'Overweight': 29,
'Homeschooling': 73,
'List of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. characters': 4,
'The Little Mermaid (1989 film)': 59,
'Collie': 58,
'The Beatles': 95,
'Anime': 41,
'George Orwell': 9,
'Milkshake': 31,
'Moussaka': 2,
'Morning sickness': 54,
'Vegetarianism': 299,
'Egyptian pyramids': 16,
'Honda': 93,
'Ford Motor Company': 47,
'English Mastiff': 2,
'Duck': 1,
'Marathon': 94,
'Steak': 144,
'Gardening': 169,
'Parenting': 205,
'Pecan pie': 56,
'No-kill shelter': 47,
'Taylor Swift': 63,
'Great Depression': 3,
'Magnesium': 2,
'Cue sports': 47,
"Kansas Jayhawks men's basketball": 1,
'Childhood sweetheart': 15,
'Manchester': 1,
'Cord-cutting': 64,
'Christmas': 48,
'BBC': 22,
'Georgia (U.S. state)': 24,
'Indian cuisine': 70,
'Football': 31,
'Red wine': 33,
'Cake decorating': 45,
'98 Degrees': 1,
'Tomato': 25,
'Jeopardy!': 80,
'Factory': 66,
'Golden Retriever': 204,
'Bakery': 40,
'Wilderness': 27,
'Yellow': 148,
'The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson': 1,
'Culture of the United States': 2,
'Greece': 33,
'Polyamory': 20,
'Radiology': 44,
'Wonder Woman (2017 film)': 1,
'Pierogi': 2,
'Retirement': 47,
'IBM': 15,
'Kayak': 27,
'Health systems by country': 2,
'Volunteering': 24,
'Italian cuisine': 155,
'Pet': 94,
'Truck driver': 77,
'Chevrolet Corvette (C3)': 3,
'Brunch': 56,
'Cheesecake': 44,
'Whittling': 38,
'Unemployment': 32,
'Phonograph record': 39,
'Library': 26,
'Obsessive–compulsive disorder': 81,
'Divorce': 226,
'DC Comics': 10,
'Coca-Cola': 46,
'Blue': 497,
'Fertilizer': 2,
'Bruno Mars': 78,
'Cheesesteak': 4,
'Chevrolet Volt': 6,
'Hamburger': 175,
'Tea cosy': 1,
'Southern Baptist Convention': 68,
'Pink': 31,
'Iceland': 83,
'Carnivore': 29,
'Madonna (entertainer)': 32,
'EuroBasket': 49,
'Self-consciousness': 31,
'Hiking equipment': 3,
'Widow': 41,
'Comic book': 63,
'Country music': 142,
'Badminton': 16,
'Surf culture': 23,
'Mileena': 10,
'American frontier': 1,
'Algeria': 41,
'Iguana': 53,
'Pet adoption': 23,
'South Park': 131,
"Grey's Anatomy": 75,
'Take-out': 20,
'Beagle': 92,
'Harry Potter': 18,
'Yoga': 162,
'Pie': 35,
'London': 26,
'Compulsive hoarding': 17,
'Skateboarding': 129,
'Taco': 141,
'Tokyo': 43,
'Honda Fit': 6,
'Motorcycle': 39,
'Lifeguard': 63,
'Violin': 149,
'Weight training': 40,
'Glasses': 81,
'Cross-country skiing (sport)': 23,
'Pizza': 333,
'Internet': 9,
'Self-disclosure': 2,
'Lizard': 110,
'Long-term effects of alcohol consumption': 6,
'Butterfly stroke': 12,
'Austin, Texas': 65,
'Beach': 188,
'Great white shark': 16,
'Boredom': 21,
'Guitar': 108,
'Buddy Williams (country musician)': 1,
'White wine': 9,
'Law school': 8,
'Homework': 1,
'Ghost': 30,
'Manhattan': 2,
'Radiation-induced cancer': 1,
'Justin Bieber': 50,
'Yellowstone National Park': 15,
'Ozzy Osbourne': 3,
'Amazon Echo': 9,
'Sleeve tattoo': 42,
'Bitcoin': 12,
'Stamp collecting': 70,
'Avengers: Infinity War': 8,
'Literacy': 12,
'Sun': 9,
'Barista': 45,
'Presbyterianism': 1,
'Janitor': 9,
'Lipstick': 4,
'Valedictorian': 44,
'Genius': 35,
'History of As the World Turns': 1,
'Rock music': 110,
'Dust': 3,
'Singing': 104,
'Grand Rapids, Michigan': 53,
'Rain': 27,
'Fisherman': 38,
'Immortality': 51,
'Radiohead': 56,
'Frizz': 4,
'Dance': 129,
'Entomology': 60,
'Journalist': 41,
"McDonald's": 212,
'Superkart': 2,
'Budapest': 2,
'Good Burger': 42,
'Tennis': 133,
'Criticism of sport utility vehicles': 2,
'Dental hygienist': 13,
'Horse': 91,
'Crust (geology)': 1,
'Berry': 3,
'Hummus': 16,
'Fishing': 58,
'Adoption': 27,
'Ford Mustang': 90,
'Selected Reserve': 1,
'Piano': 169,
'Dobermann': 23,
'Ceremonial use of lights': 4,
'Scuba diving': 32,
'Auto mechanic': 60,
'Moped': 41,
'Microsoft': 25,
'Crayfish as food': 1,
'Swimming': 314,
'Hip-hop dance': 11,
'History of candle making': 2,
'Infidelity': 11,
'Unicycle': 24,
"Reese's Peanut Butter Cups": 4,
'Birdwatching': 23,
'Cake': 60,
'Pub': 12,
'Airplane': 6,
'Coffee': 94,
'Ocean': 55,
'Egg as food': 6,
'Appletini': 26,
'Ancient Greek phonology': 2,
'Stand-up comedy': 35,
'Painting': 33,
'Washington Wizards': 73,
'Coco Chanel': 27,
'Narcissus (mythology)': 3,
'Dr Pepper': 74,
'Husky': 132,
'Snake': 119,
'Tampa Bay Rays': 1,
'Running': 84,
'Hybrid vehicle': 33,
'Kobe beef': 39,
'Vermont': 41,
'Houseboat': 43,
'Mexican street food': 19,
'Reading (process)': 264,
'Kentucky': 47,
'Burrito': 59,
'German Shepherd': 84,
'Yves Saint Laurent (brand)': 24,
'Parachuting': 75,
'Rapping': 24,
'Allergy': 87,
'Parrot': 115,
'Drawing': 160,
'Kale': 24,
'Hinduism': 12,
'Jazz': 159,
'Linkin Park': 50,
'Carrot': 75,
'Game of Thrones': 146,
'Mystery film': 29,
'Xbox': 55,
'Bitcoin network': 2,
'Thimble': 1,
'Labrador Retriever': 55,
'Process of tattooing': 5,
'Near-sightedness': 21,
'Lawyer': 76,
'Shaving': 7,
'Cooking': 248,
'Wreck of the RMS Titanic': 3,
'Betta': 51,
'Yorkshire Terrier': 6,
'Sushi': 102,
'Steve Jobs': 8,
'Apple butter': 3,
'Bird vocalization': 25,
'The Last of the Mohicans (1992 film)': 68,
'Night owl (person)': 246,
'List of orphans and foundlings': 36,
'Cheese': 44,
'Veterinary physician': 60,
'Choir': 46,
'Tiny house movement': 27,
'Devil Without a Cause': 3,
'BMW': 17,
'Apple cider': 2,
'Arts and Crafts movement': 1,
'Motherboard': 1,
'Ethics of eating meat': 7,
'Spaghetti': 9,
'Headphones': 23,
"Nursing home residents' rights": 3,
'Spanish language': 11,
'Navy': 28,
'Lettuce': 4,
'Shark': 15,
'Diving safety': 15,
'Caffeine': 16,
'Alcoholism': 105,
'Bagel': 53,
'Computer repair technician': 26,
'Historical fiction': 45,
'People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals': 18,
'Softball': 24,
'Tattoo': 87,
'Florida': 165,
'Rose': 151,
'Engineering drawing': 3,
'Las Vegas Valley': 1,
'Reddit': 29,
'LP record': 1,
'Romanian philosophy': 1,
'American popular music': 6,
'Rural area': 112,
'Spice': 30,
'Dumpling': 6,
'Honda Civic': 95,
'Long hair': 67,
'Death metal': 7,
'Police officer': 34,
'Iced tea': 29,
'Helmet': 1,
'Hospital': 43,
'Starbucks': 65,
'Chicago metropolitan area': 30,
'Grocery store': 41,
'Britney Spears': 13,
'Chocolate brownie': 17,
'Satanism': 1,
'Marketing': 32,
'Anxiety disorder': 34,
'Waiting staff': 32,
'History of tea': 5,
'Track and field': 59,
'Toga party': 4,
'Avatar (2009 film)': 2,
'Mars': 35,
'Nike, Inc.': 48,
'Red hair': 108,
'Michael Phelps': 61,
'Bob Ross': 53,
'Ovo vegetarianism': 32,
'Saturday Night Live': 7,
'Comedy': 13,
'Pit bull': 97,
'The Royal Ballet': 43,
"Farmers' market": 59,
'Picnic': 34,
'Retail therapy': 1,
'Bank teller': 97,
'Star': 19,
'Frank Sinatra': 35,
'YouTube': 65,
'Well-being contributing factors': 12,
'Job interview': 2,
'The Story So Far (band)': 67,
'Joke': 22,
'India': 30,
'Country': 11,
'Space policy of the United States': 3,
'Women in STEM fields': 1,
'Container deposit legislation': 1,
'Preacher': 24,
'Big Mac': 23,
'Bookbinding': 1,
'Cupcake': 43,
'Armadillo': 168,
'Bacon': 69,
'Skin care': 49,
'Jaguar': 21,
'American Eagle Outfitters': 60,
'Music': 18,
'Lunch': 3,
'Upholstery': 65,
'Electronic dance music': 27,
'Autism': 82,
'History of pizza': 77,
'Grilling': 13,
'Athletics (physical culture)': 41,
'Dating': 103,
'Chevrolet Corvette': 51,
'Alabama': 46,
'Recycling': 36,
'Sweden': 36,
'Frédéric Chopin': 19,
'Food desert': 4,
'Ween': 18,
'Leprechaun': 24,
'Spider-Man': 9,
'Mountain Dew': 54,
'Music of the United States': 7,
'System of a Down': 12,
'React (JavaScript library)': 67,
'Miami': 35,
'Military Rule Medal': 1,
'Seattle': 71,
'Stephen King': 75,
'Human cannibalism': 17,
'Lap dog': 6,
'Hockey': 28,
'United States Army Air Forces': 1,
'Ice cream': 82,
'Homebrewing': 57,
'Colorado River': 2,
'Charity shop': 47,
'Fly fishing': 57,
'Wealth': 8,
'Purple': 208,
'Halloween': 55,
"Giro d'Italia": 1,
'Multiple citizenship': 1,
'Hindu': 35,
'Ageism': 3,
'Saudi Arabia': 19,
'USS Triton (SSRN-586)': 2,
'Mercedes-Benz S-Class': 19,
'Barbie': 63,
"Ender's Game": 7,
'Porsche': 45,
'Brewery': 64,
'Contemporary slavery': 9,
'Pasta': 96,
'Underwater diving': 25,
'Circus': 13,
'Krav Maga': 64,
'Animal shelter': 155,
'Health insurance': 2,
'Boy Scouts of America': 6,
'Sistine Chapel': 2,
'Courtship': 52,
'Dog breed': 10,
'Mike Trout': 15,
'Education in the United States': 13,
'Seawater': 1,
'History of newspaper publishing': 2,
'Veterinary medicine': 45,
'Leaf vegetable': 2,
'American Civil War reenactment': 57,
'John Lennon': 11,
'Beer': 70,
'Facial hair in the military': 8,
'Motor oil': 1,
'Chocolate chip cookie': 30,
'Adam Levine': 64,
'Sewing': 75,
'Acid rock': 7,
'History of nursing': 2,
'Colorado': 50,
'Psycho (1960 film)': 11,
'Chevrolet': 58,
'Beard': 68,
'Mercury in fish': 2,
'American open-wheel car racing': 1,
'Pork': 16,
'Back pain': 32,
'Yoga Sutras of Patanjali': 1,
'Color photography': 2,
'No-fault divorce': 4,
'Snowboarding': 87,
'Trumpet': 41,
'Slacker': 39,
'Costume': 8,
'Kauai': 1,
'Blackjack': 37,
'Anne of Green Gables': 20,
'Insurance': 19,
'J-pop': 2,
'Hamilton (musical)': 11,
'Intel 80386': 10,
'Anesthesia': 1,
'Desert': 77,
'Sewing machine': 32,
'Crochet': 92,
'Special education': 42,
'Domestication of animals': 3,
'Solar eclipse of August 21, 2017': 11,
'Extra (acting)': 34,
'Alexander McQueen': 13,
'Blond': 81,
'Gray wolf': 6,
'Jerusalem': 1,
'Child neglect': 4,
'History of Jamaica': 6,
'Lexus': 39,
'Basketball': 14,
'Artist': 43,
'Butterfly': 30,
'Virginia': 34,
'Games related to Yahtzee': 1,
'Star Trek': 41,
'Blak Prophetz': 1,
'Australia': 17,
'White House': 2,
'Horse training': 65,
"Let's Yoga": 3,
'Horse racing': 21,
'Sweatpants': 1,
'Japan': 79,
'Concealed carry in the United States': 4,
'Metallica': 94,
'Rotisserie': 10,
'Apple TV': 2,
'Paris': 10,
'Broccoli': 24,
'Food truck': 88,
'Small business': 33,
'Renaissance fair': 27,
'Wall Street': 9,
'Animal Farm (1999 film)': 1,
'Travel': 108,
'David Mach': 79,
'Macaroni and cheese': 66,
'Choreography': 11,
'Lady Gaga': 21,
'University of Chicago': 39,
'Heavy metal music': 202,
'Radioactive (Imagine Dragons song)': 5,
'Muse (band)': 14,
'List of recurring South Park characters': 1,
'Henry Morgan': 1,
'Scottish people': 1,
'Wisconsin': 6,
'Toyota Prius': 44,
'Kayaking': 96,
'Titanic (1997 film)': 29,
'Judd Apatow': 1,
'Gambling': 19,
'Bentley': 21,
'DKNY': 8,
'Mohamed Sanu': 2,
'Chiropractic controversy and criticism': 1,
'Friends': 31,
'The New York Times': 69,
'Hair coloring': 173,
'Summer camp': 15,
'Inks Lake State Park': 1,
"Rubik's Cube": 1,
'Zebra': 56,
'Bone fracture': 17,
'Multilingualism': 37,
'Willis Alan Ramsey': 1,
'Batsuit': 3,
'Immigration to the United States': 19,
'French cuisine': 21,
'Internet access': 17,
'Baseball': 63,
'Chocolate': 122,
'Skatepark': 1,
'Dublin': 9,
'Rice and beans': 1,
'Plantation': 26,
'Comparison of baseball and cricket': 2,
'Isaiah Rashad': 43,
'Appalachian Trail': 125,
'Whisky': 35,
'Tiger': 15,
'Ukiyo-e': 2,
'Ovo-lacto vegetarianism': 2,
'Pentathlon': 1,
'List of Walt Disney Pictures films': 21,
'Hand knitting': 11,
'Nightclub': 58,
'Scooter (motorcycle)': 33,
'Ozark Trail (hiking trail)': 24,
'Karaoke': 50,
'Dolphin': 12,
'Tourism in Italy': 6,
'Snapple': 13,
'The Simpsons': 10,
'Blonde stereotype': 10,
'Visual acuity': 25,
'Concert': 23,
'French Bulldog': 58,
'Rural health': 1,
'European interwar economy': 1,
'Tourism in Rome': 24,
'History of cosmetics': 4,
'Education': 22,
'Onion': 46,
'Teacher': 42,
'The Injury': 1,
'Association football': 162,
'Bible': 51,
'Alaska': 83,
'Black Rock Desert': 8,
'Royal Ballet School': 4,
'Cheetos': 64,
'Canada': 48,
'Casino': 78,
'Pizza delivery': 38,
'Dentist': 72,
'Regret': 27,
'Xbox One': 3,
'Timneh parrot': 1,
'Koi': 37,
'American literature': 33,
'The Undertaker': 1,
'Walt Disney World': 14,
'Grounds for divorce (United States)': 15,
'United States Armed Forces': 9,
'Chicago-style pizza': 22,
'Rick and Morty': 20,
'Only child': 120,
'True crime': 9,
'Empathy': 5,
'Poodle': 72,
'Obesity in the United States': 20,
'Circuit court': 25,
'Honda Civic Type R': 6,
'Blue–green distinction in language': 6,
'Grass snake': 1,
'Tailgate party': 58,
'Internet Relay Chat': 7,
'Corrosion': 1,
'List of Burger King products': 3,
'Granny Smith': 16,
'Hawaii': 25,
'Fastpitch softball': 5,
'Apple': 34,
'Housewife': 13,
'Veterinary medicine in the United States': 4,
'Woodstock': 27,
'Montpelier, Vermont': 4,
'Fruit': 1,
'Christmas carol': 1,
'Common good': 2,
'Pepsi': 46,
'Vampire': 24,
'WWE': 11,
'Silver Surfer': 1,
'SpaceX': 4,
'Jamaica': 39,
'Toyota': 44,
'Polygamy': 5,
'Dirty Harry': 14,
'Hitchhiking': 31,
'Lord Peter Wimsey': 2,
'List of chicken dishes': 48,
'Nicholas Sparks': 58,
'Barbados': 28,
'Smithsonian Institution': 4,
'Alexander Zverev Jr.': 1,
'Never Gone': 1,
'Hydrosphere': 1,
'The Big Bang Theory': 6,
'Truck': 14,
'Rayleigh scattering': 20,
'Automotive industry by country': 5,
'Tofu': 24,
'Baileys Irish Cream': 4,
'Prismacolor': 2,
'Jimmy Fallon': 47,
'Fibromyalgia': 12,
'Rural Canada': 1,
'Victorian era': 8,
"Florida's Turnpike": 1,
'Terrestrial locomotion': 4,
'Independent music': 20,
'Hip hop music': 29,
'South America': 2,
'IPad': 5,
'Billy Connolly': 1,
'Horse breeding': 2,
'Rancid (band)': 24,
'Cats and the Internet': 3,
'History of tea in Japan': 1,
'Great Famine (Ireland)': 1,
'Novel': 72,
'Traffic collision': 69,
'Nashville, Tennessee': 18,
'Aquarium': 31,
'World War II': 13,
'Plankton': 1,
'Swing music': 1,
'Barry Lubin': 1,
'Mail': 1,
'Locked Lips': 2,
'Bathroom singing': 66,
'Self-control': 1,
'Perennial plant': 2,
'Overpopulation in domestic pets': 10,
'Scottish art': 1,
'Time (magazine)': 8,
'Thermoregulation': 1,
'Miley Cyrus': 18,
'Inhaler': 1,
'2010 Portland car bomb plot': 1,
'Hollywood': 33,
'Martin Scorsese': 1,
'Wheelchair': 18,
'Gas-guzzler': 1,
'Physics': 24,
'Photography': 73,
'Overwatch (video game)': 58,
'Nail art': 27,
'Charcoal (art)': 3,
'Cookie': 32,
'Donna Karan': 79,
'Great Lakes': 3,
'Preterm birth': 2,
'Art rock': 1,
'Art therapy': 1,
'Iron Chef America': 2,
'Mixed drink supplies': 1,
'Narcissus (plant)': 33,
'Influenza': 6,
'Australian Cattle Dog': 11,
'Vegetarian ecofeminism': 2,
'Jay Boy Adams': 1,
'The Monkees': 4,
'Industrial Revolution': 10,
'Striped skunk': 1,
'Bacardi': 3,
'Barbershop music': 62,
'Curry': 11,
'Iron supplement': 22,
'Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics': 14,
'Spaghetti with meatballs': 55,
'Xbox (console)': 1,
'Art': 9,
'Fruit picking': 27,
'Go-kart': 25,
'Coors Brewing Company': 35,
'Kuta': 1,
'George Martin': 3,
'Museum': 66,
'Snorkeling': 65,
'Bisexuality': 4,
'Public library advocacy': 2,
'Weighted clothing': 2,
'Pug': 65,
'Patrick Star': 2,
'Space': 37,
'Geology': 3,
'Pressure cooking': 5,
'Mashed potato': 19,
'Tie-dye': 3,
'Nachos': 31,
'Nintendo': 17,
'Dermabrasion': 1,
'Hunting': 2,
'Madrid': 12,
'Same-sex marriage': 2,
'New England': 33,
'Budweiser': 24,
'Exploitation of labour': 21,
'Rugby league in Australia': 2,
'Emotional branding': 1,
'Blue Bell Creameries': 5,
'Quake (video game)': 12,
'Effects of domestic violence on children': 1,
'Neuroscience of sleep': 3,
'China': 13,
'Moustache': 32,
'Orc': 31,
'Beauty salon': 42,
'Video game development': 2,
'Pregnancy': 10,
'Deadhead': 1,
'Grand Slam (tennis)': 5,
'Leather': 26,
'Coming Undone': 2,
'Isle of Portland': 4,
'A Song of Ice and Fire': 85,
'Light skin': 5,
'List of dangerous snakes': 4,
'School counselor': 2,
'Halo 5: Guardians': 1,
'Sephora': 7,
'Alfred Hitchcock': 20,
'Socialism': 2,
'Border Collie': 101,
'Corn tortilla': 4,
'Saxophone': 9,
'Baby blue': 3,
'Origin of Superman': 2,
'Lindy hop today': 2,
'Cooking banana': 3,
'Nu metal': 2,
'Taxicab': 10,
'Tardiness': 17,
'Flower': 30,
'Indonesian cuisine': 7,
'Gabrielle Roth': 5,
'Cleveland Cavaliers': 6,
'Narcissism': 9,
'Netflix': 39,
'Common cold': 72,
'Value-form': 1,
'Mermaid': 7,
'Shift work': 15,
'Edible mushroom': 1,
'Agoraphobia': 40,
'Ballet': 68,
'The Temptations': 3,
'Aromatherapy': 1,
'Karate': 32,
'Cat food': 11,
'Ferret': 33,
'Jesus Christ Superstar': 2,
'Dr. Seuss': 2,
'Rhinoceros': 1,
'Amusement park': 2,
'Skateboard': 1,
'Wil Wheaton': 1,
'Acrophobia': 59,
'Grunge': 10,
'Gōjū-ryū': 2,
'Immune system': 6,
'Marlin fishing': 5,
'League of Legends': 30,
'Red Hot Chili Peppers': 69,
'Jersey Shore, Pennsylvania': 1,
'Ketogenic diet': 151,
'Addiction': 3,
'Christmas Eve': 1,
'Stephen Hawking': 20,
'Dennis Miller': 17,
'Old-time music': 2,
'Mile run': 19,
'Laugh track': 6,
'McKenzie Westmore': 1,
'Electric violin': 12,
'Ohio': 36,
'Carrie Underwood': 32,
'North Dakota': 18,
'Long Beach, California': 3,
'Komodo dragon': 13,
'Role-playing': 7,
'Marduk (band)': 19,
'Sweet potato': 7,
'Marching band': 56,
'Louvre': 11,
'Shellfish': 31,
'Gone with the Wind (novel)': 7,
'Greater Swiss Mountain Dog': 4,
'Dallas Stars': 2,
'American Idol': 21,
'Mercedes-AMG': 3,
'Johann Sebastian Bach': 6,
'Quilting': 20,
'Admission to practice law': 8,
'Bon Iver': 28,
'Electoral system of Germany': 2,
'Debt': 16,
'Portland, Maine': 32,
'Skunk': 75,
'Grief': 3,
'History of Austin, Texas': 2,
'Creed (band)': 30,
'Cotton': 4,
'Dream': 6,
'Pickling': 18,
'Horror film': 30,
'Chicago Cubs': 5,
'Mexico': 26,
'Allergen immunotherapy': 1,
'Learning to read': 9,
'Allergy to cats': 32,
'The Rolling Stones': 113,
'Robert De Niro': 30,
'Scotch whisky': 38,
'Strawberry': 26,
'Smirnoff': 1,
'Cosmetics': 29,
'Argentina': 20,
'Hardwell': 1,
'The Hershey Company': 72,
'Public housing in the United States': 3,
'Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province': 1,
'Shades of blue': 20,
'Psychoactive drug': 3,
'Nutmeg': 2,
'Opera': 8,
'Hostage': 15,
'Referee': 1,
'Podcast': 12,
'Sea turtle': 1,
'Agriculture': 8,
'Dancing with the Stars': 42,
'Rita Hayworth': 69,
'Scuba skills': 3,
'Field hockey': 55,
'Goodfellas': 29,
'Urban agriculture': 57,
'Maroon 5': 6,
'Persecution of Christians': 1,
'Ducati Motor Holding S.p.A.': 7,
'Berenstain Bears': 1,
'Labrador Husky': 5,
'Lollipop': 22,
'The Spirit of the Age': 2,
'Ultraviolet': 4,
'Seafood': 17,
'Ultramarine': 2,
'Physical disability': 30,
'Kitten': 14,
'History of calculus': 1,
'Louis Armstrong': 3,
'Gospel music': 36,
'Hoarding': 26,
'Spitting': 1,
'Migraine': 21,
'Backstreet Boys': 34,
'Jogging': 6,
'Reality television': 1,
'Interior design': 28,
'High school football': 38,
'Criticism of Walmart': 21,
'Epilepsy': 21,
'Brewing': 7,
'Author': 15,
'Captain Morgan': 1,
'Cultural depictions of cats': 1,
'Cinematography': 42,
'Black': 2,
'Minimum wage': 17,
'Tattoo removal': 11,
'Drum kit': 36,
'Nuclear weapons of the United States': 1,
'Information and communication technologies for development': 2,
'PepsiCo': 8,
'Drone strikes in Pakistan': 1,
'Necromancy': 1,
'Confidence': 4,
'Aviation safety': 1,
'Dog health': 5,
'The Flintstones': 15,
'Adolescence': 14,
'Scripps National Spelling Bee': 12,
'Volcano': 33,
'Massage': 1,
'Mount Kilimanjaro': 32,
'History of Japan': 24,
'Finnish Spitz': 2,
'Springfield, Missouri': 21,
'California Love': 22,
'Big Ben': 2,
'Tulip': 2,
'Lyrical abstraction': 1,
'Arctic Monkeys': 3,
'Yachting': 4,
'Lasagne': 16,
'American legless lizard': 1,
'Ford Mustang SVT Cobra': 2,
'Banana': 21,
'Emergency management': 1,
'Boxer (dog)': 51,
'Igneous rock': 3,
'Coca-Cola formula': 2,
'Mick Jagger': 71,
'Nahuatl': 1,
'Golf Channel': 5,
'Sculpture': 48,
'The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 1': 1,
'Homeschooling in the United States': 6,
'The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon': 6,
'Mushroom': 23,
'International adoption of South Korean children': 2,
'Thursday': 20,
'Imagine Dragons': 102,
'Red': 248,
'Extraterrestrial life': 25,
'Cat people and dog people': 19,
'Jim Carrey': 51,
'Culture of Chicago': 4,
'Barbecue in the United States': 4,
'History of the Internet': 2,
'Jimi Hendrix': 41,
'Sprite (drink)': 33,
'Ringo Starr': 7,
'Romeo and Juliet': 17,
'Bulldog breeds': 2,
'Cruise ship': 46,
'Philosophy': 38,
'Pearl Jam': 20,
'Protein (nutrient)': 3,
'Breakfast': 20,
'Taco Bell': 16,
'Gums': 1,
'Beetroot': 41,
'Pancake': 54,
'Professional wrestling': 1,
'Knitting': 60,
'Whitewater': 1,
'Bamboo': 3,
'Sustainability organizations': 1,
'Classical music': 38,
"I'm with You (album)": 2,
'Vacuum coffee maker': 2,
'Spearfishing': 2,
'Trophy': 19,
'Lady Bird Lake': 1,
'Anaheim, California': 1,
'Weight loss': 20,
'Chinese Imperial Dog': 1,
'FC Barcelona': 3,
...})
print("Sample data:")
wow_msmarco[0]
Sample data:
{'query_id': '6bc20426-99d6-11ea-8a20-773209e30a7b_0',
'query': 'I like to watch ice hockey on TV. My favorite team is the Chicago Blackhawks.',
'answers': "The Blackhawks are one of my favorite teams, they've won 6 Stanley Cup Championships since they started in 1926",
'query_type': 'Chicago Blackhawks',
'wellFormedAnswers': [],
'passages': [{'passage_text': 'The Chicago Blackhawks (spelled Black Hawks until 1986, and known colloquially as the Hawks) are a professional ice hockey team based in Chicago, Illinois. They are members of the Central Division of the Western Conference of the National Hockey League (NHL). They have won six Stanley Cup championships since their founding in 1926. The Blackhawks are one of the "Original Six" NHL teams along with the Detroit Red Wings, Montreal Canadiens, Toronto Maple Leafs, Boston Bruins and New York Rangers. Since , the club\'s home rink is the United Center, which they share with the National Basketball Association\'s Chicago Bulls. The club had previously played for 65 years at Chicago Stadium.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'category': 'Chicago Blackhawks'}
# determine your own splits
train_data, val_test_data = train_test_split(wow_msmarco, train_size=0.8)
val_data, test_data = train_test_split(val_test_data, train_size=0.1)
print('Train Size: ', len(train_data))
print('Validation Size: ', len(val_data))
print('Test Size: ', len(test_data))
Train Size: 45906 Validation Size: 1147 Test Size: 10330
1- In this section, we first convert the original format to MSMARCO format. Data will be saved in Eli5_raw_msmarco_format folder.
2- Then we conert the result from part 1 to QA dataset which can be used to train/validate the GPT model. Data will be saved in Eli5_model_files folder.
def inverse_dataStruct(source):
result = {'answers':{}, 'passages':{}, 'query':{}, 'query_id':{}, 'query_type':{}, 'wellFormedAnswers':{}, 'category':{}}
for i in range(len(source)):
result['answers'].update({i:source[i]['answers']})
result['passages'].update({i:source[i]['passages']})
result['query'].update({i:source[i]['query']})
result['query_id'].update({i:source[i]['query_id']})
result['query_type'].update({i:source[i]['query_type']})
result['category'].update({i:source[i]['category']})
result['wellFormedAnswers'].update({i:source[i]['wellFormedAnswers']})
return result
train_data = inverse_dataStruct(train_data)
val_data = inverse_dataStruct(val_data)
test_data = inverse_dataStruct(test_data)
# save splits to json
with open(wow_path + '/WoW_raw_msmarco_format/wow_train_MSMARCO.json', 'w') as json_file:
json.dump(train_data, json_file, indent=2)
with open(wow_path + '/WoW_raw_msmarco_format/wow_val_MSMARCO.json', 'w') as json_file:
json.dump(val_data, json_file, indent=2)
with open(wow_path + '/WoW_raw_msmarco_format/eli5_test_MSMARCO.json', 'w') as json_file:
json.dump(test_data, json_file, indent=2)
wow_train = create_marco_format_QAdataset(train_data, categorical=True)
with open(wow_path + '/WoW_model_files/eli5_train.json', 'w') as json_file:
json.dump(wow_train, json_file, indent=2)
wow_val = create_marco_format_QAdataset(val_data, categorical=True)
with open(wow_path + '/WoW_model_files/eli5_val.json', 'w') as json_file:
json.dump(wow_val, json_file, indent=2)
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print('Sample record for training neural model:')
wow_train[250]
Sample record for training neural model:
{'query_id': '658e49f2-99d6-11ea-8a20-773209e30a7b_1',
'context': [{'passage_text': 'Reading is the complex cognitive process of decoding symbols to derive meaning. It is a form of language processing.\n',
'is_selected': 1}],
'query_type': 'Reading (process)',
'category': 'Reading (process)',
'utterances': [{'history': ['I really enjoy reading! How about you?\nYes it is one of my favorite activities. You can share a lot of information and ideas that way.\nI agree! What is your favorite type of book?'],
'candidates': ["I'm sorry, I don't know.", 'N', 'I']}]}
def tokenize(obj, tokenizer):
for i in range(len(obj['context'])):
obj['context'][i]['passage_text'] = tokenizer.encode(obj['context'][i]['passage_text'])
for i in range(len(obj['utterances'])):
obj['utterances'][i]['history'] = [tokenizer.encode(x.lstrip(' ()_')) for x in obj['utterances'][i]['history']]
for j in range(len(obj['utterances'][i]['candidates'])):
obj['utterances'][i]['candidates'][j] = tokenizer.encode(obj['utterances'][i]['candidates'][j])
# define and call tokenization engine
tokenizer = GPT2Tokenizer.from_pretrained(tokenizer_path)
for i in tqdm(range(len(wow_train))):
tokenize(wow_train[i], tokenizer)
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Token indices sequence length is longer than the specified maximum sequence length for this model (1532 > 1024). Running this sequence through the model will result in indexing errors
for i in tqdm(range(len(wow_val))):
tokenize(wow_val[i], tokenizer)
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# dump tokenized data
with open(wow_path + '/WoW_tokenized/wow_train_tokenized.json', 'w') as json_file:
json.dump(wow_train, json_file, indent=2)
with open(wow_path + '/WoW_tokenized/wow_valid_tokenized.json', 'w') as json_file:
json.dump(wow_val, json_file, indent=2)